Fundamentals of Multimedia, Chapter 9

Chapter 9
Image Compression Standards

9.1 The JPEG Standard

9.2 The JPEG2000 Standard
9.3 The JPEG-LS Standard
9.4 Bi-level Image Compression Standards
9.5 Further Exploration

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9.1 The JPEG Standard

• JPEG is an image compression standard that was developed

by the “Joint Photographic Experts Group”. JPEG was for-
mally accepted as an international standard in 1992.

• JPEG is a lossy image compression method. It employs a

transform coding method using the DCT (Discrete Cosine
Transform).

• An image is a function of i and j (or conventionally x and y)

in the spatial domain.

The 2D DCT is used as one step in JPEG in order to yield a

frequency response which is a function F (u, v) in the spatial
frequency domain, indexed by two integers u and v.

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Observations for JPEG Image Compression

• The effectiveness of the DCT transform coding method in

JPEG relies on 3 major observations:

Observation 1: Useful image contents change relatively slowly

across the image, i.e., it is unusual for intensity values to vary
widely several times in a small area, for example, within an 8 × 8
image block.

• much of the information in an image is repeated, hence “spa-

tial redundancy”.

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Observations for JPEG Image Compression

(cont’d)

Observation 2: Psychophysical experiments suggest that hu-

mans are much less likely to notice the loss of very high spatial
frequency components than the loss of lower frequency compo-
nents.

• the spatial redundancy can be reduced by largely reducing

the high spatial frequency contents.

Observation 3: Visual acuity (accuracy in distinguishing closely

spaced lines) is much greater for gray (“black and white”) than
for color.

• chroma subsampling (4:2:0) is used in JPEG.

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YIQ or YUV

f (i, j) F (u, v) F̂ (u, v)

DCT Quantization

8×8
Quantiz.
Coding Tables
Tables
Header
Tables DC
DPCM
Entropy Zig
Coding Zag
Data
RLC
AC

Fig. 9.1: Block diagram for JPEG encoder.

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9.1.1 Main Steps in JPEG Image Compression

• Transform RGB to YIQ or YUV and subsample color.

• DCT on image blocks.

• Quantization.

• Zig-zag ordering and run-length encoding.

• Entropy coding.

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DCT on image blocks

• Each image is divided into 8 × 8 blocks. The 2D DCT is

applied to each block image f (i, j), with output being the
DCT coefficients F (u, v) for each block.

• Using blocks, however, has the effect of isolating each block

from its neighboring context. This is why JPEG images look
choppy (“blocky”) when a high compression ratio is specified
by the user.

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Quantization
 
F (u, v)
F̂ (u, v) = round (9.1)
Q(u, v)

• F (u, v) represents a DCT coefficient, Q(u, v) is a “quantiza-

tion matrix” entry, and F̂ (u, v) represents the quantized DCT
coefficients which JPEG will use in the succeeding entropy
coding.

– The quantization step is the main source for loss in JPEG

compression.
– The entries of Q(u, v) tend to have larger values towards the lower
right corner. This aims to introduce more loss at the higher spatial
frequencies — a practice supported by Observations 1 and 2.
– Table 9.1 and 9.2 show the default Q(u, v) values obtained from
psychophysical studies with the goal of maximizing the compression
ratio while minimizing perceptual losses in JPEG images.

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Table 9.1 The Luminance Quantization Table

16 11 10 16 24 40 51 61
12 12 14 19 26 58 60 55
14 13 16 24 40 57 69 56
14 17 22 29 51 87 80 62
18 22 37 56 68 109 103 77
24 35 55 64 81 104 113 92
49 64 78 87 103 121 120 101
72 92 95 98 112 100 103 99

Table 9.2 The Chrominance Quantization Table

17 18 24 47 99 99 99 99
18 21 26 66 99 99 99 99
24 26 56 99 99 99 99 99
47 66 99 99 99 99 99 99
99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99
99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99
99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99
99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99

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An 8 × 8 block from the Y image of ‘Lena’

200 202 189 188 189 175 175 175 515 65 -12 4 1 2 -8 5
200 203 198 188 189 182 178 175 -16 3 2 0 0 -11 -2 3
203 200 200 195 200 187 185 175 -12 6 11 -1 3 0 1 -2
200 200 200 200 197 187 187 187 -8 3 -4 2 -2 -3 -5 -2
200 205 200 200 195 188 187 175 0 -2 7 -5 4 0 -1 -4
200 200 200 200 200 190 187 175 0 -3 -1 0 4 1 -1 0
205 200 199 200 191 187 187 175 3 -2 -3 3 3 -1 -1 3
210 200 200 200 188 185 187 186 -2 5 -2 4 -2 2 -3 0
f (i, j) F (u, v)

Fig. 9.2: JPEG compression for a smooth image block.

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32 6 -1 0 0 0 0 0 512 66 -10 0 0 0 0 0
-1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 -12 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
-1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 -14 0 16 0 0 0 0 0
-1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 -14 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
F̂ (u, v) F̃ (u, v)

199 196 191 186 182 178 177 176 1 6 -2 2 7 -3

-2 -1
201 199 196 192 188 183 180 178 -1 4 2 -4 1 -1
-2 -3
203 203 202 200 195 189 183 180 0 -3 -2 -5 5 -2
2 -5
202 203 204 203 198 191 183 179 -2 -3 -4 -3 -1 -4
4 8
200 201 202 201 196 189 182 177 0 4 -2 -1 -1 -1
5 -2
200 200 199 197 192 186 181 177 0 0 1 3 8 4
6 -2
204 202 199 195 190 186 183 181 1 -2 0 5 1 1
4 -6
207 204 200 194 190 187 185 184 3 -4 0 6 -2 -2
2 2
f˜(i, j) (i, j) = f (i, j) − f˜(i, j)

Fig. 9.2 (cont’d): JPEG compression for a smooth image block.

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Another 8 × 8 block from the Y image of ‘Lena’

70 70 100 70 87 87 150 187 -80 -40 89 -73 44 32 53 -3

85 100 96 79 87 154 87 113 -135 -59 -26 6 14 -3 -13 -28
100 85 116 79 70 87 86 196 47 -76 66 -3 -108 -78 33 59
136 69 87 200 79 71 117 96 -2 10 -18 0 33 11 -21 1
161 70 87 200 103 71 96 113 -1 -9 -22 8 32 65 -36 -1
161 123 147 133 113 113 85 161 5 -20 28 -46 3 24 -30 24
146 147 175 100 103 103 163 187 6 -20 37 -28 12 -35 33 17
156 146 189 70 113 161 163 197 -5 -23 33 -30 17 -5 -4 20
f (i, j) F (u, v)

Fig. 9.3: JPEG compression for a textured image block.

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-5 -4 9 -5 2 1 1 0 -80 -44 90 -80 48 40 51 0

-11 -5 -2 0 1 0 0 -1 -132 -60 -28 0 26 0 0 -55
3 -6 4 0 -3 -1 0 1 42 -78 64 0 -120 -57 0 56
0 1 -1 0 1 0 0 0 0 17 -22 0 51 0 0 0
0 0 -1 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 -37 0 0 109 0 0
0 -1 1 -1 0 0 0 0 0 -35 55 -64 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
F̂ (u, v) F̃ (u, v)

70 60 106 94 62 103 146 176 0 10 -6 -24 25-16 4 11

85 101 85 75 102 127 93 144 0 -1 11 4 -15 27 -6 -31
98 99 92 102 74 98 89 167 2 -14 24 -23 -4-11 -3 29
132 53 111 180 55 70 106 145 4 16 -24 20 24 1 11 -49
173 57 114 207 111 89 84 90 -12 13 -27 -7 -8-18 12 23
164 123 131 135 133 92 85 162 -3 0 16 -2 -20 21 0 -1
141 159 169 73 106 101 149 224 5 -12 6 27 -3 2 14 -37
150 141 195 79 107 147 210 153 6 5 -6 -9 6 14 -47 44
f˜(i, j) (i, j) = f (i, j)− f˜(i, j)

Fig. 9.3 (cont’d): JPEG compression for a textured image block.

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Run-length Coding (RLC) on AC coefficients

• RLC aims to turn the F̂ (u, v) values into sets {#-zeros-to-

skip , next non-zero value}.

• To make it most likely to hit a long run of zeros: a zig-zag

scan is used to turn the 8 × 8 matrix F̂ (u, v) into a 64-vector.

Fig. 9.4: Zig-Zag Scan in JPEG.

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DPCM on DC coefficients

• The DC coefficients are coded separately from the AC ones.

Differential Pulse Code Modulation (DPCM) is the coding
method.

• If the DC coefficients for the first 5 image blocks are 150,

155, 149, 152, 144, then the DPCM would produce 150, 5,
-6, 3, -8, assuming di = DCi+1 − DCi, and d0 = DC0.

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Entropy Coding

• The DC and AC coefficients finally undergo an entropy cod-

ing step to gain a possible further compression.

• Use DC as an example: each DPCM coded DC coefficient is

represented by (SIZE, AMPLITUDE), where SIZE indicates
how many bits are needed for representing the coefficient,
and AMPLITUDE contains the actual bits.

• In the example we’re using, codes 150, 5, −6, 3, −8 will be

turned into
(8, 10010110), (3, 101), (3, 001), (2, 11), (4, 0111) .

• SIZE is Huffman coded since smaller SIZEs occur much more

often. AMPLITUDE is not Huffman coded, its value can
change widely so Huffman coding has no appreciable benefit.

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Table 9.3 Baseline entropy coding details – size category.

SIZE AMPLITUDE
1 -1, 1
2 -3, -2, 2, 3
3 -7..-4, 4..7
4 -15..-8, 8..15
. .
. .
. .
10 -1023..-512, 512..1023

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9.1.2 Four Commonly Used JPEG Modes

• Sequential Mode — the default JPEG mode, implicitly as-

sumed in the discussions so far. Each graylevel image or
color image component is encoded in a single left-to-right,
top-to-bottom scan.

• Progressive Mode.

• Hierarchical Mode.

• Lossless Mode — discussed in Chapter 7, to be replaced by

JPEG-LS (Section 9.3).

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Progressive Mode

Progressive JPEG delivers low quality versions of the image

quickly, followed by higher quality passes.

1. Spectral selection: Takes advantage of the “spectral” (spa-

tial frequency spectrum) characteristics of the DCT coeffi-
cients: higher AC components provide detail information.

Scan 1: Encode DC and first few AC components, e.g.,

AC1, AC2.

Scan 2: Encode a few more AC components, e.g., AC3,

AC4, AC5.
..

Scan k: Encode the last few ACs, e.g., AC61, AC62, AC63.

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Progressive Mode (Cont’d)

2. Successive approximation: Instead of gradually encoding

spectral bands, all DCT coefficients are encoded simultane-
ously but with their most significant bits (MSBs) first.

Scan 1: Encode the first few MSBs, e.g., Bits 7, 6, 5, 4.

Scan 2: Encode a few more less significant bits, e.g., Bit 3.

...

Scan m: Encode the least significant bit (LSB), Bit 0.

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Hierarchical Mode

• The encoded image at the lowest resolution is basically a

compressed low-pass filtered image, whereas the images at
successively higher resolutions provide additional details (dif-
ferences from the lower resolution images).

• Similar to Progressive JPEG, the Hierarchical JPEG images

can be transmitted in multiple passes progressively improving
quality.

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f4 F4
4 Encode Decode f˜4

Decode
f˜4
2
2
d2 = f2 − E(f˜4 ) d˜2
f2 − D2 f˜2 =
2 + Encode Decode +
+ E(f˜4 ) + d˜2

Decode

+ f˜2 2

2
d1 = f − E(f˜2 )
− D1 d˜1 f˜ =
f + Encode Decode +
+ E(f˜2 ) + d˜1

Fig. 9.5: Block diagram for Hierarchical JPEG.

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Encoder for a Three-level Hierarchical JPEG

1. Reduction of image resolution:
Reduce resolution of the input image f (e.g., 512 × 512) by a factor of 2
in each dimension to obtain f2 (e.g., 256 × 256). Repeat this to obtain
f4 (e.g., 128 × 128).

2. Compress low-resolution image f4 :

Encode f4 using any other JPEG method (e.g., Sequential, Progressive)
to obtain F4.

3. Compress difference image d2 :

(a) Decode F4 to obtain f˜4 . Use any interpolation method to expand f˜4
to be of the same resolution as f2 and call it E(f˜4).
(b) Encode difference d2 = f2 − E(f˜4 ) using any other JPEG method
(e.g., Sequential, Progressive) to generate D2.

4. Compress difference image d1 :

(a) Decode D2 to obtain d˜2; add it to E(f˜4) to get f˜2 = E(f˜4 ) + d˜2 which
is a version of f2 after compression and decompression.
(b) Encode difference d1 = f −E(f˜2) using any other JPEG method (e.g.,
Sequential, Progressive) to generate D1 .

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Decoder for a Three-level Hierarchical JPEG

1. Decompress the encoded low-resolution image F4:

– Decode F4 using the same JPEG method as in the encoder

to obtain f˜4.

2. Restore image f˜2 at the intermediate resolution:

– Use E(f˜4) + d˜2 to obtain f˜2.

3. Restore image f˜ at the original resolution:

– Use E(f˜2) + d˜1 to obtain f˜.

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9.1.3 A Glance at the JPEG Bitstream

Start_of_image Frame End_of_image

Tables, etc. Header Scan ... Scan

Tables, etc. Header Segment Restart Segment Restart ...

Block Block Block ...

Fig. 9.6: JPEG bitstream.

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9.2 The JPEG2000 Standard

• Design Goals:

– To provide a better rate-distortion tradeoff and improved

subjective image quality.
– To provide additional functionalities lacking in the current
JPEG standard.

• The JPEG2000 standard addresses the following problems:

– Lossless and Lossy Compression: There is currently no

standard that can provide superior lossless compression
and lossy compression in a single bitstream.

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– Low Bit-rate Compression: The current JPEG stan-

dard offers excellent rate-distortion performance in mid
and high bit-rates. However, at bit-rates below 0.25 bpp,
subjective distortion becomes unacceptable. This is im-
portant if we hope to receive images on our web-enabled
ubiquitous devices, such as web-aware wristwatches and
so on.
– large Images: The new standard will allow image reso-
lutions greater than 64K by 64K without tiling. It can
handle image size up to 232 − 1.
– Single Decompression Architecture: The current JPEG
standard has 44 modes, many of which are application
specific and not used by the majority of JPEG decoders.

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– Transmission in Noisy Environments: The new stan-

dard will provide improved error resilience for transmission
in noisy environments such as wireless networks and the
Internet.
– Progressive Transmission: The new standard provides
seamless quality and resolution scalability from low to high
bit-rate. The target bit-rate and reconstruction resolution
need not be known at the time of compression.
– Region of Interest Coding: The new standard allows
the specification of Regions of Interest (ROI) which can
be coded with superior quality than the rest of the image.
One might like to code the face of a speaker with more
quality than the surrounding furniture.

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– Computer Generated Imagery: The current JPEG stan-

dard is optimized for natural imagery and does not per-
form well on computer generated imagery.
– Compound Documents: The new standard offers meta-
data mechanisms for incorporating additional non-image
data as part of the file. This might be useful for including
text along with imagery, as one important example.

• In addition, JPEG2000 is able to handle up to 256 channels

of information whereas the current JPEG standard is only
able to handle three color channels.

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Properties of JPEG2000 Image Compression

• Uses Embedded Block Coding with Optimized Truncation
(EBCOT) algorithm which partitions each subband LL, LH,
HL, HH produced by the wavelet transform into small blocks
called “code blocks”.

• A separate scalable bitstream is generated for each code

block =⇒ improved error resilience.

Fig. 9.7: Code block structure of EBCOT.

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Main Steps of JPEG2000 Image Compression

• Embedded Block coding and bitstream generation.

• Post compression rate distortion (PCRD) optimization.

• Layer formation and representation.

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Embedded Block Coding and Bitstream

Generation

1. Bitplane coding.

2. Fractional bitplane coding.

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1. Bitplane Coding

• Uniform dead zone quantizers are used with successively smaller

interval sizes. Equivalent to coding each block one bitplane
at a time.
y

1
2δ
0 δ x
-3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3
-1

-2

Fig. 9.8: Dead zone quantizer. The length of the dead zone is 2δ. Values
inside the dead zone are quantized to 0.
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• Blocks are further divided into a sequence of 16 × 16 sub-

blocks.

• The significance of sub-blocks are encoded in a significance

map σ P where σ p(Bi [j]) denote the significance of sub-block
Bi [j] at bitplane P .

• A quad-tree structure is used to identify the significance of

sub-blocks one level at a time.

• The tree structure is constructed by identifying the sub-

blocks with leaf nodes, i.e., Bi0[j] = Bi[j]. The higher lev-
els are built using recursion: Bit [j] = ∪z∈{0,1}2 Bit−1[2j + z],
0 ≤ t ≤ T.

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Bitplane Coding Primitives

Four different primitive coding methods that employ context

based arithmetic coding are used:

• Zero Coding: Used to code coefficients on each bitplane

that are not yet significant.
P
– Horizontal: hi[k] = z∈{1,−1} σi [k1 +z, k2 ], with 0 ≤ hi [k] ≤
2.
P
– Vertical: vi[k] = z∈{1,−1} σi [k1 , k2 +z], with 0 ≤ vi [k] ≤ 2.
P
– Diagonal: di[k] = z1,z2∈{1,−1} σi [k1 + z1, k2 + z2], with
0 ≤ di[k] ≤ 4.

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Table 9.4 Context assignment for the zero coding

primitive.

LL, LH and HL subbands HH subband

Label hi[k] vi[k] di[k] di[k] hi[k] + vi[k]
0 0 0 0 0 0
1 0 0 1 0 1
2 0 0 >1 0 >1
3 0 1 x 1 0
4 0 2 x 1 1
5 1 0 0 1 >1
6 1 0 >0 2 0
7 1 >0 x 2 >0
8 2 x x >2 x

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• Run-length coding: Code runs of 1-bit significance values.

Four conditions must be met:

– Four consecutive samples must be insignificant.

– The samples must have insignificant neighbors.

– The samples must be within the same sub-block.

– The horizontal index k1 of the first sample must be even.

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• Sign coding: Invoked at most once when a coefficients goes

from being insignificant to significant.

– The sign bits χi[k] from adjacent samples contains sub-

stantial dependencies.

– The conditional distribution of χi[k] is assumed to be the

same as −χi[k].

– h̄i [k] be 0 if both horizontal neighbors are insignificant, 1

if at least one horizontal neighbor is positive, or −1 if at
least one horizontal neighbor is negative.

– v̄i[k] defined similarly for vertical neighbors.

– If χ̂i[k] is the sign prediction, the binary symbol coded

using the relevant context is χi[k] · χ̂i[k].

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Table 9.5 Context assignment for the sign coding

primitive

Label χ̂i[k] h̄i[k] v̄i[k]

4 1 1 1
3 1 0 1
2 1 -1 1
1 -1 1 0
0 1 0 0
1 1 -1 0
2 -1 1 -1
3 -1 0 -1
4 -1 -1 -1

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p
• Magnitude refinement: Code the value of νi [k] given that
νi [k] ≥ 2p+1.

– σ̃i [k] is changes from 0 to 1 after the magnitude refine-

ment primitive is first applied to si[k].

p
– vi [k] is coded with context 0 if σ̃[k] = hi[k] = vi[k] = 0,
with context 1 if σ̃i [k] = 0 and hi[k] + vi[k] 6= 0, and with
context 2 if σ̃i[k] = 1.

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2. Fractional Bitplane Coding

• Divides code block samples into smaller subsets having dif-

ferent statistics.

• Codes one subset at a time starting with the subset expecting

to have the largest reduction in distortion.

• Ensures each code block has a finely embedded bitstream.

• Four different passes are used: forward significance propa-

p p
gation pass (P1 ); reverse significance propagation pass (P2 );
p p
magnitude refinement pass (P3 ); and normalization pass (P4 ).

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Forward Significance Propagation Pass

• Sub-block samples are visited in scan-line order and insignif-

icant samples and samples that do not satisfy the neighbor-
hood requirement are skipped.

• For the LH, HL, and LL subbands, the neighborhood require-

ment is that at least one of the horizontal neighbors has to
be significant.

• For the HH subband, the neighborhood requirement is that

at least one of the four diagonal neighbors is significant.

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Reverse Significance Propagation Pass

p
• This pass is identical to P1 except that it proceeds in the
reverse order. The neighborhood requirement is relaxed to
include samples that have at least one significant neighbor
in any direction.

Magnitude Refinement Pass

• This pass encodes samples that are already significant but
have not been coded in the previous two passes. Such sam-
ples are processed with the magnitude refinement primitive.

Magnitude Refinement Pass

p
• The value νi [k] of all samples not considered in the previous
three coding passes are coded using the sign coding and run-
length coding primitives as appropriate. If a sample is found
to be significant, its sign is immediately coded using the sign
coding primitive.

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max max max −1 max −1 max −1 max −1 max −1

p p pi p p pi pi ... P10 P20 P30 S 0 P40
S i P i
4
P1 P i
2
P i
3 S P4

Fig. 9.9: Appearance of coding passes and quad tree codes in

each block’s embedded bitstream.

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Post Compression Rate Distortion

(PCRD) Optimization

• Goal:

– Produce a truncation of the independent bitstream of

each code block in an optimal way such that distortion
is minimized, subject to the bit-rate constraint.

• For each truncated embedded bitstream of code block Bi

n n
having rate Ri i with distortion Di i and truncation point ni,
the overall distortion of the reconstructed image is (assuming
distortion is additive)
X n
D= Di i (9.3)
i

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• The optimal selection of truncation points ni can be formu-

lated into a minimization problem subject to the following
constraint:

X n
R= Ri i ≤ Rmax (9.5)
i

i } that minimizes
• For some λ, any set of truncation point {nλ

!
X nλ nλ
(D(λ) + λR(λ)) = D i
i + λR i
i (9.6)
i

is optimal in the rate-distortion sense.

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• The distortion-rate slopes given by the ratios

j
j ∆Di k
Si k = j
(9.7)
∆Ri k

is strictly decreasing.

• This allows the optimization problem be solved by a simple

selection through an enumeration j1 < j2 < · · · of the set of
feasible truncation points.

n o
λ jk
ni = max jk ∈ Ni|Si > λ (9.8)

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Layer Formation and Representation

• JPEG2000 offers both resolution and quality scalability through

the use of a layered bitstream organization and a two-tiered
coding strategy.

• The first tier produces the embedded block bit-streams while

the second tier compresses block summary information.

n1
• The quality layer Q1 contains the initial Ri i bytes of each
code block Bi and the other layers Qq contain the incremental
q q−1
q ni ni
contribution Li = Ri − R ≥ 0 from code block Bi .

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Empty Empty Empty

Empty Empty

Empty

B0 B1 B2 B3 B4 B5 B6 B7

Fig. 9.10: Three quality layers with eight blocks each.

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Region of Interest Coding in JPEG2000

• Goal:

– Particular regions of the image may contain important

information, thus should be coded with better quality than
others.

• Usually implemented using the MAXSHIFT method which

scales up the coefficients within the ROI so that they are
placed into higher bit-planes.

• During the embedded coding process, the resulting bits are

placed in front of the non-ROI part of the image. Therefore,
given a reduced bit-rate, the ROI will be decoded and refined
before the rest of the image.

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(a) (b)

(c) (d)

Fig. 9.11: Region of interest (ROI) coding of an image using a circularly

shaped ROI. (a) 0.4 bpp, (b) 0.5 bpp, (c) 0.6bpp, and (d) 0.7 bpp.

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Fig. 9.12: Performance comparison for JPEG and JPEG2000 on different

image types. (a): Natural images.

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Fig. 9.12 (Cont’d): Performance comparison for JPEG and JPEG2000 on

different image types. (b): Computer generated images.

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Fig. 9.12 (Cont’d): Performance comparison for JPEG and JPEG2000 on

different image types. (c): Medical images.

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(a)

Fig. 9.13: Comparison of JPEG and JPEG2000. (a) Original

image.

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(b)

(c)

Fig. 9.13 (Cont’d): Comparison of JPEG and JPEG2000. (b) JPEG (left)
and JPEG2000 (right) images compressed at 0.75 bpp. (c) JPEG (left) and
JPEG2000 (right) images compressed at 0.25 bpp.

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9.3 The JPEG-LS Standard

• JPEG-LS is in the current ISO/ITU standard for lossless or

“near lossless” compression of continuous tone images.

• It is part of a larger ISO effort aimed at better compression

of medical images.

• Uses the LOCO-I (LOw COmplexity LOssless COmpression

for Images) algorithm proposed by Hewlett-Packard.

• Motivated by the observation that complexity reduction is

often more important than small increases in compression
offered by more complex algorithms.

Main Advantage: Low complexity!

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• The LOCO-I algorithm makes uses of context modelling.

• The idea of context modelling is to take advantage of the

structure within the input source – the conditional probabil-
ities.

c a d

b x

Fig. 9.14: JPEG-LS Context Model.

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9.4 JBIG and JBIG-2: Bi-level Image

Compression Standards

• Main Goal: Enables the handing of documents in electronic

form.

• Primarily used to code scanned images of printed or hand-

written text, computer generated text, and facsimile trans-
missions.

• JBIG is a lossless compression standard. It also offers pro-

gressive encoding/decoding capability, the resulting bitstream
contains a set of progressively higher resolution images.

• JBIG-2 introduces model-based coding – similar to context-

based coding. It supports lossy compressions well.

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9.5 Further Explorations

• Text books:

– The JPEG Still Image Compression Standard by Pennebaker and

Mitchell
– JPEG2000: Image Compression Fundamentals, Standards, and Prac-
tice by Taubman and Marcellin
– Image and Video Compression Standards: Algorithms and Architec-
tures, 2nd ed. by Bhaskaren and Konstantinides

• Interactive JPEG demo, and comparison of JPEG and JPEG2000

• Web sites: −→ Link to Further Exploration for Chapter 9.. including:

– JPEG and JPEG2000 links, source code, etc.

– Original paper for the LOCO-I algorithm
– Introduction and source code for JPEG-LS, JBIG, JBIG2

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