CHAPTER NO.

1 INTRODUCTION TO
MACHINE DESIGN

Subject:
Design Of Machine Elements

DME -17610 (G-Scheme)

By
AAFTAB A.Z. MUQADAM

Mechanical Engineering Department

Mob.9619468502

Email Id: [email protected]

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Q.1 Define machine design? write classification of machine design.

Machine Design is the innovation of new and effective machines and improving the existing ones.

Classifications of Machine Design:

1. Adaptive design: In this the designer’s work is concerned with adaptation of existing designs.
The designer only makes minor alternation or modification in the existing designs of the product.
2. Development design: This type of design needs scientific training and design ability in order
to modify the existing designs into a new idea by adopting a new material or different method of
manufacture.
3. New design: This type of design needs lot of research, technical ability and creative thinking.
Only those designers who have personal qualities of a sufficiently high order can take up the work
of a new design.
4. Empirical design: This type of design depends upon empirical formulae based on the practice
and past experience.

Q.2 Explain Design procedure for component or part of machine.

1. Need or Aim: First of all, make a complete statement of the

problem, indicating the need, aim or purpose for which the
machine is to be designed.

2. Synthesis (Mechanisms): Select the possible mechanism or

group of mechanisms which will give the desired motion.

3. Analysis of forces: Find the forces acting on each member

of the machine and the energy transmitted by each member.

4. Material selection: Select the material best suited for each

member of the machine.

5. Design of elements (Size and Stresses): Find the size of

each member of the machine by considering the force acting
on the member.
6. Modification: Modify the size of the member to agree with the past experience and judgment
to facilitate manufacture.

7. Detailed drawing: Draw the detailed drawing of each component and the assembly of the
machine with complete specification for the manufacturing processes suggested.

8. Production: The component, as per the drawing, is manufactured in the workshop.

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Q.3 What are general considerations in machine design?

1. Type of load and stresses caused by the load.
2. Motion of the parts or kinematics of the machine.
3. Selection of materials.
4. Size and shape of the parts.
5. Use of standard parts.
6. Safety of operation.
7. Workshop facilities.
8. Cost of construction.
Q.4 State any four factors that govern the selection of material while designing machine
components.

i) Availability of materials:
The materials which are available readily & in abundance in the market should be selected. As for
as possible, the materials which are not available easily, that should be avoided.

ii) Suitability of the materials: For the working conditions in service.

iii) Cost of material:

The material should be selected such that the total cost should be minimum & within the specified
limit.

iv) Manufacturing Considerations:

The selected material should be suitable for the required manufacturing processes if the material
as found suitable from all other considerations, sometimes the manufacturing process can be
changed if feasible.

v) Material properties:
The material properties in general and mechanical properties in particular govern the selection of
the materials. E.g. strength, elasticity, plasticity, ductility, hardness etc.

Q.5 What do you mean by ‘Factor of Safety’ (FOS)? Define FOS for ductile and brittle material,
Enlist four factors on which FOS depends?

It is defined as the ratio of maximum stress to the working stress (Design stress).

1. FOS for Ductile Materials:

In case of ductile materials e.g. mild steel, where the yield point is clearly defined, the factor
of safety is based upon the yield point stress. In such cases,

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2. FOS for Brittle Materials:

In case of brittle materials e.g. cast iron, the yield point is not well defined as for ductile
materials. Therefore, the factor of safety for brittle materials is based on ultimate stress.

Factors on which F.O.S depend are:

1. The nature and reliability of applied load.
2. The reliability of properties of material and change of these properties during service.
3. The extent of localized stresses.
4. The stresses set up during manufacturing.
5. The extent of loss of life if failure occurs.
6. The mode of failures, if it occurs.

Q.6 State the theories of failure under static load. Explain all theories with equations.
Theories of failure:

i) Maximum principal (or normal) stress theory.

ii) Maximum shear stress theory (Guest’s theory).
iii) Maximum strain energy theory.
iv) Maximum distortion energy theory.

i) Maximum principal or normal stress theory.

The failure or yielding occurs at a point in a member when the maximum principal or normal
stress in a bi-axial stress system reaches the limiting strength of the material.

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It is not used for ductile materials.

ii) Maximum shear stress theory.
According to this theory, the failure or yielding occurs at a point in a member when the maximum
shear stress in bi-axial stress system reaches a value equal to the shear stress at yield point in a
simple tension test.
From this theory,

This theory is mostly used for designing members of ductile materials.

iii) Maximum Strain Energy Theory:
According to this theory, the failure or yielding occurs at a point in a member when the strain
energy per unit volume in a bi-axial stress system reaches the limiting strain energy (i.e. strain
energy at the yield point) per unit volume as determined from simple tension test. According to
the above theory,

σt1 and σt2 = Maximum and minimum principal stresses in a bi-axial stress system,
ε = Strain at yield point as determined from simple tension test,
1/m = Poisson’s ratio,
E = Young’s modulus, and
F.S. = Factor of safety.

This theory may be used for ductile materials.

iv) Maximum Distortion Energy Theory:

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According to this theory, the failure or yielding occurs at a point in a member when the distortion
strain energy (also called shear strain energy) per unit volume in a bi-axial stress system reaches
the limiting distortion energy (i.e. distortion energy at yield point) per unit volume.

This theory is mostly used for ductile materials in place of maximum strain energy theory.
Q.7 Classify the Engineering Materials and Classification of Engineering Materials.
The engineering materials are mainly classified as:
1] Metals and their alloys, (such as iron, steel, copper, aluminum, etc.)
2] Non-metals, (such as glass, rubber, plastic, etc.)

1] The metals may be further classified as:

Ferrous metals and Non-ferrous metals.
Ferrous metals:
The Ferrous metals are those which have the iron as their main constituent, such as cast iron,
wrought iron and steel.
A) Cast iron- It is an alloy of iron, carbon and silicon and it is hard and brittle. Carbon content
may be within 1.7% to 3% and carbon may be present as free carbon or iron carbide Fe3C.
(a) Grey cast iron- Carbon here is mainly in the form of graphite. This type of cast iron is
inexpensive and has high compressive strength. Graphite is an excellent solid lubricant and this
makes it easily machinable but brittle. Some examples of this type of cast iron are FG20, FG35 or
FG35Si15.
(b) White cast iron- In these cast irons carbon is present in the form of iron carbide (Fe3C) which
is hard and brittle. The presence of iron carbide increases hardness and makes it difficult to
machine. These cast irons are abrasion resistant.
B) Steel-
Steel is basically an alloy of iron and carbon in which the carbon content can be less than 1.7%
and carbon is present in the form of iron carbide to impart hardness and strength.
Two main categories of steel are: (a) Plain carbon steel and (b) Alloy steel.

(a) Plain carbon steel- The properties of plain carbon steel depend mainly on the carbon
percentages and other alloying elements are not usually present in more than 0.5 to 1% such as
0.5% Si or 1% Mn etc. There is a large variety of plane carbon steel and they are designated as
C01, C14, C45, C70 and so on where the number indicates the carbon percentage.

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(b) Alloy steel- Alloying elements added are usually nickel for strength and toughness, chromium
for hardness and strength, tungsten for hardness at elevated temperature, vanadium for tensile
strength, manganese for high strength in hot rolled and heat treated condition, silicon for high
elastic limit, cobalt for hardness and molybdenum for extra tensile strength. Some examples of
alloy steels are 35Ni1Cr60, 30Ni4Cr1, 40Cr1Mo28; 37Mn2. Stainless steel is one such alloy steel
that gives good corrosion resistance.
.
Non-ferrous metals:
The Non-ferrous metals are those which have a metal other than iron as their main constituent,
such as copper, aluminum, brass, tin, zinc, etc.
A) Aluminium- This is the white metal produced from Alumina. In its pure state it is weak and
soft but addition of small amounts of Cu, Mn, Si and Magnesium makes it hard and strong. It is
also corrosion resistant, low weight and non-toxic.
B) Copper alloys
Brass (Cu-Zn alloy)- It is fundamentally a binary alloy with Zn upto 50%, and small amount of
other elements viz.lead or tin imparts other properties to brass. Lead gives good machining quality
and tin imparts strength. Brass is highly corrosion resistant, easily machinable and therefore a good
bearing material.

Bronze (Cu-Sn alloy)-This is mainly a copper-tin alloy where tin percentage may vary between
5 to 25. It provides hardness but tin content also oxidizes resulting in brittleness.
Q.9 Write the Mechanical properties of Engineering Materials.
Mechanical properties of Engineering Materials.
1. Strength: It is the ability of a material to resist the externally applied forces without breaking
or yielding. The internal resistance offered by a part to an externally applied force is called stress.
2. Stiffness: It is the ability of a material to resist deformation under stress. The modulus of
elasticity is the measure of stiffness.
3. Elasticity: It is the property of a material to regain its original shape after deformation when the
external forces are removed.

4. Plasticity: It is property of a material which retains the deformation produced under load
permanently.

5. Ductility: It is the property of a material enabling it to be drawn into wire with the application
of a tensile force. The ductile material commonly used in engineering practice are mild steel,
copper, aluminum, nickel, zinc, tin and lead.

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6. Brittleness: It is the property of a material opposite to ductility. It is the property of breaking

of a material with little permanent distortion. Cast iron is a brittle material.

7. Malleability: It is a special case of ductility which permits materials to be rolled or hammered

into thin sheets. The malleable materials commonly used in engineering practice are lead, soft
steel, wrought iron, copper and aluminum.

8. Toughness: It is the property of a material to resist fracture due to high impact loads like
hammer blows. The toughness of the material decreases when it is heated.

9. Resilience: It is the property of a material to absorb energy and to resist shock and impact loads.
This property is essential for spring materials.

10. Creep: When a part is subjected to a constant stress at high temperature for a long period of
time, it will undergo a slow and permanent deformation called creep. This property is considered
in designing internal combustion engines, boilers and turbines.

11. Fatigue: When a material is subjected to repeated stresses, it fails at stresses below the yield
point stresses. Such type of failure of a material is known as fatigue. This property is considered
in designing shafts, connecting rods, springs, gears, etc.

12. Hardness: It is the property of the metals; it adopts many different properties such as
resistance to wear, scratching, deformation and machinability etc.

Q.10 Write the Importance of Stress strain diagram in machine design:

Importance of Stress strain diagram in machine design:

1) The proper and efficient use of material of construction requires considerable knowledge of
their mechanical properties.

2) Properties describe the behavior of the material under mechanical usage.

3) The most important properties are strength, elasticity, stiffness, ductility etc.

4) From stress-strain diagram, properties like ultimate strength, elastic limit, ductility etc. of
material can be found out. Hence, these values can be used for designing and selection of proper
material for machine design.

Q.11 Draw stress-strain diagrams for ductile and brittle materials and explain all points.
Stress Strain diagram for Ductile materials: - This is a graphical plot of a stress versus strain.
These quantities are experimentally obtained by simple tension test.

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1. Proportional limit: We see from the diagram that from point O to A is a straight line, which
represents that the stress is proportional to strain. Beyond point A, the curve slightly deviates from
the straight line. It is thus obvious, that Hooke's law holds good up to point A and it is known as
proportional limit.

2. Elastic limit: It may be noted that even if the load is increased beyond point A upto the point
B, the material will regain its shape and size when the load is removed. This means that the material
has elastic properties up to the point B. This point is known as elastic limit.

3. Yield point: If the material is stressed beyond point B, the plastic stage will reach i.e. on the
removal of the load; the material will not be able to recover its original size and shape. In case of
mild steel, it will be seen that a small load drops to D, immediately after yielding commences.
Hence there are two yield points C and D. The points C and D are called the upper and lower yield
points respectively. The stress corresponding to yield point is known as yield point stress.

4. Ultimate stress: At D, the specimen regains some strength and higher values of stresses are
required for higher strains, than those between A and D. The stress (or load) goes on increasing
till the point E is reached. At E, the stress, which attains its maximum value, is known as ultimate
stress.

5. Breaking stress: After the specimen has reached the ultimate stress, a neck is formed,
which decreases the cross-sectional area of the specimen. A little consideration will show that the
stress (or load) necessary to break away the specimen, is less than the maximum stress. The stress
is, therefore, reduced until the specimen breaks away at point F. The stress corresponding to point
F is known as breaking stress or Fracture point.

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Stress Strain diagram for brittle materials: -

1 and 2: Ultimate Strength

1. Brittle materials such as concrete or carbon fiber do not have a yield point, and do not strain-
harden. Therefore the ultimate strength and breaking strength are the same.

2. A typical stress-strain curve is shown in Fig. Typical brittle materials like glass do not show any
plastic deformation but fail while the deformation is elastic.

3. A typical stress strain curve for a brittle material will be linear.

4. Testing of several identical specimen, cast iron, or soil, tensile strength is negligible compared
to the compressive strength and it is assumed zero for many engineering applications.

Q.12 What are ductile and brittle materials.

Ductile Materials– Materials that are capable of undergoing large strains (at normal temperature)
before failure. An advantage of ductile materials is that visible distortions may occur if the loads
before too large. Ductile materials are also capable of absorbing large amounts of energy prior to
failure. Ductile materials include mild steel, aluminum and some of its alloys, copper, magnesium,
nickel, brass, bronze and many others.

Brittle Materials – Materials that exhibit very little inelastic deformation. In other words,
materials that fail in tension at relatively low values of strain are considered brittle. Brittle materials
include concrete, stone, cast iron, glass and plaster.

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Q.13 What are preferred numbers, where they are used?

1) A designed product needs standardization. It means that some of its important specified
parameter should be common in nature.

2) For example, the sizes of the ingots available in the market have standard sizes. A manufacturer
does not produce ingots of sizes of his wish, he follows a definite pattern and for that matter
designer can choose the dimensions from those standard available sizes.

3) Motor speed, engine power of a tractor, machine tool speed and feed, all follow a definite pattern
or series.

4) This also helps in interchangeability of products. ItThese numbers are called preferred numbers
are the conventionally rounded off values derived from geometric series having common ratios as,

5) Depending on the common ratio, four basic series are formed; these are R5 , R10 , R20 and R40
. These are named as Renard series. Many other derived series are formed by multiplying or
dividing the basic series by 10, 100 etc.

Typical values of the common ratio for four basic G.P. series are given below.

R10, R20 and R40: Thickness of sheet metals, wire diameter

R5, R10, R20: Speed layout in a machine tool (R10: 1000, 1250, 1600, and 2000)

R20 or R40: Machine tool feed

R5: Capacities of hydraulic cylinder

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Q.14 What is stress concentration? Illustrate any four methods to reduce it with neat
sketches?

Stress Concentration:

Whenever a machine component changes the shape of its cross section, the simple stress
distribution no longer holds good and neighbourhood of the discontinuity is different. This
irregularity in the stress distribution caused by abrupt changes of form is called stress
concentration.
OR
Whenever there is a change in cross section of machine components, it causes high localized
stresses. This is known as stress concentration.

Causes of stress concentration are:

i) Abrupt changes in cross-section like in keyway, steps, grooves, threaded holes.

ii) Poor surface finish
iii) Localised loading
iv) Variation in material properties
Methods to avoid stress concentrations:

Stress concentration cannot be totally eliminated but it may be reduced to some extent.
Fig.illustrates the different methods to avoid stress concentration.

Method 1: By providing fillet instead of step as shown below

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Method 2: Provide fillet when change in cross section if necessary.

Method 3: By having two small holes as shown.

Method 4: Shank diameter is reduced and made equal to the core diameter of the thread.

Q.15 Define creep, and explain all stages in creep curve.

Creep:
1) When a part is subjected to a constant stress at high temperature for a long period of time, it
will undergo a slow and permanent deformation called ‘’creep’’.
2) It is defined as slow and progressive deformation of material with time under constant stress.
Creep is a function of stress and temperature. It is mostly due to the reduced yield strength at higher
temperatures.
3) e.g: The Collapse of the World Trade Center was due in part to creep from increased temperature
operation, This property is considered in designing internal combustion engines, boilers and
turbines.
Stages of creep: The rate of deformation is called the creep rate. It is the slope of the line in a
Creep Strain vs. Time curve (Known as creep curve).

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Fig. Creep Curve

Stage: 1 Primary Creep: In this stage the strain rate is relatively high, but slows with increasing
time. This is due to work hardening.

Stage: 2 Secondary Creep: In this stage the strain rate is constant,

This is due to the balance between work hardening and annealing (thermal softening).
This stage is known as secondary or steady-state creep.

Stage: 3 Tertiary Creep: has an accelerated creep rate and terminates when the material breaks
or ruptures. It is associated with necking phenomenon.

Q.16 Define Fatigue and explain stages in mechanism of fatigue failure.

Fatigue:

1) When a material is subjected to repeated stresses, it fails at stresses below the yield point
stresses. Such type of failure of a material is known as fatigue.

2) This property is considered in designing shafts, connecting rods, springs, gears, etc.

There are three stages of fatigue failure:

1. Crack initiation
2. Crack propagation and 3. Fracture

1. Crack initiation: Under cyclic loading, that contains a tensile component, localized yielding
can occur at a stress concentration and forms cracks in specimens. Materials that are less ductile,
do not have the same ability to yield and thus form cracks more easily. Most brittle materials
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completely skip this stage and proceed directly to crack propagation at geometrical irregularities
such as notch, corners holes etc.

2. Crack propagation: Large stress concentration is developed around the crack tip and each time
the stress becomes tensile the crack grows a small amount and progresses rapidly.

3. Fracture: Cracks will continue to grow if tensile stresses are high enough and at some point,
the crack becomes so large that sudden failure occurs.

Q.17 Define fatigue strength and fatigue limit.

Endurance limit or Fatigue Limit:

It is defined as the maximum value of completely reversed bending stress, which as a standard
specimen can withstand without failure, for infinite no. of cycles of loads.

Q.18 Draw S-N Curve and Define the term endurance limit.

Stress Life Diagram (S-N Diagram):

S- N curve corresponding to steel and titanium material is shown Curve A. Many non-ferrous
metals and alloys, such as aluminum, magnesium, and copper alloys, do not exhibit well defined
endurance limits. These materials as shown in Curve B.

Q.19 State the meaning of following colour code in aesthetic consideration while designing
product.
i) Red ,ii) Orange ,iii) Green ,iv) Blue

Ans: - Meaning of colour code in aesthetic consideration:

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i) Red – Danger / Hazard / Hot

ii) Orange – Possible Danger
iii) Green – Safety
iv) Blue – Caution / Cold.
Q.20 Define Aesthetics, Write the Aesthetic consideration in design related to shape ,colour&
surface finish Regarding Shape.

Aesthetics:
Aesthetics is branch of engineering science which deals with study of human senses such as surface
finish, shape, colour etc.

Aesthetic consideration in design related to shape ,colour& surface finish Regarding Shape:

i) Asthetic consideration in design related to shape ,colour& surface finish Regarding Shape:
1) The shape should not be like blocks but various forms like sculpture, streamlined, aerodynamic,
taper should be used.
2) The component should be symmetrical at lean about one axis.
3) Proper shape of a product help to make the product more attractive.
4) The shape of the product should be regular, even & proportionate

ii) Regarding Colour:

1) The colour and shape of component should be such that in should attract appeal and impress
customer.
2) The colour should match with conventions, moods e.g. red for danger, gray for dull, yellow for
cautions, green for safe etc.
3) Too bright colour should be avoided.
4) The colour should be compatible with conventional ideas of the operator.

iii) Regarding Surface finish:

1) Products with better surface finish are always aesthetically pleasing’
2) The surface coating processes like spray painting, anodizing, electroplating etc greatly the
aesthetic appeal of product.

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Q.21 Define Ergonomics, and write various Ergonomics considerations in machine design.
Ergonomics:

1) Ergonomics is branch of engineering science which deals with study of man-machine working
environment relationship and application of anatomical, physiological and psychological
principles to solve the problems arising from this relationship.

2) Its scope in machine design includes following:

i) Anatomical factors in design of driver’s seat.
ii) Layout of instrument dials and display panels for accurate perception by the operator.
iii) Design of hand levers and hand wheels.
iv) Lighting, noise and climatic conditions in machine environment.
Ergonomics consideration in control design:
1) The control should be accessible and logically positioned.
2) The shape of control component which come in contact with hands should be comfortable with
anatomy of hand.
3) Control should be painted in red color with grey background of machine tool for attention.
4) The control operation should involve Minimum motions.
Ergonomics consideration in Display design:
1) The scale on the dial indicator should be divided in suitable linear progression such as 0-10-20-
30.
2) Number of subdivisions between divisions should be minimum.
3) Vertical figures should be used for stationary dials and radially oriented figures should be used
for rotating dials.
4) The height of letters or numbers on display should be greater or equal to reading distance /200.
5) The pointer should have knife edge with a mirror to minimize parallax error.

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Q.22 Write the Advantages of standardization:

Advantages of standardization:
i. It saves effort of design.
ii. It ensures certain minimum specified quality.
iii. It help in mass production.
iv. Easy and quick replacement of the components is possible.
v. Interchangeability of components is possible.
vi. Effective utilization of resources.

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