• Application Introduction

-- In the first two sections of this book, we have looked at the principles and
practices that lie behind ESP course design. In this section we will be
concerned with the detailed implementation of the design into a syllabus,
materials, a methodology and evaluation procedures.

--First a word of caution. Books and courses must proceed in a linear

fashion: one page must follow another; one lesson must follow another.
Knowledge has to be segmented for presentation somehow.

-- In dealing with the syllabus before materials writing, we are not suggesting
that the syllabus is more important than the materials, nor that the syllabus
must be written before the materials. Indeed it would be perfectly possible to
deal with them the other way around, just as it is perfectly possible to write
the materials before the syllabus.

The syllabus

--In this first chapter on the applications of a course design model, we shall
be looking at the syllabus and considering the following questions:

1- What do we mean by a syllabus ? 2- Why should we have a syllabus ?

3- On what criteria can a syllabus be organised ?

4- What role should a syllabus play in the course design process ?

1- What do we mean by a syllabus?

A syllabus is a document which says what will (or at least what should) be
learnt. But, in fact, there are several different ways in which a syllabus can
be defined. This stems from the fact that the statement of what will be learnt
passes through several different stages before it reaches its destination in the
mind of the learner. Each stage on its route imposes a further layer of
interpretation.

A-The evaluation syllabus

-- This kind of syllabus will be most familiar as the document that is handed
down by ministries or other regulating bodies. It states what the successful
learner will know by the end of the course.
--In effect, it puts on record the basis on which success or failure will be
evaluated. Thus we might refer to this as an evaluation syllabus. It reflects an
official assumption as to the nature of language and linguistic performance.
For example, if the syllabus is framed in terms of grammatical structures,
this reflects a view that knowing a language consists of knowing the
constituent structures. It would be impossible to produce an evaluation
syllabus without having a view of what language is and thus how it can be
broken down.

B-The organisational syllabus

--As well as listing what should be learnt, a syllabus can also state the order
in which it is to be learnt. We might call this an organisational syllabus. In a
rough sense, evaluation syllabuses fulfil this role, in that they normally list
what should be learnt in, for example, the first year of learning etc. The
organisational syllabus is most familiar in the form of the contents page of a
textbook, and it is this form of syllabus that most people would think of
when asked: ‘What is a syllabus?’ The‘ organisational syllabus differs from
the evaluation syllabus in that it carries assumptions about the nature of
learning as well as language, since, in organising the items in a syllabus, it is
necessary to consider factors which depend upon a view of how people learn,
e.g.:

What is more easily learnt ? What is more fundamental to learning ?

Are some items needed in order to learn other items? What is more useful in
the classroom ?

Criteria like these must be used in order to determine the order of items. The
organisational syllabus, therefore, is an implicit statement about the nature
of language and of learning.

c) The materials syllabus

-- The two syllabuses considered so far might be regarded as pure syllabuses,

in that they have not been interpreted. They are a straight forward statement
of what is to be learnt with some indication of the order in which the items
should be learnt.

-- The syllabuses say nothing about how learning will be achieved. But a
syllabus, like a course design model, is only as good as the interpretation that
is put on it. On its route to the learner the organisational syllabus goes
through a series of 'interpretations.

--The first person to interpret the syllabus is usually the materials writer. So
we get our third kind of syllabus - the materials syllabus. In writing
materials, the author adds yet more assumptions about the nature of
language, language learning and language use. The author decides the
contexts in which the language will appear, the relative weightings and
integration of skills, the number and type of exercises to be spent on any
aspect of language, the degree of recycling or revision. These can all have
their effect on whether and how well something is learnt.

D-The teacher syllabus

--Since a great majority of students in the world learn language through the
mediation of a teacher , so we have the teacher syllabus .The teacher can
influence clarity , intensity and frequency of an item , and thereby affect the
image that the learners receive .

E- The classroom syllabus

--As every teacher knows, what is planned and what actually happens in a
lesson are two different things . A lesson is a communicative event, which is
created by the interaction of a number of forces. The classroom, then, is not
simply a neutral channel for the passage of information from teacher to
learner. It is a dynamic, interactive environment, which affects the nature
both of what is taught and what is learnt. The classroom thus generates its
own syllabus .

f) The learner syllabus

--The syllabuses we have considered till now might all be referred to as

external syllabuses. The learners might participate in their creation to some
extent, but essentially they are external to the learner. The last type of
syllabus, however, is an internal syllabus. It is the network of knowledge that
develops in the learner’s brain and which enables that learner to comprehend
and store the later knowledge. We might call this the learner syllabus.

--The learner syllabus differs from all the other types we have mentioned not
just in being internal as opposed to external, but in that it faces in the
opposite direction. It is a retrospective record of what has been learnt rather
than a prospective plan of what will be learnt . The importance of the learner
syllabus lies in the fact that it is through the filter of this syllabus that the
learner views the other syllabuses. What is in that learner syllabus, in other
words, will have a crucial influence on whether and how future knowledge is
learnt. It is for this reason that the learners must be taken into account on a
continuing basis through every stage of the course design process .

--There is, then, not just one syllabus, but several, and the teaching- learning
process involves the interaction of them all. When we use the term
‘syllabus’, we should be very clear which one we are referring to.In
particular, do we mean the external specification of future learning or the
internal construct developed by the learner? But the mostimportant point of
all to draw from this analysis is that there is no " necessary relationship
between any of the syllabuses, and inparticular, there is no direct
relationship between the starting point of the evaluation syllabus and the end
point of the learner syllabus .

2 Why should we have a syllabus ?

--In view of the amount of work that goes into syllabus design and the
considerable weight of authority that syllabuses have, we might usefully
consider whether they are necessary. This will reveal that just as there are
acknowledged and hidden syllabuses, there are also acknowledged and
hidden reasons for having a syllabus.

a) Language is a complex entity. It cannot be learnt in one go. We have to

have some way of breaking down the complex into manageable units. The
syllabus, in defining the constituent parts of language knowledge, thus
provides a practical basis for the division of assessment, textbooks and
learning time.

b) In addition to its practical benefits, a syllabus also gives moral support to

the teacher and learner, in that it makes the language learning task
appear manageable.

c) A syllabus, particularly an ESP syllabus, also has a cosmetic role.

Sponsors and students will want some reassurance that their investment of
money and/or time will be worthwhile. If nothing else, the syllabus shows
that some thought and planning has gone into the development of a course.
This aspect is, obviously, of particular importance when there are
commercial sponsors involved.

d) Returning to our analogy of learning as a journey, the syllabus can be seen

as a statement of projected routes, so that teacher and learner not only have
an idea of where they are going, but how they might get there.

e)A syllabus is an implicit statement of views on the nature of language and

learning. A syllabus will normally be expressed in terms of what is taken to
be the most important aspect of language learning. A syllabus tells the
teacher and the student not only what is to be learnt, but, implicitly, why it is
to be learnt.

f) A syllabus provides a set of criteria for materials selection and/or writing.

It defines the kind of texts to look for or produce, the items to focus on in
exercises etc. This is probably one of the commonest uses for a syllabus, but
it can be one of the most damaging to the course design, if wrongly used

g) Uniformity is a necessary condition of any institutionalised activity, such

as education. It is deemed to be important that standards within a system are
as equal as possible. A syllabus is one way in which standardisation is
achieved (or at least attempted).

h) In that teaching is intended to lead a learner to a particular state of

knowledge, there need to be criteria against which success or failure in
reaching that state will be assessed. A syllabus, therefore, provides a visible
basis for testing.

It is clear from this list of roles that a syllabus is an important document in

the teaching/learning process. Indeed, its importance probably stems from its
multi-functional purpose. But therein also lie the dangers:

1- We should be aware of why we want a syllabus and what we will use it

for. If it is really just for cosmetic purposes to placate a sponsor, then we
should not try to use it as a means of selecting texts or deciding what to put
in the exercises.

2- A syllabus is a model - a statement of an ideal. A syllabus is not, therefore,

a statement of what will be learnt. It is important to remember that a syllabus
can only constitute an approximate statement of what will be taught (though,
even here the divergence may be considerable). It can predict very little
about what will be learnt. A syllabus can never be more than a statement of a
teaching ideal.

3- Syllabuses cannot express the intangible factors that are so crucial to

learning: emotions, personalities, subjective views, motivation.

4- Syllabuses cannot take account of individual differences. Just as they are a

statement of the ideal in language terms, they also implicitly define the ideal
learner.

The role of the syllabus is a complex one, but it clearly satisfies a lot of
needs. We need crucially to be aware of the different roles that the syllabus
plays, so that it can be used most appropriately. In particular we need to
recognise its ideal nature and, therefore, its limitations as an indicator of
learning.

3- On what criteria can a syllabus be organised ?

--We noted above that one of the main purposes of a syllabus is to break
down the mass of knowledge to be learnt into manageable units. This
breakdown (unless it is to be completely random) has to be based on certain
criteria. Presented below are some contents lists from a range of ESP
courses, illustrating the different criteria that can be used.

1-Topic syllabus The Rig Fishing Jobs Traps and Geology Reservoir Fluids
Natural Flow Blowout Control Drives and Stimulations Directional Wells
Jobs on the Rig

2-Structural/situational syllabus

• The Hotel and Staff (1)Patterns of the verb 'to be'; demonstratives;
personal pronouns.

• The Hotel and Staff (2)Questions with ' where ?'; some prepositions.

• Marcel in the Restaurant (1) Adjectives;' either or',' neither nor'.

• Marcel in the Restaurant (2) Present Continuous Tense.

• The Staff and the Customer Possessive adjectives and pronouns;

questions with 'where?'
 • The Hotel at Night 'There is,' 'there are', 'some', 'any', 'no', (1);
questions with 'how

• many?'; the time (1)

• The Manager 'some', 'any',' no' (2); the time (2)

• The Kitchen (1) Patterns of the verb' to have'

3-Functional/notional syllabus

Properties and shapes - Location –Structure- Measurement 1

• Process 1 Function and ability

• Process 2 Actions in sequence

• Measurement 2 Quantity

• Process 3 Cause and Effect

• Measurement 3 Proportion

• Measurement 4 Frequency, Tendency, Probability

• Process 4 Method

4-Skills syllabus

1- Organising your studies

2- Improving your reading efficiency

3- Taking notes

4- Taking part in seminars

5- Writing an essay i) Research and using the library

6- Writing an essay ii) Organisation

7- Writing an essay iii) Presentation

8- Assessment, study techniques and examinations

5-Situational syllabus
1-Schweibur: The Fiftieth Anniversary

2- The Sales Report 2-The Thanking Letter

4- A Telephone Message 5- A Death to Report

6- A Memo 7- A Journey

8- Minutes 9- An Article and a Memo

10- The Transfer 11- Changing Jobs

12- The New Secretary

6- Functional/task-based syllabus

1- Making arrangements

2- Attending meetings

3- Taking part in interviews

4- Buying and selling

5- Dealing with orders

6- Dealing with forms

7- Using the telephone

8- Dealing with international payments

9- Recording and decoding information

10- Travelling

11- Reporting

1 2- Receiving visitors

7-Discourse/skills syllabus UNIT 2

• Generalizations

• Part 1 The nature of generalizations

 • Part 2 General and specific information (paragraphs containing a
single generalization)

• Part 3 Levels of generality

• Part 4 Levels of generality expressed by probability, frequency and

quality

• Part 5 Application of reading strategies to a passage with different

levels of generality

8- Skills and strategies

• Unitone: Who do you think you are? Exercises in personal evaluation

• Unit two: What do you think you'll do? Exercises in examining your
job needs

• Part 1 The hours you work

• Part 2 Job security

• Part 3 Making decisions „

• Part 4 Changing fields

• Unit three: What will you find out? Exercises in using the want ads

Part 1 An introduction to the want ads Part 2 Want ad abbreviations

Part 3 The information in an ad Part 4 Your qualifications Part 5

Answering an ad

--Each of the syllabuses shown represents a valid attempt to break down the
mass of a particular area of knowledge into manageable units. Each carries
certain assumptions about the nature of language and learning. But these
assumptions may not be very explicit.

-- For example, what assumptions underlie the ordering in the structural

syllabus ? Does the verb ‘to be’ come first, because it is easier to learn? If
so, in what sense? Structurally, it is the most complex verb in English. Does
it come first because it is needed for later structures, for example the present
continuous? Is it considered to be conceptually simpler? For many students,
for example Indonesian students, it causes conceptual problems, since in
Bahasa Indonesian it is frequently omitted. Alternatively, is the syllabus
ordered according to usefulness ? The verb ‘ to be ’ is more useful than, say,
the present simple tense of the verb ‘ to go ’. If we are operating the criterion
of usefulness, what context are we referring to ? Do we mean usefulness in
the outside world or usefulness in the classroom?

--What about the functional/notional syllabus ? Does the order imply that
Describing Properties and Shapes is more common or more fundamental
than Describing Function and Ability? Or is there a covert structural syllabus
underlying the ordering? Describing Properties and

--Shapes only requires the verb ‘to be’ (e.g. It is round/square/hard/soft etc.).
Describing Function and Ability, on the other hand, requires can / can’t / has
the ability to...etc.

--The syllabuses shown above are as important for what they don’t say, as for
what they do say, because they only show one or two of the elements of the
materials. Any teaching materials must, in reality, operate several syllabuses
at the same time. One of them will probably be used as the principal
organising feature, but the others are still there, even if they are not taken
into account in the organisation of the material. For example, every function
is realised by one or more structures, thus in writing a functionally organised
syllabus, a structural syllabus (good or otherwise) is automatically produced.
Texts must be about something, thus all textbooks have willy-nilly a topic
syllabus. Similarly, exercises demand the use of certain language processing
skills: so, in writing a sequence of exercises, a skills syllabus of sorts is
generated.

--The syllabus that you see is only a statement of the criteria used to organise
the mass of language use into a linear progression. Behind the stated syllabus
are the other syllabuses, acknowledged by the authors or not, as the case may
be.

--Any syllabus which claims to teach people how to communicate (in

whatever specialised area) should acknowledge the complexity of
communication. A syllabus that is framed in only one aspect (it structures,
functions, content or whatever) will probably miss the opportunity to develop
the unacknowledged elements effectively. As Swan (1985b) says, when
reviewing the structural/functional debate:
--‘The real issue is not which syllabus to put first: it is how to integrate eight
or so syllabuses (functional, notional, situational, topic, phonological,
lexical, structural, skills) into a sensible teaching programme.

4 What role should a syllabus play in the course design

process?

We can look at this question in terms of the approaches to course design that
we outlined in chapter 6.

a) A language-centred approach

In this approach the syllabus is the prime generator of the teaching

materials, as this model shows:

This sort of approach is still widely used in ESP.

The syllabus is quite clearly the determiner of the

entire course. It is, so to speak, the crystallisation of what

the course is all about the inspiration for the production

of texts and exercises and the basis on which proficiency

will be evaluated

b) A skill - centred approach

It provides opportunities for leatrners to employ and evaluate the skills and
strategies considered necessary in the target situation . A skills-centred
approach will often lay great store by the use of “ authentic” texts . It is
suggested by Holmes 1981 .

c) A learning-centred approach

--It will be noticeable that in the two approaches described so far the learning
activities (tasks, exercises, teaching techniques) are almost the last factor to
be considered. This may produce materials which faithfully reflect the
syllabus in language or skills content, but it has a very constricting effect on
the methodology. Learning, however, is more than just a matter of presenting
language items or skills and strategies. In other words, it is not just the
content of what is learnt that is important but also the activity through which
it is learnt .

--In a learning-centred approach the methodology cannot be just grafted on

to the end of an existing selection of syllabus items and texts: it must be
considered right from the start. To achieve this, the syllabus must be used in
a more dynamic way in order to enable methodological considerations, such
as interest, enjoyment, learner involvement, to influence the content of the
entire course design. The simplest way of achieving this is to break down the
syllabus design process into two levels

--The ESP syllabus is, as we have seen, usually derived from a detailed
analysis of the language features of the target situation. It is the detail of this
analysis which in our view produces the restricting influence on the
methodology. But this need not occur. It is unnecessary to analyse language
features in detail before the materials are started. A general syllabus outlining
the topic areas and the communicative tasks of the target situation is all that
is required at the beginning. For example, a general syllabus for technician
students might look like this:

• Topics Tasks

• names of tools expressing use and purpose

• electricity understanding safety instructions

• pumps describing a system

• materials reporting experiments

• construction describing measurements

• etc. etc.

--This general syllabus can be used as the basis for the initial selection of
texts and writing of exercises/activities: it has enough detail to guide the
materials writer, but not so much as to stifle creativity. It, therefore, allows
the materials writer to take full account of factors emerging from the analysis
of the learning situation.
--The materials themselves will produce a detailed language syllabus. This
materials-generated syllabus can then be checked against an independent
syllabus produced from the needs analysis. Gaps and overlaps can then be
dealt with.

--Thus, instead of using the syllabus as the initial and once-for-all determiner
of the content of materials and methodology, syllabus and materials evolve
together with each being able to inform the other. In this way the syllabus is
used creatively as a generator of good and relevant learning activities rather
than as just a statement of language content which restricts and impoverishes
the methodology. Yet, at the same time it maintains relevance to target needs.
It, therefore, serves the

--needs of the students both as users and as learners of the language. The
syllabus acts in the first instance as a compass to show the general direction.
Then it becomes a sketch map. When the possibilities have been explored,
obstacles noted and available resources collected, more detail can be filled in
on the map, until the route is clear. .

d) The post hoc approach

There is, of course, one last way of using the syllabus, which is probably
more widespread than we might suppose:

Conclusion

In the institutionalised frameworks in which most teaching takes place, we

must accept the predetermined syllabus as a fact of life. In view of the many
roles that it plays it is essential that a great deal of thought is given to how
the syllabus is used. It can, and unfortunately often does, act as a ball and
chain, denying creativity and subjecting everything to evaluation criteria. But
used sensibly and sensitively a syllabus can provide the support and guidance
that creativity thrives on. A syllabus is not divine writ. It is a working
document that should be used flexibly and appropriately to maximise the
aims and processes of learning.

Chapter Nine ( Material Evaluation )

Having completed your needs analysis and course design, you must now
decide what you are going to do with it. One option, of course, is to decide
that the whole thing is completely impossible and throw the results in the
waste paper bin. Assuming, however, that you wish (or have) to proceed,
there are three possible ways of turning your course design into actual
teaching materials:

1- Select from existing materials: materials evaluation.

2- Write your own materials: materials development.

3- Modify existing materials: materials adaptation.

In this and the following chapter we shall look at the first two options:

1- materials evaluation and

2- materials writing.

3-The third option is a combination of the first two.

So, if this is your choice, you will need- to use both processes. Although we
shall look at evaluation and development separately, they are complementary
activities. The materials writer can learn a lot in terms of ideas and
techniques from evaluating existing materials. Similarly, writing materials
makes you more aware of what to look for in materials written by other
people - and also more sympathetic to the efforts of other materials writers!

1-Why evaluate materials?

Evaluation is a matter of judging the fitness of something for a particular

purpose. Given a certain need, and in the light of the resources available,
which out of a number of possibilities can represent the best solution ?

Evaluation is concerned with relative merit. There is no absolute good

or bad — only degrees of fitness for the required purpose.

In any kind of evaluation, the decision finally made is likely to be the

better for being based on a systematic check of all the important variables.
The results of an evaluation will probably lead to a large investment of
money in a published course or a large investment of time in home-produced
or adapted materials.
 Once such an investment is made, you will probably have to live with
the consequences of it for some time, even if it later proves to have been a
bad choice. A careful evaluation, then, can save a lot of expense and
frustration. On the positive side, it can also help in justifying requests to
sponsors or other members of an ESP team for money to buy materials or
time to write

2- How do you evaluate materials?

Evaluation is basically a matching process: matching needs to available

solutions. If this matching is to be done as objectively as possible, it is best to
look at the needs and solutions separately. In the final analysis, any choice
will be made on subjective grounds.

If you were choosing a car, for example, you might just as easily choose it
because you like the look of it as because it can reach 100 mph in 10
seconds. It depends on what you consider to be important. The danger is that,
if subjective factors are allowed to influence judgement too soon, it may
blind you to possibly useful alternatives. You might not look at cars from a
particular country, because you have a prejudice against that country, while
in fact those cars may suit your needs best.

Similarly you might reject a particular textbook ,'because you don’t like the
picture on the cover, or because you dislike functional syllabuses. An ESP
textbook has to suit the needs of a number of parties - teachers, students,
sponsors, so it is important that the subjective factors, which will admittedly
play a part, should not be allowed to obscure objectivity in the early stages of
analysis.

We can divide the evaluation process into four major steps

1- Defining criteria. 2- Subjective analysis.

3- Objective analysis. 4- Matching.

The following steps should be followed in using the checklist:

1- Answer the A questions first to identify your requirements. You can then
use this information either as a basis for writing your own materials or as
input to the later stages of materials evaluation.
2- Analyse the materials you have selected by answering the B questions. If
possible, test your ideas by teaching extracts from the materials.

3-Compare the A and B findings. This can be done impressionistically or by

awarding points:

o = does not match,the desired feature

1 = partly matches the desired feature

3 = closely matches the desired feature

Total the points and analyse the results. Note that the highest number of
points does not necessarily indicate the most suitable materials, since the
points may be concentrated in one area. Look for the widest spread of
desired features and concentrations in the areas you consider most important.

4- Make your choice and use your findings to prepare any documentation
needed for defending your decision.

Conclusion

In this chapter we have looked at materials evaluation as one way of

exploiting a course design. Even if you eventually decide to write your own
materials, the evaluation of existing materials can provide a good source of
ideas (of what to avoid as well as what to do) and techniques.

It can also save a lot of duplication of effort by possibly revealing

existing materials that can provide all or part of your materials needs. The
evaluation process should be systematic and is best seen as a matching
exercise: matching your analysed needs with available solutions.

10-Material Design

Materials writing is one of the most characteristic features of ESP in

practice. In marked contrast to General English teaching, a large amount of
the ESP teacher’s time may well be taken up in writing materials. There are a
number of reasons for this:

1- A teacher or institution may wish to provide teaching materials that will fit
the specific subject area of particular learners. Such materials may not be
available commercially. In addition to the profusion of subject specialisms,
there is also a wide range of course types.
 Whereas schools, for example, work to standard timetables with a
similar number of hours, ESP courses can vary from one week of intensive
study to an hour a week for three years or more. Publishers are naturally
reluctant to produce materials for very limited markets. The cost of
producing and marketing a book is much the same regardless of whether it
sells one thousand copies or one hundred thousand copies. It is likely, then,
that a course tailored to the needs of a specific group of ESP learners will not
be available.

2-Even when suitable materials are available, it may not be possible to buy
them because of currency or import restrictions.

3-ESP materials may also be written for non-educational reasons: for

example, in order to enhance the reputation of an institution or an individual.
Materials are a visible product of activity, regardless of whether such activity
is useful or even necessary.

For these and other reasons, there is already an established tradition of

ESP teachers producing in-house materials. These may then be distributed to
other institutions or even published, but in general they are written by the
teachers of a particular institution for the students at that institution.

Such a pattern of work is often something of an abuse of teachers.

Few have had any training in the skills and techniques of materials writing. It
also shows a rather cavalier attitude to the activity of materials writing,
implying, as it does, that if you can teach you can Write materials. How
many actors are expected to write their own plays or singers their own
songs? On the other hand, it can be argued that the process of materials
writing may help to make teachers more aware of what is involved in
teaching and learning.

Rightly or wrongly, materials writing is a fact of life for a large number of

ESP teachers, and so, accepting this fact, let us look at some techniques for
producing useful and creative ESP materials.

1- Defining objectives
 We can start by asking ourselves the question: What are materials
supposed to do? In defining their purpose, we can identify some principles
which will guide us in the actual writing of the materials.

1- Materials provide a stimulus to learning. Good materials do not teach:

they encourage learners to learn. Good materials will, therefore, contain:

• interesting texts;

• enjoyable activities which engage the learners’ thinking capacities;

• opportunities for learners to use their existing knowledge and skills;

• content which both learner and teacher can cope with.

2- Materials help to organise the teaching-learning process, by providing a

path through the complex mass of the language to be learnt. Good materials
should, therefore, provide a clear and coherent unit structure which will
guide teacher and learner through various activities in such a way as to
maximise the chances of learning. This structure should help the teacher in
planning lessons and encourage in the learner a sense of progress and
achievement.

On the other hand, materials should not be so tightly structured as to

produce a monotonous pattern of lessons - the curse of so many materials.
Avoid the assembly line approach, which makes each unit look the same,
with the same type of text, the same kind of illustrations, the same type and
number of exercises. If it doesn’t send you to sleep writing them, it will
certainly send your learners to sleep using them. A materials model must be
clear and systematic, but flexible enough to allow for creativity and variety.

3- Materials embody a view of the nature of language and learning. In

writing materials you, as an author, are making all manner of statements
about what you think language learning consists of. Materials should,
therefore, truly reflect what you think and feel about the learning process.

If you believe that people learn when their thinking capacities are
engaged, don’t write exercises which require little or no active thought. If
you think learning is enhanced by intense experiences with language, don’t
provide texts which have been stripped of any human interest.
 If you think learning is helped by frequent reinforcement, make sure
that items to be learnt are processed several times.

4- Materials reflect the nature of the learning task. "We have noted in
previous chapters that language learning is a complex process involving
many different kinds and levels of knowledge. In the heyday of
structuralism, it was assumed that a-knowledge of the structures wras the
same as knowing a language and that repetition led to learning. Materials
writing was a simple task of isolating the structure, writing a text to
exemplify it and pattern drills to practise it. We must now take a more
humble view and recognise that language learning is a very-complex and
little understood process. Materials should try to create a balanced outlook
which both reflects the complexity of the task, yet makes it appear
manageable.

5-Materials can have a very useful function in broadening the basis of

teacher training, by introducing teachers to new techniques.

6-Materials provide models of correct and appropriate language use. We have

deliberately placed this last on our list. This is a necessary function of
materials, but it is all too often taken as the only purpose, with the result that
materials become simply a statement of language use rather than a vehicle
for language learning.

Language teaching materials should not be the kind of beginner’s

guide to Applied Linguistics, which is so prevalent in ESP. We, as linguists,
may be endlessly fascinated by the analysis of discourse: it is our chosen
specialist field. For the doctor, the secretary and the engineer language may
have little such attraction.

2-A materials design model

Taking into account the principles we have outlined, we can now

present a model which we have used for writing our own materials. The aim
of this particular model is to provide a coherent framework for the
integration of the various aspects of learning, while at the same time
allowing enough room for creativity and variety to flourish.
 The model consists of four elements: (input, content focus,
language focus, task.)

a) Input: This may be a text, dialogue, video-recording, diagram or any piece

of communication data, depending on the needs you have defined in your
analysis. The input provides a number of things:

- stimulus material for activities;

-new language items;

- correct models of language use;

- a topic for communication;

-opportunities for learners to use their information processing skills;

-opportunities for learners to use their existing knowledge both of the

language and the subject matter.

b-Content focus : Language is not an end in itself, but a means of conveying

information and feelings about something. Non-linguistic content should be
exploited to generate meaningful communication in the classroom.

C- Language focus : Our aim is to enable learners to use language, but it is

unfair to give learners communicative tasks and activities for which they do
not have enough of the necessary language knowledge. Good materials
should involve both opportunities for analysis and synthesis. In language
focus learners have the chance to take the language to pieces, study how it
works and practise putting it back together again.

D- Task : The ultimate purpose of language learning is language use.

Materials should be designed, therefore, to lead towards a communicative
task in which learners use the content and language knowledge they have
built up through the unit. These four elements combine in the model as
follows:

The primary focus of the unit is the task. The model acts as a vehicle
which leads the learners to the point where they are able to carry out the task.
The language and content are drawn from the input and are selected
according to what the learners will need in order to do the task. It follows
that an important feature of the model is to create coherence in terms of both
language and content throughout the unit. This provides the support for more
complex activities by building up a fund of knowledge and skills.

3-Amaterial design model : sample materials

The basic model can be used for materials of any length .Every stage could
be covered in one lesson , if the task is a small one , or the whole unit might
be spread over a series of lessons .In this part , we will show materials
intended for lower intermediate level students from a variety of technical
specialisms . The topic of the blood circulation system can be of relevance to
a wide range of subjects . The text is better veiwed as an illustration of the
general principles of fluid mechanics rather than as a medical text .

1-As the unit title indicates , language is approached through an area of

content . The topic represent a common form of technical discourse –
describing a circulatory system-although in this case , presented from an
unusual point of view

2- the starter plays a number of important roles :

-it creates a context of knowledge for the comprehension of the input

.Comprehension in the ESP classroom is often more difficult than in real
life , because texts are taken in isolation .

-it activates the learner’s minds and gets them thinking . They can then
approach the text in an active frame of mind .

-it arouses the learner’s interest in the topic .

-it reveals what learners already know in terms of language and content .the
teacher can then adjust the lesson to take this into account .

It provides a meaningful context in which to introduce new vocabulary or

grammatical items .

3- in the gathering information practices extracting information from the

input and begins the process of relating this content and language to a wider
context .
4- in the listening task learners should always be encouraged to find answers
for themselves where possible . Also learners are required to go beyond the
information in the input . They have to relate the subject matter to their own
knowledge and reasoning powers , but still using the language they have
been learning .

5- In the language focus it gives practice in some of the language elements

needed for the task .these may be concerned with aspects of sentence
structures , function or text construction . The points focused on are drawn
from the input , but they are selected according to their usefulness for the
task .

4-Refining the model

A number of possible refinements to the model can be seen in unit already

mentioned .We can relate these points to the nucleus of the model to provide
an extended model like the following :

5- Materials and the syllabuses

There are in fact several syllabuses operating in any course . A model must
be able to ensure adequate coverage through the syllabus of all the features
identified as playing a role in the development of learning .Each unit must
relate effectively to the other unit in the course .There needs to be a
coherence between the unit structure and the syllabus structure to ensure that
the course provides adequate and appropraite coverage of syllabus items
.Throgh out this book we have mentioned a wide use of models but here we
distinguish between two types of model , since both are used in the materials
design process :

1-Predictive : this model provides the generative framework within which

creativity can operate .It is a model that enables the operator to select ,
organise and present data .

2-Evaluative : this kind acts as a feedback device to tell you whether you
have done what intended .It is used as a checklist. If the models are used
inappropriatly , the materials writers will almost certainly be so swamped
with factors to consider that they will properly achieve little worth .
Using the models : a case study

Here we have example of a maritime used as a case study in which we

conclude from our needs analysis that we had been teaching our students
specific maritime language . Having established the background we can now
look in detail at the gestation process of the unit . The following stages will
illustrate the procedures of the model :

Stage -1- : find your text .

There are three criteria used in selecting a text :

-it should be a naturally occurring piece of communication or a piece that

might well have occurred naturally . It can be rewritten if we feel will
improve the pedagogic usefulness of the text .

-it should be suited to the learner’s needs and interests .

-it should be capable of generating useful classroom activities .

Stage -2- go to the end of the model . Think of a task that the learners could
do at the end of the unit .Our concern here was to assess the creative
potential of the text for classroom activities .

Stage -3- go back to the syllabus . Is the task the kind of activity that will
benefit your learners ?

Stage -4- decide what language structures , vocabulary , functions , content

the input contains .Which of these would be useful for the task , that is what
aspects of language and content can be usefully focussed on in the
exercises ?

We identified :

-names of specific parts ;

-present perfect ;

-Discourse linkers (relative clauses , after, then …)

-describing system ;

-relationship between text and diagram .

Stage -5- think of some exercises and activities to practices the items you
have identified .We decide on :

-a transfer activity in which learners would extract the essential information

from the text and use it in order to complete and label a diagram of the
system .

-a reconstruction activity , in which learners use the diagram to reconstruct

the original text .

- Exercise where learners write descriptions of other systems , for

example relief rainfull…

Stage -6- go back to the input .Can it be revised in any way to make it more
useful ? Try out revisions on your learners , if possible .

Stage -7- go through stages 1-6 again with the revised input .

Stage -8- check the new materials against the syllabus and amend
accordingly .

Stage -9- try the materials in the classroom .

Stage -10- most importantly , revise the materials in the light of classroom
use . There is no such thing as perfect materials .They can always be
improved .