Boundary Losses

Let’s revisit Snell’s Law and investigate what happens to a sound wave incident upon a
boundary.

Using the figure below, we will try to determine how much of the sound energy of an
incident wave is actually reflected at the boundary. According to Snell’s Law,

cos θi cos θt Incident

= Wave
Reflected
c1 c2 Wave
ρ1,c1
θi θr
Additionally, we expect that the θt
incident angle and the reflected ρ2,c2
angle are the same. This follows Transmitted
logically from Snell’s Law as well Wave
since the speed of sound for the
incident and reflected waves are the same.

cos θi cos θr
= ⇒ θi = θr
c1 c1

Reflection Coefficient

The reflection coefficient expresses the ratio of the intensity of the reflected wave to the
intensity of the incident wave (Ir = RIi). In all cases we are referring to the time average of the
acoustic intensities and the rms acoustic pressures and particle velocities. The equation for the
reflection coefficient would be:

p 2r
I ρc p2
R = r = 1 2 1 = r2
Ii pi pi
ρ1c1

To figure out how much energy is reflected, we must examine the following boundary
conditions:

1) The pressure at the boundary is continuous.

2) The normal component of the velocity must also be continuous at the boundary.

6-1
 To say that a property is continuous means that it is the same on both sides of the
boundary. Let’s look at the first condition concerning the pressure. To state this condition in
equation format:

pi + p r = p t

Since both the incident and reflected wave are on the same side of the boundary, their rms
acoustic pressures added together must equal the rms acoustic pressure of the transmitted wave.

To satisfy the second condition, the component of the velocity normal to the boundary
must also be continuous at the boundary. An equation for this would be:

u i sin θi − u r sin θr = u t sin θt

The negative sign in the reflected term is because it is moving in the opposite direction as the
other two velocities.

We can relate the rms particle velocity to the rms acoustic pressure using the following
relationship:
p a = zu = ρcu

where z=ρc is the acoustic impedance of the medium. Thus:

pi p p
sin θi − r sin θr = t sin θt
ρ1c1 ρ1c1 ρ2 c 2

If we substitute in the value of transmitted acoustic pressure from the pressure boundary
condition we have,

pi p p + pr p p
sin θi − r sin θr = i sin θt = i sin θt + r sin θt
ρ1c1 ρ1c1 ρ2 c 2 ρ2 c 2 ρ2 c2

Remembering that the incident and reflected angles are the same, we will rearrange to bring
terms with reflected pressure and incident pressure on opposite sides of the equation.

pi p p p
sin θi − i sin θt = r sin θi + r sin θt
ρ1c1 ρ2 c 2 ρ1c1 ρ2 c 2

Rearranging,
pi ( ρ2c2 sin θi − ρ1c1 sin θt ) = pr ( ρ2c2 sin θi + ρ1c1 sin θ t )
Or,

6-2
 ⎛ ρ2 c1 ⎞
⎜ sin θi − sin θ t ⎟
p r ( ρ2 c 2 sin θi − ρ1c1 sin θt ) ⎝ ρ1 c2 ⎠
= =
pi ( ρ2 c 2 sin θi + ρ1c1 sin θt ) ⎛ ρ2 c1 ⎞
⎜ sin θi + sin θt ⎟
⎝ ρ1 c2 ⎠

Using this result, we can easily establish an expression for the Reflection Coefficient, R.

2
p 2 ⎡ m sin θi − n sin θt ⎤
R ( θi , θt ) = r2 = ⎢ ⎥
pi ⎣ m sin θi + n sin θt ⎦
ρ c
where m = 2 & n = 1
ρ1 c2

Notice that the subscripts are reversed in the equations for m and n. From this equation we can
see that the Reflection Coefficient is dependent upon not only the mediums on each side of the
boundary, but also the angle of incidence and the transmitted angle of the wave.

Further, we can express θt in terms of θi using Snell’s Law and some trigonometric identities.

cos θi cos θt
=
c1 c2
c2 cos θi
cos θt = cos θi =
c1 n
cos 2 θi
sin θt = 1 − cos 2 θt = 1 −
n2

A more useful expression for R then becomes:

2
⎡ m sin θ − n 2 − cos 2 θ ⎤
R ( θi ) = ⎢ i i
⎥
⎢⎣ m sin θi + n − cos θi
2 2
⎥⎦

where m and n are as expressed earlier.

Normal Incidence

A useful case to study is when the incident wave arrives at an angle of 90° or normal to
the boundary surface. Substituting θi = 90°, we get the following for the reflection coefficient:

6-3
 ⎛m−n ⎞
2

R =⎜ ⎟
⎝m+n ⎠

dB Loss

A logical definition for the loss at a boundary is to subtract the reflected level from the
incident level in dB. Applying the definition of the decibel level and the rules for subtraction,

⎛I ⎞ ⎛ I ref ⎞ ⎛ Iin ⎞ ⎛ I ref ⎞

dBloss = Lin − L ref = 10 log ⎜ in ⎟ − 10 log ⎜ ⎟ = 10 log ⎜ ⎟ = −10 log ⎜ ⎟ = −10 log ( R )
⎝ Io ⎠ ⎝ Io ⎠ ⎝ I ref ⎠ ⎝ Iin ⎠

Total Reflection

One special case is when there is total reflection (R=1). This occurs when the incident
angle is less than a special angle called the critical angle. For there to be a critical angle, the
speed of sound in the incident medium MUST BE less than the speed of sound in the second
medium or:

c1
<1
c2

If this condition exists, the critical incident angle can be calculated using Snell’s Law and letting
the transmitted angle go to its minimum possible value of zero:

⎛c ⎞
θc = cos −1 ⎜ 1 ⎟
⎝ c2 ⎠

Transmission Coefficient

We will define the Transmission Coefficient in a manner consistent with the Reflection
Coefficient.
p 2t
I t ρ2 c 2 ρ1c1 p 2t n p 2t
T= = 2 = =
Ii pi ρ2 c 2 pi2 m pi2
ρ1c1

The Transmission Coefficient can be easily derived if we take a look at the rate at which
energy of the wave crosses the boundary. Since the energy of the incident wave must be
conserved, it must equal the energy in the reflected plus transmitted wave. To express this in
terms of an equation:

6-4
 Ii = I t + I r or,
I t Ir
1= +
Ii Ii
1= T + R
thus,
T ( θi ) = 1 − R ( θi )

Rather than establishing a separate equation for the transmission coefficient, we will generally
first calculate the reflection coefficient using the equation above and then solve for the
transmission coefficient by subtracting the reflection coefficient from one.

dB loss on transmission across a boundary would be defined similar to that for the dB
loss on reflection.

⎛I ⎞ ⎛ I trans ⎞ ⎛ Iin ⎞ ⎛ I trans ⎞

dBloss = Lin − L trans = 10 log ⎜ in ⎟ − 10 log ⎜ ⎟ = 10 log ⎜ ⎟ = −10 log ⎜ ⎟ = −10 log ( T )
⎝ Io ⎠ ⎝ Io ⎠ ⎝ I trans ⎠ ⎝ Iin ⎠

Angle of Intromission

One special case for the Transmission Coefficient is when the Transmission Coefficient
equals one (T(θi)=1) and there is complete transmission of the incident wave and none of the
energy is reflected. This occurs only at one angle (if it occurs at all) and that angle is referred to
as the angle of intromission, θb. Using the equation for Reflection Coefficient when R = 0, and
solving for the angle, we find:

⎡
θb = cos ⎢ −1 ( m − n ) ⎤⎥
2 2

⎢
⎣
( m − 1) ⎥⎦
2

(Note that the quantity

(m − n )
2 2

must be positive and less than 1 for the angle to exist. This is
( m − 1) 2

a rare case for most acoustics problems.)

Example

An example to illustrate how each of the coefficients vary as a function of angle is

shown. For this example we will use m = 0.65, n = 0.98 and plot the Reflection Coefficient and
Transmission Coefficient as a function of the angle of incidence (θi).

6-5
 Reflection and Transmission
1
0.8
Coefficent

0.6 R
0.4 T
Angle of Intromission (θb)
0.2
0
theta
Critical Angle 0.38 0.78 1.18 1.58
Angle (radians)
If we solve for the critical angle and angle of intromission we find:

θc = cos −1 ( n )
θc = 0.20 radians or,
θc = 11.5°

and

⎡ ( m2 − n 2 ) ⎤
θb = cos ⎢
−1 ⎥
⎢ ( m 2 − 1) ⎥
⎣ ⎦
θb = 0.26 radians or,
θb = 15.2°

as seen on the plot above. Also of interest to note is that the Reflection Coefficient is equal to 1
below the critical angle, θc, but the Transmission Coefficient is equal to 1 only at the angle of
intromission.

6-6
Reflection from a Rough Surface

This entire discussion has assumed reflection from a sound ray bouncing off a smooth
surface. This is called “specular reflection.” Often the boundary is not smooth as in the case of
a coral filled or rocky ocean floor, or a wind blown wave filled surface. In this case sound
comes of the surface at various angles and the result is referred to as scattering.

Some of the energy comes back in the direction toward the source of the incident sound and is
called backscattering. In the operation of an active sonar system this backscattering results in the
reception of unwanted sound which tends to mask the target echo. This unwanted sound is
called “surface reverberation.”

6-7
Problems

1. Given m = 0.5 and n = 0.7, determine:

a) The angle of intromission if it exists.

b) The critical angle if it exists.
c) Sketch a plot of the reflection (dashed line) and transmission coefficients (solid line) as
functions of angle from 0o ≤ θ ≤ 90o . Also compute R(90o) and T(90o).

Amplitude

0
θ
15 30 45 60 75 90

d) Using your graph above, if Ii = 0.2 W/m2, determine Ir and It if:

i) θ1 ≤ θ c ?
ii) θ1 = θ b ?
iii) θ1 = 90o ?

2. An SH-60F produces noise with an intensity of 750 KW/m2 in a hover just above a glassy
smooth sea. Given c1 = 343 m/s, ρ1=1.2 kg/m3, c2 = 1500 m/s, and ρ2 = 1000 kg/m3,
determine the level of sound transmitted underwater in dB re 1 µPa (strikes sea surface θ1 =
90o).

3. If the transmitter is positioned at an angle where the reflection coefficient is 0.57, determine
the intensity of a sound wave immediately below the surface of the sand if the incident
intensity is 75 W/m2.

4. For a sound wave in water incident onto a specially coated material,

m = 0.85
n = 0.95
Sketch a plot of R = Ir/Ii and T = It/Ii as a function of θ from 0o to 90o. (note that T = 1 – I)

6-8
5. Given the following data for the sediments in the Arctic Ocean bottom and for sea water near
the bottom:
Density Sound Speed
Sea Water 1050 kg/m3 1520 m/s
3
Artic Bottom 1300 kg/m 1440 m/s

a) For a plane acoustic wave incident on the bottom from the water, is there a critical angle?
If so, calculate it.
b) Is there an angle of intromission? If so, calculate it.
c) Express the reflection loss in dB (assume normal incidence). The db loss would be found
from 10 log (R).
d) Sketch a plot of R = Ir/Ii and T = It/Ii as a function of θ from 0o to 90o.
(note that T = 1 – I)

6. A plane sound wave is incident normally from air onto a smoth ocean surface. Given the
following data:
Density Sound Speed
3
Air 1.20 kg/m 350 m/s
Artic Bottom 1000 kg/m3 1500 m/s

a) If the intensity of sound in air is 10-2 W/m2 incident normal to the air-water interface,
what is the intensity of the sound in the water just below the surface?
b) What is the level in dB re 1 µPa below the surface?

6-9
Lesson 6

Transmission and Reflection Reflection Coefficient

θi = θ r
Incident Wave Incident Wave
Reflected Wave Reflected Wave

ρ1,c1
p 2r
ρ1,c1
θi θr
θi θr I r ρ1c1 p r2
R= = 2 = 2
θt Ii pi pi
θt ρ2,c2
ρ2,c2 ρ1c1
Transmitted Transmitted
Wave Wave

cos θi cos θ t
=
c1 c2

Boundary Conditions Reflection Coefficient

• The pressure at Incident
Reflected
p 2r ⎡ m sin θi − n sin θ t ⎤
2

R (θi ,θ t ) =
Wave
Wave =⎢ ⎥
the boundary is Incident Wave
Reflected Wave
pi2 ⎣ m sin θi + n sin θ t ⎦
ρ1,c1
continuous. θi θr
where m =
ρ2
& n=
c1
θt ρ1 c2
• The normal ρ2,c2 θi θr
ρ1,c1

component of the Transmitted

θt
Snell’s Law
Wave ρ2,c2
velocity must
also be pi + p r = pt Transmitted
Wave ⎡ m sin θ − n 2 − cos 2 θ ⎤
2

continuous at the R (θ i ) = ⎢ i i
⎥
u i sin θ i − u r sin θ r = u t sin θ t ⎣⎢ m sin θi + n − cos θi ⎥⎦
2 2
boundary.

Normal Incidence Critical Angle

2
⎡ m sin θ − n 2 − cos 2 θ ⎤
Reflected Wave R (θi ) = ⎢ i i
⎥
⎣⎢ m sin θi + n − cos θi ⎥⎦
Incident Wave 2 2 Incident Wave
Reflected Wave
c1
<1
ρ1,c1 ρ1,c1 c2
⎛m−n⎞
2
θi θr θi θr
R=⎜ ⎟
θt
ρ2,c2 ⎝m+n⎠ θt
ρ2,c2 ⎛ c1 ⎞
θ c = cos −1 ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
⎝ c2 ⎠
Transmitted Transmitted
Wave ρ2 c Wave
m= & n= 1
ρ1 c2

Incident Angles less than the critical angle cannot have a transmitted wave

1
Lesson 6

Transmission Coefficient Angle of Intromission

p 2t
I t ρ 2 c2 ρ1c1 p 2t n p 2t
T= = 2 = =
Incident Wave
Reflected Wave
Ii pi
ρ1c1
ρ2 c 2 pi2 m pi2
Incident Wave
T =1
Reflected Wave
2
⎡ m sin θ − n 2 − cos 2 θ ⎤
ρ1,c1 R (θi ) = ⎢ i i
⎥ =0
θi θr Ii = I t + I r or, θi θr
ρ1,c1
⎣⎢ m sin θi + n − cos θi ⎥⎦
2 2

θt It Ir
1= +
ρ2,c2
Ii Ii
θt
ρ2,c2
θ b = cos −1 ⎢
⎡ (m − n ) ⎤⎥
2 2

Transmitted
Wave 1= T + R Transmitted ⎣⎢ (m − 1) ⎦⎥
2

Wave
thus,
ρ2 c ρ2 c
m= & n= 1 T (θi ) = 1 − R (θi ) m= & n= 1
ρ1 c2 ρ1 c2

Example: m = 0.65, n = 0.98 Non-specular Reflection

Re fle ction and Transmission
1
0.8
Co efficen t

0.6 R
0.4 Angle of Intromission (θb) T
0.2
0
Backscattering
Critical Angle theta 0.38 0.78 1.18 1.58 Reverberation
Angle (radians)

Find the critical angle and the angle of intromission

Summary
2
⎡ m sin θ − n 2 − cos 2 θ ⎤
θi = θ r R (θ i ) = ⎢ i i
⎥
⎣⎢ m sin θ i + n − cos θi ⎥⎦
2 2

⎛m−n⎞
Incident Wave 2
Reflected Wave
R=⎜ ⎟ Backup Slides
ρ1,c1 ⎝m+n⎠
θi θr

θt
1= T + R
ρ2,c2

ρ2 ⎛ c1 ⎞
θ c = cos −1 ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
c
m= & n= 1 Transmitted
ρ1 c2 Wave
⎝ c2 ⎠
cos θi cos θ t ⎡ (m − n ) ⎤⎥
= θ b = cos −1 ⎢
2 2

c1 c2 ⎣⎢ (m − 1) ⎦⎥
2

2
Lesson 6

p a = zu = ρ cu

pi pr pt
sin θi − sin θ r = sin θ t cos θ i cos θ t
ρ1c1 ρ1c1 ρ 2c2 =
c1 c2
pi pr pi + p r p p
sin θi − sin θ r = sin θ t = i sin θ t + r sin θ t
ρ1c1 ρ1c1 ρ 2 c2 ρ 2c2 ρ2c2
c2 cos θ i
pi pi pr pr cos θ t = cos θ i =
sin θ i − sin θ t = sin θ i + sin θ t c1 n
ρ1c1 ρ 2c2 ρ1c1 ρ2c2

pi ( ρ 2c2 sin θi − ρ1c1 sin θ t ) = p r ( ρ 2c2 sin θi + ρ1c1 sin θ t )

cos 2 θi
sin θ t = 1 − cos 2 θ t = 1 −
⎛ ρ2 c1 ⎞ n2
⎜ sin θi − sin θ t ⎟
p r ( ρ 2 c 2 sin θ i − ρ1c1 sin θ t ) ⎝ ρ1 c2 ⎠
= =
pi ( ρ 2 c 2 sin θi + ρ1c1 sin θ t ) ⎛ ρ 2 c1 ⎞
⎜ sin θ i + sin θ t ⎟
ρ
⎝ 1 c 2 ⎠

2
⎡ m sin θ − n 2 − cos 2 θ ⎤
R (θi ) = ⎢ i i
⎥ =0
⎣⎢ m sin θi + n − cos θi ⎥⎦
2 2

m sin θi − n 2 − cos 2 θ i = 0

m 2 sin 2 θi − n 2 + cos 2 θi = m 2 (1 − cos 2 θ i ) − n 2 + cos 2 θi = 0

m 2 − m 2 cos 2 θ i − n 2 + cos 2 θi = m 2 − n 2 + (1 − m 2 ) cos 2 θi = 0

m 2 − n 2 = ( m 2 − 1) cos 2 θi

m2 − n 2
cos 2 θi =
m2 − 1