Measure theory[edit]

Classical measure theory is fundamentally non-constructive, since the classical definition

of Lebesgue measure does not describe any way to compute the measure of a set or the
integral of a function. In fact, if one thinks of a function just as a rule that "inputs a real
number and outputs a real number" then there cannot be any algorithm to compute the
integral of a function, since any algorithm would only be able to call finitely many values of
the function at a time, and finitely many values are not enough to compute the integral to any
nontrivial accuracy. The solution to this conundrum, carried out first in Bishop's 1967 book, is
to consider only functions that are written as the pointwise limit of continuous functions (with
known modulus of continuity), with information about the rate of convergence. An advantage
of constructivizing measure theory is that if one can prove that a set is constructively of full
measure, then there is an algorithm for finding a point in that set (again see Bishop's book).
For example, this approach can be used to construct a real number that is normal to every
base.

The place of constructivism in mathematics[edit]

Traditionally, some mathematicians have been suspicious, if not antagonistic, towards
mathematical constructivism, largely because of limitations they believed it to pose for
constructive analysis. These views were forcefully expressed by David Hilbert in 1928, when
he wrote in Grundlagen der Mathematik, "Taking the principle of excluded middle from the
mathematician would be the same, say, as proscribing the telescope to the astronomer or to
the boxer the use of his fists".[3]
Errett Bishop, in his 1967 work Foundations of Constructive Analysis, worked to dispel these
fears by developing a great deal of traditional analysis in a constructive framework.
Even though most mathematicians do not accept the constructivist's thesis, that only
mathematics done based on constructive methods is sound, constructive methods are
increasingly of interest on non-ideological grounds. For example, constructive proofs in
analysis may ensure witness extraction, in such a way that working within the constraints of
the constructive methods may make finding witnesses to theories easier than using classical
methods. Applications for constructive mathematics have also been found in typed lambda
calculi, topos theory and categorical logic, which are notable subjects in foundational
mathematics and computer science. In algebra, for such entities as toposes and Hopf
algebras, the structure supports an internal language that is a constructive theory; working
within the constraints of that language is often more intuitive and flexible than working
externally by such means as reasoning about the set of possible concrete algebras and
their homomorphisms.
Physicist Lee Smolin writes in Three Roads to Quantum Gravity that topos theory is "the
right form of logic for cosmology" (page 30) and "In its first forms it was called 'intuitionistic
logic'" (page 31). "In this kind of logic, the statements an observer can make about the
universe are divided into at least three groups: those that we can judge to be true, those that
we can judge to be false and those whose truth we cannot decide upon at the present time"
(page 28).
Bib
Biography[edit]
Early in his career, Brouwer proved a number of theorems that were in the emerging field of
topology. The main results were his fixed point theorem, the topological invariance of degree,
and the topological invariance of dimension. The most popular of the three among
mathematicians is the first one called the Brouwer Fixed Point Theorem. It is a simple
corollary to the second, about the topological invariance of degree, and this one is the most
popular among algebraic topologists. The third is perhaps the hardest.
Brouwer also proved the simplicial approximation theorem in the foundations of algebraic
topology, which justifies the reduction to combinatorial terms, after sufficient subdivision
of simplicial complexes, of the treatment of general continuous mappings. In 1912, at age 31,
he was elected a member of the Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences.[6] He was
an Invited Speaker of the ICM in 1908 at Rome[7] and in 1912 at Cambridge, UK.[8]
Brouwer in effect founded the mathematical philosophy of intuitionism as an opponent to the
then-prevailing formalism of David Hilbert and his collaborators Paul Bernays, Wilhelm
Ackermann, John von Neumann and others (cf. Kleene (1952), p. 46–59). As a variety
of constructive mathematics, intuitionism is essentially a philosophy of the foundations of
mathematics.[9] It is sometimes and rather simplistically characterized by saying that its
adherents refuse to use the law of excluded middle in mathematical reasoning.
Brouwer was a member of the Significs Group. It formed part of the early history
of semiotics—the study of symbols—around Victoria, Lady Welby in particular. The original
meaning of his intuitionism probably can not be completely disentangled from the intellectual
milieu of that group.
In 1905, at the age of 24, Brouwer expressed his philosophy of life in a short tract Life, Art
and Mysticism described by Davis as "drenched in romantic pessimism" (Davis (2002),
p. 94). Arthur Schopenhauer had a formative influence on Brouwer, not least because he
insisted that all concepts be fundamentally based on sense intuitions.[10][11][12] Brouwer then
"embarked on a self-righteous campaign to reconstruct mathematical practice from the
ground up so as to satisfy his philosophical convictions"; indeed his thesis advisor refused to
accept his Chapter II "as it stands, ... all interwoven with some kind of pessimism and
mystical attitude to life which is not mathematics, nor has anything to do with the foundations
of mathematics" (Davis, p. 94 quoting van Stigt, p. 41). Nevertheless, in 1908:

liography[edit]
In English translation[edit]

 Jean van Heijenoort, 1967 3rd printing 1976 with corrections, A Source Book in
Mathematical Logic, 1879-1931. Harvard University Press, Cambridge MA, ISBN 0-674-
32449-8 pbk. The original papers are prefaced with valuable commentary.
 1923. L. E. J. Brouwer: "On the significance of the principle of excluded middle in
mathematics, especially in function theory." With two Addenda and corrigenda, 334-
45. Brouwer gives brief synopsis of his belief that the law of excluded middle cannot
 be "applied without reservation even in the mathematics of infinite systems" and
gives two examples of failures to illustrate his assertion.
 1925. A. N. Kolmogorov: "On the principle of excluded middle", pp. 414–437.
Kolmogorov supports most of Brouwer's results but disputes a few; he discusses the
ramifications of intuitionism with respect to "transfinite judgements", e.g. transfinite
induction.
 1927. L. E. J. Brouwer: "On the domains of definition of functions". Brouwer's
intuitionistic treatment of the continuum, with an extended commentary.
 1927. David Hilbert: "The foundations of mathematics," 464-80
 1927. L. E. J. Brouwer: "Intuitionistic reflections on formalism," 490-92. Brouwer lists
four topics on which intuitionism and formalism might "enter into a dialogue." Three
of the topics involve the law of excluded middle.
 1927. Hermann Weyl: "Comments on Hilbert's second lecture on the foundations of
mathematics," 480-484. In 1920 Weyl, Hilbert's prize pupil, sided with Brouwer
against Hilbert. But in this address Weyl "while defending Brouwer against some of
Hilbert's criticisms...attempts to bring out the significance of Hilbert's approach to the
problems of the foundations of mathematics."
 Ewald, William B., ed., 1996. From Kant to Hilbert: A Source Book in the Foundations of
Mathematics, 2 vols. Oxford Univ. Press.
 1928. "Mathematics, science, and language," 1170-85.
 1928. "The structure of the continuum," 1186-96.
 1952. "Historical background, principles, and methods of intuitionism," 1197-1207.
 Brouwer, L. E. J., Collected Works, Vol. I, Amsterdam: North-Holland, 1975.[14]
 Brouwer, L. E. J., Collected Works, Vol. II, Amsterdam: North-Holland, 1976.
 Brouwer, L. E. J., "Life, Art, and Mysticism," Notre Dame Journal of Formal Logic, vol. 37
(1996), pp. 389–429. Translated by W. P. van Stigt with an introduction by the translator,
pp. 381–87. Davis quotes from this work, "a short book... drenched in romantic
pessimism" (p. 94).
 W. P. van Stigt, 1990, Brouwer's Intuitionism, Amsterdam: North-Holland, 1990

efinitions of mathematics
Main article: Definitions of mathematics
Leonardo Fibonacci, the Italian mathematician who introduced the Hindu–Arabic
numeral system invented between the 1st and 4th centuries by Indian
mathematicians, to the Western World
Aristotle defined mathematics as "the science of quantity", and this
definition prevailed until the 18th century.[27] Starting in the
19th century, when the study of mathematics increased in rigor and
began to address abstract topics such as group theory and projective
geometry, which have no clear-cut relation to quantity and
measurement, mathematicians and philosophers began to propose a
variety of new definitions.[28] Some of these definitions emphasize the
deductive character of much of mathematics, some emphasize its
abstractness, some emphasize certain topics within mathematics.
Today, no consensus on the definition of mathematics prevails, even
among professionals.[6] There is not even consensus on whether
mathematics is an art or a science.[7] A great many professional
mathematicians take no interest in a definition of mathematics, or
consider it undefinable.[6] Some just say, "Mathematics is what
mathematicians do."[6]
Three leading types of definition of mathematics are called logicist,
intuitionist, and formalist, each reflecting a different philosophical
school of thought.[29] All have severe problems, none has widespread
acceptance, and no reconciliation seems possible.[29]
An early definition of mathematics in terms of logic was Benjamin
Peirce's "the science that draws necessary conclusions" (1870).[30] In
the Principia Mathematica, Bertrand Russell and Alfred North
Whitehead advanced the philosophical program known as logicism,
and attempted to prove that all mathematical concepts, statements,
and principles can be defined and proved entirely in terms of
symbolic logic. A logicist definition of mathematics is Russell's "All
Mathematics is Symbolic Logic" (1903).[31]
Intuitionist definitions, developing from the philosophy of
mathematician L.E.J. Brouwer, identify mathematics with certain
mental phenomena. An example of an intuitionist definition is
"Mathematics is the mental activity which consists in carrying out
constructs one after the other."[29] A peculiarity of intuitionism is that it
rejects some mathematical ideas considered valid according to other
definitions. In particular, while other philosophies of mathematics
allow objects that can be proved to exist even though they cannot be
constructed, intuitionism allows only mathematical objects that one
can actually construct.
Formalist definitions identify mathematics with its symbols and the
rules for operating on them. Haskell Curry defined mathematics
simply as "the science of formal systems".[32] A formal system is a set
of symbols, or tokens, and some rules telling how the tokens may be
combined into formulas. In formal systems, the word axiom has a
special meaning, different from the ordinary meaning of "a self-
evident truth". In formal systems, an axiom is a combination of tokens
that is included in a given formal system without needing to be
derived using the rules of the system
efinitions of mathematics
Main article: Definitions of mathematics
Greek mathematician Pythagoras (c. 570 BC – c. 495 BC), commonly credited
with discovering the Pythagorean theorem
Mayan numerals
As evidenced by tallies found on bone, in addition to recognizing how
to count physical objects, prehistoric peoples may have also
recognized how to count abstract quantities, like time – days,
seasons, years.[18]
Evidence for more complex mathematics does not appear until
around 3000 BC, when the Babylonians and Egyptians began using
arithmetic, algebra and geometry for taxation and other financial
calculations, for building and construction, and for astronomy.[19] The
earliest uses of mathematics were in trading, land measurement,
painting and weaving patterns and the recording of time.
In Babylonian mathematics, elementary arithmetic (addition,
subtraction, multiplication and division) first appears in the
archaeological record. Numeracy pre-dated writing and numeral
systems have been many and diverse, with the first known written
numerals created by Egyptians in Middle Kingdom texts such as the
Rhind Mathematical Papyrus.[citation needed]
Between 600 and 300 BC the Ancient Greeks began a systematic
study of mathematics in its own right with Greek mathematics.[20]
 Persian mathematician Al-Khwarizmi (c. 780 – c. 850), the inventor of algebra.
During the Golden Age of Islam, especially during the 9th and
10th centuries, mathematics saw many important innovations building
on Greek mathematics: most of them include the contributions from
Persian mathematicians such as Al-Khwarismi, Omar Khayyam and
Sharaf al-Dīn al-Ṭūsī.
Mathematics has since been greatly extended, and there has been a
fruitful interaction between mathematics and science, to the benefit of
both. Mathematical discoveries continue to be made today. According
to Mikhail B. Sevryuk, in the January 2006 issue of the Bulletin of the
American Mathematical Society, "The number of papers and books
included in the Mathematical Reviews database since 1940 (the first
year of operation of MR) is now more than 1.9 million, and more than
75 thousand items are added to the database each year. The
overwhelming majority of works in this ocean contain new
mathematical theorems and their proofs."[21]
Etymology
The word mathematics comes from Ancient Greek μάθημα
(máthēma), meaning "that which is learnt",[22] "what one gets to know",
hence also "study" and "science". The word for "mathematics" came
to have the narrower and more technical meaning "mathematical
study" even in Classical times.[23] Its adjective is μαθηματικός
(mathēmatikós), meaning "related to learning" or "studious", which
likewise further came to mean "mathematical". In particular,
μαθηματικὴ τέχνη (mathēmatikḗ tékhnē), Latin: ars mathematica,
meant "the mathematical art".
Similarly, one of the two main schools of thought in Pythagoreanism
was known as the mathēmatikoi (μαθηματικοί)—which at the time
meant "teachers" rather than "mathematicians" in the modern sense.
In Latin, and in English until around 1700, the term mathematics more
commonly meant "astrology" (or sometimes "astronomy") rather than
"mathematics"; the meaning gradually changed to its present one
from about 1500 to 1800. This has resulted in several mistranslations.
For example, Saint Augustine's warning that Christians should
beware of mathematici, meaning astrologers, is sometimes
mistranslated as a condemnation of mathematicians.[24]
The apparent plural form in English, like the French plural form les
mathématiques (and the less commonly used singular derivative la
mathématique), goes back to the Latin neuter plural mathematica
(Cicero), based on the Greek plural τα μαθηματικά (ta mathēmatiká),
used by Aristotle (384–322 BC), and meaning roughly "all things
mathematical"; although it is plausible that English borrowed only the
adjective mathematic(al) and formed the noun mathematics anew,
after the pattern of physics and metaphysics, which were inherited
from Greek.[25] In English, the noun mathematics takes a singular
verb. It is often shortened to maths or, in English-speaking North
America, math.[26]

Mathematics (from Greek μάθημα máthēma, "knowledge, study, learning") is the study of
such topics as quantity,[1] structure,[2] space,[1] and change.[3][4][5] It has no generally
accepted definition.[6][7]
Mathematicians seek out patterns[8][9] and use them to formulate new conjectures.
Mathematicians resolve the truth or falsity of conjectures by mathematical proof. When
mathematical structures are good models of real phenomena, then mathematical reasoning
can provide insight or predictions about nature. Through the use of abstraction and logic,
mathematics developed from counting, calculation, measurement, and the systematic study
of the shapes and motions of physical objects. Practical mathematics has been a human
activity from as far back as written records exist. The research required to solve
mathematical problems can take years or even centuries of sustained inquiry.
Rigorous arguments first appeared in Greek mathematics, most notably in Euclid's Elements.
Since the pioneering work of Giuseppe Peano (1858–1932), David Hilbert (1862–1943), and
others on axiomatic systems in the late 19th century, it has become customary to view
mathematical research as establishing truth by rigorous deduction from appropriately
chosen axioms and definitions. Mathematics developed at a relatively slow pace until
the Renaissance, when mathematical innovations interacting with new scientific
discoveries led to a rapid increase in the rate of mathematical discovery that has continued
to the present day.[10]
Galileo Galilei (1564–1642) said, "The universe cannot be read until we have learned the
language and become familiar with the characters in which it is written. It is written in
mathematical language, and the letters are triangles, circles and other geometrical figures,
without which means it is humanly impossible to comprehend a single word. Without these,
one is wandering about in a dark labyrinth."[11] Carl Friedrich Gauss (1777–1855) referred to
mathematics as "the Queen of the Sciences".[12] Benjamin Peirce (1809–1880) called
mathematics "the science that draws necessary conclusions".[13] David Hilbert said of
mathematics: "We are not speaking here of arbitrariness in any sense. Mathematics is not
like a game whose tasks are determined by arbitrarily stipulated rules. Rather, it is a
conceptual system possessing internal necessity that can only be so and by no means
otherwise."[14] Albert Einstein (1879–1955) stated that "as far as the laws of mathematics
refer to reality, they are not certain; and as far as they are certain, they do not refer to
reality."[15]
Mathematics is essential in many fields, including natural science, engineering, medicine,
finance and the social sciences. Applied mathematics has led to entirely new mathematical
disciplines, such as statistics and game theory. Mathematicians also engage in pure
mathematics, or mathematics for its own sake, without having any application in mind. There
is no clear line separating pure and applied mathematics, and practical applications for what
began as pure mathematics are often discovered.[16]

The National Association of Biology Teachers (NABT) is an American-based scholarly

society.
NABT was formed in 1938 and incorporated in 1956. Their membership comprises
thousands of biology educators and administrators—representing all grade levels—from the
U.S. and abroad.[1] NABT also publishes the journal The American Biology Teacher nine
times a year. Subscriptions to the journal are available for institutions. Individuals may
purchase individual issues.[2]
NABT has a large number of sections, affiliations and committees that help to facilitate
networking and support. Some examples of these are:
4-Year College Section
2-Year College Section
AP Biology
Multicultural Affairs Section
International Section
Role & Status of Women in Biology Education
Retired Members Section
State and Province Affiliate
NABT BioClub
Outreach Coordinators & Informal Educators
NABT has been involved in several controversies over teaching of creationism in public
schools, including McLean v. Arkansas in 1982 and Kitzmiller v. Dover Area School
District in 2005.

Presidents[edit]
This is an incomplete list, for a complete list, please see List of National Association of
Biology Teachers presidents
Current President: Susan Finazzo

Past Presidents
2016: Bob Melton
2015: Jane Ellis
2014: Stacey Kiser
2013: Mark Little
2012: Don French
2011: Dan Ward
2010: Marion V. "Bunny" Jaskot
2009: John Moore
2008: Todd Carter
2007: Patricia Waller
2006: Toby M Horn

Structural
Main articles: Molecular biology, Cell biology, Genetics, and
Developmental biology

Schematic of typical animal cell depicting the various organelles and structures.
Molecular biology is the study of biology at the molecular level.[43] This
field overlaps with other areas of biology, particularly those of
genetics and biochemistry. Molecular biology is a study of the
interactions of the various systems within a cell, including the
interrelationships of DNA, RNA, and protein synthesis and how those
interactions are regulated.
The next larger scale, cell biology, studies the structural and
physiological properties of cells, including their internal behavior,
interactions with other cells, and with their environment. This is done
on both the microscopic and molecular levels, for unicellular
organisms such as bacteria, as well as the specialized cells of
multicellular organisms such as humans. Understanding the structure
and function of cells is fundamental to all of the biological sciences.
The similarities and differences between cell types are particularly
relevant to molecular biology.
Anatomy is a treatment of the macroscopic forms of such structures
organs and organ systems.[44]
Genetics is the science of genes, heredity, and the variation of
organisms.[45][46] Genes encode the information needed by cells for the
synthesis of proteins, which in turn play a central role in influencing
the final phenotype of the organism. Genetics provides research tools
used in the investigation of the function of a particular gene, or the
analysis of genetic interactions. Within organisms, genetic information
is physically represented as chromosomes, within which it is
represented by a particular sequence of amino acids in particular
DNA molecules.
Developmental biology studies the process by which organisms grow
and develop. Developmental biology, originated from embryology,
studies the genetic control of cell growth, cellular differentiation, and
"cellular morphogenesis," which is the process that progressively
gives rise to tissues, organs, and anatomy. Model organisms for
developmental biology include the round worm Caenorhabditis
elegans,[47] the fruit fly Drosophila melanogaster,[48] the zebrafish
Danio rerio,[49] the mouse Mus musculus,[50] and the weed Arabidopsis
thaliana.[51][52] (A model organism is a species that is extensively
studied to understand particular biological phenomena, with the
expectation that discoveries made in that organism provide insight
into the workings of other organisms.)[53]
Physiological
Main article: Physiology
Physiology is the study of the mechanical, physical, and biochemical
processes of living organisms function as a whole. The theme of
"structure to function" is central to biology. Physiological studies have
traditionally been divided into plant physiology and animal physiology,
but some principles of physiology are universal, no matter what
particular organism is being studied. For example, what is learned
about the physiology of yeast cells can also apply to human cells.
The field of animal physiology extends the tools and methods of
human physiology to non-human species. Plant physiology borrows
techniques from both research fields.
Physiology is the study the interaction of how, for example, the
nervous, immune, endocrine, respiratory, and circulatory systems,
function and interact. The study of these systems is shared with such
medically oriented disciplines as neurology and immunology.
Evolutionary
Evolutionary research is concerned with the origin and descent of
species, and their change over time. It employs scientists from many
taxonomically oriented disciplines, for example, those with special
training in particular organisms such as mammalogy, ornithology,
botany, or herpetology, but are of use in answering more general
questions about evolution.
Evolutionary biology is partly based on paleontology, which uses the
fossil record to answer questions about the mode and tempo of
evolution,[54] and partly on the developments in areas such as
population genetics.[55] In the 1980s, developmental biology re-
entered evolutionary biology after its initial exclusion from the modern
synthesis through the study of evolutionary developmental biology.[56]
Phylogenetics, systematics, and taxonomy are related fields often
considered part of evolutionary biology.

 Evolutionary biology – the study of the origin and descent of species over time
 Genetics – the study of genes and heredity.
 Epigenetics – the study of heritable changes in gene expression or cellular
phenotype caused by mechanisms other than changes in the underlying DNA
sequence
 Hematology (also known as Haematology) – the study of blood and blood-forming
organs.
 Integrative biology – the study of whole organisms
 Marine biology (or biological oceanography) – the study of ocean ecosystems, plants,
animals, and other living beings
 Microbiology – the study of microscopic organisms (microorganisms) and their
interactions with other living things
 Bacteriology – the study of bacteria
 Mycology – the study of fungi
 Parasitology – the study of parasites and parasitism
 Virology – the study of viruses and some other virus-like agents
 Molecular biology – the study of biology and biological functions at the molecular level,
some cross over with biochemistry
 Nanobiology – the study of how nanotechnology can be used in biology, and the study of
living organisms and parts on the nanoscale level of organization
 Neuroscience – the study of the nervous system
 Population biology – the study of groups of conspecific organisms, including
 Population ecology – the study of how population dynamics and extinction
 Population genetics – the study of changes in gene frequencies in populations of
organisms
 Paleontology – the study of fossils and sometimes geographic evidence of prehistoric life
 Pathobiology or pathology – the study of diseases, and the causes, processes, nature,
and development of disease
 Physiology – the study of the functioning of living organisms and the organs and parts of
living organisms
 Phytopathology – the study of plant diseases (also called Plant Pathology)
 Psychobiology – the study of the biological bases of psychology
 Radiobiology – study of the action of ionic radiation on living things.
 Quantum biology – the study of quantum mechanics to biological objects and problems.
 Sociobiology – the study of the biological bases of sociology
 Systems biology – the study complex interactions within biological systems through a
holistic approach
 Structural biology – a branch of molecular biology, biochemistry,
and biophysics concerned with the molecular structure of biological macromolecules
 Theoretical biology – the branch of biology that employs abstractions and mathematical
models to explain biological phenomena
 Zoology – the study of animals, including classification, physiology, development, and
behaviour, including:
 Ethology – the study of animal behaviour
 Entomology – the study of insects
 Herpetology – the study of reptiles and amphibians
 Ichthyology – the study of fish
 Mammalogy – the study of mammals
 Ornithology – the study of birds

A patient admitted to the hospital is usually under the care of a

specific team based on their main presenting problem, e.g., the
cardiology team, who then may interact with other specialties, e.g.,
surgical, radiology, to help diagnose or treat the main problem or any
subsequent complications/developments.
Physicians have many specializations and subspecializations into
certain branches of medicine, which are listed below. There are
variations from country to country regarding which specialties certain
subspecialties are in.
The main branches of medicine are:
• Basic sciences of medicine; this is what every physician is educated
in, and some return to in biomedical research
• Medical specialties
• Interdisciplinary fields, where different medical specialties are mixed
to function in certain occasions.
•