Basics of Learning and Teaching

Dr. P. Ramesh
Principal Scientist
National Academy of Agricultural Research Management, Hyderabad - 500 030

Learning occupies a very important place in our life. Most of what we do or do not do is
influenced by what we learn and how we learn it. Learning therefore, provides a key to the
structure of our personality and behavior. Learning is acquiring new, or modifying existing,
knowledge, behaviors, skills, values, or preferences and may involve synthesizing different types
of information. The ability to learn is possessed by humans, animals and some machines.
Progress over time tends to follow learning curves. Learning is not compulsory, it is contextual.
It does not happen all at once, but builds upon and is shaped by what we already know. To that
end, learning may be viewed as a process, rather than a collection of factual and procedural
knowledge.

Definition of learning: Learning is the process of assimilating information with a resultant

change in behaviour. In the words of Fred Luthans, “Learning can be defined as relatively
permanent change in behaviour that occurs as a result of experience or reinforced practice”.

Nature of Learning:

a. Learning is adaptation or adjustment: Friends, we all continuously interact with our

environment. We often make adjustment and adapt to our social environment. Through a process
of continuous learning, the individual prepares himself for necessary adjustment or adaptation.
That is why learning is also described as a process of progressive adjustment to ever changing
conditions, which one encounters.

b. Learning is improvement: Learning is often considered as a process of improvement with

practice or training. We learn many things, which help us to improve our performance.

c. Learning is organizing experience: Learning is not mere addition of knowledge. It is the

reorganization of experience.

d. Learning brings behavioural changes: Whatever the direction of the changes may be, learning
brings progressive changes in the behaviour of an individual. That is why he is able to adjust to
changing situations.

e. Learning is active: Learning does not take place without a purpose and self-activity. In any
teaching learning process, the activity of the learner counts more than the activity of a teacher.

1
f. Learning is goal directed: when the aim and purpose of learning is clear, an individual learns
immediately. It is the purpose or goal, which determines what, the learner sees in the learning
situations and how he acts. If there is no purpose or goal learning can hardly be seen.

g. Learning is universal and continuous: All living creatures learn. Every moment the individual
engages himself to learn more and more. Right from the birth of a child till the death learning
continues.

Process of Learning:

Learning is a process. It is carried out through steps. Learning process involves –

(a) A motive or a drive.

(b) An attractive goal.
(c) A block to the attainment of the goal.

Let us see the steps one by one –

(a) A motive or a drive: Motive is the dynamic force that energizes behaviour and compels an
individual to act. We do any activity because of our motives or our needs. When our need is
strong enough, we are compelled to strive for its satisfaction. Learning takes place because of
response to some stimulation. As long as our present behaviour, knowledge, skill and
performance are adequate to satisfy all our needs, we do not feel any necessity to change our
behaviour or acquire new knowledge and skills. It is this requirement, which initiates a learner to
learn something.

(b) Goal: Every individual has to set a definite goal for achievement. We should always have a
definite goal for achieving anything. If a definite goal is set then learning becomes purposeful
and interesting.

(c) Obstacle /block /barrier: The obstacle or block or the barrier is equally important in the
process of learning. The obstacle or the barriers keep us away from attaining the goal. Now, you
will think how the obstacle can be important in the process of learning. So let me tell you, if you
face no difficulty of any kind in attaining the goal, you will not bring any change in your present
behaviour or stock of knowledge or skills. Thus, the block or the barrier is an essential step in the
learning process. Let us clear the above views by taking an example. Suppose you wish to be
included in your college hockey team. You want to have the esteem of your colleagues, your
teachers. You are also motivated try the interesting experiences that you many enjoy. But you are
blocked by your lack of skill in dodging, tackling and handling the ball. The obstacles in the path

2
of goal achievement will set you make up your deficiency and acquire essential skill through
sufficient practice and coaching.

Components in learning:

Learning is a process. It involves changes occurring over a relatively shorter period of time
which enable the learner to respond more adequately to the situation. Thus we learn to play the
piano, we learn fractions and we learn arithmetic. On the other hand, we grow in intelligence and
we grow in moral stature. In some cases, the factor of growth and learning will be so inextricably
inter wined that either or both words will be need to be used. There are various aspects of the
process of learning. We can ensure effective learning by paying attention to these aspects.

1. Needs of the learner: Learning can only takes place in response to the felt needs of the
learners. When the need of the learner is strong enough and he sets definite goals for
achievement, learning will be more effective. Educative process must be geared to the
learners. The teacher must show them their needs. Only then he can make them start on
learning.

2. Readiness to learn: Learning readiness is essential for effective learning. Specific

learning will not occur until children are ready for it. Readiness is the capacity and
willingness to learn. In a very true sense, all studies of physical, intellectual, social and
emotional growth bear directly upon the state of readiness. Nothing is gained by
attempting to teach someone who is not emotionally, physically, intellectually and
experientially ready for what is to be taught.

3. Situation: Situation is an important aspect in the process of learning. The learning

situation provides opportunity for learning. The kind of situation available to the learner
determines the quality and speed of learning. Informal learning situations are found in the
home environment, community environment and school environment. Formal learning
situations can be provided by the teacher to make learning systematic.

4. Interaction: The student, with his felt needs and the goals he sets himself, learns by
interacting in the learning situation. It is just the process of responding to a situation and
getting satisfaction. Learning is caused by this interaction. The more numerous and more
satisfying the interactions are, the better the learning will be. Learning takes place when
insight is gained, when the processes are understood - in short when interaction has taken
place.

Domains of learning (Bloom's Taxonomy)

3
Humans are lifelong learners. From birth onward we learn and assimilate what we have just
learned into what we already know. Educational Psychologist Benjamin Bloom divided what
and how we learn into three separate domains of learning.

Cognitive Domain - This domain includes content knowledge and the development of
intellectual skills. This includes the recall or recognition of specific facts and concepts that serve
developing intellectual abilities and skills.

Skills in the cognitive domain, the one most relevant to faculty and administrator training
include:

1. Knowledge remembering of previously learned material; of terminology; specific facts;

ways and means of dealing with specifics (conventions, trends and sequences,
classifications and categories, criteria, methodology); universals and abstractions in a
field (principles and generalizations, theories and structures):
Knowledge is (here) defined as the remembering (recalling) of appropriate, previously
learned information.
2. Comprehension: Grasping (understanding) the meaning of informational materials.
3. Application: The use of previously learned information in new and concrete situations to
solve problems that have single or best answers.
4. Analysis: The breaking down of informational materials into their component parts,
examining (and trying to understand the organizational structure of) such information to
develop divergent conclusions by identifying motives or causes, making inferences,
and/or finding evidence to support generalizations.
5. Synthesis: Creatively or divergently applying prior knowledge and skills to produce a
new or original whole.
6. Evaluation (On same level as synthesis?): Judging the value of material based on
personal values/opinions, resulting in an end product, with a given purpose, without real
right or wrong answers.

Affective Domain- How does one approach learning? With confidence, I can do attitude. The
affective domain includes feelings, values, appreciation, enthusiasms, motivations, and attitudes.

Psychomotor Domain- The psychomotor domain includes physical movement, coordination,

and use of the motor-skill areas. Development of these skills requires practice and is measured in
terms of speed, precision, distance, procedures, or techniques in execution.

These domains are not mutually exclusive. For example, in learning to play chess, the person
will have to learn the rules of the game (cognitive domain); but he also has to learn how to set up
the chess pieces on the chessboard and also how to properly hold and move a chess piece

4
(psychomotor). Furthermore, later in the game the person may even learn to love the game itself,
value its applications in life, and appreciate its history (affective domain).

Principles of learning
Educational psychologists and pedagogues have identified several principles of learning, also referred to
as laws of learning, which seem generally applicable to the learning process. These principles have been
discovered, tested, and used in practical situations. They provide additional insight into what makes people
learn most effectively. Edward Thorndike developed the first three "Laws of learning:" readiness, exercise,
and effect. Since Thorndike set down his basic three laws in the early part of the twentieth century, five
additional principles have been added: primacy, recency, intensity, freedom and requirement.

Readiness
Readiness implies a degree of concentration and eagerness. Individuals learn best when they are physically,
mentally, and emotionally ready to learn, and do not learn well if they see no reason for learning. Getting
students ready to learn, creating interest by showing the value of the subject matter, and providing continuous
mental or physical challenge, is usually the instructor’s responsibility. If students have a strong purpose, a
clear objective, and a definite reason for learning something, they make more progress than if they
lack motivation. In other words, when students are ready to learn, they meet the instructor at least halfway,
simplifying the instructor’s job.
Since learning is an active process, students must have adequate rest, health, and physical ability. Basic
needs of students must be satisfied before they are ready or capable of learning. Students who are exhausted or
in ill health cannot learn much. If they are distracted by outside responsibilities, interests, or worries, have
overcrowded schedules, or other unresolved issues, students may have little interest in learning. For example,
we may identify the situation of an academic examination of a school, in which the cause of securing good
marks in various subjects leads to mentally and emotionally readiness of students to do more hard labour in
acquiring knowledge.

Exercise
The principle of exercise states that those things most often repeated are best remembered. It is the basis of
drill and practice. It has been proven that students learn best and retain information longer when they have
meaningful practice and repetition. The key here is that the practice must be meaningful. It is clear that
practice leads to improvement only when it is followed by positive feedback.
The human memory is fallible. The mind can rarely retain, evaluate, and apply new concepts or practices after
a single exposure. Students do not learn complex tasks in a single session. They learn by applying what they
have been told and shown. Every time practice occurs, learning continues. These include student recall, review
and summary, and manual drill and physical applications. All of these serve to create learning habits. The
instructor must repeat important items of subject matter at reasonable intervals, and provide opportunities for
students to practice while making sure that this process is directed toward a goal. But in some or many cases,
there is no need for regular practice if the skill is acquired once. For instance, if we have learnt cycling once,
we will not forget the knowledge or skill even if we aren't exercising it for a long time.

5
Effect
The principle of effect is based on the emotional reaction of the student. It has a direct relationship to
motivation. The principle of effect is that learning is strengthened when accompanied by a pleasant or
satisfying feeling, and that learning is weakened when associated with an unpleasant feeling. The student will
strive to continue doing what provides a pleasant effect to continue learning. Positive reinforcement is more
apt to lead to success and motivate the learner, so the instructor should recognize and commend improvement.
Whatever the learning situation, it should contain elements that affect the students positively and give them a
feeling of satisfaction. Therefore, instructors should be cautious about using punishment in the classroom.
One of the important obligations of the instructor is to set up the learning situation in such a manner that each
trainee will be able to see evidence of progress and achieve some degree of success. Experiences that produce
feelings of defeat, frustration, anger, confusion, or futility are unpleasant for the student. If, for example, an
instructor attempts to teach advanced concepts on the initial engagement, the student is likely to feel inferior
and be frustrated. Impressing upon students the difficulty of a task to be learned can make the teaching task
difficult. Usually it is better to tell students that a problem or task, although difficult, is within their capability
to understand or perform. Every learning experience does not have to be entirely successful, nor does the
student have to master each lesson completely. However, every learning experience should contain elements
that leave the student with some good feelings. A student’s chance of success is definitely increased if the
learning experience is a pleasant one.

Primacy
Primacy, the state of being first, often creates a strong, almost unshakable, impression. Things learned first
create a strong impression in the mind that is difficult to erase. For the instructor, this means that what is taught
must be right the first time. For the student, it means that learning must be right. “Unteaching” wrong first
impressions is harder than teaching them right the first time. If, for example, a student learns a faulty
technique, the instructor will have a difficult task correcting bad habits and “reteaching” correct ones.
The student's first experience should be positive, functional, and lay the foundation for all that is to follow.
What the student learns must be procedurally correct and applied the very first time. The instructor must
present subject matter in a logical order, step by step, making sure the students have already learned the
preceding step. If the task is learned in isolation, is not initially applied to the overall performance, or if it must
be relearned, the process can be confusing and time consuming. Preparing and following a lesson
plan facilitates delivery of the subject matter correctly the first time.

Recency
The principle of recency states that things most recently learned are best remembered. Conversely, the further
a student is removed time-wise from a new fact or understanding, the more difficult it is to remember. For
example, it is fairly easy to recall a telephone number dialed a few minutes ago, but it is usually impossible to
recall a new number dialed last week. The closer the training or learning time is to the time of actual need to
apply the training, the more apt the learner will be to perform successfully.

Information acquired last generally is remembered best; frequent review and summarization help fix in the
mind the material covered. Instructors recognize the principle of recency when they carefully plan a summary
for a lesson or learning situation. The instructor repeats, restates, or reemphasizes important points at the end

6
of a lesson to help the student remember them. The principle of recency often determines the sequence of
lectures within a course of instruction.

Intensity
The more intense the material taught, the more likely it will be retained. A sharp, clear, vivid, dramatic, or
exciting learning experience teaches more than a routine or boring experience. The principle
of intensityimplies that a student will learn more from the real thing than from a substitute. For example, a
student can get more understanding and appreciation of a movie by watching it than by reading the script.
Likewise, a student is likely to gain greater understanding of tasks by performing them rather than merely
reading about them. The more immediate and dramatic the learning is to a real situation, the more impressive
the learning is upon the student. Real world applications that integrate procedures and tasks that students are
capable of learning will make a vivid impression on them.
In contrast to practical instruction, the classroom imposes limitations on the amount of realism that can be
brought into teaching. The instructor needs to use imagination in approaching reality as closely as possible.
Classroom instruction can benefit from a wide variety of instructional aids, to improve realism, motivate
learning, and challenge students. Instructors should emphasize important points of instruction with gestures,
showmanship, and voice. Demonstrations, skits, and role playing do much to increase the learning experience
of students. Examples, analogies, and personal experiences also make learning come to life. Instructors should
make full use of the senses (hearing, sight, touch, taste, smell, balance, rhythm, depth perception, and others).

Freedom
The principle of freedom states that things freely learned are best learned. Conversely, the further a student is
coerced, the more difficult is for him to learn, assimilate and implement what is learned. Compulsion and
coercion are antithetical to personal growth. The greater the freedom enjoyed by individuals within a society,
the greater the intellectual and moral advancement enjoyed by society as a whole.
Since learning is an active process, students must have freedom: freedom of choice, freedom of action,
freedom to bear the results of action—these are the three great freedoms that constitute personal responsibility.
If no freedom is granted, students may have little interest in learning.

Requirement
The law of requirement states that "we must have something to obtain or do something." It can be an
ability, skill, instrument or anything that may help us to learn or gain something. A starting point or root is
needed; for example, if you want to draw a person, you need to have the materials with which to draw, and you
must know how to draw a point, a line, a figure and so on until you reach your goal, which is to draw a person.

Basics of Teaching
One of the basic truths in education is that the quality of education depends largely upon the
quality of the teacher. Teaching is more than standing before a class and applying a few specific
techniques. It is not merely presenting text book information and then testing the student’s ability
to repeat it. There is no magic formula for transforming knowledge from the teachers mind to
align the pupil’s. Teaching is not a mechanical process. It is an intricate, exacting and
challenging job.

7
Definition of Teaching: Teaching is an active process in which one person shares information
with others to provide them with the information to make behavioral changes.

Nature of Teaching
Teaching is an art in the sense that it relies heavily on intuition. In this approach teaching is more
by subjective and spontaneous methods. At the other end of the continuum, it is said that
teaching is a science by itself in the sense it depends primarily on behaviorally oriented model.
In this model, teaching process tends to be perceived as a very simple stimulus-response
interaction, a reductionist position i.e. every skill and knowledge sub divided into component
tasks or procedures. It is quite possible that there are natural qualities or traits in certain persons
that predispose them to being better teachers. However, on the other hand it is also essential that
all teachers master certain teaching skills to be successful. In this context, it is wise to consider
that both the approaches- teaching as an art; teaching as a science, are not mutually exclusive,
if any they are synergistic.
An ideal teacher is concerned with the development of the whole child/pupil – intellectually,
socially, spiritually and in some degree, physically. In the light of these requirements, the
modern teaching process stresses three fundamentals:
1. Emphasizing the learner: The teacher today must be interested in facts and skills as such, but
his concern is their use as tools that contribute to the child’s development. Today’s teacher
emphasizes the learner. He looks to the students as the starting point for planning learning
experiences.

2. Guiding the learner: The teacher must guide and at the same time remember that learning is a
function of the learner and is based upon experiencing. It is the complex art of guiding pupils
through a variety of selected experiences towards the attainment of a widening field of learning.
The student must do his own learning, but the teacher can aid by pointing out unnoticed
obstacles, answering questions and furnishing supplementary information.
3. Promoting learner development: Each child has his own distinct potential and limitations. The
final extent of realization of his possibilities depends on the richness of the child’s environment,
his initial interaction with it, his later contacts with it, and his ultimate use of the awareness he
develops in himself of it and through it.

Elements in Teaching
Whether the teacher is teaching in the top levels of the university, in a school for adolescents
or in a school for children, good teaching demands skill in the same basic elements of the good
teaching. The following points shall indicate some of the principles of good teaching which
should be borne in mind by the teacher while he is dealing with the students. Since the goal of
teaching is desirable learning, the quality of teaching can be tested only in terms of the quality of
learning to which it leads.

8
 1. Recognize individual differences among pupils
2. It is need – centred
3. Improves the quality of living of every student
4. Interesting
5. Kind and sympathetic
6. Challenge the student to learn
7. Sense the productive moment
8. Create the learning situation
9. Causes, facilitates and promotes learning
10. Conforms to the aims of teaching
11. Encourages general development
12. Consideration of the social background of the learners
13. Cannot be tied to any one method
14. Dynamic
15. Reduces the distance between the teacher and the taught
16. Well planned and systematic

The art of teaching calls for a high degree of flexibility, adoptability and nimbleness of
mind that goes far beyond the mechanical application of step by step procedures. Thus proper
understanding, appreciation and application of the psychological principles help the teachers in
improving the overall teaching – learning process.

Psychological Principles of Teaching

Teaching is a complex, multifaceted activity, often requiring us as instructors to juggle
multiple tasks and goals simultaneously and flexibly. The following small but powerful set of
principles can make teaching both more effective and more efficient, by helping us create the
conditions that support student learning and minimize the need for revising materials, content,
and policies. While implementing these principles requires a commitment in time and effort, it
often saves time and energy later on.

1. Guide the learner. Be sure that students know the objectives. Tell them what will be
next. Provide organization and structure appropriate for their developmental level.

2. Develop a structured hierarchy of content. Some organization in the material should

be clear, but there should be opportunities for the student to do some structuring. Content
needs to include concepts, applications and problem solving.

3. Use images and visual learning. Most people prefer visual learning and have better
retention when this mode is used. Encourage students to generate their own visual
learning aids.

9
4. Ensure that the student is active. Students must actively grapple with the material.
This can be done internally or externally by writing or speaking.

5. Require practice. Learning complex concepts, tasks, or problem solving requires a

chance to practice in a non-threatening environment. Some repetition is required to
become both quick and accurate at tasks.

6. Provide feedback. Feedback should be prompt and, if at all possible, positive. Reward
works much better than punishment. Students need a second chance to practice after
feedback in order to benefit fully from it.

7. Have positive expectations of students. Positive expectations by the professor and

respect from the professor are highly motivating. Low expectations and disrespect are
demotivating. This is a very important principle, but it cannot be learned as a “method.”
A master teacher truly believes that her or his students are capable of great things.

8. Provide means for students to be challenged yet successful. Be sure students have the
proper background. Provide sufficient time and tasks that everyone can do successfully
but be sure that there is a challenge for everyone. Success is very motivating.

9. Individualize the teaching style. Use a variety of teaching styles and learning exercises
so that each student can use his or her favourite style and so that each student becomes
more proficient at all styles.

10. Make the class more cooperative. Use cooperative group exercises. Stop grading on a
curve and either use mastery learning or grade against an absolute standard.

11. Ask thought-provoking questions. Thought-provoking questions do not have to have

answers. Posing questions without answers can be particularly motivating for more
mature students.

12. Be enthusiastic and demonstrate the joy of learning. Enthusiasm is motivating and
will help students enjoy the class.

13. Encourage students to teach other students. Students who tutor others learn more
themselves and the students they tutor learn more. In addition, students who tutor develop
a sense of accomplishment and confidence in their ability.

14. Care about what you are doing. The professor who puts teaching “on automatic”
cannot do an outstanding job.

10
 15. If possible, separate teaching from evaluation. If a different person does the
evaluation, the teacher can become a coach and ally whose goal is to help the student
learn.

Essentials of Effective Teaching

There are seven principles based on research on good teaching and learning in colleges and
universities. While each practice can stand alone on its own, when all are present their effects
multiply.

1. Encourage contact between students and faculty: Frequent student-faculty contact in and
out of class is the most important factor in student motivation and involvement. Faculty
concern helps students get through rough times and keep on working. Knowing a few
faculty members will enhance student’s intellectual commitment and encourages them to
think about their own values and future plans.

2. Develop reciprocity and cooperation among students: Learning is enhanced when it is

more like a team effort than that of a solo race. Good learning, like good work, is
collaborative and social, not competitive and isolated. Working with others often
increases involvement and learning.

3. Encourage active learning: Students do not learn much just by sitting in classes listening
to teachers, memorizing pre-packaged assignments and spitting out answers. They must
talk about what they are learning, write about it, relate it to past experiences and apply it
to their daily lives. They must make what they learn part of themselves.

4. Give prompt feedback: Knowing what one knows and does not know focuses learning.
Students need appropriate feedback on performance to benefit from courses. When
getting started, students need help in assessing existing knowledge and competence. In
classes, students need frequent opportunities to perform and receive suggestions for
improvement. At various points during college and at the end, students need chances to
reflect on what they have learned, what they still need to know, and how to assess
themselves.

5. Emphasize time on task: Learning to use one’s time is critical for students and
professionals alike. Students need help in learning effective time management. Allocating
realistic amounts of time means effective learning for students and effective teaching for
faculty. How an institution defines time expectations for students, faculty, administrators
and other professional staff can establish the basis of high performance for all.

11
 6. Communicate high expectations: Expect more and we will get more. High expectations
are more important for everyone – for the poorly prepared, for those unwilling to exert
themselves and for the bright and well-motivated. Expecting students to perform well
becomes a self- fulfilling prophecy when teachers and in institutions hold high
expectations for themselves and make extra efforts.

7. Respect diverse talents and ways of learning: There are many roads of learning. People
bring different talents and styles of learning to college. Brilliant students in the seminar
room may be all thumbs in the laboratory. Students rich in hand-on-experience may not
do so well with theory. Students need the opportunity to show their talents and learn in
ways that work for them. Then they can be pushed to learn in new ways that do not come
so easily.

References
Biehler, R.F. and J. Snowman. 1990. Psychology Applied to Teaching. Houghton Mifflin
Company, Bostan, pp. 732.
Jagannadham Challa and M. Narayana Reddy. 2008. Educational Technology for Agricultural
Sciences, National Academy of Agricultural Research Management, Hyderabad, pp. 281.
Kochhar, S.K. 1985. Methods and Techniques of Teaching. Sterling Publishers Private Limited,
New Delhi, pp. 364.
Mangal, S.K. 1994. Advanced Educational Psychology. Prentice-Hall of India Private Limited,
New Delhi, pp.416.

12