Chapter 7.

Myoglobin and Hemoglobin, Muscle

contraction, and Antibodies Notes
Myoglobin and hemoglobin are globular proteins involved in oxygen storage and
transport. Myoglobin, whose primary role is to facilitate oxygen transport in muscle (and,
in aquatic mammals, to store oxygen), binds oxygen with a simple equilibrium constant.
Myoglobin has 153 residues, 8 helices, heme with iron Fe (II) atom at the center, His F8
is the fifth ligand, o2 or CO represent the sixth ligand. Hemoglobin transports oxygen,
first binding oxygen in the capillaries of the lungs (or gills or skin), where oxygen
concentrations are high, and then releasing the oxygen in the capillaries of the tissues,
where the oxygen concentrations are lower. The binding of oxygen to hemoglobin is not
as simple as that for myoglobin. Several factors influence oxygen binding to
hemoglobin, including the partial pressure of oxygen itself, pH, the concentration of CO2,
and 2,3-bisphosphoglycerate (BPG).
Muscle fibers are largely bundles of myofibrils, consisting of interdigitated
thick and thin filaments. The thick filaments are made of hundreds of myosin
molecules, whose two heavy chains and four light chains form a long rod-like segment
with two globular heads. Thin filaments contain three proteins: actin, tropomyosin,
and troponin. Interactions between the thick and thin filaments allow the proteins to
move past each other in a process that is driven by the hydrolysis of ATP. The myosin
molecules undergo large conformational changes that generate easily measurable force
and are the canonical examples of force-generating proteins called motor proteins, which
include proteins involved in the movement of chromosomes and organelles (kinesins and
dyneins), as well as DNA and RNA polymerases.
Antibodies are the major line of defense against extracellular pathogens such as
bacteria and viruses. Cellular immunity is mediated by T lymphocytes, which are formed
in the thymus. Humoral immunity is mediated by antibodies (immunoglobulins) that are
produced by B lymphocytes, which mature in the bone marrow. A B cell makes only one
type of antibody. Antigen binding to a specific antibody located on the surface of a B cell
triggers an immune response in which the B cells secreting that antibody proliferate. B
cells usually live for only a few days; however, memory B cells that recognize specific
antigens remain and proliferate when more antigen is present. The specificity of an
antibody–antigen interaction arises from variable amino sequences in the
immunoglobulin, which create a unique antigen-binding site.

Oxygen Binding to Myoglobin and Hemoglobin

Myoglobin is a single polypeptide containing a heme group, which consists of a
porphyrin ring whose coordinated Fe(II) atom binds molecular oxygen. The protein
prevents oxidation of the heme iron to Fe(III), which does not bind oxygen. Oxidized
myoglobin is called metmyoglobin. Myoglobin facilitates oxygen diffusion in muscle, which
under conditions of high exertion have a particularly high demand for oxygen. It also
functions as an oxygen-storage protein in aquatic mammals, where it is in ten-fold higher
concentration than in terrestrial animals. A simple equilibrium equation describes O2
binding to myoglobin (Mb): Mb + O2 MbO2. The fractional saturation of myoglobin
is defined as YO2 = pO2/(K + pO2), where pO2 is the partial pressure of oxygen and K
is its dissociation constant. A plot of YO2 versus pO2 is a hyperbolic curve, that occurs
when ligands interact independently with their binding sites . It is convenient to define K
as p50, the partial pressure of O2 at which 50% of myoglobin has bound oxygen. The
p50 for myoglobin is 2.8 torr, which is much lower than the pO2 in venous blood (30
torr), so that myoglobin is nearly saturated with oxygen under physiological conditions.
 Hemoglobin binds oxygen in the lungs (pO2 = 100 torr) and releases it in the
capillaries (pO2 = 30 torr). The efficiency of oxygen transport is greater than expected
if oxygen binding were hyperbolic, as in myoglobin. Hemoglobin, which is an α2β2
tetramer, each of whose subunits contains a heme group, binds O2 cooperatively and
thus has a sigmoidal oxygen binding curve, which is a cooperative interaction between
binding sites. Deoxyhemoglobin is bluish (the color of venous blood), whereas
oxyhemoglobin is bright red (the color of arterial blood).

The p50 of hemoglobin is about 26 torr, which is nearly 10 times greater than
that of myoglobin. Because hemoglobin exhibits a sigmoidal oxygen-binding curve,
it releases a much greater fraction of its bound O2 in passing from the lungs to the
tissues than if I had a hyperbolic binding curve with the same p50.

The Hill equation describes the cooperative nature of oxygen binding, and the Hill
constant, n, describes the degree of cooperativity. The Hill constant, which is not
necessarily an integer, is obtained experimentally. The bigger “n” the more cooperative
(positive value). If n>1, positive cooperativity. If n=1, non-cooperative (hyperbolic,
myoglobin). If n<1, negative cooperativity. The binding of O2 to hemoglobin is said to
be cooperative because the binding of O2 to one subunit increases the O2 affinity
of the other subunits. The fourth oxygen to bind to hemoglobin does so with a 100-fold
greater affinity than the first. (Allosteric Effect: The binding of a ligand at one site affects
the binding of another ligand at another site, which requires interactions among subunits
of oligomeric proteins)
Hill Plot
 The Bohr Effect, higher pH (lower [H+], more basic) promotes tighter binding of
oxygen to hemoglobin. Lower pH (higher [H+], more acidic) permits the easier release of
oxygen from hemoglobin. As oxygen is consumed, CO2 is released. Carbonic Anhydrase
catalyzes this reaction in red blood cells.

The H+ generated is taken up by the hemoglobin and causes it to release more oxygen.
This proton uptake facilitates the transport of CO2 by stimulating bicarbonate formation.

As the pH increases, the p50 value decreases, indicating the oxygen binding increases.
The opposite effect occurs when the pH decreases. 10% more is released.

Decreases in pH promote the release of oxygen from hemoglobin. This

effect, called the Bohr effect, is driven by dissolved carbon dioxide, which forms
bicarbonate ion and a hydrogen ion. The hydrogen ion protonates hemoglobin, thereby
stabilizing its T (deoxy) state. In the lungs, the reaction is reversed: Oxygen binding
causes a switch to the R (oxy) state. The released hydrogen ions shift the equilibrium
between bicarbonate and carbon dioxide, thereby forming carbon dioxide for expulsion
from the lungs. Due to the Bohr effect, the low pH in highly active muscles causes the
amount of oxygen delivered by hemoglobin to increase by nearly 10%.

Hemoglobin has only two stable conformational states, the T state (the
conformation of deoxyhemoglobin, venous blood) where Fe is 0.6 Å out of heme plane,
and the R state (the conformation of oxyhemoglobin, arterial blood) where Fe is in the
heme plane, and helix containing F8 shifts. Oxygen binding causes the T state to shift
to the R state, which has greater affinity for oxygen. The T to R shift is triggered by
oxygen binding to the heme iron, which pulls the heme iron atom into the heme plane.
This movement is transmitted to the F helix through His F8, which ligands the iron atom.
Conformational changes in one subunit are transmitted across the α1–β2 and α2–β1
interfaces. Due to the conformational constraints at these interfaces, the conformational
shift of one subunit must be accompanied by the conformational shift of all subunits,
thereby increasing the oxygen affinity of the unoccupied subunits.

Hemoglobin stripped of 2,3-bisphosphoglycerate (BPG) binds oxygen more

tightly than hemoglobin in the blood. BPG binds to the T state but not the R state,
thereby decreasing hemoglobin’s oxygen affinity. This allows nearly 40% of the oxygen
to be unloaded in venous blood. Fetal hemoglobin does not bind BPG as tightly and
therefore has a higher affinity for oxygen than adult hemoglobin. Humans use two
mechanisms to adapt to the lower oxygen partial pressure at higher altitudes:
(1) erythrocyte BPG concentration increases to promote oxygen delivery to
tissues, and (2) the hemoglobin concentration rises. Other mammals that live
at high altitude have isoforms of hemoglobin with increased affinity for oxygen.

The T-state is shown above

T→R transition causes breakage of terminal interactions and changes in

ionization states of His146β and Val1α (part of Bohr effect)
The N-terminal amino groups of α are responsible for 20-30% of the Bohr effect.
His 146 β accounts for about 40% of the Bohr effect salt bridged with Asp 94 β. The T to
R transition reduces the pK’s of several groups. This interaction is lost in the R state.

Allosteric proteins are oligomers with multiple ligand-binding sites, in which

ligand binding at one site alters the protein’s binding affinity for a ligand at another
site. Two models for cooperativity have been proposed: (1) the symmetry model and
(2) the sequential model.

The symmetry model proposes that all the subunits in the protein exist in
either the T state or the R state, and ligand binding to one subunit favors the
conversion of all subunits to the R state. In contrast, the sequential model proposes
that ligand binding induces a conformational change in one subunit (to the R state),
which causes progressive changes in conformation in adjacent subunits. Current
studies suggest that hemoglobin shows features of both models, neither of which can fully
explain the complexity of protein dynamics upon ligand binding.

There appear to be nearly 950 allelic variants of hemoglobin in humans, >90% of

which are due to single amino acid substitutions. Most do not result in any discernible
clinical symptoms. Hemoglobin variants that have demonstrated clinical symptoms
are most commonly correlated with (1) decreased ability of globin to bind heme;
(2) decreased cooperativity in which the protein is “locked” in either the T- or R-
state; (3) increased propensity for oxidation of the ferrous iron to the ferric state;
and (4) decreased protein stability resulting in protein degradation.

The analysis of mutant hemoglobin with altered functions has conveyed

considerable knowledge about protein structure–function relationships. One variant,
hemoglobin S, has a substitution of valine for glutamic acid in the β subunit. In the
deoxy state, hemoglobin S aggregates, causing erythrocytes to sickle and block
the capillaries. Individuals who are homozygous for the gene specifying
hemoglobin S have sickle cell anemia, a debilitating and often fatal disease. Sickle
I caused by a single mutation, Glu6Val, this mutation allows formation of fiber by
stabilizing contacts, Val inserts into a hydrophobic pocket. Hydroxyurea is a treatment
for Sickle-Cell Anemia.

Hemoglobin Mutants
Muscle Contraction
Striated muscle is made of parallel bundles of myofibrils. As seen in the electron
microscope, I bands of lesser electron density alternate with A bands of greater density.
The repeating unit, the sarcomere, is bounded by Z disks at the centers of adjacent I
bands and includes the A band, which is centered on the M disk. Within the sarcomere,
thick filaments are linked to thin filaments by cross-bridges. Muscle contraction occurs
when the filaments slide past each other, bringing the Z disks closer together.

Thick filaments are made of myosin, which consists of six subunits: two heavy
chains and two pairs of light chains. A heavy chain consists of a globular head and
a long α-helical tail. Two such tails associate in a 1600-Å-long left-handed coiled coil,
yielding a rod-like molecule that has two globular heads. The light chains bind near the
globular heads. Thin filaments are composed of actin, tropomyosin, and troponin.
Tropomyosin is a coiled coil that winds in the actin polymer’s helical grove to contact
seven successive actin monomers. Troponin, a heterotrimer, interacts with tropomyosin
and serves as a sensor molecule, binding Ca2+ released from the sarcoplasmic reticulum
upon stimulation of muscle contraction. Additional muscle proteins help define sarcomere
structure.

Dystrophin, a critical protein link between F-actin filaments and a transmembrane

glycoprotein, helps prevent large membrane ruptures from the mechanical stress of
muscle contraction. Sufferers of Duchenne Muscular Dystrophy (DMD) lack this protein,
while patients with milder Becker Muscular Dystrophy (BMD) have reduced levels.

The sarcomere contraction cycle involves conformational changes in

myosin that drive the movement of actin filaments towards each other. This model
was born out of the sliding filament model proposed by Hugh Huxley and Andrew Huxley
in 1954.
(a) The myosin heads of the thick filaments bind to the thin filaments. When ATP
binds to the myosin head, myosin dissociates from the actin filament.

(b) Subsequent ATP hydrolysis cocks the head of myosin and allows it to rebind
weakly to actin.

(c) The release of inorganic phosphate increases the strength of binding and
causes the head of myosin to snap back in the power stroke. This pulls the
filaments past each other. Each myosin head acts in this manner to cause muscle
contraction.

(d) ADP is released, completing the cycle.

Ca2+, which binds to troponin C, triggers muscle contraction. Nerve impulses

induce the release of Ca2+ from intracellular stores. This Ca2+ binds to troponin and causes
a conformational change that exposes additional myosin binding sites on the thin filament.
At lower Ca2+ concentrations, the myosin head is blocked from binding actin and
the muscle is relaxed. Nonmuscle microfilaments (~70-Å-diameter fibers), which consist
of actin, occur in all eukaryotic cells, where their assembly and disassembly drives such
cellular processes as ameboid locomotion and cytokinesis. In most eukaryotic cells, actin
is the most abundant cytosolic protein. The globular polypeptide has an ATP-binding
site on one side of the protein. When actin polymerizes, this binding site marks the
(–) end or pointed end of the polymer; the opposite end is referred to as the (+) end
or barbed end. Actin also has a divalent cation–binding site that has a greater
affinity for Ca2+ than Mg2+; however, most G-actin in vivo is bound to Mg2+ due to its
greater concentration in cells.

(a) Polymerization of G-actin into F-actin differs at each end of the growing filament:
The rate of subunit addition at the (+) is 5- to 10-fold greater than that at the (–) end, so
new growth tends to occur at the (+) end.

(b) The rate of addition of G-actin monomers may be matched by the rate of G-actin
monomer dissociation. This steady state process, called treadmilling, plays an
important role in the amoeboid crawling by cells.

Antibodies
Antibodies (immunoglobulins) are proteins produced by the immune system of
higher organisms to protect them against pathogens such as viruses and bacteria. Two
types of immunity
a) Cellular immunity: guards against virally infected cells, fungi, parasites, and
foreign tissue, mediated by T-lymphocytes (T cells) produced in thymus.
b) Humoral immunity: effective against bacterial infections and phases of viral
infections, mediated by antibodies or immune-globin produced by B-lymphocytes
(B cells) in bone marrow.
 Antibodies are produced by B lymphocytes, which recognize foreign
macromolecules (antigens). The primary response to an antigen requires several days
for B cells to generate the required antibodies. If the organism subsequently encounters
the same antigen, a secondary response results, in which large amounts of the antibody
are produced more rapidly. Antibodies contain at least four subunits, two identical
light chains and two identical heavy chains, which are held together in part by
interchain disulfide bonds to form a Y-shaped molecule. Of the five classes of
antibodies, IgG is the most abundant. The classes are distinguished by the type of
heavy chain (α, δ, ε, γ, and μ). There are two types of light chain (κ and λ). IgG heavy
chains each consist of three domains of constant sequence, designated CH1, CH2,
and CH3, and one variable domain, designated VH. The light chains each consist
of one constant domain, CL, and one variable domain, VL. The VH and VL are
located at the two split ends of the Y-shaped protein. Fc is the stem.

The variable regions contain the antigen-binding sites in which hypervariable

sequences determine the exquisite specificity of antibody–antigen interactions. The
binding of an antibody to its antigen is highly specific and has a dissociation constant
ranging from 10–4 to 10–10 M. Because antibodies each have two identical antigen-
binding sites, a population of antibodies can form large antigen–antibody aggregates that
hasten the removal of the antigen and induce B cell proliferation.

A B cell produces one kind of antibody. Antigens stimulate the proliferation of a

population of pre-existing B cells whose diversity arises from genetic changes that occur
in B cell development, including somatic recombination and somatic hypermutation.
Sequence variation allows the synthesis of potentially billions of immunoglobulins with
different antigen-binding specificities. In autoimmune diseases, the organism loses its
self-tolerance and produces antibodies against its own tissues. This process is
sometimes triggered by trauma or infection and may result from the resemblance of a
self-antigen to some foreign antigen. Autoimmune diseases have variable symptoms
ranging from mild to lethal.