. . . Introduction & Materials . . .

Maps that deal with the surface changes on the earth are called topographic
maps. This exercise will look at how topographic maps are created, what
information they contain, how you can use them with a compass to get where
you want to go, and how to measure the relative positions of points of interest.

Much of the information discussed is applicable to all types of maps, but for the
exercises associated with this tutorial, the emphasis will be on information
contained in a 7.5 minute topographic map.

Required Materials:

 7.5 minute series U.S. Geological Survey topographic quadrangle

map (1:24,000 scale) and perhaps a clipboard or other flat surface
on which to write in the field.
 compass (capable of measuring azimuth, borrow one if necessary)
 protractor (cheap)
 graph paper (including a sharp pencil and eraser, not a pen)
 field notebook (optional)

NOTE: Your map must represent a location that is accessible to you by car,
truck, llama, or whatever means of transportation is available. Make sure it has a
few sites of interest to you, such as lakes, streams, mountains, neighborhoods,
etc. (just about anything is appropriate). You can buy these at local outfitter
stores, some bookstores, your local BLM or Forest Service office or through
the U.S. Geological Survey.

Objective: Gain an understanding of what a map is, how a map is made, and
how to use a topographic map and compass.

What you will be required to do to complete this module:

Read through the entire tutorial, using links to visit more extensive explanations
in the companion tutorial. Throughout the exercise, questions will be posed and
answered. You will maximize what you get out of this exercise if you work
through the questions yourself before reading the answer, but you are not
required to turn in your results.

At the end of the on-line tutorial there are a series of questions in the all-
important Field Exercises. You will need to complete all of these exercises,
answer the associated questions, and turn in your results.
 . . . What is a Topographic Map . . .
What is a Map?

A map is a way of representing on a two-dimensional surface, (a paper, a

computer monitor, etc.) any real-world location or object. Many maps only
deal with the two-dimensional location of an object without taking into account
its elevation. Topographic maps on the other hand do deal with the third
dimension by using contour lines to show elevation change on the surface of
the earth, (or below the surface of the ocean).

The concept of a topographic map is, on the surface, fairly simple. Contour lines placed
on the map represent lines of equal elevation above (or below) a reference datum. To
visualize what a contour line represents, picture a mountain (or any other topographic
feature) and imagine slicing through it with a perfectly flat, horizontal piece of glass. The
intersection of the mountain with the glass is a line of constant elevation on the surface
of the mountain and could be put on a map as a contour line for the elevation of the slice
above a reference datum.

The title of the quadrangle is printed in the upper and lower right corners of the map. In
addition to the title of the quadrangle itself, the titles of adjacent quadrangles are printed
around the edges and at the corners of the map. This allows you to easily find a
neighboring map if you are interested in an area not shown on your map. In addition
there is information about the projection and grid(s) used, scale, contour intervals,
magnetic and declination.

The legend and margins of topographic quadrangles contain a myriad of other useful
information. Township and range designations, UTM coordinates, and minute and
second subdivisions are printed along the margins of the map. *Section numbers (from
the PLS system) appear as large numbers within a grid of lines spaced one mile
apart. The legend also contains a road classification chart showing different types of
roads (paved, gravel, dirt, etc.).

Perhaps one of the most important sources of information on a topographic map is the
date of revision, printed to the left of the scale. Although large scale topographic features
(such as mountains) take millions of years to be formed and eroded, smaller scale
features change on a much more rapid scale. The course of a river channel may change
fairly rapidly as a result of flooding, landslides may alter topography significantly, roads
are added or go out of use, etc. Because of these changes, it is important to have a
fairly recent (or recently updated) topographic map to ensure accuracy. On most
topographic maps, the date of the initial publication will be shown, along with the most
recent revision of the map.

There are many other features (buildings, swamps, mines, etc.) that are designated on
topographic maps, but which are not described in the map legend.
 The U.S. Geological Survey produces an index of all symbols used on the topographic
maps they publish. This index can be purchased where you buy your topographic maps
or ordered from the USGS. For more information on topographic and other maps
produced by the USGS, visit: http://mapping.usgs.gov/mac/findmaps.html (map page
index) or http://mapping.usgs.gov/mac/isb/pubs/booklets/usgsmaps/usgsmaps.html (list
of map types).

. . . Reference Datum. . .
A reference datum is a known and constant surface which can be used to
describe the location of unknown points. On Earth, the normal reference datum
is sea level. On other planets, such as the Moon or Mars, the datum is the
average radius of the planet.

The term "reference datum" was used rather than ‘above (or below) the earth’s
surface’ or ‘above (or below) sea level’. The reason for this is simple once you
think about it…If you use the term ‘above the earth’s surface’, what exactly
does that mean? In other words, the earth’s surface where?

Similarly, although we tend to think

of sea level as a constant, it is not the same everywhere on the globe, so sea
level where? and sea level when? (high tide or low) become pertinent
questions. So, to avoid these problems, a reference datum is needed that
represents the same surface or elevation at all points on the earth and that
remains constant over time. An example of a datum that could be used for the
earth is a sphere with a radius equal to the average radius of the earth.

Such a sphere would provide a

constant surface to which elevations
on the earth's actual surface could be
referenced. However, the earth is not
a perfect sphere; the radius of the
earth is greater at the equator and less
at the poles. The resulting shape is
what is known as an 'oblate ellipsoid'.
By using an oblate ellipsoid as a
datum for the earth we have a shape
that approximates the shape of the
earth fairly well and provides a datum
 to which points all over the earth's
surface can be referenced (hence the
term 'reference datum').

Most 7.5 minute topographic maps still in circulation use the NAD-27 (North
American Datum, 1927) referencing system based on the Clarke ellipsoid of
1866. Technological advances that allowed more precise measurements of
the earth resulted in modifications of the Clarke ellipsoid, producing the GRS-
80 (Geographic Referencing System, 1980).

More recent maps commonly use the NAD-83 referencing system which is
based on the GRS-80 ellipsoid. The datum used for a map is printed on the
front of a map. Although the reference ellipsoids used in the NAD-27 and
NAD-83 are different, the changes are slight on large-scale maps (scales will be
discussed in greater detail later).

For a more indepth explanation of the problems associated with an elipsoid visit
this site
http://kartoweb.itc.nl/geometrics/Reference%20surfaces/body.htm
 . . . Map Projections. . .
Once a reference datum has been determined the elevation of any point can be
accurately determined, and it will correlate to the elevation of any point on the
earth's surface that has the same elevation and is using the same datum.
But…how do you accurately represent the X and Y coordinates of that point?
This question leads to one of the fundamental problems of mapmaking…how do
you represent all or part of an ellipsoid object on a flat piece of paper? The
answer to this question is a bit complicated, but understanding it is fundamental
to understanding what maps actually represent (this statement will become
clearer shortly)

In order to represent the surface of the earth

on a flat piece of paper, the map area is
projected onto the paper. There are many
different types of projections, each with its
own strengths and weaknesses.

The simplest (and easiest to visualize)

example of a projection is a planar
projection. To understand this type of
projection, imagine inserting a piece of paper
through the earth along the equator. Now
imagine that the earth is semi-transparent
and you could shine a flashlight oriented
along the (geographic) polar axis through the
earth.

The resulting outline on the paper would be

a map created using this type of projection
(known as a transverse azimuthal or planar
projection).
There are three main types of projections,
based on the shape of the 'paper' onto
which the earth is projected. The example
above used an azimuthal (planar) piece of
paper.

The other main types, illustrated to the right,

are cylindrical and conical projections.
These three types of projections can be
further modified by the way the 'paper' is
oriented when it is inserted into the earth.

In the example above, the plane was

oriented along the equator, known as a
transverse orientation (hence the 'transverse
azimuthal' projection). Projections may also
be equatorial (oriented perpendicular to the
plane of the equator) or oblique (oriented at
some angle that is neither parallel nor
perpendicular to the plane of the equator.

. . . Distortions . . .
Each of the different types of projections have strenghts and weaknesses.
Knowledge of these different advantages and disadvantages for a particular map
projection will often help in which map to choose for a particular project. The
basic problem inherent in any type of map projection is that it will result in some
distortion of the ‘ground truth’ of the area being mapped.

There are four basic characteristics of a map that are distorted to some degree,
depending on the projection used. These characteristics include distance,
direction, shape, and area. The only place on a map where there is no
distortion is along the trace of the line that marks the intersection of our ‘paper’
with the surface of the earth.
 Any place on the map that does not lie along
this line will suffer some distortion.
Fortunately, depending on the type of
projection used, at least one of the four
characteristics can generally be preserved.

A conformal projection primarily preserves

shape, an equidistant projection primarily
preserves distance, and an equal-area
projection primarily preserves area.
These images show the earth using several different projections:

. . . Grid Systems . . .
A grid system allows the location of a point on a map (or on the surface of the
earth) to be described in a way that is meaningful and
universally understood. Projecting the earth’s surface (or a
portion of it) in one of the ways outlined above gives a
representation of the area on a flat piece of paper. Once
this is accomplished, it is necessary to set up a coordinate
system on the map that will allow a point to be described in
X-Y space.

However, in order to describe this location in a universally

understandable manner a grid system is necessary. A simple grid is shown with
the location of a point of interest that we want to describe.

To describe this point, many people would assign it an X value of 3 and a Y

value of 3 (the common notation for designation this point would be 3, 3).
Someone else might describe it as 3, 1 (X=3, Y=1). Either interpretation is
correct depending on how you are looking at the grid. In order for a point
designation on a grid to be meaningful, there must be an origin to the grid which
can be used to reference the point to. Once an origin is assigned then there is
only one correct designation for the point, and anyone looking at the grid will
assign it the same value and be able to interpret what someone else means
when they describe a point located at 3,3.

A few examples of possible origins for the grid are shown . In the first example
shown, the designation for the point would be 3,3. In the second the designation
would be 3,1, and in the third it would be 1,1. All of these designations describe
the same point and the only thing that has changed is the origin of the grid. In
order for any type of grid to be useful it is necessary for it to have an origin and a
uniform grid spacing (i.e. the distance between grid lines should remain
constant).
There are several types of grids (AKA coordinate systems), used to divide the
earths surface. Four of these are in common use on maps published in the
United States as follows.

. . . State Plane Coordinate System . . .

The state plane coordinate system (SPCS) is similar to the UTM system in many
respects, but it does have some important differences. In the SPCS, each state
has its own zone(s). The number of zones in a state is determined by the area
the state covers and ranges from one for a small state such as Rhode Island to
as many as five.

The projection used for

each state is also
variable. States that
are elongate from east
to west, such as New
York, use a transverse
Mercator projection.

States that are

elongate from north to
south, such as
California, use a
Lambert conformal
projection (Lambert is the
name of the cartographer
who designed the projection, the projection itself is a conformal conic projection) .

The reasoning behind this is fairly simple; by changing the projection to

maximize the number of zones used for gridding, the distortion within each zone
in the state is minimized. Idaho uses a transverse Mercator projection and is
divided into three zones (west, east, and central).

The state plane system commonly uses feet as its primary unit of measure,
although metric coordinates are beginning to be incorporated. The grid system
used is very similar to that used with the UTM system, with the exception of
where the origin for the grids are located. The easting origin for each zone is
always placed an arbitrary number of feet west of the western boundary of the
zone, eliminating the need for negative easting values. The northing origin,
however, is not at the equator as in UTM, but rather it is placed at an arbitrary
number of feet south of the state border.

Because of the limited distortion in the SPCS (and the associated increase in
accuracy of measurements), and the lack of universal applicability (i.e. it doesn’t
work across state lines) it is of greatest use for local surveying and engineering
applications.

The following is an excellent site that explains state plane with an interactive map for
each state.
http://www.cnr.colostate.edu/class_info/nr502/lg3/datums_coordinates/spcs.html

. . . Using a Topographic Map . . .

Tips for understanding contour lines.
When first looking at a topographic map, it may appear somewhat confusing and
not very useful. There are a few rules that topographic contours must obey,
however, and once you understand these rules the map becomes an extremely
useful and easy to use tool.

The rules are as follows:

1) Every point on a contour line represents the exact same elevation (remember
the glass inserted into the mountain). As a result of this every contour line must
eventually close on itself to form an irregular circle (in other words, the line
created by the intersection of the glass with the mountain cannot simply
disappear on the backside of the mountain). Contour lines on the edge of a map
do not appear to close on themselves because they run into the edge of the
map, but if you got the adjacent map you would find that, eventually, the contour
will close on itself.
2) Contour lines can never cross one another. Each
line represents a separate elevation, and you can’t
have two different elevations at the same point. The
only exception to this rule is if you have an
overhanging cliff or cave where, if you drilled a hole
straight down from the upper surface, you would
intersect the earth’s surface at two elevations at the
same X,Y coordinate. In this relatively rare case,
the contour line representing the lower elevation is
dashed. The only time two contour lines may merge
is if there is a vertical cliff (see figure).

3) Moving from one contour line to another always

indicates a change in elevation. To determine if it is
a positive (uphill) or negative (downhill) change you Click on image for a larger image.
must look at the index contours on either side (see
figure). 6) A series of closed
contours (the contours
4) On a hill with a consistent slope, there are make a circle) represents a
always four intermediate contours for every index hill. If the closed contours
contour. If there are more than four index contours are hatchured it indicates a
it means that there has been a change of slope and closed depression (see
one or more contour line has been duplicated. This figure).
is most common when going over the top of a hill or
across a valley (see figure). 7) Contour lines crossing a
stream valley will form a "V"
5) The closer contour lines are to one another, the shape pointing in the uphill
steeper the slope is in the real world. If the contour (and upstream) direction.
lines are evenly spaced it is a constant slope, if
they are not evenly spaced the slope changes.
 . . . Map Scale. . .
Individual topographic maps are commonly referred to as quadrangles (or quads), with
the name of the quadrangle giving an idea of the amount of area covered by the map.
The largest area covered by most topographic maps used for scientific mapping purposes
(i.e. geologic mapping, habitat studies, etc.) are two degrees of longitude by one degree
of latitude (see below).

A map of this size is referred to as a ‘two degree sheet’. One, two

degree sheet can be divided into four smaller quadrangles, each
covering one degree of longitude and 1/2 degree of latitude (‘one
degree sheet’).

Each one degree sheet is subdivided into eight ‘fifteen minute

quadrangles’, measuring fifteen minutes of latitude and longitude.
Finally, the smallest topographic quadrangle commonly published
by the U.S. geological survey are 7.5 minute quadrangles, which
measure 7.5 minutes of latitude and longitude. There are four 7.5
minute quads per fifteen minute quad, 32 per one degree sheet,
and 128 per two degree sheet.

You can determine what type of quadrangle you are looking at by

subtracting the longitude value printed in the upper (or lower) left
corner of the map from the longitude printed in the upper (or
lower) right corner of the map. This can also be done using
 latitude values, just remember that a two degree sheet only
covers one degree of latitude and and one degree sheet only
covers thirty minutes of latitude. This information is also
commonly printed in the upper right hand corner of a map, under
the title of the map.

As alluded to above, topographic (and other maps as well) come at a variety of

scales. The scale of the map is determined by the amount of real-world area
covered by the map. For example, 7.5 minute topographic quadrangles put out
by the U.S. Geological Survey have a scale of 1:24,000. This type of scale is
known as a ratio scale and what it means is that one inch on the map is equal
to 24,000 inches (2000 ft) in the real world (actually, it means that one of
anything [cm, foot, etc.) on the map is equal to 24,000 of the same thing on the
map). Another way of writing this would be a fractional scale of 1/24,000,
meaning that objects on the map have been reduced to 1/24,000th of their
original size. Other map scales in common use for topographic maps are
1:62,500 (15 minute quadrangle), 1:100,000 (one degree sheet) and 1:
250,000 (2° sheet). The smaller the ratio is between distances on the map and
distances in the real world, the smaller the scale of the map is said to be. In
other words, a map with a scale of 1:250,000 is a smaller scale map than a
1:24,000 scale map, but it covers a larger real-world area. The scale of a
topographic map is printed below the map in the center of the page. In addition
to a ratio scale, a bar scale is also shown to allow measurement of distances
on the map and conversion to real-world distances.

. . . Magnetic Declination . . .
Another feature found in the legend of topographic maps is the magnetic declination. Magnetic declination is
the difference between true north (the axis around which the earth rotates) and magnetic north (the direction th
needle of a compass will point)

Magnetic north is determined by the earth’s magnetic field and is not the same as true (or geographic) north.
The location of the magnetic north pole changes slowly over time, but it is currently northwest of Hudson’s Bay
in northern Canada (approximately 700 km [450 mi] from the true north pole). Maps are based on the
geographic north pole because it does not change over time, so north is always at the top of a quadrangle
map. However, if you were walk a straight line following the direction your compass needle indicates as north,
you would find that you didn’t go from south to north on the map.

How far your path varied from true north

depends on where you started from; the
angle between a straight north-south line
and the line you walked is the magnetic
declination in the area you were walking.

In the example below, if you walked 1.25

miles toward magnetic north (i.e. you
followed your compass without adjusting
for magnetic declination) you would end
up 1/3 of a mile away from where you
would be if you walked 1.25 miles toward
true north.

Fortunately, magnetic declination has

been measured throughout the U.S. and
can be corrected for on your compass
(see below).

The map below shows lines of equal

magnetic declination throughout the U.S.
and Canada.

The line of zero declination runs from magnetic north through Lake Superior and across the western panhandle
of Florida. Along this line, true north is the same as magnetic north. If you are working west of the line of zero
declination, your compass will give a reading that is east of true north. Conversely, if you are working east of
the line of zero declination, your compass reading will be west of true north. The exact amount that you need t
adjust the declination on your compass to reconcile magnetic north to true north is given in the map legend to
the left of the map scale.
 . . . Vertical Scale. . .
The scales discussed before only deal with the relationship between horizontal
distances on the map and horizontal distances in the real world. Because
topographic maps incorporate the third (vertical) dimension of the earth’s
surface, they also have a vertical scale.

This scale is listed on a topographic map as the contour interval. The contour
interval is the vertical distance represented by consecutive contour lines on the
map. In general, the smaller the scale of the map (remember, small scale maps
show a larger area of the earth’s surface) the larger the contour interval will be.
For example, the contour interval on a 7.5 minute quad is commonly 40 feet,
while on a one or two degree sheet it will often be 100 feet. In order to make
topographic maps more useful, there are exceptions to this rule of thumb.

In very flat areas, such as the plains of the midwest or the Snake River Plain,
contour intervals of one hundred, or even forty, feet may not be very useful as
they will be very widely spaced. In areas such as these, supplemental contours
are often added at five or ten foot intervals (supplemental contours appear on
USGS topographic maps as dashed lines). Similarly, in very steep mountainous
areas the contours may be more widely spaced to avoid clustering of lines into
unreadable masses. The contour interval used on a topographic map is printed
below the scale in the map legend.

Regardless of the contour interval chosen, you

will notice that there are at least two types of
contour lines on a topographic map. Thick
contour lines, called index contours, have
elevations printed on them periodically over their length. Between each index
contour are four intermediate contours that are thinner lines than the index
contours. The elevation change between the intermediate contours is what is
given in the map legend. So, if the contour interval listed in the map legend is
forty feet, each intermediate contour represents forty feet and the elevation
change between index contours is 200 feet. On many topographic maps these
will be the only types of contour lines shown.

However, as mentioned above, some maps will have supplementary contour

lines representing smaller vertical distances. If supplementary contour lines are
used, they will be dashed lines and the supplemental contour interval will be
listed below the regular contour interval in the map legend. A final type of
contour that may appear on a topographic map is a line representing a closed
depression (such as a sinkhole or a crater at the top of a volcano). These
contours will be hachured (they will have small tic marks perpendicular to the
main contour line), with the tic marks pointing downslope.

. . . Creating Topographic Profiles . . .

A very useful exercise for understanding what topographic maps represent is the
construction of a topographic profile. A topographic profile is a cross-sectional
view along a line drawn through a portion of a topographic map. In other words,
if you could slice through a portion of the earth, pull away one half, and look at it
from the side, the surface would be a topographic profile. Not only does
constructing a topographic profile aid in understanding topographic maps, it is
very useful for geologists when analyzing numerous problems.
To construct a topographic profile, you must first decide on a line that is of
interest to you. This could be an area where you want to go for a hike and want
to know how steep to expect it to be, a line that shows the maximum relief (relief
is the difference in elevation between the highest and lowest points) in the map
area, or any other area in which you are interested. Once you have determined
where you want to draw your profile, use the following guidelines to construct
your profile.

1) Pencil the line of your interest in lightly on your

map, or you can put mylar over the map and draw
on it if you don't wish to mark your map. **If you use
mylar, it may be a good idea to mark the corners of the
map on the mylar so you can reorient the mylar on the
map later if necessary.**

2) Place a blank piece of paper along the line you

have drawn. You may want to tape the paper to
the map using drafting tape to keep them from
moving relative to one another (don’t use any other
kind of tape unless you don’t mind taking some of
the map off with the tape later).

3) On both the blank paper and the map (or mylar),

mark clearly the starting and ending points of your
line of section. Below these marks, write down the
elevation of the starting and ending points of your
section.

4) Make a tic mark wherever the paper crosses a contour line on the map,
making larger tics for the index contours and smaller tics for the intermediate
contours. Write the elevation of the index contours below their tics on your
paper…you might want to start off writing the elevation of the intermediate
contours as well to avoid confusion, but it will soon become tedious.

Make a note of the highest and lowest points on the profile for use later. Be sure
to keep track of the number of intermediate contours between the major
contours; if there are more than four intermediate contours it means that there
has been a change in slope and you need to check to see if you crossed a hill or
a valley.

5) Once you are certain you have all of the appropriate tic marks and elevations,
remove your paper from the map. Get a piece of graph paper that is at least as
long as your line of section (you can piece them together if you have to, but
make sure all the grids line up). If you are using a map with a scale of 1:24,000
you will want to use graph paper that has one inch grids to make your life much
easier (because at a scale of 1:24,000, one inch on the paper is equal to 2000
feet). Place your paper with the tic marks on the graph paper (once again, you
may want to tape it down) and mark the starting and ending points of your line of
section on the graph paper.

6) Draw vertical lines above your starting and ending points, these will be the
boundaries of your profile. Use the maximum and minimum elevations along
your line of section to determine how long to draw these lines. For example, if
your minimum elevation is 4320 ft and your maximum elevation is 6280 ft, you
will want your vertical line to be at least two inches long. Remember that one
inch equals 2000 feet on a 1:24,000 scale map. The difference between 6280
feet and 4320 feet is less than 200 feet, so it would be possible to draw your
profile in just one inch. However, it is much easier to construct a profile if your
lowest elevation is a multiple of 2000, so you would want to start at 4000 feet
and go to 8000 feet (two inches).

7) Beginning with your starting elevation, go directly above the tic mark on your
paper and make a small dot on the graph paper at the corresponding elevation
(if your graph paper has one inch squares divided into tenths, each smaller
square will represent 200 feet of elevation change; each index contour should lie
along a horizontal grid line). Make a small dot for each tic mark on your paper.

8) Connect the dots on the graph paper, and you have a topographic profile.
 . . . Vertical Exaggeration. . .
Depending on why you are creating your topographic profile, you may want to
use vertical exaggeration when constructing it.

Vertical exaggeration simply means that your vertical scale is larger than your
horizontal scale (in the example you could use one inch is equal to 1000 ft. for
your vertical scale, while keeping the horizontal scale the same). Vertical
exaggeration is often used if you want to discern subtle topographic features or if
the profile covers a large horizontal distance (miles) relative to the relief (feet).

To determine the amount of vertical exaggeration used to construct a profile,

simply divide the real-world units on the horizontal axis by the real-world units on
the vertical axis.

If the vertical scale is one 1"=1000’ and the horizontal scale is 1"=2000’, the
vertical exaggeration is 2x (2000’/1000’).
 . . . Calculating a Slope . . .
Determining the average slope of a hill using a topographic map is fairly simple.
Slope can be given in two different ways, a percent gradient and an angle of the
slope. The initial steps to calculating slope either way are the same.

1) Decide on an area for which you want to calculate the slope (note, it should be
an area where the slope direction does not change; do not cross the top of a hill
or the bottom of a valley).

2) Once you have decided on an area of interest,

draw a straight line perpendicular to the contours on
the slope. For the most accuracy, start and end
your line on, rather than between, contours on the
map.

3) Measure the length of the line you drew and,

using the scale of the map, convert that distance to
feet. (insert image with the line drawn on it, conversion calculation)

4) Determine the total elevation change along the line you drew (subtract the
elevation of the lowest contour used from the elevation of the highest contour
used). You do not need to do any conversions on this measurement, as it is a
real-world elevation change.

To calculate a percent slope, simply divide the elevation change in feet by the
distance of the line you drew (after converting it to feet). Multiply the resulting
number by 100 to get a percentage value equal to the percent slope of the hill. If
the value you calculate is, for example, 20, then what this means is that for every
100 feet you cover in a horizontal direction, you will gain (or lose) 20 feet in
elevation.

To calculate the angle of the slope, divide the elevation change in feet by the
distance of the line you drew (after converting it to feet). This is the tangent
value for the angle of the slope. Apply an arctangent function to this value to
obtain the angle of the slope (hit the ‘inv’ button and then the ‘tan’ button on most
scientific calculators to get the slope angle). The angle you calculated is the
angle between a horizontal plane and the surface of the hill.

Using the example above, (click here or on image for larger picture) a hill with a 20%
slope is equivalent to an 11° slope.
 . . . Using a Compass with a Map . . .
Pictured below are two different types of compasses. The compass at left is a
Brunton compass used by geologists and others for many specialized mapping
purposes. On the right is a more common type of compass used for general
orienteering and some mapping purposes. The features of a compass that you
need to understand are found on both types of compass (and most others as
well). This section will give an overview of how to use a compass with a
topographic map to locate yourself on the map and how to get from one point in
the map area to another.
 . . . Setting Magnetic Declination . . .
The first thing you need to do with your compass before ever taking it into the
field is to set its magnetic declination. If you fail to do this, any readings you get
from your compass will be erroneous and you may wind
up far from where you want to be (in other words, lost).

As mentioned earlier, the magnetic declination in the

map area should be printed on the map (left of the
scale at the bottom of a USGS 7.5’ quad). After finding the declination on the
map, you need to transfer that information to your compass. If you are using a
Brunton compass, you set the magnetic declination by turning the declination
setting screw on the side of the compass until the reading on the graduated
circle in the compass lines up with the index pin at the top of the compass at the
proper declination.

For many other types of compasses you can set the declination by simply
rotating the graduated circle on the outside of the compass until it lines up with
the indicator marker at the top of the compass at the proper declination. If
neither of these methods seems to work with your compass, check with the
users manual that came with your compass, as it should have instructions on
setting the declination.

Once you have set the declination on your compass, any reading you obtain
from it will be accurate. In southern Idaho, for instance, the magnetic declination
varies from roughly 14.5°E to 17°E. So, after setting the declination at 16°, when
you line your compass up with 0° it will be pointing to true north but it will appear
to be 16° off from the ‘N’ printed on your compass.

A word of caution here: be sure that you set your declination in the proper
direction (east in Idaho). If you set it to 16°W rather than east, you will be off by
32° in all of your measurements, rather than the 16° you would be off if you
hadn’t adjusted it at all. To make sure you have set your declination properly,
orient your compass so that the north end of the needle is lined up with the 0°
mark on the graduated circle.

If you are located west of the line of zero declination, then the index pin or
marker on your compass should be west of the 0° marker on the graduated circle
(and vice-versa if you are east of the line of zero declination).
 . . . Get a Bearing. . .
A bearing is a measurement of direction between two points. Bearings
are generally given in one of two formats, an azimuth bearing or a
quadrant bearing.

An azimuth bearing uses all 360° of a compass to indicate direction.

The compass is numbered clockwise with north as 0°, east 90°, south
180°, and west 270°. So a bearing of 42° would be northeast and a
bearing of 200° would be southwest, and so on.

For quadrant bearings the compass is divided into four sections, each
containing 90°. The two quadrants in the northern half of the compass
are numbered from 0° to 90° away from north (clockwise in the east,
counterclockwise in the west). In the southern half of the compass,
the two quadrants are numbered away from south (counterclockwise
in the east, clockwise in the west).
Quadrant bearings are given in the
format of N 40°E (northeast), S 26°W
(southwest), etc. Whenever you
measure a quadrant bearing, it
should always be recorded with north
or south listed first, followed by the
number of degrees away from north
or south, and the direction (east or
west) away from north or south. In
other words, you would never give a
quadrant bearing as
E 40°N or W 24°S.

Your compass may be an azimuth compass or it may be divided into quadrants. If you have an azimuth
compass and are given a quadrant bearing, you’ll have to divide it into quadrants in your head, and the same
goes for quadrant compasses if you are given an azimuth bearing.
 Measuring a bearing

So, you’re in the field with your map at point A and want to get to point B…how do you accomplish this? The
first thing you need to do is determine the bearing from point A to point B. There are two ways to go about this.
The easiest way, is to carry a protractor
with you when you’re in the field. If you
have a protractor with you, place it on
the map so it is oriented parallel to a
north-south gridline, with the center of
the protractor on point A (or on a line
drawn between points A and B). Once
you have done this, you can simply
read the bearing you need to go off of
the protractor.

If you don’t happen to have a protractor

with you, you can determine the
bearing you need using your compass.
To do this, place your compass on the
map so that the edge of your compass
is oriented parallel to a north-south
gridline and the center of your compass
is on the line between points A and B.
 Now rotate the map and compass together until the north arrow on
the compass points to 0° on the graduated circle. You can then
approximate the bearing you need by estimating where the line
between A and B crosses the graduated circle.

It is probably at about this point that, if you are using a Brunton

compass (and some others as well), you are probably noticing that
the ‘east’ label is on the wrong side of the compass (west of north).
You are not hallucinating. It is that way for a reason that will become
clear in the next section, hopefully.

. . .Going From A to B. . .
Once you’ve figured out what direction you want to go, you need to figure out
how to use your compass to get you there. In the example on the previous page,
you determined that the bearing between A and B is 21° (N 21°E). All you have
to do now to get to B is walk a straight line at 21° and, after a little sweat, you’ll
be at your destination.
To orient yourself along this
path, orient your compass so
that the north arrow is pointing
at the bearing you want, but in
the adjacent quadrant. For
example, we want to head out
at a bearing of 20° (N 20°E).
To do so, align the north end
of the needle with 340° (N
20°W).

When you do this, the front

edge of your compass is
pointing 20° in the direction
you want to go.

Now perhaps it is more clear

why on some compasses the
east and west labels appear to
be on the wrong side of the
compass. If the bearing you
want is N 20°E and the labels
are swapped, then when you
line up with N 20°E as labeled
on the compass, the compass
is truly pointing toward N
20°W.

Most compasses have some sort of sighting system built into them to allow
greater accuracy in determining where you want to go.If your compass has a
sight (check your owner’s manual to see if it has one and, if so, learn how to use
it), you will orient it the same way as described above, but you can look through
the sight at the same time and find an object to walk toward.

By finding an object (such as a tree or large rock) that lies along your path you
will have more freedom to go around obstacles (such as large gullies, streams,
hills, etc.) without losing track of the direction your are travelling. Once you
reach the object you were headed for, sight in on another object along your path,
repeating this process until you arrive at point B.
 . . . Finding Self on a Map . . .
Now you know how to get from point A to point B on a map using your
compass…but what if you are not sure where exactly point A is (i.e. you are
lost)? By far the easiest way to determine where you are on a map is to pull out
your pocket GPS (global positioning system receiver) and have it give you your
map coordinates. If, however, you are like a lot of people, you don’t want to shell
out a few hundred bucks for a GPS and, unless you are in an area with very little
topographic relief, you don’t need one. You can determine your position quite
accurately on a topographic map by using your compass to triangulate between
three points.
The first step in triangulation
is to pick three topographic
features that you can see
and can identify on your
map (mountains are ideal).
Start with the first feature
you have chosen and
determine the bearing
between you and it, as
outlined above. Once you
have determined its
bearing, pencil in a line with
the same bearing on your
map that runs through the
chosen feature (once again,
having a protractor would
be useful). Repeat this for
the other two features,
drawing lines for each. The
point where the three lines
intersect on the map is
where you are. Depending
on how accurate your
sightings were and how
accurately you drew your
lines through the features,
there will probably be a
some error in your location.
Be sure to double check the
map and reconcile it with
what you see. If the lines
intersect in a valley and you are on a hill, the location is obviously off a bit on the
map. It does give a good approximation though and, by looking at your
surroundings, you should be able to figure out which hill on which side of the
valley you are on. If you have an altimeter with you, you can also use it with the
triangulation to help determine your exact location more accurately.
 . . . Exercise One . . .
Purpose: Become familiar with all of the parts of your map and the information
contained in your map.

For this exercise, if you have not done so already, obtain a 1:24,000 scale map
of an area near where you live or where you would like to do field exercises.
Topographic maps can be obtained at your local BLM or Forest Service office,
as well as through the U.S. Geological Survey. If possible, choose a map that
has a fair amount of topographic relief and variability, as it will enable you to get
more out of later exercises. Once you have obtained a map, answer the
following questions.

 What is the name of your quadrangle?

 What are the names of the adjacent quadrangles? (You should
have eight of them)
 When was your quadrangle first made into a topographic map?
 Has it been revised?
 What datum was used to create your map?
 What is the contour interval on your map?
 Are there supplemental contours?
 What are the geographic coordinates (i.e., latitude and longitude)
of the upper left-hand corner of your map?
 What are the (UTM coordinates) of the lower right hand corner of
your map?
 What is the UTM zone in which you are located?
 Pick a prominent named feature on your map and give its
coordinates in PLS coordinates. Be sure to include the name of the
feature (such as Cedar Butte, Rocky Point, etc.)
 How many different types of roads are there in your map area?
 What is the highest point in your map area?
 What is the lowest point?
 What is the total relief?

What you will be required to do to complete this exercise:

Read and work through the entire companion tutorial, using links to visit more
extensive explanations. Throughout the exercise, questions will be posed and
answered. You will maximize what you get out of the tutorial if you work through
the questions yourself before reading the answer, but you are not required to
turn in your results.
At the end of the on-line tutorial there are a series of questions in the all-
important "Field Exercises" using topographic maps. You will need to complete
all of these exercises, answer the associated questions, and turn in your results.

. . . Exercise Two . . .
What you will be required to do to complete this exercise:
Read and work through the entire companion tutorial, using links to visit more
extensive explanations. Throughout the exercise, questions will be posed and
answered. You will maximize what you get out of the tutorial if you work through
the questions yourself before reading the answer, but you are not required to turn in
your results.

Purpose: Gain practical experience with locating yourself on a topographic map

and calculating your position using triangulation. Also learn some of the
problems inherent in triangulation with imprecise tools and how you can
overcome these problems.

 Go into your field area (visit public lands or, if on private land, go only
after obtaining permission from the landowner ). Make your first stop
somewhere that you are convinced you know where you are (such as a
prominent bend in the road, a pond, etc.).

 Locate the point on the map, mark it with a small ‘x’, and record the point
in both UTM and geographic coordinates.

 Find three other landmarks in your vicinity that you can recognize them on
the map (prominent peaks, ponds, river bends, etc.).

 Using the technique outlined in the triangulation section of the online

tutorial, use these points to triangulate your location. Be honest when you
do this, as you will probably not get it exactly right the first time. Mark your
calculated position with another small ‘x’.

 Measure the distance between your true and calculated positions and
convert the distance to feet and meters, noting the direction in which your
calculated position varies from your true position.

 Repeat this process for at least three more locations in your map area.

Upon returning from the field, complete a brief write up of your results.
Include information about how far off your calculated position was from
 the true position. Were your errors were systematic (direction and
distance)? Did your error decrease with practice? If you had not known
exactly where you were, how could you have checked each of your
calculated positions for accuracy?

. . . Exercise Four . . .
Purpose: Look at an area of your map in detail to see if there is any relationship
between slope aspect (north facing, west facing, etc.), general vegetation type
(you don’t need to know specific plant names, just generalities such as trees,
sagebrush, grass, etc.), altitude, and topography (steep slopes, gentle slopes,
etc.).

The first step in this exercise will be to create three topographic profiles
(different than the ones used in exercise 2). In order to maximize the results of
this exercise, orient at least two of the profiles at approximately right angles to
one another across ridges oriented in different directions (they may be in
different areas of the map). Try to choose areas that have significant topographic
relief (from one valley to another across a significant ridge, or across large hill or
mountain) and variations in slope angle (some steep, some gentle). If your map
does not contain two ridges oriented in different directions, draw your profiles
parallel to one another but far apart and in areas of differing relief and slope
angle. Your profile should be no less than one mile long but it may be longer; it
should be long enough to demonstrate the total topographic variation in the area.

Record the starting and ending points of your profile using UTM and geographic
coordinates.

Once again, walk your topographic profiles. Note on your map any changes in
vegetation type as you encounter them (grass to sage, sage to trees, etc.). If you
have a knowledge of general rock types, note these changes as well (volcanic to
sedimentary, sandstone to limestone, etc.).

After you have done this for both lines, transfer the vegetation data (and rock
data if you have it) to your profiles.

Write up your results. Include your observations about the influence (if you
observe any) of: slope aspect on vegetation, elevation on vegetation, vegetation
on slope angle, slope aspect on slope angle, and elevation on slope angle. If you
have data on changes in rock type, include your observations on its influence
over the other factors as well.
 . . . Geographic Coordinate System . . .
One of the most common coordinate systems in use is the Geographic
Coordinate System, which uses degrees of latitude and longitude to describe a
location on the earth’s surface. Lines of latitude run parallel to the equator and
divide the earth into 180 equal portions from north to south (or south to
north). The reference latitude is the equator and each hemisphere is divided into
ninety equal portions, each representing one degree of latitude.

In the northern hemisphere

degrees of latitude are
measured from zero at the
equator to ninety at the
north pole. In the southern
hemisphere degrees of
latitude are measured from
zero at the equator to ninety
degrees at the south
pole. To simplify the
digitization of maps,
degrees of latitude in the
southern hemisphere are
often assigned negative
values (0 to -90°).
Wherever you are on the
earth’s surface, the distance
between lines of latitude is
the same (60 nautical
miles,), so they conform to
the uniform grid criterion
assigned to a useful grid
system.

Lines of longitude, on the other hand, do not stand up so well to the standard of
uniformity. Lines of longitude run perpendicular to the equator and converge at
the poles. The reference line of longitude (the prime meridian) runs from the
north pole to the south pole through Greenwich, England. Subsequent lines of
longitude are measured from zero to 180 degrees east or west (values west of
the prime meridian are assigned negative values for use in digital mapping
applications) of the prime meridian.

At the equator, and only at the equator the distance represented by one line of
longitude is equal to the distance represented by one degree of latitude. As you
move towards the poles, the distance between lines of longitude becomes
progressively less until, at the exact location of the pole, all 360° of longitude
are represented by a single point you could put your finger on (you probably
would want to wear gloves, though). So, using the geographic coordinate
system, we have a grid of lines dividing the earth into squares that cover
approximately 4,773.5 square miles at the equator…a good start, but not very
useful for determining the location of anything within that square.
 To be truly useful, a map grid
must divided into small enough
sections that they can be used
to describe with an acceptable
level of accuracy the location of
a point on the map. To
accomplish this, degrees are
divided into minutes (') and
seconds ("). There are sixty
minutes in a degree, and sixty
seconds in a minute (3600
seconds in a degree). So, at
the equator, one second of
latitude or longitude = 101.3
feet.

An alternative method of
notation in the geographic
coordinate system, often used
for many GIS applications
(Geographic Information
Systems, or GIS, is discussed
in detail in another exercise), is
the decimal degree system. In
the decimal degree system the
major (degree) units are the
same, but rather than using
minutes and seconds, smaller
increments are represented as
a percentage (decimal) of a
degree.

The decimals can be carried

out to four places, resulting in a
notation of DD.XXXX,
DDD.XXX. When using four
decimal places, the decimal
degree system is accurate to
within ± 36.5 feet (11.12 m).
However, because the accuracy of the fourth decimal place is often uncertain,
decimal degree coordinates are often rounded to three decimal places. This
results in an accuracy of ± 364.8 feet (111.2 m). To give you an example of how
the two systems of measurement compare, the location of Red Hill on the ISU
campus expressed using minutes and seconds is 42°51’36" N, 112°25’45" W.
Using decimal degree notation this same location is written as 42.8600° N, -
112.4292° W. Perhaps you have noticed that, despite its common usage, the
geographic coordinate system is not very easy to use.

To demonstrate this, find a topographic map (or any other map that uses the
geographic coordinate system), pick a point on that map, and describe it in terms
of degrees, minutes and seconds. When you’re done with that, try it using
decimal degrees. Besides the fact that the grid on a map using the geographic
referencing system is not constant from north to south, it is also just not very easy
to use. Fortunately, both problems are solved to some extent by using the
Universal Transverse Mercator coordinate system, which will be covered next.
 UTM - Universal Transverse Mercator Geographic
Coordinate System
The idea of the transverse mercator projection has its roots in the 18th century,
but it did not come into common usage until after World War II. It has become
the most used because it allows precise measurements in meters to within 1
meter.

A mercator projection is a ‘pseudocylindrical’ conformal projection (it preserves

shape). What you often see on poster-size maps of the world is an equatorial
mercator projection that has relatively little distortion along the equator, but
quite a bit of distortion toward the poles.

What a transverse mercator projection does, in effect, is orient

the ‘equator’ north-south (through the poles), thus providing a
north-south oriented swath of little distortion. By changing
slightly the orientation of the cylinder onto which the map is
projected, successive swaths of relatively undistorted regions
can be created.

This is exactly
what the UTM
system does. Each
of these swaths is
called a UTM zone
and is six degrees
of longitude wide.
The first zone
begins at the
International Date
Line (180°, using
the geographic
coordinate
system). The
zones are
numbered from
west to east, so
zone 2 begins at
174°W and
extends to 168°W. The last zone (zone 60) begins at 174°E and extends to the
International Date Line.
The zones are then further subdivided into an eastern and western half by
drawing a line, representing a transverse mercator projection, down the middle
of the zone. This line is known as the ‘central meridian’ and is the only line
within the zone that can be drawn between the poles and be perpendicular to
the equator (in other words, it is the new ‘equator’ for the projection and suffers
the least amount of distortion). For this reason, vertical grid lines in the UTM
system are oriented parallel to the central meridian. The central meridian is
also used in setting up the origin for the grid system.

Any point can then be described by its

distance east of the origin (its ‘easting’
value). By definition the Central
Meridian is assigned a false easting of
500,000 meters. Any easting value
greater than 500,000 meters indicates a
point east of the central meridian. Any
easting value less than 500,000 meters
indicates a point west of the central
meridian. Distances (and locations) in
the UTM system are measured in
meters, and each UTM zone has its
own origin for east-west measurements.

To eliminate the necessity for using

negative numbers to describe a
location, the east-west origin is placed
500,000 meters west of the central
meridian. This is referred to as the zone’s ‘false origin’. The zone doesn't
extend all the way to the false origin.
The origin for north-south values depends on whether you are in the northern
or southern hemisphere. In the northern hemisphere, the origin is the equator
and all distances north (or ‘northings’) are measured from the equator. In the
southern hemisphere the origin is the south pole and all northings are
measured from there. Once again, having separate origins for the northern
and southern hemispheres eliminates the need for any negative values. The
average circumference of the earth is 40,030,173 meters, meaning that there
are 10,007,543 meters of northing in each hemisphere.
UTM coordinates are typically given with the zone first, then the easting,
then the northing. So, in UTM coordinates, Red Hill is located in zone
twelve at 328204 E (easting), 4746040 N (northing). Based on this, you
know that you are west of the central meridian in zone twelve and just under
halfway between the equator and the north pole. The UTM system may
seem a bit confusing at first, mostly because many people have never
heard of it, let alone used it. Once you’ve used it for a little while, however,
it becomes an extremely fast and efficient means of finding exact locations
and approximating locations on a map.

Many topographic maps published in recent years use the UTM coordinate
system as the primary grids on the map. On older topographic maps
published in the United States, UTM grids are shown along the edges of the
map as small blue ticks.
 . . . Public Land Survey System . . .
The final grid system discussed here is the public land survey system
(PLSS). Although the geographic, UTM, state plane, and PLSS coordinate systems
are the most common, there are other coordinate systems in use today. The public
land survey system is most often used on topographic maps published in the
United States and has its roots in the early surveys of North America in the 1700s.
The PLSS system differs from the coordinate systems described above in that it is
more descriptive, and relies less on absolute measurements of location. It is useful
in that it is a good way to give a quick approximation of a location, but the main
drawback is its lack of accuracy.

In each state*,
early surveyors
established a
principal
meridian running
north-south, and
a base line
running east-
west. These
initial survey
lines served as a
basis for
subsequent
survey lines
spaced at 24
mile intervals
along the
eastern,
western, and
southern
boundaries.

(Why not the

northern boundary
as well? hint: Think
of the relationship
between latitude
and longitude).

Further
subdivision of
these ‘squares’
led to the
creation of 16
smaller squares
measuring six
miles on a side
(see thediagram,
hopefully it will
clear this up).

When measuring in a north-south direction, each of these squares is called a

township (in some localities a township is referred to as a tier). When measuring in
an east-west direction, each of these squares is called a range. So, a 36 square
mile area located between six and twelve miles east of the principal meridian and
twelve to eighteen miles north of the base line would be called township (or tier)
three north, range two east (written as T3N., R2E). Each township (tier) is further
subdivided into 36 smaller squares covering roughly 1 square mile.
These areas are called sections and are numbered within a township from
the upper right to the lower right in an alternating manner (1 to 6 are
numbered from right to left, 7 to 12 from left to right, etc.). These one
mile squares are the smallest formal subdivision in the PLS system. But
to describe a location the squares are quartered, and then the quarters
are quartered again, as shown below. The location of the star in the
figure above would be described as the southeast quarter of the
southeast quarter of the northeast quarter, section thirteen, township two
south, range two west. The shorthand for this is: SE1/4, SE1/4, NE1/4,
sec. 13, T2S., R2W.