ECE 101-Electronics 1 Course Notes by: ENGR. MELVIN B.

TRIBACO

Electronics
– the branch of physics and
technology concerned with the
behavior and movement of
electrons, especially in
semiconductors and gases.

Classifications of Materials “Mass of proton or neutron is 1,836 times that

1. Conductor – a substance, body or material of electron”
- which has more electrons that are free to
move (free electrons) Ne=2n2
- which supports charge carriers flow
- which is good conductor of electricity Where: Ne=no. of electrons in each shell
- which supports the flow of electricity N=shell no. or position
- which allows current to flow with ease
- which has a very low electrical resistance TERMS:
- which has only one valence electron 1. Atomic mass or weight (A)
– approximately the sum of the no.
exs. Metals (such as silver, copper, gold, of protons & electrons of an atom.
etc.) 2. Atomic number (z)
Electrolytes and ionized gases – the no. of protons in the nucleus
or the no. of electrons in an atom.
2. Insulator 3. Valence shell – the outermost shell.
– a substance, body or material which 4. Valence electrons
has a characteristics that is – electrons at the valence shell.
extremely opposite to that of a 5. Valence band
conductor. – the highest energy band of an
– with more than four valence atom w/c can be filled with
electrons but Ideally, it has eight electrons.
valence electrons. 6. Conduction band
– energy band in w/c electrons can
exs. Glass, Mica, hard rubber, etc. move freely.
7. Forbidden band – no electrons.
3. Semiconductor – a substance or body
whose conductivity is between that of Energy gap
an insulator and a conductor with – the energy difference between the
four valence electrons. conduction band & valence band. It
is the energy required to move or
exs. a. Elementary semiconductors(IVA) transfer a valence electron at the
1. Silicon (Si) valence band to the conduction
2. Germanium (Ge) band.
b. Compound semiconductors(IIIA-VA)
1. Gallium Arsenide (GaAs)
2. Aluminum Arsenide (AlAs) Net Charge
3. Gallium Phosphide (GaP) – whenever a neutral atom losses
one or more of its electron(s), it
ATOMIC STRUCTURE becomes a positively charge atom
& is referred to as a positive ion.
1. Bohr’s Model – if a neutral atom gains electron(s), it
becomes negatively charge and is
called a negative ion.

 Net charge =+4 if it losses all 4 valence

electrons.
=+1 if losses one valence
electron.

F=KQ1Q2
r2
At any instant, the following is taking place
2. Composition/Elementary Particles inside a silicon crystal.
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ECE 101-Electronics 1 Course Notes by: ENGR. MELVIN B. TRIBACO

positive charge since it can attract and capture

1. Some free electrons and holes are electron in the immediate vicinity.
being created by thermal energy.
2. Other free electrons and holes are Recombination – the merging of a free electron
recombining. and a hole inside the silicon crystal.
3. Some free electrons and holes exist in
an in-between state; they were Lifetime – the amount of time between the
previously created and have not yet creation and disappearance of a free electron.
recombined. It is usually varies from a few nanoseconds to
several microseconds, depending on how
BONDING OF ATOMS perfect the crystal is and other factors.

Ionic bonds or Electrovalent bonds or DOPING

Electrostatic bonds – results from attractive Doping process – adding pentavalent or
forces between positive and negative ions or trivalent impurities to an intrinsic material.
between pairs of oppositely charges ions.
2 Types of impurities
Metallic bonds – attractive forces results from a 1. Pentavalent impurities – with 5 valence
group of positive ions and electrons w/c are electrons (donor atom) such as antimony (Sb),
free to move about among its ions. arsenic (As) and phosphorus (P).
2. Trivalent impurities – with 3 valence
Covalent – occurs when atoms shares two or electrons (acceptor atom) such as boron (B),
more electrons; i.e. shared electrons are gallium (Ga) and indium (In).
attracted simultaneously to two atoms and the
resulting energy stability produces the bond. 2 Types of semiconductor
1. Intrinsic semiconductor
Covalent bonding of semiconductors – it is a pure semiconductor.
– At 0˚K or absolute zero (-273.15˚C) – every atom in the crystal is a silicon
there are no free electrons in a semiconductor atom.
because they are locked at the valence bond, – At room temperature, a silicon
however at room temperature (300˚K, 25˚C) crystal acts approximately as an
valence electrons can acquire sufficient energy insulator because it has only a few
and become free as they move to the electrons and holes produce by
conduction bond. thermal energy.
2. Extrinsic Semiconductor
Intrinsic carrier – free electrons in a material – a doped semiconductor.
due only to natural causes; i.e. due to increase – result of adding an impurity atom to
in temperature. At room temperature there are an intrinsic crystal to alter/increase
approximately 1.5x1010 of free electrons in a its electrical conductivity.
cubic centimeter for intrinsic silicon and a. N-type – Produced when a
2.5x1023 for germanium materials. pentavalent atoms are added to
a molten silicon, producing an
Silicon crystal – an arrangement of silicon excess of electrons.
atoms combine to form a solid such that there – (- →majority carriers)
are now 8 electrons in the valence shell.

Bound electrons – the term for 8 valence

electrons because they are tightly held by the
atoms. When an atom has bound electrons, it
is described as filled or saturated since
valence orbit can hold not more than 8
electrons.

Ambient Temperature – is the temperature of

the surrounding air usually (25˚C or 293˚K).

Free Electrons – the released electrons

dislodged from its original shell due to increase
in temperature w/c joins into a larger orbit. b. P-type – produced when a
trivalent atoms are added to the
Hole – the term used to refer to the vacancy molten silicon, producing an
left by free electrons when it departs from its excess of holes.
original shell and usually behaves like a – (+ →majority carriers)

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ECE 101-Electronics 1 Course Notes by: ENGR. MELVIN B. TRIBACO

Ex. How much is the resistance for a slab of

germanium 0.3cm long w/ a cross-sectional
area of 1cm2?
R= L
A
R=50Ω∙cm (0.3cm/1cm2)
R=15Ω

Conductance
DOPED SEMICONDUCTORS – the property or ability of a material
(Extrinsic materials) to support charge flow
Si-Antimony (electric current).
 Excess of electrons – The reciprocal of resistance and
 Majority carrier is electron has a unit of mho or siemens.
 Resulting material is N-type Conductivity
 Minority carrier is hole – Specific conductance per unit
Si-Boron length.
 Excess of holes – The reciprocal of resistivity.
 Majority carrier is hole – (Siemens per meter or mho per
 Resulting is P-type meter).
 Minority carrier is electron Resistance
● The conductivity of a semiconductor material – The property of material to oppose
can be controlled by the amount of impurity or resist current flow.
added; that is Resistivity
a. Lightly doped semiconductor has a high – Specific resistance or resistance
resistance. times the cross-sectional area of
b. Heavily doped semiconductor has a low current flow & per unit length of
resistance. current path.
● Silicon/Germanium semiconductor
a. Can be manufactured to a very high DIODE
impurity level. – Two terminal device that has anode
b. Has the ability to change electrical and cathode and ha a characteristic
characteristics (conductivity) from poor that converts Ac to DC called
conductor to a good conductor. RECTIFIER.
● Silicon vs. Germanium – Device that allows the flow of
a. Si diodes have higher PIV and current current in only one direction.
rating, and wider temperature range
than Ge diodes. ● The junction diode is formed when an N-type
b. Si has higher forward –bias voltage and a P-type materials are brought together.
require to reach conduction.

MATERIAL RESISTANCE & CONDUCTIVITY

● Construction and symbol

R= L
A
Where: R= resistance in Ω
= resistivity in Ω∙cm OPERATIONS
L = length in cm 1. No bias – no applied voltage.
A = area in cm2
Typical resistivity values: in Ω∙cm

Conductor Semiconductor Insulator

Copper=105 Ge:50 Mica:1012
Si:50,000

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ECE 101-Electronics 1 Course Notes by: ENGR. MELVIN B. TRIBACO

a. Depletion region – the region of K = 11600/n; for low levels of diode

uncovered positive and negative ions. current.
b. In the absence of an applied bias n = 1 for Ge & 2 for Si for higher levels
voltage, the net flow of charge in any of diode current.
direction for a semiconductor diode is n = 1 for both Si & Ge
zero.
TEMPERATURE EFFECTS ON Is:
2. Reverse bias
– Only minority carriers (reverse IST1 = ISTo eK(T1-To)
saturation current) can flow.
– Cathode (K) is more positive than Where: IST1 = saturation current at temp. (t1).
anode (A). ISTo = saturation current at room temp.
– Diode is off (open Circuit). K = 0.07/˚C
T1 = new temperature
To = room temperature (25˚C)

TEMPERATURE ON VTH:

VTHt1 = VTHto + K (T1 – To)

Applied Voltage < VD (threshold voltage)
Where: V THt1 = threshold voltage at new temp.
IS (reverse Saturation current)
– The current that exist under reverse VTHto = threshold voltage at room temp.
= 0.3 for Si and 0.7 for Ge
condition.
K = -25mV/˚C (Ge)
Applied Voltage > VD (threshold voltage) = -2.0Mv/˚C (Si)
3. Forward Bias
– Allows majority carrier (forward Example:
current) to flow.
1. Determine the diode current at 20˚C for a
– Anode (A) must be positive w/
respect to cathode (K). silicon diode w/ IS = 50nA and an applied
voltage of 0.6V.
Given:
TK = 20˚C + 273˚K = 293˚K
n=2
IS = 50nA
VD = 0.6V
Req’d:
ID =?

Solution:

ID  IS e KVDTK  1
Considering voltage drop:
ID = 50x10-9 (e [(11600/2)(0.6)]/293˚K – 1)
VD > Vth
Where: VD = diode applied voltage ID = 7.2mA
Vth = diode Threshold voltage
= 0.7v for Silicon 2. Determine the diode current at 20˚C for a
= 0.3v for Germanium silicon diode w/ IS = 0.1μA at a reverse-bias
potential of -10V.
Given:
TK = 20˚C + 273˚K = 293˚K
DIODE CURRENT EQUATION (ID) n=2
IS = 0.1μA
ID=IS (eKVD/TK – 1) VD = -10V
K=11600/n Req’d:
ID =?
Where: ID = diode current Solution:
IS = reverse saturation current or
leakage current. ID  IS e KVDTK 1
VD = forward voltage across the diode.
TK = room temperature in ˚K. ID = 0.1mA (e [(11600/2)(-10)]/293˚K – 1)
= T + 273˚C
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ECE 101-Electronics 1 Course Notes by: ENGR. MELVIN B. TRIBACO

ID = -1μA 20v  20ID   0.7v  0

20v  0.7v
3. A pn junction has a saturated current equal ID 
20
to 1nA at a temperature of 25˚C. The silicon
diode is forward w/ a constant source of 1mA;
determine the applied voltage of the diode. ID = 0.965A
Given:
IS = 1μA c.
TK = 25˚C + 273˚K = 298˚K
n=2
ID = 1mA
Req’d:
VD = ?

Solution:

ID  IS e KVDTK 1 10v  10ID   0

10v
KVD  ID  ID 
 ln    1 10
TK  IS 
ID = 1A
TK   ID  
VD  ln  IS   1
K     2. Determine VO & ID.
a.
298 K   1mA  
VD  ln    1
11600 2   1A  

VD = 0.7V

DIODE APPLICATION

1. Determine ID.
a.
Solution:

KVL @ A

 5v  0.7v  2.2kID   0
5v  0.7v
ID 
2.2k

ID = 1.95mA
b.
KVL @ B

 VO  2.2k( ID )  0
VO  2.2k1.95mA 

VO = -4.29v

b.

KVL @ A

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ECE 101-Electronics 1 Course Notes by: ENGR. MELVIN B. TRIBACO

Solution: KVL @ A

KVL @ A 10v  12 kI   0.7v  4.7 kI   2v  0

10v  0.7v  2v
8v  1.2kID   4.7 kID   0.7v  0 I
1.2k  4.7 k
8v  0.7v
ID 
1.2k  4.7k I = 1.92mA

ID =1.2mA KVL @ B

KVL @ B  Vo  2v  4.7kI   0
Vo  2v  4.7k1.92mA 
 VO  0.7v  4.7kID   0
VO  0.7v  4.7k1.2mA  Vo = 7.024v

VO = 6.34v

4. Determine VO & ID.

3. Determine the level of VO. a.
a.

Solution: Solution:

KVL @ A KCL @ x

20v  0.7v  0.3v  2kI   2kI   0 I  ID  I 1

20v  0.7v  0.3v I 1  ID  10 mA 
1
I
2k  2k
KVL @ A
I = 4.75mA
I 12.2k   0.7v  I 22.2k   0
KVL @ B

 VO  2kI   0
since ID=I2
2.2kI 1  2.2kID   0.7v 
 2
VO  2k4.75mA
substitute 1 in terms ID:
VO = 9.5v
ID  10mA  I 1   3
b.
substitute 3 in 2:
2.2kI 1  2.2k10 ma  I 1  0.7v
22v  0.7v
I1 
2.2k  2.2k

I1= 5.16mA

substitute I1 in 3:
ID  10 mA  5.16 mA

Solution: ID = 4.84ma

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ECE 101-Electronics 1 Course Notes by: ENGR. MELVIN B. TRIBACO

KVL @ B SINUSOIDAL INPUTS

 Vo  2.2kID   0 Rectification - process of converting AC to DC.
Vo  2.2k4.84mA
Rectifier – a device that converts AC to DC.
Vo = 10.65v
Half-wave rectification – rectification in which
current flows only during half cycle.
b. Half-wave rectifier – a rectifier that provides a
half-wave rectification.

Full-wave rectification - rectification in which

Solution: current flows only during full cycle.

KVL @ B Full-wave rectifier – a rectifier that provides a

full-wave rectified voltage.
 5v  0.7v  Vo  0 TYPES:
1. Bridge
Vo = -4.3v

KVL @ A

20v  6.8kID   0.7v  5v  0

0.7v  5v  20v
ID 
 6.8k
2. Center- tapped
ID = 3.57mA

c. Determine Ix, Iy, & Iz (Ideal diodes)

Iz = 0v; V= VIx = VIy

V 20v
Ix    20mA
R 1k

V 20v
Iy    10mA
R 2k

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ECE 101-Electronics 1 Course Notes by: ENGR. MELVIN B. TRIBACO

1 Vi  V P
T
f Vi  110Vrms  2
VP  VP P  VP  1 Vi  155 .56v
V P  P  2V P
VP P @ +VI “off”
VP  @ -VI “on”
2
Vrms  VP  VP P KVL @ A
V P  Vrms  2  155 .56  0.7v  VO  0
VP P  2V  2 
rms
VO  154 .86v

HALF WAVE
1. Determine VO, VDC & sketch the VO.

2.

@ +VI “on”
@ +Vi
KVL @ A
 V P  0.7v  VO  0 12v  0.7v  VO  0
VO  V P  0.7v VO  11.3v

@ -VI “off”
VO = 0

TRANSFORMER

2. Determine VO & VDC, sketch VO.

N2
VS VP 
N1
Where: Vp = voltage primary
Vs = voltage secondary
N1 & N2 = turns ratio

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ECE 101-Electronics 1 Course Notes by: ENGR. MELVIN B. TRIBACO

CENTER-TAPPED TRANSFORMER Vs
 V D1  VO  0
2
Vs
VO 
2
Vs
@  ; D2  on
2
KVL @ B
Vs
  VD 2  VO  0
2
N  Vs
VS   2 VP  2 VO 
 N1  2

3. Determine the VDC & sketch VO. (ideal diode)

FULL-WAVE
Example:
1. Determine VO, VDC & sketch VO.

Vrms  Vp; Vp  Vrms 2  

Note: all diodes are ideal 1  N 
@ + VI; D3 & D2 “on” Vs  Vp   2  Vs  Vp  2 
5  N1 
KVL @ 1 
Vs  120   2
 Vmax  VD3  VO  VD 2  0 5
Vmax  VO Vs  33.94v
@ - VI; D1 & D4“on”
KVL @ B @ +Vs
 Vmax  V D1  VO  V D 4  0
Vmax  VO

Vs  V D1  V XY  0
V XY  33.94v

 1.8k 
2. Determine VO, VDC, & sketch VO. Vo  V XY  
1.8k  2k 
Vo  16.08v

@ -Vs

Vs
@ ; D1  on
2
KVL @ A
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ECE 101-Electronics 1 Course Notes by: ENGR. MELVIN B. TRIBACO

Vs  VD 2  VYZ  0
VYZ  33.94v

 1.8k 
Vo  VYZ  
1.8k  2k 
Vo  16.08v
@ -VI “on”

 20v  0  Vo  0
Vo  20v

@ +VI “off”

VO=0
CLIPPERS – a variety of diode network that @ -VI
has the ability to clip-off the portion of input
signal without disturbing the remaining part of VI = VO
the alternating network. Example: (Parallel)
TWO GENERAL CATEGORIES
1. Series Configuration – the diode in series
with the load.

KVL @ A

@ +VI “on”
2. Parallel Configuration – the diode is in the
branch with the load.  Vi  0.7  4v  0
Vi  4.7v

@ +VI “off”

Vo =-10v (parallel)

Vi  4.7v  "on"
Vi  4.7v  ”off”
PROCEDURE/STEPS IN ANALYZING:
KVL @ B
1. Make a mental sketch of the network based
on the direction of the diode & the applied @ +VI
voltage levels.
2. Determine the supplied voltage transition  Vo  4v  0.7  0
that will cause a change in state for the diode. Vo  4.7v
3. Be continually aware of the defined
terminals & polarity of the voltage output (Vo).
4. It can be helpful to sketch the input signal
above the output & determine the output at
instantaneous value of the input.

Example: (Series)
Determine VO & sketch the output waveform.

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ECE 101-Electronics 1 Course Notes by: ENGR. MELVIN B. TRIBACO

Example:

@ -Vi KVL @ A

 VO  4v  0.7v  0
VO  3.3v
CLAMPER (DC Restorer)
- Clamp a signal to a different dc KVL @ B
level.
- Must have a capacitor, a diode  20v  VIC  0.7v  4v  0
& a resistive element.
VIC  23.3v
- Can employ independent dc
supply to introduce an additional
shift. @ +Vi KVL @ C

20v  23.3v  VO  0
VO  43.3v

CLAMPER’S NETWORK Design a clamper network

@ +Vi “on”
Vo = 2.7v; “on”

@ -Vi
@ +Vi KVL @ A Vo = -17.3v; “off”

Vo= 0

@ +Vi KVL @ B

 Vmax  VIC  VD  0
VIC  Vmax

@ -Vi “off”
@ +Vi KVL @ A
 Vmax  VIC  VO  0
2.7v  VB  0.7v  0
VO  2Vmax
 VB  2v

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ECE 101-Electronics 1 Course Notes by: ENGR. MELVIN B. TRIBACO

KVL @ B VI RL
VZ  VL 
RL  RI
10v  V IC  0.7v  2v  0
VZ RL  VZ RI  V I RL
V IC  7.3v
VZ RI
R L min  1
check: @ -Vi KVL @ C VI  VZ
PZ max  VZ I Z
 10v  Vic  VO  0
Vic  10v  (17.3v)
Vic  7.3v Fixed RL and variable VI

if Vb = -2; VI RL
VZ  VL 
RL  RI
10v  0.7  2v  7.3v
V Z R L  R I 
7.3v  7.3v VIm in  1
RL
if Vb = 2; VIm ax  V Ri max  V Z  2
V Ri max  I Ri max R I  3
10v  0.7  2v  7.3v I Ri max  I Z max  I L  4
11.3v  7.3v

ZENER DIODE
– a diode designed for limiting the
voltage across its terminals in
reverse bias. Exercises:
– Usually constructed of silicon, in 1. Design a network below to maintain VL at 12v or
which reverse voltage breakdown is a load variation (IL) from 0mA to 200mA.
based on the zener effect. Determine RS & VZ.

Zener effect
- The effect that is responsible for
zener breakdown in a
semiconductor.

Symbol:
Solution:

V Z  V L  12v
VI RL
VZ 
RS  RL
16vRL
“On” Vz < V “off” Vz > V > 0v 12v 
RS  R L
Fixed RL and VI 12v( R S )  12v( R L )  16v( R L )
12v( R S )  16v( R L )  12v( R L )
VI RL
VL  RS 
4( R L )
RL  RI 12
I Ri  I Z  I L RL
RS 
3
@ “on” 60
 RS   20
3
VZ  V L
V
R L min  Z
I L max
Fixed VI and variable RL
12v
P R L min   60
I Z max  Z max  2 200 mA
VZ
I Ri  I Z  I L 12
I L  I Ri  I Z max
I L min  I Ri  I Z max  3
VZ
ECE 101-Electronics 1 Course Notes by: ENGR. MELVIN B. TRIBACO

2. Determine the range of VI that will maintain – Is the reduction in the power rating
VL at 8v & not exceed the maximum power of a device as a result of an
rating of the zener diode. increase in temperature.

2. Varactor or Varicap Diodes ( )

– Variable capacitance diodes.
– Commonly used in electronic tuning
circuits
– Operates in reverse bias
– Depletion region widened by the
reverse bias produces the
capacitance.
Solution:
3. Light-Emitting Diode (LED) ( )
V L  8v  V Z – Emits light when forward biased.
8v91  0.22 k  – Incoherent light
VIm in   11.31v – (Wide band of wavelength).
0.22 k
400 mW – Red is the most common.
I Zmaz   50 mA Electroluminescence
8v – Process of releasing light energy by
8v the recombination of electrons in a
IL   36.36 mA
0.22 k semiconductor.
I R max  50 mA  36.36 mA  86.36 mA
VIm ax  91k(86.36 mA)  8v  15.853v
Semi conductive materials:
Gallium arsenide (GaAs)
– Emits infrared (IR) radiation.
Gallium Arsenide Phosphide (GaAsP)
– Produces red or yellow visible light.
Gallium Phosphide (GaP)
TYPES OF DIODES – Emits red or green visible light.
Forward voltage – 1.2v & 3.2v
1. Zener Diode ( ) Reverse voltage – 3v to 10v
– Silicon pn junction device. Wavelength
– Designed for operation in the – Determines whether light is visible
reverse breakdown region. or infrared.
– Used as a voltage regulators &
limiters.
– Voltage ratings ranging from 1.8v to 4. Photodiode ( )
200v. – Operates in reverse bias.
– Maintains a nearly constant voltage – Exhibits an increase in reverse
across its terminals over a specified current with light intensity.
range of zener currents. Dark current – reverse photodiode current
– Very thin depletion region in zener when there is no light.
breakdown.
5. Current Regulator diode ( )
Two breakdown mechanism: – Constant current diode.
1. Avalanche breakdown – Operates in forward bias.
2. Zener breakdown – Forward voltages from about 1.5v to
6v.
Zener impedance (Zz) – Keeps its forward current at a
– Internal zener resistance. constant specified value.
Zener regulation
– The ability to keep the reverse Regulator current – constant forward current.
voltage across its terminals
essentially constant is the key 6. Schottky Diode ( )
feature of the zener diode. – Used primarily in high frequency
Test current and fast switching applications.
– Value of reverse current where the – Has a metal to semiconductor
zener voltage is normally specified. junction usually n-type.
Power derating – Forward voltage drop of 0.3v
– Also known as hot-carrier diode.

13
ECE 101-Electronics 1 Course Notes by: ENGR. MELVIN B. TRIBACO

– Operates only with majority carriers. 1. NPN

7. PIN Diode ( )
– Consist of heavily doped p & n
regions separated by an intrinsic
region.
– Displays a variable resistance
characteristic when forward biased.
– Constant capacitance in reverse
biased. 2. PNP
– Used as a dc-controlled microwave
chip.

8. Step-Recovery Diode
– Employs graded doping where the
doping level of the semi conductive
materials is reduced as the pn
junction is approached.
– Used in very high frequency (VHF)
& fast-switching application. Parts of Proper Biased:
1. Collector
9. Tunnel Diode ( ) – Moderately doped (collector carrier)
- Exhibits a special characteristic – The doping is between that of the
known as (Negative Resistance) emitter & the base.
– Used in oscillator circuits. – Largest of the three regions.
– Constructed with germanium or 2. Base
gallium arsenide. – Lightly doped (control)
– Heavy doping results in a very – Controls the flow of carriers from
narrow depletion region. emitter & collector
– Forward biased. – Smallest regions.
3. Emitter
- Heavily doped (emits carrier)
10. Laser Diode ( ) - Second largest.
– Light amplification by stimulated
emission of radiation. PROPER BIASED OF TRANSISTOR
– Monochromatic light. For proper operation of the circuit:
– Also called coherent light, a single 1. Emitter – base junction should be
wavelength. forward bias.
– Operates in forward-biased 2. Collector – base junction should be
reverse bias.
Incoherent light
– Consist of a wide band of
wavelength. TRANSISTOR OPERATION

Operating Emitter-base Collector-base

mode junction junction
TRANSISTOR Active Forward Reverse
– A semiconductor device used for Cut-off Reverse Reverse
amplification and switching Saturation Forward Forward
applications. Reverse active Reverse Forward
– William Shockley, John Bardeen & Saturated = VCE = 0 = minimum
Walter Brattain were the co- Cut-off = VCE = VCC = maximum
inventors of transistor at Bell
Laboratories in 1947. DC Transistor parameters:
1. Alpha (α)
Bipolar Junction Transistor (BJT) – Common base, short circuit
amplification factor.
Bipolar - means two type of charges (electrons – Ratio of change in collector current
& holes) involved in the flow of electricity. to change in emitter current with
Junction – means there are two pn junctions. VCB constant.
– Mathematically defined as:
Two Configurations for BJT:

14
ECE 101-Electronics 1 Course Notes by: ENGR. MELVIN B. TRIBACO

  IC  – The emitter is common to both input

   VCB  constant & output side of the circuit.
  IE 
I
 C
IE
2. Beta (β)
– Common emitter forward current
amplification factor.
– The ratio of change in collector
current to change in base current
with VCE constant.
– Mathematically defined as:
–
 
   IC VCE  constant
  IB  Basic features of Common Emitter amplifiers:
IC  The input signal is introduced into the
 base & the output is taken from the
IB collector junction.
 The input circuit is low impedance;
typically, the input impedance is in the
Relation of α & β range of 25Ω to 5kΩ.
 The output circuit is medium to high
 impedance. About 50Ω to 50kΩ.

1   Current gain is always greater than 1.
 There is 180˚ phase reversal between

 the input & output signals.
1

3. Common Collector Configuration (CC)

– The collector is common to both
input & output side of the circuit.
Transistor Common configurations:
1. Common Base Configuration (CB)
– The base is common to both input &
output side of the circuit.

Basic features of Common Collector amplifiers:

 The input signal is introduced into the
base & the output is taken from the
collector junction.
 The input circuit can have a very high
Basic features of Common Base amplifiers: impedance;
 The input signal is introduced into the  The output impedance is relatively low.
emitter & the output is taken from the  The circuit provides voltage gain less
collector junction. than 1.
 The input circuit is very low impedance,  There is no phase reversal between the
usually between 1Ω & 50Ω. input & output signals.
 The output circuit is high impedance.
About 1kΩ to 1MΩ. TYPES OF BIASING:
 Current gain is always lesser than 1. 1. Fixed biased circuit
 There is no phase reversal between the – DC bias currents & voltages remain
input & output signals. closer to where they were set by the
circuit even when outside condition.
2. Common Emitter Configuration (CE)

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ECE 101-Electronics 1 Course Notes by: ENGR. MELVIN B. TRIBACO

VCE  Vc  V E KVL @ A
VCB  Vc  V B VCC  I B RB  VBE  I E RE  0
KVL @ A since:
VCC  I B R B  V BE  0 I E    1R E
VCC  V BE VCC  V BE
IB  IB 
RB R B    1R E
since: I C  I B
I KVL @ B
  C ; I C  I B
IB  VCC  VC  I C RC  0
KVL @ B VC  VCC  I C RC
 VCC  VCE  I C RC  0 KVL @ C
VCE  VCC  I C RC  VCC  I E R E  VCE  I C RC  0

LOADLINE:
since:
I E  IC
VCE  VCC  I C ( R E  RC )
KVL @ D
 VE  I E RE  0
VE  I E RE
@ IC = saturation (maximum); VCE = 0

VCE = VCC – ICRC 3. Beta (β)

– Voltage divider.
VCC – Provide a DC bias circuit that is
I CSAT  independent of the transistor beta.
RC

@ IC = cut-off; IC=0

VCE = VCC – ICRC

VCE = VCC

2. Emitter stabilized
– Contains a resistor to provide better
biased stability than the fixed bias
circuit.
condition:

16
ECE 101-Electronics 1 Course Notes by: ENGR. MELVIN B. TRIBACO

R E  10 R2 I C  I C ' ; I B  I C
satisfy : I E  IC
V R I C  I B
V BB  CC 2
R1  R2 Vcc  V BE
IB 
KVL @ A R B   ( Rc  R E )
V BB  V BE  I E R E  0 KVL @ B
V BB  V BE Vc  Vcc  IcRc
IE 
RE KVL @ C
I E  IC VCE  Vcc  I C ( RC  R E )
if not satisfy; redraw: KVL @ D
VE  I E RE
R BB  R1 // R2

UNIPOLAR JUNCTION TRANSISTOR

Field Effect Transistors (FET’s)

– Voltage controlled device.
– Non-linear relationship between
input & output quantities.
– Operates with pn reverse-biased.
KVL @ A – Unipolar device.
V BB  I B R BB  V BE  (   1) I B R E  0 – Three terminal device containing.
V BB  V BE
IB  The FET’s terminals are:
R BB  (   1) R E
I C  I B 1. Gate = Base of the transistor.
2. Drain = Collector of the transistor.
3. Source = Emitter of the transistor.

Two types of FET’s

4. DC bias with voltage feedback
– Also provide improved DC bias 1. JFET – junction FET.
stability. 2. MOSFET
– Metal oxide semiconductor FET.
– a.k.a. IGFET (Insulated gate FET)
– Depletion MOSFET
– Enhancement MOSFET

General Comparison between FET & BJT:

 FET has extremely high input

resistance about 100Mohms typical,
(BJT input resistance typically is 2kΩ)
 FET are good current amplifier.
KVL @ A  BJT has low impedance, high output.
 FET has no offset value when used as
VCC  I C RC  I B RB  VBE  I E RE  0 a switch.
since:  FET is relatively immune to radiation,
but the BJT is very sensitive.
 FET is less noisy than BJT.
 FET can be operated to provide greater
thermal stability than BJT.
 FET is smaller then BJT.
 FET has smaller gain-bandwidth than
BJT.

17
ECE 101-Electronics 1 Course Notes by: ENGR. MELVIN B. TRIBACO

 FET has greater susceptibility to  V 

damage in handling the FET. Damage I D  I DSS 1  GS 
by static electricity.  VP 
I DSS  saturation

TYPES:
JFET Transfer Characteristic
1. JFET – Plot of drain current is a function of
a. N-channel gate to source voltage.
– Defined by the Shockley’s equation.

2
 V 
I D  I DSS 1  GS 
 VP 
Where: ID – drain current
b. P-channel IDSS – Saturation current
VGS – voltage gate to source
VP – voltage peak

N-channel

2. MOSFET
a. DMOSFET

note: ID @ max is an IDSS

N-channel: VP = (-)

b. P-channel
P-channel

note: P-channel: VP = (+)

3. EMOSFET
a. N-channel

@ ID = IDSS; @ max
VGS = 0
1
@ ID = IDSS
2
b. P-channel VGS = 0.3VP
1
@ VGS = VP
2
ID = 0.25 IDSS
@ VGS = VP
ID = 0

18
ECE 101-Electronics 1 Course Notes by: ENGR. MELVIN B. TRIBACO

FIXED-BIAS  VGS  I S R S  0
since: I S  I D
VGS   I D R S  1
 VGS
ID 
RS

GRAPHICAL:

KVL @ A

 VGG  VGS  0
VGS  VGG
1
@ ID = IDSS
2
VGS = ?
MATHEMATICAL: Substitute in 1:
Substitute VGS in Shockley’s eq.  I DSS RS
VGS 
2
2
 V 
I D  I DSS 1  GS  @ ID = 0
 VP  VGS = ?
Substitute in 1
VGS = 0
GRAPHICAL:
MATHEMATICALY:
Substitute in Shockley’s equation:
2
 VGS 
ID  I DSS 
1  V 

 P 
 KI D  K  0
2
ID
I D1 
I D2 

KVL @ B

V D  V DD  I D R D

SELF-BIAS VOLTAGE DIVIDER

KVL @ A

19
ECE 101-Electronics 1 Course Notes by: ENGR. MELVIN B. TRIBACO

I D  K VGS  VGS (TH )

V DD ( R2 ) 2
VGG 
R1  R2
KVL @ A
VGG  VGS  I S R S  0
VGG  VGS
ID  1
RS
VGS  VGG  I D R S  2

MATHEMATICAL
2
 V 
I D  I DSS 1  GS 
 VP 

●if substitute in 1
VGS 2
 KVGS  K  0
●if substitute in 2
I D2  KI D  K  0

GRAPHICAL:

@ ID = 0
VGS  ?
VGS  VGG  I D RS
VGS  VGG

@VGS = 0
ID  ?
VGG  VGS
ID 
RS
VGG
ID 
RS

DMOSFET (similar to JFET)

EMOSFET
20