FOOD

IRRADIATION
PROCESSING PROCEEDINGS OF A
SYMPOSIUM
WASHINGTON, D.C., 4 -8 MARCH 1985
JOINTLY ORGANIZED BY
IAEA AND FAO

íwj INTERNATIONAL ATOMIC ENERGY AGENCY, VIENNA, 1985

FOOD IRRADIATION
PROCESSING
 PROCEEDINGS SERIES

FOOD IRRADIATION
PROCESSING
PROCEEDINGS O F A N IN T E R N A T IO N A L SYM POSIUM
O N FOOD IR R A D IA T IO N PROCESSING
J O IN T L Y O R G A N IZ E D B Y TH E
IN T E R N A T IO N A L A TO M IC E N E R G Y A G E N C Y
A N D TH E
FOOD A N D A G R IC U L T U R E O R G A N IZ A T IO N
O F TH E U N ITE D N A TIO N S
A N D H ELD IN W ASH IN G TO N, D.C., 4 - 8 M A R C H 1985

IN T E R N A T IO N A L A TO M IC E N E R G Y A G E N C Y
V IE N N A , 1985
 FOOD IR R A D IA T IO N PROCESSING
IA E A , V IE N N A , 1985
STI/PUB/695
ISBN 9 2 -0 -0 1 0 1 8 5 -2

© IA EA , 1985

Permission to reproduce or translate the inform ation contained in this publication m ay be obtained
by writing to the International A tom ic Energy Agency, Wagramerstrasse 5, P.O. B o x 100, A -1400 Vienna,
Austria.

Printed by the IAEA in Austria

Septem ber 1985
 FOREWORD

The recommendation by the Joint FAO/IAEA/WHO Expert Comm ittee on

the Wholesomeness o f Irradiated Foods in 1980 regarding the acceptability o f
food irradiated up to an overall average dose o f 10 kGy, and the adoption o f the
Codex General Standard for Irradiated Foods by the Codex Alimentarius Com­
mission in 1983 have contributed greatly to a wider acceptance o f food irradiation.
A t present, the national public health authorities o f 26 countries have granted
some 140 unconditional or provisional clearances covering many different food
products. While approvals and national legislation are o f primary importance to
the commercialization o f food irradiation, the current disharmony o f existing and
proposed national legislation constitutes a significant obstacle to the economic
introduction o f the food irradiation process and makes trade o f irradiated foods
between countries almost impossible.
In the light o f such a situation, it appeared timely to hold an international
symposium on food irradiation processing dealing with issues which affect the
commercial introduction o f the food irradiation process.
The symposium, which attracted close to 300 participants, was planned to
interest not only scientists and food technologists, but also representatives o f
government agencies, the food industry, trade associations and consumer
organizations.
The symposium included a discussion o f the technological and economic
feasibility o f applying ionizing energy fo r the preservation o f food, and focused
on the specific needs o f developing countries.
It is rewarding fo r all the participants and those reading the proceedings o f
this symposium to see that tw o essential prerequisites to the introduction o f the
food irradiation process have been met, i.e. the demonstration o f its technological
efficacy and the acquisition o f unequivocal evidence o f the wholesomeness o f
irradiated food. The follow ing tasks requiring further attention were identi­
fied: demonstrating the economic feasibility and the benefits accruing from the
practical application o f the food irradiation process; establishing an adequate
legislative framework in member countries based on the provisions o f the Codex
Standard; promoting the acceptance o f the concept o f food irradiation by the
consumer.
The sponsoring organizations hope that the proceedings will serve as a guide
and valuable book for all those engaged in food irradiation and carrying responsi­
bility fo r the adoption o f this beneficial technology.
Sincere appreciation is expressed to the Government o f the United States o f
America for hosting this symposium, and providing excellent facilities that
helped greatly toward the success o f the meeting.
 EDITORIALNOTE
The papers and discussions have been edited by the editorial staff of the International
Atomic Energy Agency to the extent considered necessary for the reader’s assistance. The views
expressed and the general style adopted remain, however, the responsibility of the n a m e d authors
or participants. In addition, the views are not necessarily those of the governments of the
nominating M e m b e r States or of the nominating organizations.
Where papers have been incorporated into these Proceedings without resetting by the Agency,
this has been done with the knowledge of the authors and their government authorities, and their
cooperation is gratefully acknowledged. The Proceedings have been printed by composition
typing and photo-offset lithography. Within the limitations imposed by this method, every effort
has been m a d e to maintain a high editorial standard, in particular to achieve, wherever practicable,
consistency of units and symbols and conformity to the standards recommended by competent
international bodies.
The use in these Proceedings of particular designations of countries or territories does not
imply any judgement by the publisher, the IAEA, as to the legal status of such countries or
territories, of their authorities and institutions or of the delimitation of their boundaries.
The mention of specific companies or of their products or brand names does not imply any
endorsement or recommendation on the part of the IAEA.
Authors are themselves responsible for obtaining the necessary permission to reproduce
copyright material from other sources.
 CONTENTS

FEASIBILITY OF FOOD IRRADIATION APPLICATIONS (Sessions I and II)

Effects o f gamma irradiation as a quarantine treatment on the

development o f codling moth larvae (IA E A -S M -271/52).......................... 3
A.K. Burditt, Jr., H.R. Moffitt, F.P. Hungate
Le traitement ionisant des produits secs et deshydrates: Cas des plantes
médicinales à infusion (IA E A -S M -271/12) ............................................... 9
L. Saint-Lèbe, Y. Henon, V. Thery
Pilot-scale studies on irradiation and storage o f onions (IA E A -S M -271/4) ... 17
M.A. Matin, M.M. Hossain, M.R. Amin, S. Rahman, B. Rokeya,
M.A. Malek, A.K. Siddiqui, M.A. Hossain
Irradiation o f onions, spices and enzyme solutions in the
German Democratic Republic (IA E A -S M -271/16) ................................... 35
K. Wetzel, G. Huebner, M. Baer
Economic evaluation o f radiation inhibition o f potato sprouting
in Egypt (IA E A -S M -271/6) ......................................................................... 47
A. A. Mahmoud, H.M. Roushdy
Efecto de la radiación gamma en manzanas “ delicias” almacenadas
al medio ambiente y en refrigeración (IAEA-SM-271/36) ...................... 55
H.J. Lastarria-Tapia, N. Sequeiros
Prospects and problems o f irradiating papaya - A case study in Hawaii
(IA E A -S M -271/65) ..................................................................................... 61
J.H. Moy
Radiation decontamination o f dry chamomile flowers and
chamomile extract (IA E A -S M -271/75) .................................................... 69
B. Katuiin-Raiem, D. Ráíem, I. Dvornik, S. Matic, V. Mihokovic
Technological and irradiation conditions fo r radappertization
o f chicken products used in the United States A rm y Raltech
toxicology study (IA E A -S M -271/73) ........................................................ 79
E. Wierbicki
Preservation o f potatoes by irradiation and economic considerations
(IA E A -S M -271/37) ..................................................................................... 101
W. Fiszer, J. Zabielski, J. Mrôz
Introduction o f irradiation technology into the Hungarian
food industry (IA E A -S M -271/21) ............................................................ 109
B. Kálmán, E. Kékessi, R. Santa
Feed radicidation in Is r a e l- A n update (IA E A -S M -271/32) ...................... 117
Y. Klinger, M. Lapidot, I. Ross
Economic prospects o f food irradiation in Zambia (IA E A -S M -271/76) ..... 127
B.E. Chishya, K.D. Chalwe
Commercial experience in introducing radurized foods to the
South African market (IA E A -S M -271/42) ............................................... 137
H.J. van der Linde, H. T. Brodrick

P ILO T-SC A LE F E A S IB IL IT Y STUDIES (Poster Session I)

Disinfestation o f commercially packed dry dates by

combination treatments (IA E A -S M -271/1OOP) ............................................... :............ 1
M.S.H. Ahmed, A.A. Hameed, A.A. Kadhum
Semi-commercial trials on radiation preservation o f potatoes
under tropical conditions (IA E A -S M -271/95Р) ....................................... 152
I. Khan, A. Sattar, M. Wahid, M. Jan
Effect o f low dose irradiation and calcium treatment on the
microstructure and the shelf-life extension o f fruits
(IA E A -S M -271/19P) ................................................................................. 154
E. Kovács, A. Keresztes, J. Kovács
Garlic irradiation fo r sprout prevention in Israel (IAEA-SM -271/30P)......... 155
M. Lapidot, M. Molco, R. Padova, K. Rosenberg, I. Ross
Feasibility o f extending shelf-life o f mature strawberry fruit
by ionizing radiation (IAEA-SM -271/7P)................................................... 156
A.A. Mahmoud, H.M. Roushdy, M.A. Hussein, R.A. Hegazy, M.B. Doma
Optimizing irradiation processing and packaging o f papayas
(IAEA-SM-271/64P) ................................................................................. 157
J.H. Moy, J. G. Parker, E. O’Sullivan, G. Parker
Radicidation o f pre-cooked frozen tropical shrimp: A microbial
ecological study (IAEA-SM-271/47P) ........................................................ 159
N. Wongchinda, Y. Prachasitthisakdi, H. Stegeman, J. Farkas,
D.A.A. Mossel
Preservation o f sausage by 60Co gamma irradiation (IAEA-SM-271/88P) .... 160
Renli Yang, Shupei Liu, Qixun Chon, Yongzhi Wang,
Huachuan Deng
Multipurpose pico wave processing plant (M 4 p) (IA E A -S M -271/116P) ..... 161
J.N. Goebel
Effect o f oxygen-free packing and irradiation on the keeping quality
o f dried anchovies ( Engraulis anchoita) (IA E A -S M -271/11 IP ) .............. 162
M. Maha, D. Mustafa
Insect disinfestation o f pulses, oil seeds and tobacco leaves
by irradiation in Bangladesh (IA E A -S M -271/101P) ................................... 163
A.D. Bhuiya, M. Ahmed, R. Rezaur, G. Nahar, S.M.S. Huda,
S.A.K.M. Hossain
Irradiation disinfestation o f pulses (broad bean, cowpea, etc.) during
storage in Egypt (IA E A -S M -271/102P) ...................... ............................ 164
E.A. El-Kady
Disinfestation o f wheat germ and bran by irradiation and marketing
(IAEA-SM-271/103P) ................................................................................ . 165
E. Kovács, I. Kiss, M. Horváth-Mosonyi, Cs. Farkas, Ny. Horváth,
Gy. Jáksó
Disinfestation o f copra, desiccated coconut and coffee beans
by gamma radiation (IA E A -S M -271/104P) ............................................... 167
E.C. Manoto, L.R. Blanco, A.B. Mendoza, S.S. Resilva
Disinfestation o f m edfly in oranges by combining gamma radiation
and cold treatments (IA E A -S M -271/105P) ............................................... 168
J.H. Moy, A. T. Ohta, K. Y. Kaneshiro, N. Y. Nagai
Irradiation disinfestation o f apples (IA E A -S M -2 7 1/107P) .......................... 169
C.J. Rigney, B. Sudatis, M. Izard
Radiation disinfestation o f tobacco bales and coffee beans
(IA E A -S M -271/108P) ................................................................................. 170
M.H. Soemartaputra, R.S. Haryadi, A. Rahayu, S. Kardha,
Z.I. Purwanto, R. Chosdu
Distribution o f microorganisms in spices and their decontamination
by gamma irradiation (IA E A -S M -271/11 OP) ........................................... 171
H. Ito, H. Watanabe, S. Bagiawati, L.J. Muhamad, N. Tamura

REPORTS ON FOOD IRRADIATION DEVELOPMENTS

IN SOME REGIONS OF THE WORLD (Session III)

Asian Regional Co-operative Project on Food Irradiation (R P F I)

(IA E A -S M -271/90) ...................................................................................... 175
P. Loaharanu
Food irradiation development in Africa (IA E A -S M -271/91) ...................... 185
B. Chinsman
Food irradiation activities in Latin American countries
(IA E A -S M -271/92) ..................................................................................... 203
T. Rubio
Recent developments in food irradiation in Europe and the
Middle East (IA E A -S M -271/93) ................................................................ 215
J. Farkas

CHEMICAL AND MICROBIOLOGICAL CHANGES

IN IRRADIATED FOOD (Poster Session II)

Effect o f radiation pasteurization o f chicken carcasses on the

taste quality o f the cooked meat (IAEA-SM-271/28P) 233
D. Basker, Y. Klinger, M. Lapidot, E. Eisenberg
Safety evaluation o f irradiated food in China (IAEA-SM-271/89P) .............. 234
Yin Dai
Effects o f gamma radiation on the sweet potato weevil
Cylas formicarius elegantulus ( Sum.) (IA E A -S M -271/55 P ) ...................... 235
M.A. Dawes, M.A. Mullen, J.H. Brower, R.S. Saini, P.A. Loretan
Radiation deactivation o f bacterial flora in some Egyptian
poultry feed (IAEA-SM-271/9P) ................................................................ 236
Y.A. El-Zawahry, Y.A. Youssef H.M. Roushdy, N.H. Aziz
Meat Irradiation Technology Center (M IT C ) for research in the
irradiation processing o f meat (IA E A -S M -271/58P) ...............................'. 237
N. Ferrell, D.P. Sloan
Observations on the use o f gamma irradiation to control
nitrosamine formation in bacon (IA E A -S M -271/59P) .............................. 238
W. Fiddler, J. W. Pensabene, R.A. Gates, R.K. Jenkins, E. Wierbicki
The role o f lactobacilli and other bacteria in radurized meat
(IAEA-SM-271/40P) ................................................................................. 239
W.H. Holzapfel, J.G. Niemand
Depuration o f bacterially contaminated live and shucked soft shell clams,
Mya arenaria, by gammairradiation (IA E A -S M -271/6 IP ) ....................... 241
J.C. Mallett, J.D. Kaylor, J.J. Licciardello
Interaction phenomena in the radurization o f meat (IAEA-SM-271/39P) ... 243
J. G. Niemand, H.J. van der Linde, W.H. Holzapfel
Sensory evaluation and some quality parameters o f maize
combined-treated with heat and gamma irradiation
(IAEA-SM-271/17P) ................................................................................. 244
G. T. Odamtten, V. Appiah, D.I. Langerak
Microbiological quality and production o f aflatoxin B! by
Aspergillus flavus Link N R R L 5906 during storage o f artificially
inoculated maize grains treated by a combination o f heat and
gamma radiation (IA E A -S M -271/ 1 8P )........................................................ 245
G. T. Odamtten, V. Appiah, D.I. Langerak
Determination o f irradiation D-values fo r Aeromonas hydrophila
in growth medium, buffer and fish (IAEA-SM-271/74P) .......................... 246
S.A. Palumbo, R.K. Jenkins, J.J. Shieh, R.L. Buchanan, D.W. Thayer

IRRADIATION FOR FOOD SAFETY (Session IV)

Irradiation: An effective mode o f processing food fo r safety

(IA E A -S M -271/80) ..................................................................................... 251
D.A.A. Mossel
The interest o f the pork industry in the United States o f America
in irradiation (IA E A -S M -271/72) ............................................................... 281
CD. Van Houweling, D. Meisinger
L E G IS L A T IO N A N D AC C E PTA N C E O F IR R A D IA T E D FO O D
(Session V )

The regulatory involvement o f the food safety and inspection service

in food irradiation (IA E A -S M -271/56) .................................................... 297
R.E. Engel
Etat actuel du développement des traitements ionisants en France
(IAEA-SM -271/11) ..................................................................................... 311
Y. Henon
Status o f commercial development o f food irradiation in Iraq
(IA E A -S M -271/27) ..................................................................................... 317
H. Auda
The South African food irradiation programme. Role o f
Government institutions (IA E A -S M -271/41) ........................................... 323
W.J. de Wet

D O S IM E T R Y A N D A C C E PTA N C E O F IR R A D IA T E D FO O D
(Poster Session I I I )

The Cesium-137 Agricultural Commodities Irradiator (C A C I)

(IAEA-SM-271/84P) ................................................................................. 335
G. Subbaraman, H. Farrar IV, S.B. Ahlstrom
Transportable Cesium Irradiator (T P C I) for on-site food irradiation
research (IAEA-SM -271/57P) ..................................................................... 336
N. Ferrell, R. Andersen
Scientific considerations fo r the use o f 10 M eV X-radiation
in food processing (IAEA-SM-271/82P) .................................................... 337
M.C. Lagunas-Solar, S.M. Matthews, D.R. Slaughter
Dose ratios in pallet-size food packages as a function o f
radiation sources (IAEA-SM-271/83P) .................................................... 338
M.C. Lagunas-Solar, O.F. Carvacho, L.J. Harris, S.M. Matthews,
D.R. Slaughter
Petitions and clearances in Israel - An update (IA E A -S M -271/3 IP ) ............ 339
M. Lapidot
French programme in reference dosimetry for ionizing radiation
processing o f food (IA E A -S M -271/1 OP) .................................................... 340
D. Mosse, M. Canee, J.P. Simoen
Radurized foods — A challenge to marketing (IAEA-SM-271/38P) .............. 341
T.A. du Plessis, J. G. Niemand
An automated system fo r measuring the dose provided to
irradiated food (IAEA-SM-271/66P) ........................................................ 342
T. Prusik, T. Wallace
Free radicals formation and decay in irradiated spices
(IAEA-SM-271/67P) ................................................................................. 343
J.J. Shieh, E. Wierbicki
Electron and gamma dosimetry by glutamine lyoluminescence
(IA E A -S M -271/109P) ................................................................................. 347
A. Miller, Liqing Xie
The suitability o f chemoluminescence as a means o f identifying
radiation processed spices (IA E A -S M -271/13P) ....................................... 348
D.A.E. Ehlermann, H. Delincée, W. Kalus, T. Grünewald
Radiation dose distribution in spices radiation processed in a
vibrating conveyor measured by means o f a new
semiconductor dosimeter (IA E A -S M -271/14P) ....................................... 349
D.A.E. Ehlermann, M. Rudolf, T. Grünewald

COMMERCIAL DEVELOPMENTS: IRRADIATION SOURCES

AND ASPECTS OF THE IMPLEMENTATION OF FOOD IRRADIATION
(Session VI)

Design considerations fo r food irradiators in developing countries

(IA E A -S M -271/24) ..................................................................................... 353
K. Krishnamurthy, D.R. Bongirwar
The multi-purpose fo od irradiation plant in Thailand (IA E A -S M -271/44).... 365
C. Banditsing, V. Prinksulka, S. Piadang, M. Sutantawong,
K. Noochapramool, Y. Prachasitisakdi
Evaluación economica del proceso de irradiación para una
planta multipropósito (IA E A -S M -271/49) ............................................... 379
V.J. Martin, A. Montalban, S. Curbelo
Electrons versus gamma rays— Alternative sources for irradiation
processes (IA E A -S M -271/54) .................................................................... 397
M.R. Cleland, G.M. Pageau
Economies o f scale in single-purpose food irradiators
(IA E A -S M -271/63) ..................................................................................... 407
R.M. Morrison
Commercial feasibility o f irradiating seafood in the United States
o f America (IA E A -S M -271/60) ................................................................ 429
J.D. Kaylor, J.W. Slavin, R.J. Learson
Commercial risks and benefits o f investments in food irradiation
on an industrial scale (IA E A -S M -271/15) ............................................... 437
L. Wiesner
An industrial view o f commercial food irradiation (IA E A -S M -271/51) ..... 451
G.G. Giddings
COMMERCIAL DEVELOPMENTS: PROGRAMMING AND FINANCING
(Session VII)

Irradiation o f dried fruits and nuts (IAEA-SM-271/70) ............................... 469

R.K. Switzer
Research and development o f fo od irradiation in Shanghai, China
(IA E A -S M -271/87) ..................................................................................... 475
Zhicheng Xu
Applicability o f food irradiation techniques to food preservation in
developing countries (IA E A -S M -271/34).................................................... 479
A.O. Olorunda
Guidelines fo r assessing food irradiation technology (IA E A -S M -271/68 ) ..... 487
N. Ferrell, J.S. Sivinski
Caribbean Area F ood Irradiation Feasibility Study (IA E A -S M -271/62) ..... 493
R.F. Morris
N ew considerations fo r radiation-technology transfer programmes
fo r developing countries (IA E A -S M -271/85) ........................................... 499
M.C. Lagunas-Solar
Significant milestones o f progress to date in food irradiation and
identification o f areas o f future advances (IAEA-SM-271/114) ............... 509
W.M. Urbain

EXPERT PANEL REPORTING (Session VIII)

Panel: Implementation o f the Food Irradiation Process ............................... 521

Chairmen o f Sessions and Secretariat o f the Sym posium ............................... 527

List o f Participants ............................................................................. ............ 529
Author Index .................................................................................................. 551
Index o f Papers and Posters by Number ........................................................ 553
 FEASIBILITY OF
FOOD IRRADIATION APPLICATIONS

(Sessions I and II)

Chairmen

J. F A R K A S
Hungary

H.M. R O U S H D Y
Egypt
 IAEA-SM-271/52

EFFECTS OF GAMMA IRRADIATION AS A

QUARANTINE TREATMENT ON THE
DEVELOPMENT OF CODLING MOTH LARVAE

A .K . B U R D ITT, Jr., H.R. M O F F IT T

United States Department o f Agriculture,
Agricultural Research Service,
Yakima Agricultural Research Laboratory,
Yakima, Washington

F.P. H U N G A TE
Battelle Pacific Northwest Laboratories,
Richland, Washington

United States o f America

Abstract

E F F E C T S O F GAMMA IR RA D IA TIO N A S A Q U A RA N TIN E TR EA TM EN T ON THE

DEV ELO PM ENT O F CO D LIN G MOTH L A R V A E.
Codling moth, Cydia pomonella (L .), larvae reared on thinning apples at ca. 2 4°C , 80%
r.h. and 16:8 hours light:dark cycle were divided into three groups according to age. Young
(1 —3 instar) or older (3 —5 instar) larvae in apples or mature non-diapausing codling moth
larvae in cocoons were exposed to gam m a radiation at doses up to 160 Gy. Follow ing irradiation
the larvae were held to perm it further developm ent, pupation and adult emergence. The number
o f adults emerging as well as mature larvae and pupae present that did not produce adults was
determined. Two deform ed adults developed and emerged from the young larvae exposed to
100 Gy. Six deform ed adults developed and emerged from older larvae exposed to 120 G y and
one from 140 Gy. Of the m ature larvae treated at 120, 140 and 160 Gy, 14, 3 and 2 adults
emerged, respectively. One o f those from each o f the 120 and 140 G y treatm ents appeared to be
norm al in external appearance. At lower doses (40, 60 or 80 G y) adult emergence was reduced
and many o f those that did emerge were physically deform ed. At 60 Gy, and above, adult
emergence was restricted to m ostly males. Exam ination o f the dead puparia showed that many
of the fem ales were unable to com plete their development to the adult. D ata from these
studies will be used to predict doses o f gamma irradiation required as a quarantine treatment
to prevent emergence o f codling moth adults from fruit infested by larvae.

Introduction

Larvae of the codling moth, Cydia pomonella (L.)> infest

apples, pears, and m a n y other deciduous fruit crops. The
codling m o t h is found throughout most of the temperate world,
w i t h the e x ception of some areas of Asia, including Japan, Korea
and Taiwan. These three countries have established quarantines
that prevent or restrict importation of fruit that may serve as

3
4 BURDITT et al.

hosts for this pest. T a iwan permits importation following

inspection and certification that fruit is not infested. Japan
and Korea prohibit import of host fruit unless it has been
treated to eliminate codling m o t h eggs or larvae that may be
present.

In the Northw e s t e r n U S A the codling moth usually has two

generations. It overwinters as diapausing larvae in cocoons,
pupates in the early spring and emerges as an adult moth. Eggs
are laid, hatch and produce larvae that usually pupate and
produce adults in midsummer. These moths lay eggs that produce
a second generation of larvae. Such larvae usually mature in
late summer and leave the fruit in search of a suitable site in
which they can spin a cocoon to overwinter.

Fumiga t i o n using methyl bromide has been accepted by Japan

and Korea as a treatment to eliminate any codling moth
infestation that may be present in cherries [1,2]. However, thus
far we have not been successful in developing such a treatment
for apples or pears. Since gamma irradiation had shown promise
as an alternative treatment for fruit subject to infestation by
fruit flies of the family Tephritidae [3] , we decided to
undertake research to determine if it could be used for fruit
infested by codling m o t h larvae. Our initial research predicted
that the dose required to prevent emergence of adult codling
moths irradiated as non-diapausing larvae in fruit was 206.5 Gy
and as diapausing larvae in fiberboard strips was 225.3 Gy [4].
The following research was undertaken to determine effects of
irradiation on young, older and mature non-diapausing codling
moth larvae.

Materials and Methods

Codling m o t h larvae used in this research were reared on

thinning apples as in our previous experiments [4,5]. On
M ay 24, 1984 codling m o t h eggs were placed on thinning apples,
in trays, in a controlled environment room at ca. 24°C, 80 % r.h.
and 16:8 hours light:dark cycle. A total of 36 fiberboard
trays, each containing ca. 380 infested thinning apples were set
up for this study.

On May 30, ten of the trays of infested apples were

selected at random. Ten fruit from each of these trays were
placed in each of 33 1-gallon (17 cm diameter x 18 cm high)
paperboard cartons. Fluted fiberboard strips were placed in
each carton to provide a suitable site in w h ich mature larvae
would be able to spin cocoons and subsequently pupate. The
strips were replaced 3 times at w eekly intervals. On May 31,
the 100 fruit in 1 carton were cut to determine the stages of
 IAEA-SM-271/52 5

development of larvae present. The remaining cartons, each

containing 100 infested fruit, were irradiated using the
AECL-650 unit at Battelle Pacific Northwest Laboratories.
Cartons were treated at nominal doses of 0, 10, 20, 40, 60, 80,
100 or 120 Gy.

O n June 7, ten more of these trays of infested apples were

selected and the above procedure was repeated. On June 8, the
cartons of infested fruit were treated at nominal doses of 0,
20, 40, 60, 80, 100, 120 or 140 Gy.

Fiber b o a r d strips were placed on the infested apples in the

remaining 16 trays to collect mature larvae. On June 11, the
strips were collected and placed in 32 paperboard cylinders 4 cm
diameter x 11.4 cm long. These were treated on June 12 at
nominal doses of 0, 40, 60, 80, 100, 120, 140 or 160 Gy.

The fiberboard strips from each treatment were collected

week l y and held in 1-quart cartons to permit mature larvae to
form pupae and adults to emerge. Adult emergence was determined
daily from June 21 until July 18. The strips were held until
A ugu s t 8 to ensure that emergence was complete. Subsequently
the strips were opened to determine the number and stage of
development of any insects remaining in the strips. Finally, the
infested apples were cut to determine the number and stage of
development of insects remaining in the fruit.

Samples were exposed to gamma radiation supplied by an AECL

Gammab e a m - 6 5 0 ® irradiator having an initial (1971) loading of
50000 Ci of cobalt-60. The unit has 12 vertical tubes into
whi c h the cobalt is raised and held in place pneumatically
during the timed exposure period. The twelve source tubes are
adjustable to a closed p o s i t i o n (7 cm diameter space between the
tubes) or an open p o s ition (80 cm diameter space) or any
intermediate position. The tubes had an initial sequential
loading of 8, 4, 0.5, 8, 4, 0.5, 8, 4, 0.5, 8, 4, 0.5 Ci; i.e.,
the loading was symmetric b ut not uniform. Since any one or
group of tubes can be raised, this gives dose rate flexibility.
The dose rate can also be adjusted b y placing material outside
the array of tubes. The room housing the source is 7.3 x 7.3
meters w i t h the source in the center.

The gallon cartons containing infested apples or the

paperb o a r d cylinders containing strips, were placed on a Nordic
M i cr o - G o - R o u n d ® No. 62304 food rotator which rotated at
a ppr o x imately 0.5 rev/min. Two cartons were placed one on top
bf the other on the Go-Round w h i c h was in the center of the open
tubes; i.e., 80 cm diameter spacing. Four cylinders, held
together b y a rubber band, were p laced on the Go-Round for
treatment.
6 BURDITT et al.

For the present exposures (the source tubes in their open

position), a series of measurements made with direct
N BS-tr a c e a b i l i t y indicated the mid-point dose rate was 9.4
Gy/min. Measurements with the apples in place with both a
V ictoreen thimble and with TLD chips (LiF) indicated the mean
dose at the center of the carton was 8.9 Gy/min. The 5%
difference is accounted for b y the dose absorbed by the apples.
There was up to a 15% dose var i a t i o n with position of the apples
in the two stacked cartons; i.e., the mid-point was highest with
lower doses above and bel o w the m i d-point during the May 31 and
June 8 exposures. The fiberboard strips exposed on June 12 were
in 4 cylinders held together b y a rubber band and exposed
together so that the dose rate delivered to the cocooned larvae
was u niformly close to 9.4 Gy/min. Exposure times were: May
31 - 1.1, 2.2, 4.4, 6.6 8.8, 11, and 13.2 minutes; June 8 -
2.2, 4.4, 6.6, 8.8, 11, 13.2 and 15.5 minutes; June 12 - 4.4,
6.6, 8.8, 11, 13.2, 15.5, and 17.7 minutes.

Results

Exa m i n a t i o n of a sample of the infested apples that was

irradiated on M ay 31 showed that 5 4 .6% of the young larvae
present were 1st instar, 40.5% were 2nd instar and 4.9% were 3rd
instar at the time of treatment. Examination of those that were
irradiated on June 8 showed that 17.6% of the older larvae were
3rd instar, 17.6% were 4th instar and 64.8% were 5th instar.
E x a m ination of a sample of strips handled in a manner similar to
strips irradiated on June 12 showed that 12% of the mature
cocooned larvae had transformed to pupae.

Data on the number of insects surviving exposure to gamma

radiation as larvae and their subsequent development are
summarized in Table I. Data for the control treatments (0 Gy)
were analyzed to determine if there were significant differences
in the number of larvae in the initial population tested. These
analyses showed that there was no significant difference in the
total number of insects recovered from the populations tested on
May 31 and June 8. However, the population of larvae tested on
June 12 was significantly lower than the others since this
p o p u l a t i o n contained only the larvae that had matured, left the
fruit and entered the strips b y June 11 when they were removed
for treatment.

Based on the stage of development of larvae at the time of

treatment, we suggest that those larvae that were in the 2nd and
3rd instar w h e n irradiated on M ay 31 apparently were able to
continue their development and emerge as adults following
exposure to 40 Gy. However, only the 3rd instar larvae were
able to emerge as adults following exposure to 80 Gy and 89% of
 IAEA-SM-271/52 7

Table I. Development o f c o d lin g moth la rv a e fo llo w in g i r r a d ia t io n 3

Mean number o f s u rv iv in g in s e c ts
and sta ge o f development completed
Date Dose Mature Pupae Adults
Ir r a d ia te d (G y) Larvae Abnormal Normal T otal

May 31, 0 2.7 ab 12.5 ab 5.7 be 178.2 e 199.2 f

1984 10 6.0 abc 6.5 a 3.2 abc 158.5 d 174.2 de
20 2.0 a 11.0 ab 5.0 abc 166.7 d 184.7 ef
40 2.2 ab 14.7 abc 17.0 d 132.0 с 166.0 d
60 6.5 abc 22.5 cd 23.7 e 42.7 b 95.5 с
80 11.2 с 30.5 d 8.2 с 1.0 a 51.0 b
100 7.7 be 17.7 be 0 .5 ab 0.0 a 26.0 a
120 5.5 ab 11.5 ab 0 .0 a 0.0 a 17.0 a

June 8, 0 1.5 a 6.0 ab 3.7 a 189.7 d 201.0 с

1984 20 2.7 a 3.0 a 4.0 a 160.5 с 170.2 abc
40 4.7 a 9.2 ab 14.7 b 160.7 с 189.5 be
60 5.2 a 35.0 с 39.2 с 90.2 b 169.7 abc
80 20.7 b 77.7 d 48.5 d 6.5 a 153.5 ab
100 60.0 с 84.7 d 13.2 b 0.5 a 158.5 ab
120 108.2 d 71.5 d 1.5 a 0.0 a 181.2 abc
140 120.5 e 26.7 be 0.2 a 0.0 a 147.5 a

June 12, 0 2.2 a 11.2 a 4.7 ab 136.5 d 154.7 a

1984 40 1.7 a 10.2 a 19.5 cd 103.5 с 135.0 a
60 2.7 a 41.0 a 69.7 e 40.0 b 153.5 a
80 2.2 a 91.5 b 29.2 d 3.5 a 126.5 a
100 2.7 a 109.2 b 14.5 be 1.0 a 127.5 a
120 20.0 b 97.2 b 3.2 ab 0 .2 a 120.7 a
140 24.7 b 96.7 b 0.5 a 0.2 a 122.2 a
160 26.5 b 84.5 b 0.5 a 0.0 a 111.5 a

Means w ith in each date and column fo llo w e d by the same l e t t e r are not
s i g n i f i c a n t l y d i f f e r e n t a t P = 0.05, using Duncan's new m u ltip le range
te s t.

those were obviously abnormal in appearance, having malformed

wings or abdomens. At an exposure of 100 Gy some of the 2nd and
most of the 3rd instar larvae were able to form pupae. Larvae
in the 1st instar at the time of treatment apparently were not
able to mature and form cocoons following exposure to 60 Gy,
although they were able to continue development and emerge as
adults following exposure to 20 Gy. First instar larvae that
died before reaching m a t urity apparently decomposed and could
not be accounted for when the fruit or strips were examined
(Table I).

Based on the stage of development of larvae treated on June

8, we suggest that those larvae that were in the 3rd instar were
8 BURDITT et al.

not able to form pupae following exposure to 60 Gy, and most

were unable to b ecome mature larvae following exposure to 80 Gy.
The groups of 3rd instar larvae that had been treated on May 31
developed to this stage twice as rapidly as those treated on
June 8. Furt h e r research is needed to confirm our above
suggestions. This research would require detailed research on
the effects of irradiation on further development of larvae
treated in various stages of development and time required to
reach a specific instar. Exposure on June 8 of older larvae to
80 Gy resulted in less adult emergence than expected, based on
development w h e n treated. However, the larvae were able to form
pupae. Those larvae destined to become female moths were more
susceptible to irradiation than the males, and terminated
development as pupae.

Analyses of the d o sage-mortality data for larvae irradiated

on M ay 31 showed that quarantine security based on probit 9
(99.9968%) mort a l i t y could be achieved by an exposure to 133 Gy
based on adult emergence. Exposure to 442 Gy would be required
to prevent any 1st, 2nd or 3rd instar larvae reaching maturity
and spinning cocoons. However, exposure to a dose of 133 Gy
would eliminate 95% of the m ature larvae.

Analyses of the d o sage-mortality data for older or mature

larvae (those irradiated on June 8 or 12) showed that the doses
required to prevent adult emergence at the probit 9 security
level were 177 and 230 Gy, respectively. Since many of the
former larvae were in the 5th instar, it was not possible to
p revent larvae reaching maturity.

References

[1] ANONYMOUS, M i n istry of Agriculture and Forestry (Japan)

N o t i f i c a t i o n No. 38, Jap a n Plant Protection Law E n f o r c e ­
ment Regulations (January 10, 1978) 27.
[2] ANONYMOUS, E x e m ptional standard on import prohibition of
the regions and plants, MAF Ministerial Anouncement No.
84, Korea Plant Prote c t i o n La w Enforcement Regulations
(April 14, 1984) 3 p.
[3] BURDITT, JR. , A. K. , Food irradiation as a quarantine
treatment of fruits, Food Technology 36 11 (1982) 51.
[4] BURDITT, JR., A. K. , MOFFITT, H. R. , Irradiation as a
quarantine treatment for fruit subject to infestation by
codling m o t h larvae, Proc. Int. Conf. Râdiation
D i s i n f e s t a t i o n of Food and A g ricultural Products, Univ. of
Hawaii, Honolulu, Hawaii, U S A (in press).
[5] HAMILTON, D. W . , HATHAWAY, D. 0., "Codling moths", in
Insect C o lonization and Mass Production (SMITH, C. N.
Ed.) A c a demic Press, N e w York, NY (1966) 339.
 IAEA-SM-271/12

LE TRAITEMENT IONISANT
DES PRODUITS SECS ET DESHYDRATES
Cas des plantes médicinales à infusion

L. SAINT-LE BE, Y . H ENO N, V. T H E R Y

Service de radioagronomie,
Département de biologie,
CEA, Centre d’ études nucléaires de Cadarache,
Saint-Paul-lez-Durance, France

Abstract-Résumé

IONIZING RAD IATIO N TR EA TM EN T OF D R Y AND D EH YD RA TED PRO D U CTS:

CA SE OF M ED ICINAL PLA N TS IN TEN D ED FO R IN FU SIO N .
Drying and dehydration are common m ethods o f stabilizing foodstuffs. The removal o f
insects or bacteria from them has hitherto been carried out by chemical treatm ents the effective­
ness o f which is not fully satisfactory and which also raise the problem o f residues. Treatment
with ionizing radiation does not have these draw backs and therefore offers a very attractive
alternative. The application o f such treatm ent to dry and dehydrated products is especially
appropriate because their low water content limits the possible organoleptic changes. In France,
authorization has been or is soon to be granted for several interm ediate products — spices,
arom atics, gum arabic, dehydrated vegetables and cereal flakes for dairy products. However,
the treatm ent is also justifiable for products sold to the public which are often o f inadequate
microbiological quality. This is the case with medicinal plants intended for infusion, the
market for which is growing dramatically. The risks are often further increased by the con­
sumer him self making his infusion under poor conditions. Ionization treatm ent, carefully
perform ed, considerably reduces the m icrobial load without affecting the principal chemical
characteristics o f these plants at the doses used. Num erous organoleptic tests have dem onstrated
the absence o f significant change in taste as com pared with control batches. A request for
authorization has therefore been subm itted wherein it is proposed that ionizing radiation treat­
ment should be used only if the total m icrobial load is above 104 but below 10 8. An overall
average maxim um dose o f 9 kG y will then be sufficient.

L E TR A ITEM EN T IO N ISA N T D ES PRO DU ITS SE C S ET D E SH Y D R A T E S: CAS D ES

P LA N TE S M ED ICIN A LES A IN FU SIO N .
Le séchage et la déshydratation sont des form es courantes de stabilisation des aliments.
Leur désinsectisation ou leur débactérisation était ju sq u ’à présent effectuée par des traitem ents
chimiques dont l’efficacité n ’est pas pleinement satisfaisante et qui posent en plus le problèm e
des résidus. Les traitem ents ionisants ne présentent pas ces défauts et constituent donc une
alternative très attrayante. Leur application aux produits secs et déshydratés est particulière­
ment com m ode car les faibles teneurs en eàü iimitent les m odifications organoleptiques possibles.
En France, des autorisations ont été accordées ou vont l’être prochainement pou rplusieurs
produits interm édiaires: épices, arom ates, gam m e arabique, légumes déshydratés, flocons de
céréales pour produits laitiers. Mais le traitem ent est aussi justifiable pour des produits vendus
au public et dont la qualité m icrobiologiqüe est souvent insuffisante. C ’est le cas des plantes
médicinales à infusion dont le marché connaît une croissance spectaculaire. Les risques se

9
10 SAINT-LÈBE et al.

trouvent d’ailleurs souvent accrus par le consom m ateur lui-même qui réalise son infusion dans
de mauvaises conditions. L ’ionisation, utilisée avec discernement, perm et une réduction
considérable de la charge microbienne sans affecter, aux doses utilisées, les principales
caractéristiques chimiques de ces plantes. Les nom breux tests organoleptiques effectués ont
montré l’absence de m odifications gustatives significatives par rapport à des lots témoins. Une
demande d ’autorisation vient donc d’être déposée où il est proposé de n’em ployer l’ionisation
que si la charge microbienne totale est supérieure à 104 sans toutefois excéder 108. Une dose
globale moyenne m axim ale de 9 kG y suffit alors.

IN T R O D U C T IO N

Les produits secs et déshydratés sont souvent utilisés dans les pays industrialisés
comme des produits intermédiaires destinés aux industries agro-alimentaires alors
qu’ils constituent pour les pays en voie de développement des aliments de base
d’une importance primordiale. Les plantes médicinales à infusion échappent à
cette règle.
Ces plantes sont utilisées depuis très longtemps en France, le plus souvent
empiriquement et pour des vertus thérapeutiques qui ont rarement été démontrées.
L ’ autorisation en 1960 et 1971 de les commercialiser en dehors du seul circuit des
pharmacies et herboristeries a eu pour conséquence de doubler les ventes entre
1970 et 1980 [1].
La qualité des plantes médicinales à infusion s’ apprécie à la fois par leurs
caractéristiques intrinsèques (espèce, composition, origine, etc) [2 —4] et leur
degré de pollution organique (insectes, micro-organismes) [5] ou chimique (résidus
de pesticides) [6 —8]. Au cours de cinq dernières années, diverses revues d’unions
de consommateurs européennes ont souligné l’ excessive contamination microbienne
d’un grand nombre de produits secs ou déshydratés parmi lesquels les plantes
médicinales à infusion figuraient en bonne place [9 —12]. Le traitement ionisant
peut résoudre ce problème de façon satisfaisante.

1. ASPECTS M ICRO BIO LO G IQ U ES

Les plantes médicinales à infusion, comme la plupart des végétaux récoltés,

sont contaminées par une microflore qui provient essentiellement du sol. Ainsi,
la plus ou moins grande proximité du sol des parties récoltées a plus d’importance
sur leur niveau de contamination que les conditions climatiques ou les pratiques
agricoles. On a pu ainsi trouver un nombre de germes aérobies dont le nombre
varie de 4 X 102 à 108 pour de la camomille et de la menthe récoltées toutes deux
dans de bonnes conditions hygiéniques.
Le séchage des plantes médicinales à infusion entraîne une nette diminution
de la contamination et souvent la disparition d’ espèces comme les streptocoques
 IAEA-SM-271/12 11

20

DETAILLANT
E 13 PRODUCTEUR
5 15 Y////A INFUSETTES
О

P
z
<
а Ю
*o
и
CE
О
z
о
z 5

0
3 U 5 6
LOG DU NOMBRE DE MICRO-ORGANISMES / Q

F IG .l. Niveau de contamination de diverses plantes à infusion en vrac (prélevées chez le

producteur ou chez le détaillant) ou en infusettes [5].

fécaux et les pseudomonas. Les opérations ultérieures de broyage, mélange et

conditionnement augmentent de nouveau la contamination (figure 1).
L ’infusion, c’ est-à-dire la mise dans l’ eau bouillante des plantes séchées, doit
en principe conduire à une pasteurisation poussée du produit. Ce n’ est pas
toujours le cas, car le consommateur utilise fréquemment une eau qui n’est pas
assez chaude ( l ’idéal serait que la température reste supérieure à 60°C pendant
environ 10 minutes) et attend beaucoup trop longtemps pour consommer son
infusion. Dans ces conditions, les bactéries sporulées, les bacilles anaérobies
sulfito-réducteurs et quelquefois les spores d’Aspergillus résistent. De plus, sous
l’ influence de la chaleur, les spores peuvent germer. On aboutit donc à une
réduction peu importante du nombre de micro-organismes, voire à une augmenta­
tion de celui-ci (figure 2).
Une pasteurisation des plantes médicinales à infusion est donc souhaitable.
L ’ action de la chaleur ne peut être retenue car les essences dont sont riches la
plupart de ces plantes sont thermosensibles.
La fumigation à l’oxyde d’ éthylène est parfois pratiquée; peu efficace sur les
levures et les moisissures, ce gaz a l’inconvénient de se fixer par chimisorption.
Il peut aussi changer la structure de certains constituants et former des composés
reconnus cancérigènes tels que le chloro-2-éthanol [5, 13]. Son usage est donc
de plus en plus restreint.
Les traitements ionisants, que ce soit par rayonnement gamma ou faisceaux
d’ électrons accélérés [14] constituent la solution la plus satisfaisante. L ’ effet
bactéricide mentionné par différents auteurs [ 1 5 -1 8 ] et par nous-même [19,20]
conduisent à recommander des doses comprises entre 7 et 9 kGy (tableau I). Une
 SAINT-LÈBE et al.

NOMBRE CÍECHANTILLONS

LOG DU NOMBRE DE MICRO-ORGANISMES / g

FIG.2. Nombre de micro-organismes aérobies mésophiles avant et après infusion [5].

T A B L E A U I. DOSES G LO B ALES M O YENN ES

D’ IO N IS A T IO N (k G y ) A A P P L IQ U E R EN FO N C TIO N
DU DEGRE DE C O N T A M IN A T IO N IN IT IA L E PO U R
A B O U T IR A U NE P O P U L A T IO N TH EO R IQ U E DE
104 GERMES P A R G RAM M E M A X IM U M

Contam ination Traitem ent

(germes totaux/g)

< 104 Pas de traitem ent

104 à 106 7 kG y
106 à 108 9 kGy
> 108 Pas de traitem ent, lot à éliminer
 IAEA-SM-271/12 13

contamination inférieure à 104 ne justifie pas un traitement ionisant. Par contre

si celle-ci dépasse 108, le traitement ionisant est à exclure car les bonnes pratiques
n’ ont certainement pas été respectées. Il ne faut jamais prôner l’utilisation des
traitements ionisants pour récupérer des produits dégradés.

2. PR IN C IPA LE S C A R A C TE R IS T IQ U E S CHIM IQUES ET

O R G A N O LE PTIQ U E S

Les huiles essentielles [21, 22] ont plus particulièrement retenu l’ attention
des chercheurs. Toutes les analyses effectuées par chromatographie sur couche
mince ou en phase gazeuse et par spectrométrie démontrent que la composition
aromatique des plantes médicinales à infusion n’ est pas m odifiée aux doses
utilisées pour les pasteuriser, c’ est-à-dire à moins de 10 kGy [23—27]. On constate
même, dans le cas de la menthe, qu’à une dose trois fois supérieure à celle qui
sera couramment utilisée, il n’ y a pas de différences significatives par rapport au
témoin (tableau II).
Les tests sensoriels effectués ont souvent conclu à l’ absence de modifications
organoleptiques dans les infusions préparées à partir de plantes ionisées. Nous
avons effectué un test triangulaire [20] avec deux échantillons de verveine non
traitée et un échantillon de verveine traitée à 10 kGy (tableau III).
Pour que la différence puisse être considérée comme significative, il aurait
fallu qu’au moins 15 personnes reconnaissent le produit différent (0 ,0 2 < P < 0,05).
Il semble cependant y avoir une légère tendance à préférer la tisane de verveine
ionisée qui a souvent été qualifée comme «ayant plus d’ arôme». Des études
similaires que nous menons avec d’ autres produits aromatiques dégagent la même
tendance. On peut avancer l’hypothèse que l’ action du rayonnement ionisant
sur la fraction inerte (essentiellement cellulosique), également dite fraction
fixatrice, conduit à une dépolymérisation aboutissant à une plus grande facilité
de libération des arômes; c’ est à vérifier.

CON CLU SIO N

L ’ionisation appliquée aux plantes médicinales à infusion permet d’offrir

aux consommateurs des produits d’une qualité micro biologique supérieure à
celle habituellement rencontrée, sans affecter les principes aromatiques. Si cette
application de l’ ionisation se révèle extrêmement utile dans le domaine de la
préparation des produits pharmaceutiques, il n’ est pas sûr qu’ elle puisse être
rapidement mise en oeuvre pour les plantes médicinales à infusion commercialisées
directement auprès des consommateurs. L ’infusion est en effet l’un des produits
les plus chargés de symboles. Les consommateurs et donc les vendeurs y associent
14 SAINT-LÈBE et al.

T A B L E A U II. ETUD E DE L ’ E F FE T DU T R A IT E M E N T IO N IS A N T SUR LES

COM POSANTS DES PR IN C IPA L E S H U ILES ESSENTIELLES DE L A M ENTH E
DOSES P A R C H R O M A TO G R A PH IE EN PHASE G AZEU SE APRES
E N T R A IN E M E N T P A R DE L A V A P E U R D ’ EAU

ppm dans la plante

Com posant
Témoin 10 kGy 25 kGy

Menthol 7443 7366 7622

a-pinène 104 111 116
(3-pinène 178 182 187
Myrcène 31 31 30
a-terpinène 41 40 37
Limonène 172 174 170
1—8 cinéole 1043 1006 959
Ocimène 41 42 42
7-terpinène 62 59 60
Menthone 3210 2928 3010
Menthofurane 392 380 356
Isomenthone 443 412 425
Linalol 58 56 57
Menthyl acétate 753 755 758
Néomenthol 681 685 803
Terpinène 4 OL 460 466 362
a-terpineol 53 52 51
Piperitone 104 99 103

T A B L E A U III. TEST T R IA N G U L A IR E SUR DES

IN FU S IO N S DE V E R V E IN E PREPAREES A P A R T IR
D’ E C H A N T IL L O N S T R A IT E S (10 k G y) OU NO N

N om bre de personnes

— ayant participé au test 30

— ayant distingué le produit différent 13
— ayant préféré le produit différent 17
— ayant distingué le produit différent
et l’ayant préféré 10
 IAEA-SM-271/12 15

des idées de nature et de tradition. Cela est-il compatible avec un traitement qui,
même s’il est reconnu inoffensif et bénéfique, est associé à des idées diamétrale­
ment opposées aux précédentes? Cela revient à poser à nouveau le vaste problème
de l’information du public et de l’ étiquetage des produits ionisés.

REFERENCES

[1] Thés et infusions, Libre Service Actualités (France) 827 (1 9 8 2 ) 8 8 —96.

[2] G IR R E , L., L a médecine par les plantes à travers les âges, Editions Ouest-France (1981).
[3] D ELA V E A U , P., Actualités des plantes médicinales, Revue du Palais de la Découverte,
12 1 1 1 6 (1 9 8 4 ) 3 6 - 4 7 .
[4] C A N T A G R EL, R ., Plantes médicinales et arom atiques: leur com position chimique,
R ésultats non publiés des Laboratoires associés de recherche agricole (L A R A ), Toulouse
(Fran ce) 1983.
[5] «The m icrobiology o f dried foods», Sixth International Sym posium on F oo d Microbiology
(Bilthoven, Pays-Bas, 1968), C.R. publiés sous la direction de KA M PELM A CH ER, E.H.,
INGRAM , М., M O SSEL, D.A.
[ 6 ] M IE LLET , C., Dosages de résidus de pesticides par CLHP sur plantes médicinales et
arom atiques, Ann. Fais. E xpert. Chim. 75 810 (1 9 8 2 ) 3 6 9 - 3 7 5 .
[7] IL L E S , S., M E ST R E S, R ., Contrôle de résidus de pesticides dans les plantes médicinales
et arom atiques, Deutsche Apotheker Zeitung 112 39 (1 9 7 6 ) 1 4 9 7 -1 5 0 0 .
[ 8] Situation et perspectives de la production des plantes médicinales et arom atiques,
Bulletin publié par l’institut technique des plantes médicinales arom atiques et industrielles,
Milly-la-Forêt (France), novembre 1983.
[9] L a santé par les plantes, Que Choisir? 1176 (1 9 8 2 ) 1 0 - 2 2 .
[10] Infusions: une sur cinq contaminée, Test-Achats (Belgique) 253 (1 9 8 3 ) 2 —8.
[11] Infusions: une sur cinq contaminée, 50 millions de consom m ateurs, 147 (1 9 8 3 ) 5 9 - 6 4 .
[1 2 ] Mauvaises herves ou bonnes tisanes? Test-Achats (Belgiqùe) 253 (1 984) 2 - 8 .
[13] SA IN T-LEBE, L ., R A F F I, J., HENON, Y ., Le traitem ent ionisant des denrées alimentaires,
efficacité et absence de risques pour l’hom m e, R apport CEA R-5162 (1982).
[ 14] W EBER, H., Gewürzentkeimung. Einflüsse von Elektronen und gamma Strahlen auf die
Q ualitat verschiedener Gewürze (Stérilisation des épices. Influence de l’irradiation par
un faisceau d ’électrons et par le rayonnem ent gamma sur la qualité des épices),
Fleischwirtsch. Dev., 63 (1 9 8 3 ) 1065 —1071.
[15] KA TU SIN -RA ZEM , B ., RAZEM , D., D VO RNIK, I., Radiation treatment o f herb tea
for the reduction o f microbial contam ination, Radiat. Phys. Chem. 22 35 (1 983)
70 7 -713.
[16] Résultats non publiés d’une étude effectuée par le Laboratoire Monot à Quétigny (France)
en 1983.
[17] Résultats non publiés d’une étude effectuée par le Laboratoire intercom munal de chimie
et de bactériologie de Bruxelles pour l’Institut des radio-éléments Médiris à Fleurus en
1982.
[18] ICR E, P., D écontam ination m icrobiologique par les rayonnem ents ionisants, Actualités
pharm aceutiques (France) 196 (1 9 8 3 ) 3 6 - 3 9 .
[19] Résultats non publiés d ’une étude réalisée au Federal Research Center for N utrition de
Karlsruhe (R F A ) en 1983.
16 SAINT-LEBE et al.

[20] TH ER Y , V ., Qualité des plantes à infusion de la récolte à la commercialisation: l’apport

potentiel du traitem ent ionisant, Mémoire de Diplôme d’étude approfondie à l’Institut
national agronom ique de Paris-Grignon ( 1984).
[21] A SSE L IN , C., Analyse chimique et expertise du thé, Café, Cacao, Thé, 111 2 (1 9 5 9 ) 9 2 —99.
[22] H E R ISSE T , A., JO L IV E T , J., R E Y , P., D ifférenciation de quelques huiles
essentielles présentant une constitution voisine, Pl. Méd. et Phytothérapie 6 3 (1972)
19 4-203.
[23] CHKH AID ZE, R ., et al., Effect o f ionising radiation on essential oils, Tr. Gruz. Nauch.
Issled Inst. Pisch. Prom. U S S R 4 (1 9 7 2 ) 2 9 6 - 3 0 1 .
[24] BACHMAN, S., «Studies on some m icrobiological and chemical aspects o f irradiated spices»,
Aspects o f the Introduction o f Food Irradiation in Developing Countries, AIEA , Vienne
(1973).
[25] R E V ISH V ILI, M.V., V olatility change o f plant essential oils during their irradiation with
gamma-rays, Sb. Tr. Agron. Fiz. (U R SS) 17 (1 9 6 9 ) 6 7 —68.
[26] H O RU BA LA , A., «The influence o f ionizing radiation on flavonoid pigments o f some
berry fruits», Preservation o f Fruit and Vegetables by Radiation (C.R. Comité d’experts,
Vienne) A IEA , Vienne (1 966) 57.
[27] JO SIM O VIC, L ., Study on some chemical changes in irradiated pepper and parsley,
Int. J. Appl. Radiat. Isot., 34 (1 9 8 3 ) 7 8 7 - 7 9 1 .
 IAEA-SM-271/4

PILOT-SCALE STUDIES ON IRRADIATION

AND STORAGE OF ONIONS
M .A. M A T IN , M.M. H O SSAIN, M.R. A M IN ,
S. R A H M A N , B. R O K E Y A , M.A. M A L E K ,
A .K . SID D IQ U I, M.A. HO SSAIN
Institute o f Food and Radiation Biology,
Bangladesh A tom ic Energy Commission,
Dhaka, Bangladesh

Abstract
PILO T-SCA LE ST U D IES ON IRRA D IA TIO N AND ST O R A G E O F ONIONS.
Irradiation o f onions (shallots) on a pilot scale and storage under various conditions was
carried out in four separate studies in the years 1981 —1984. The results show com plete inhibition
o f both external and internal sprouting with a dose o f 50—80 Gy gam m a radiation if treated
within two weeks o f harvest. Late irradiation results in gradual death o f the prim ordial buds
leaving a distinct dark patch in the budding region. Storage losses owing to dehydration and
rotting were significantly reduced in irradiated onions stored for 8 —10 months at am bient condi­
tions (2 0 —37°C and 7 0 -9 0 % r.h.) and in cold storage (15°C). Periodical evaluations of the
relevant physical properties revealed that onions irradiated within the optimum time (2 weeks
o f harvest) and in bulk storage on shelves have superior keeping qualities com pared with the
corresponding unirradiated samples. Low-temperature storage o f irradiated onions does not
appear to reduce storage losses to the extent expected if the relative humidity inside the cooler
is not properly controlled. Onion varieties have been observed to respond differently to irradia­
tion treatment and storage with regard to storage losses. Evaluation of organoleptic properties
of unirradiated and irradiated onions stored under different conditions showed favourable
ratings for the irradiated samples. Consum er acceptance tests and limited marketing conducted
during and after termination o f storage indicated consumer preference for irradiated onions.

1. IN T R O D U C T IO N

Bangladesh produces about 200 000 t o f onions annually in a single season

(Decem ber—A p ril) with a peak harvest in late March. The produce is stored at
ambient temperature fo r over eight months up to the next harvest. During this long
storage period considerable losses are incurred through sprouting, rotting and
weight loss owing to dehydration, resulting in shortages and raised price. The loss
varies between 30 and 50%, depending on length and conditions o f storage. Cold
storage or other preservation methods are not practised in the country because o f
the non-availability o f technical and economic data on the feasibility o f such storage.
Ionizing radiation at low doses has been successfully used over the last two
decades to inhibit sprout growth and to reduce storage losses o f onions [1 ,2 ].
Irradiated onions have been cleared for public consumption in many countries.

17
18 MATIN et al.

Irradiated onions and other irradiated foods have recently been cleared for human
consumption in Bangladesh, too [3, 4]. The cost o f irradiating onions has been
found to be economically feasible i f the overall benefits are taken into considera­
tion [5, 6].
Laboratory-scale experiments showed that sprout inhibition in Bangladesh
onions could be achieved by low doses o f gamma radiation [7]. In an attempt to
study the feasibility o f large-scale irradiation and storage o f onions, pilot-scale
experiments were conducted with onions in the harvesting seasons from 1981 to
1984. The results o f these studies are discussed in this paper.

2. M A T E R IA L S A N D METHODS

2.1. Sample collection

Onions were collected from both local markets and growers. In the 1981
season 3 t were' collected from the local market. In 1982 about 6 t were collected
from the market and the growers, and in 1983 and 1984 8 and 10 t were procured
from the growers, respectively. The onions were collected 2—5 weeks post-harvest.
The onions were brought to the laboratory by truck. The bulbs were then
sorted to discard those injured or otherwise o f inferior quality. The good quality
onions were used fo r the study.

2.2. Irradiation

The onions were irradiated in the 50 kCi gamma beam-650 irradiator at

ambient temperature (2 7 —35°C) in wooden crates containing 20—40 kg each.
They were treated within 2 —5 weeks o f harvest. Dose distributions at different
positions and dose rates were determined by the Fricke method. The ratio
Dmax. to D min, was found to be 1.6. The dose administered was 50—80 G y at a
rate o f 130 Gy/h.

2.3. Storage

In the 1981 study control and irradiated onions were divided into two equal
portions and stored in (i) wooden crates, (ii) bamboo baskets, and (iii) on elevated
bamboo shelves at room temperature (2 0 —37°C) and relative humidity (7 0 —90%)
with natural aeration. In the 1982 storage trial both irradiated and control onions
were kept at ambient conditions in the pre-cooler zone (1 5 —18°C) o f commercial
cold storage. F or storage the onions were spread on raised shelves 15—18 cm deep
and packed into net bags containing 20 kg each. Gunny bags were also used for
the storage o f onions. In 1983 and 1984 the storage trials were conducted under
ambient conditions (2 0 —37°C) and in coolers (15°C). The onions were packed into
 IAEA-SM-271/4 19

net bags and spread on elevated shelves 1 5 -1 8 cm deep with scope for sufficient
natural ventilation around the shelves and the bags. In 1984 a storage trial was
conducted with tw o common varieties.
The storage period was from April 1981 to February 1982 and A pril 1982
to February 1983 for the 1981 and 1982 storage studies, respectively, and from
April to December fo the 1983 and 1984 storage trials.

2.4. Analyses and evaluations

Control and irradiated onions were examined periodically for sprout develop­
ment, sprout length, inner bud quotient, weight losses owing to dehydration,
microbial rottage, texture, density, and the nature o f the spoilage microbes.
Radiation-induced blackening/discoloration o f the growth centres was examined by
cutting the onions in half. Organoleptic qualities o f the cooked and raw samples
were evaluated by a panel o f trained judges using the 9-point hedonic scale [ 8 ].
The results were analysed using suitable statistical methods wherever necessary.

2.5. Consumer acceptance and test marketing

Consumer acceptability tests were conducted during storage periods and on

termination o f storage trials by free distribution o f control and irradiated onions
to a cross-section o f knowledgeable consumers in the 1981 and 1982 studies and by
restricted selling at tw o periods during and after the storage trial in 1983
(N ovem ber 1983 and January 1984). Because o f the late government clearance
open-marketing trials o f the experimental onions could not be made. Instead,
the bulbs were sold to a cross-section o f the public at competitive prices in the
1983 study. Both control and irradiated onions were offered initially at the same
price, but later on the price o f the control onions had to be reduced because o f
their inferior quality. A bout 600 consumers purchased the onions, either control
or irradiated or both. Each consumer was given a printed card to record his
assessment on the quality o f the onions sold. A bou t 300 consumers returned the
cards with evaluations and comments.
In the study conducted in 1984 test marketing o f the irradiated onions was
made at various times during storage and on termination o f the storage
in December 1984. The irradiated onions were supplied at the whole­
sale price prevailing at the time to a number o f shops, shopping centres
and department stores in various parts o f Dhaka City. Labels ‘onions
preserved by irradiation: govt, approved’ for display at the irradiated stock and
letters stating the safety and wholesomeness o f the irradiated product were supplied
to the shops and stores.
20 MATIN et al.

3. RESU LTS A N D DISCUSSION

3.1. Sprout inhibition o f onions by radiation

Earlier laboratory-scale investigations carried out at this institute showed that

a dose o f 5 0 -8 0 G y gamma radiation inhibits sprouting in onions stored at
ambient conditions (2 0 —37°C) [7]. During 1981 —1984 four separate pilot-scale
storage trials were conducted with common varieties o f onions grown in the
country. Irradiation (5 0 - 8 0 G y ) within 2 - 5 weeks o f harvest was found to
com pletely inhibit external sprouting o f onions stored in bulk for about
8 -1 0 months at ambient conditions (F ig .l). Similar results o f sprout inhibition
o f onions with low-dose radiation treatment have been reported [9 -1 1 ]. However,
the results obtained from the present studies do not agree with those reported by
Nair et al. [12], who could not obtain complete inhibition o f sprouting in irradiated
onions (Indian varieties). Varietal difference and climatic conditions appear to affect
radiation response. Irradiated onions stored at cooled temperature (15°C) were
observed to have some initial sprouting which subsequently dried or dropped o f f
in the course o f storage (Table I). This confirms findings reported by other
workers [ 1 2 , 13].

3.2. Radiation induced discoloration o f the germination region

Discoloration or blackening o f the inner bud region owing to death o f the

growth zone was observed in about 50% o f irradiated onions on storage for about
4 - 5 months at ambient conditions. Discoloration intensified with further storage
time. Cool storage (1 5 —18°C) was found to increase the degree o f discoloration
o f the growth region and even to shorten the period o f its onset. The nature and
extent o f discoloration o f the growth centres o f the irradiated bulbs can be observed
when the onions are cut open (F ig .2). T o confirm the conditions at which such
discoloration or blackening occurs, a separate batch o f one tonne o f onions
obtained from the growers in the second week o f harvest were irradiated tw o to
seven weeks after harvest and stored at ambient conditions spread on shelves. The
incidence o f discoloration o f the budding region o f irradiated onions stored for
a period o f 10—11 months is shown in Table II. It is evident from the data shown
in the table that progressive discoloration occurred in the growth centres o f the
irradiated onions. The discoloration was found to increase with time between
harvest and irradiation and with storage time and conditions. In onions irradiated
within 2—3 weeks o f harvest the percentage o f bulbs with discoloration o f the
inner buds was found to be very small even after 8 - 9 months’ storage and in such
cases the darkening or discoloration was found to have spread to a very small
area o f the meristem region. Irradiation four to seven weeks after harvest and
storage at ambient conditions resulted in linear increases o f the percentage o f bulbs
with discoloration/darkening o f the growth regions, which increases in number
 IAEA-SM-271/4 21

FIG.l. Sprout inhibition of onions by radiation and bulk storage on shelves and in net bags.
 22

TABLE I. EFFECT OF IRRADIATION AND STORAGE ON SPROUTING, HARDNESS AND INNER BUD Q U O T IE N T
(IBQ) OF O NIO NS

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Measured by fruit hardness tester of universal type as kg/cm 2. Mean values of random samples of 100 bulbs.
Ratio of length of inner bud developing into sprout to total length of bulb. Mean values of random samples of 100 bulbs.
Physiological death of the germination centres (discoloration).
Some initiation of sprouting which, subsequently, dried with storage time.
Control onions heavily sprouted and spoiled.
 IAEA-SM-271/4 23

G
FIG.2. Discoloration of the inner buds of onions irradiated at different times after harvest
and stored by spreading on shelves and packed in net bags.
A. Irradiated 5 weeks after harvest and stored at 2 0 — 37°C for 4 months.
B. Irradiated 5 weeks after harvest and stored at 15°C for 4 months.
C. Irradiated 2 weeks after harvest and stored at 2 0 - 3 7 ° C for 8 months.
D. Irradiated 5 weeks after harvest and stored at 2 0 — 37°C for 8 months.
E. Irradiated 2 weeks after harvest and stored at 15°C for 8 months.
F. Irradiated 5 weeks after harvest and stored at 15°C for 8 months.
G. Control onions stored at 2 0 — 37°C for 8 months.
24 MATIN et al.

TABLE II. PERCENTAGE OF ONIONS WITH DISCOLORATION IN THE

INNER BUDS ON IRRADIATION AND STORAGE AT AMBIENT
CONDITIONS (2 0 -3 7 t:) AND SPREAD ON SHELVES

D iscoloration in bulbs irradiated at different times after harvest:

Storage time
(m onths)
2 nd week 3rd week 4th week 5th week 6 th week 7 th week

3
4 - - 10 15 20 25
5 - - 20 30 40 50
6 - ' - 50 50 50 70
7 - - 50 70 80 90
8 - - 60 80 100 100
9 - Iff 80 90 100 100
10 - 10 80 100 100 100
11 - 10 80 100 100 100

N ote: Storage period: April to February.

3 Incidences o f discoloration in random samples o f 100 bulbs.

and magnitude with storage time. Irradiation soon after harvest when the bulbs
are in the deepest state of dormancy may yield effective inhibition of both internal
and external sprouting, and darkening of growth centres during post-irradiation
storage can largely be avoided. Gradual darkening or discoloration of inner buds,
owing to late irradiation of onions after the break of dormancy, and long storage
was reported by many researchers [1,9, 12, 13].

3.3. Storage losses

Figure 3 shows total storage losses in control and irradiated onions stored at
ambient temperature (20—37“t ) and 70—90% r.h. and spread on shelves. The
total storage losses comprising the losses owing to dehydration and rotting were
found to be different in various years. Irradiation decreased the storage losses
considerably. The difference in storage losses between control and irradiated
onions was found to increase linearly with increasing storage time. Similar
results have been reported by other workers [14]. In evaluating, storage losses,
sprouted onions in the control samples were not discarded to an extent acceptable
to consumers. Loss of weight owing to dehydration was observed to contribute
 IAEA-SM-271/4 25

STORAGE PERIOD (MONTHS)

FIG.3. Effect of radiation on storage losses (cumulative) of onions spread on shelves at

2 0 - 3 7 ° C and 70— 9 0 % r.h. for the period April— January.

to a large extent to the total storage losses, while rotting added only a part. This
was particularly true of irradiated onions, where rotting never contributed more
than 10%, while the loss owing to dehydration was about double (Table III). In the
control samples dehydration was observed to be much greater than that in the
irradiated onions. In the months following October, when ambient temperatures
gradually fall, sprouting in control bulbs increases rapidly, with more than 80% of
the onions showing internal sprouting in the month of November, resulting in
increased weight losses.
Figure 4 indicates storage losses of two common varieties of onions during
storage at ambient conditions spread on shelves for eight months. Varietal
difference in radiation response was observed. The Jhitka variety showed better
keeping qualities owing, probably, to textural compactness and lower moisture
content. Irradiation has a marked effect in reducing storage losses in this variety.
Total storage losses owing to dehydration and rotting in the control and the
irradiated onions during storage for about eight months at ambient conditions were
about 50 and 30% (Fig.3) and 52 and 35% (Fig.4) in 1983 and 1984 storage trials,
26 MATIN et al.

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 IAEA-SM-271/4 27

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28 MATIN et al.

MONTHS OF STORAGE

FIG.4. Effect of radiation on storage losses (cumulative) of two varieties of onions spread
on shelves at ambient conditions (storage period: April-December).

respectively, for the Jhitka variety. The per cent storage losses for Taherpur
variety (F ig.4 ) was observed to be 57 and 44% in the control and in the irradiated
lots after eight months’ storage, respectively. The savings that would accrue from
irradiation and suitable storage would be about 2 0 % by weight o f the stored bulbs.
The storability o f onions, both control and irradiated, packed into net bags under
these conditions was also judged to be comparable with those stored on raised
shelves. Storing onions by spreading them shallowly on raised shelves or by packing
them into net bags and storing them on shelves with proper ventilation to allow
dissipation o f the heat generated, may further reduce the storage losses. Storage
in gunny bags, baskets or crates was not found suitable. The effect o f irradiation
in minimizing storage losses, as obtained in this study, is in agreement w ith reports
by workers elsewhere [9, 12, 14]. Similar results for storability were observed in
control and irradiated onions stored at cooled temperatures when spread on
raised shelves and packed in net bags on shelves (Table III). The humidity o f suüh
storage could not be properly controlled, which seems to be a limiting factor in
obtaining the maximum decrease in storage losses. However, irradiated onions
under these storage conditions showed significantly reduced storage losses owing
to sprouting, dehydration and rotting.
 IAEA-SM-271/4 29

Three types o f storage rotting were identified in stored onions : bacterial soft,
dry rots and fungal dry rots. Soft rot accounted fo r 2 0-2 5 % and fungal dry
rots fo r about 15% losses o f stored onions. The bacterial soft rots were caused
by species o f Erwinia, Sarcina, Micrococcus and Pseudomonas and fungal
rots by Fusarium species. The organisms were found to be unaffected by
irradiation.

3.4. Irradiation effects on inner bud quotient, hardness and density

During storage physical properties such as inner bud quotient, textural

compactness and density were determined periodically on random samples o f both
control and irradiated bulbs. The inner bud quotient (IB Q ), measured as the ratio
o f the inner bud developing into sprout to the length o f the onions, was found to
increase with storage time in the controls, while it was found to be almost negligible
in the majority o f the irradiated bulbs during the initial 4 —5 months’ storage at
ambient conditions. More than 50% o f the control bulbs were on the verge o f
sprouting in the month o f October (6 —7 months’ storage), which continued as the
cool winter temperature persisted till the end o f the storage period (Table I). A t
15°C the inner bud quotient o f the irradiated onions increased with storage time in
a number o f cases, with budding region darkening. This indicates that the onions
were irradiated after the break o f dormancy and the irradiated lots contained
onions o f mixed harvests. The observation on inner bud development is in agree­
ment with those reported by Nair et al. [12] andKálmán and Tamasi [14].
Measurement o f textural compactness o f control and irradiated bulbs stored
under different conditions did not reveal a consistent difference. This is in
conform ity with the results o f other workers [14]. The density o f the stored
bulbs did not show a clear pattern nor was it indicative o f irradiation or storage
conditions (results not shown). This is contrary to the findings o f Kálmán and
Tamasi [14], who reported an increase in weight per volume after irradiation
o f onions.

3.5. Organoleptic properties

Assessment o f the organoleptic and cooking qualities was made in the later
part o f each storage trial. Table IV summarizes the results o f the organoleptic
properties o f control and irradiated onions stored on shelves at ambient conditions
and cooled temperature. It w ould appear from the table that irradiated samples
were judged to be superior in quality with respect to colour, texture, odour
and taste when served raw, fried or boiled. Control onions stored under any o f
the conditions were on the borderline o f acceptance or below in quality. Similar
improvement in the sensory qualities o f irradiated bulbs have been reported by
other workers [ 1 2 ].
30 MATIN et al.

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 IAEA-SM-271/4 31

T A B L E V . CONSUM ER A C C E P T A B IL IT Y O F STORED O NIO NS (J H IT K A

V A R IE T Y )
% Consumer preference o f overall quality 3

6 m onths’ storage 8 m onths’, storage

Storage
conditions
Control Irradiated Control Irradiated

20 —37°C:
spread on 63 98 43 96c
shelves
15°C:
spread on _b 94° 96°
-
shelves

a Assessm ent o f 300 consumers out o f 600 supplied with the onions and cards to record their
opinions. Consumer assessment on quality in respect o f colour, texture, taste and
appearence.
b Control onions deteriorated in overall quality and unacceptable owing to heavy sprouting,
shrinkage and rottage.
c Som e consumers reported blackening o f the inner bud o f the irradiated onions which
became visible when the onions were cut in half.

3.6. Consumer acceptance and marketing trials

Control and irradiated onions supplied to consumers have been assessed with
respect to overall quality. Table V summarizes this evaluation. It is evident from
the data that consumers favoured the irradiated sample over the control because o f
the form er’s better quality with respect to colour, odour, texture and overall
acceptability. A few consumers, however, reported undesirable darkening o f the
inner buds o f some irradiated onions. In view o f the superior organoleptic
performance and quality and the better condition o f the irradiated onions, even
after 10 months o f storage, it was expected that general consumers would favour
the irradiated samples. Because o f the overall improved quality and favourable
consumer response introduction o f irradiated onions through normal marketing
channels would entail only minimal difficulty.
During and on termination o f storage in 1984 irradiated onions supplied to the
market were w idely accepted by both shopkeepers and consumers. A bout 3 t
o f irradiated onions, on storage for 6 , 8 and 9 months, were sold to a number o f
grocery shops, shopping centres, and department stores in various parts in Dhaka
City at the wholesale price prevailing at the time. The shopkeepers’ demands for
32 MATIN et al.

an increased supply could not be met because o f the limited stock. It was learned
from them that consumers prefer to buy older, stored onions in the months o f
December and January at a higher price than the freshly harvested stock, which
enters the market in the days follow ing late November. N o adverse comments were
received from either the retailers or the consumers. Similar market trials with
irradiated onions stored for different periods were conducted in Hungary with an
encouraging response from the tradespeople and consumers [ 6 ].

4. CO NCLU SIO NS

Sprout growth in the common varieties o f onions grown in Bangladesh can

be effectively inhibited with minimum discoloration o f the inner buds i f irradiated
(5 0 -8 0 G y ) within 2 - 3 weeks o f harvest. Storage losses owing to sprouting,
dehydration and rotting can be significantly reduced by irradiation. A saving
to the extent o f 2 0 % or more o f the storage losses may be achieved with irradia­
tion and storage at ambient conditions ( 2 0 - 3 7 ^ ) by spreading the onions shallowly
on raised shelves with air circulating beneath the shelves to dissipate the heat
generated during storage. Irradiated onions packed in net bags and stored on
shelves under similar conditions as mentioned above may also yield an identical
reduction in storage losses.
Storage o f irradiated onions at cool temperatures (15°C) would require
proper humidity control to get the optimum benefit.
In view o f the additional expenditure required for cool temperature, storage
o f irradiated onions by spreading on raised shelves at ambient temperature with
adequate ventilation may be economically feasible for reducing storage losses.

ACKN O W LE D G EM EN TS

The paper was prepared under Research Contract N o. 2835/JN with the
International A tom ic Energy Agency under the Asian Regional Co-operative
Project on Food Irradiation (R P F I). Financial support o f the IA E A under RPFI
phase I is thankfully acknowledged. The authors express their thanks to
Dr. M. Ahmed, Director, Institute o f F ood and Radiation Biology, for his assistance
and keen interest in the work.

REFERENCES

[ 1] KA H A N , R .S., TEM K IN -G O RO D EISKI, N ., “ Storage tests and sprouting control on

up-to-date variety potatoes and an experim ental onion variety (Beit-A lpha)” , Preserva­
tion o f Fruit and V egetables by R adiation (Proc. FA O /IA E A Panel Vienna, 1966), IAEA ,
Vienna (1 9 6 8 ) 29.
 IAEA-SM-271/4 33

[2] LO A H A RA N U , P., Semi-commercial irradiation o f onions in Thailand, F oo d Irradiat.

Inf. 3 (1 9 7 4 ) 10.
[3] VAN K O O IJ, J ., F oo d irradiation makes progress, Int. At. Energy Agency Bull. 26
(1 9 8 4 ) 17.
[4] Anonym ous, Bangladesh Standards Bulletin 7 2 (1 983) 26.
[5] AHMED, M., et al., Econom ic Feasibility Studies on Radiation Preservation o f Dried and
Cured Fishery Products, Onions and Potatoes, Final R eport, IA E A /BA EC Research
C ontract No. 3 5 1 0 /JN , IA EA , Vienna (1984).
[6 ] KA LM AN , B., The potential for commercial onion irradiation in Hungary, Food Irradiat.
Inf. 8 (1 9 7 8 ) 9.
[7] SID DIQ UI, A .K ., et al., Sprout inhibition o f onion by irradiation, Nucl. Sci. Appl.
1 0 (1 9 7 9 )4 5 .
[8 ] PER YA M , D .R ., PILGRIM , F .I., F o o d Technol. Cam paign (Suppl.) 11 (1 957) 9.
[9] R O U SH D Y, H.M., SH U K R Y , K ., MAHMOUD, A .A ., “ Low er radiation levels for better
storageability o f potatoes and onions using certain chemical treatm ents” , Radiation
Preservation o f F oo d (Proc. Sym p. Bom bay, 1972), IA EA , Vienna (1 9 7 3 ) 105.
[10] LEW IS, N .F ., M ATH UR, P.B., Extension o f storage lives o f p otatoes and onions by
cobalt-60 X-rays, Int. J. Appl. Radiat. Isot. 14 (1 9 6 3 ) 443.
[11] SKO U , J.P ., Studies on the E ffect o f Ionizing Radiation for Extending the Storage
Lives o f Onions, Danish Atom ic Energy Com m ission, Research Establishm ent Ris^
Rep. N o .2 3 8 (1 9 7 1 )4 6 .
[12] N A IR , P.M., et al., “ Studies o f sprout inhibition o f onions and potatoes and delayed
ripening o f bananas and mangoes by gam m a irradiation” , Radiation Preservation o f Food
(Proc. Sym p. Bom bay, 1972), IA EA , Vienna (1 9 7 3 ) 347.
[13] THOM AS, P., “ Prospects and problem s o f com m ercial irradiation o f onions and potatoes
in India” , F o o d Irradiation for Developing Countries in Asia and the Pacific (Rep.
Seminar T okyo, 1981), IAEA -TECD O C-271, IA EA , Vienna (1 9 8 1 ) 137.
[14] KA M LAN , B., TA M A SI, B., Irradiation studies on Onions in Hungary, Research Report,
Central F oo d Research Institute, Budapest (1981).
 IAEA-SM-271/16

IRRADIATION OF ONIONS, SPICES

AND ENZYME SOLUTIONS
IN THE GERMAN DEMOCRATIC REPUBLIC

K. W ETZE L, G. HUEBNER, M. BA E R
Zentralinstitut für Isotopen-
und Strahlenforschung,
Akademie der Wissenschaften der DDR,
Leipzig, German Democratic Republic

Abstract

IR R A D IA TIO N O F ONIONS, SPICES AND ENZYM E SO LU TIO N S IN THE GERM AN

DEM OCRATIC R EPU BLIC.
Extensive research work in the field o f food irradiation has been carried out in the German
Dem ocratic Republic in recent years. Technological and econom ic param eters were studied with
the purpose o f deciding on the m ost successful processes and the foods m ost suitable for
irradiation. The main topics of this work were the irradiation of onions, spices and technical enzyme
solutions. Different types o f gam m a irradiation facilities for bulk cargo irradiation, for batch-
processing o f enzyme solutions and for m ultipurpose use have been built or are under construction.
Technological and econom ic data obtained by pilot experim ents from 1981 to 1984 with
2000 t o f onions dem onstrate that irradiation is most suitable for sprouting inhibition
and as a substitute for the cooling process during storage. Drastic reductions in storage losses
and savings o f energy are the m ost im portant advantages o f this new technology. Germ-count
reduction in spices and enzyme solutions by irradiation provides better product quality, reduction
of product losses, and energy reduction. Over the past four years extensive work has been done
in the field o f food irradiation as a result o f the recomm ended acceptance o f food irradiation up
to an overall average dose o f 10 kGy by the Jo in t FAO/IAEA/W HO Expert Com m ittee on the
Wholesomeness o f Irradiated Food (JE C F I) in O ctober 1980. The conclusion o f JE C F I that the
irradiation o f food up to this dose presents no toxicological hazards is very im portant for work
on the radiation preservation o f foods. On the basis o f JE C F I’s recom m endations, extensive
research work has been carried out in the German Dem ocratic Republic in recent years.
On the basis o f scientific results obtained by the Institute o f Vegetable Production of the
A cadem y o f Agricultural Sciences o f the German Dem ocratic Republic in co-operation with the
Central Institute o f Isotope and Radiation Research, onion irradiation was launched in 1981.

1. IR R A D IA T IO N O F O NIO NS

■ In 1981 a new type o f bulk cargo irradiator was discussed, planned,

constructed and put into operation within three months [ 1]. Taking into account
radiation protection calculations and the technological solution o f bulk cargo
transport, the irradiation room was built as a subterranean bunker with interior
dimensions o f 6.0 X 6.0 X 2.1 m and slightly ascending inlet and outlet channels

35
36 WETZEL et al.

w e ll

FIG.2. Arrangement of the source tubes in relation to the onion layer.

with a width o f 1 .0 m and a height o f 0 .6 m in combination with vertical shafts

o f labyrinth structure (Fig. 1). The irradiator is loaded with about 1.8 X 1015B q 60Co.
The 60Co sources are arranged in a tube system consisting o f four tubes, tw o above
and tw o below the onion layer on a turntable (F ig .2). Because o f the different
radial velocities o f the onions at the inner and outer parts o f the layer and the
radiation absorption by the turntable (4 mm steel plate) the four tubes are
differently loaded.
 IAEA-SM-271/16 37

Physiological experiments on sprouting inhibition in our laboratory

demonstrated that it is already inhibited at doses higher than 20 G y and that 30 G y
are a safe lower limit to prevent onion sprouting [3]. JECFI recommends onion
irradiation up to a dose o f 150 G y [4]. Therefore, anoverdose ratio o f 2.3 in
the onion layer corresponding to a dose range from 30 to 70 G y yields suitable
conditions for onion irradiation in the present pilot plant. The throughput o f
the irradiator results from its geometrical conditions in

X = dsR pco

where R = average radius o f the circle on the turntable, 170 cm

d = height o f the onion layer
s = width o f the onion layer
p = average density o f the onions, 0.5
to= angular velocity o f the turntable [5].

Since 1981 nearly 2000 t o f onions have been irradiated in this plant. In
the 1981 irradiation period the plant wasloaded with 1.17 X 1015B q 60Co and
adjusted to a minimum dose o f 30 Gy, resulting in anaverage angular velocity
o f 34.9/h. The theoretical throughput is X = 3.56 t/h at an average revolution
time o f 10.8 min. The throughput was 3.5 t/h. Thus, calculated on the basis
o f a D min o f 30 Gy, a minimum efficiency o f rj = 0.063 was realized. Related to
the overall average dose o f 43 G y during the whole irradiation period the efficiency
was 9.1%. Some changes in the geometrical arrangement o f the tubes above and
below the onion layer led to a higher minimum efficiency o f about 7%. From
optimizing calculations it follows that by an increase o f the onion layer from
the present 60 cm width and 2 0 cm height to a width o f 80 cm and a height o f
40 cm the theoretical minimum efficiency o f the irradiation plant may be
increased to 9%. Factors influencing the efficiency o f the irradiation plant
are the maximum filling o f the volume available on the turntable and the
organization o f the whole process. A well-timed supply o f onions from the
field, their continuous and uniform transport to the turntable and fo o lp ro o f
equipment guarantee efficient operation o f the irradiation plant. I f filling
o f the turntable is improved, areal efficiency o f more than 95% o f the theoretical
value should be reached. Thus, a capacity o f about 7.5—8.0 t/h can be realized
in this type o f irradiator at a loading with 1.85 X 101S Bq 60Co. This capacity
is the upper limit but is sufficient for irradiating about 2000 to 30Ô0 t o f onions
within 2 to 3 weeks post harvest at a daily irradiation time o f 20 hours. Usual
warehouses for onions have a capacity o f about 12 000 to 15 000 t. A portion
o f 3000 t o f irradiated onions is a suitable amount to be integrated into such
a system o f storing and processing and a sufficient quantity for consumption in
the period from May to July.
38 WETZEL et al.

Technological and economic data obtained from the pilot experiments in the
period 1981 to 1984 demonstrate that onion irradiation is the most suitable
process for sprouting inhibition, and that thereis no need to shift the onions
into cooling chambers for the period o f May to June.The power demand for
storage o f 360 kW h per tonne is reduced to 53 kW -h per tonne and the storage
losses are reduced by 28 to 12.5% on average as against the traditional process.
The new process is o f greatest economic benefit for traders and consumers
as a result o f the maintenance o f quality and a 2 0 % reduction o f storage losses
(25 to 5% on average).
Starting, for example, from 10 000 t o f onions as required for the period
from May to June, 18 400 t were needed in store using the cooling technology
with high storage losses (total losses being 46%). Sixteen thousand tonnes out o f
the above total are to be stored in cooling chambers. The new process will reduce
the total loss rate by 50%, i.e. only 13 0 0 0 1 o f onions will have to be irradiated [ 6 ].
On the basis o f the reduced production volume the follow ing amounts o f
material and funds can be saved:

Cultivated area 250 ha

Seed 3 500 kg
Power required fo r cold storage 5 000 MW h
Transport 650 000 t ■km

Investigations at our laboratory into the radiobiological fundamentals o f

sprouting inhibition in onions serve the extension o f radiobiological knowledge
as well as the further optimization and maximum precision o f the process [3].
The lower limit o f the effective radiation dose, the optimum dose range, the
optimum irradiation period, the last possible time fo r irradiation after harvest,
and the interactions between storage temperature before irradiation, optimum
time fo r irradiation, and irradiation dose have been investigated. These experi­
ments and additional cytological investigations o f the cell division index for
irradiated onions as a function o f the radiation dose and the time o f irradiation
have yielded the follow ing results:

— 20 Gy is the lowest effective radiation dose that guarantees sprout inhibition.

Over the range o f 20 to 70 G y there are no dose-dependent differences in the
inhibiting effect.
— The first three weeks after harvest is the optimum period for irradiation. This
period may be prolonged up to 12 weeks post harvest, provided that those
onions irradiated last are consumed first.
— The optimum period for irradiation treatment can be prolonged by low
storage temperature (e.g. cool weather during the harvest).
— The irradiation o f the onions has to be integrated into the technological
process o f the transport from the field to the warehouse. A n additional
 IAEA-SM-271/16 39

intermediate storage increases the proportion o f damaged onions and,

consequently, increases the storage losses.
- Sprouting inhibition in onions by irradiation is caused by inhibition o f cell
division. However, cell elongation is not affected by irradiation.
- Radiation treatment within the first three weeks post harvest makes possible
storage outside cooling chambers. A storage temperature lower than 10°C
from October to June is best suited to prevent any loss o f quality. Moreover,
it is extrem ely important to guarantee dry storage.
- Sprouts o f irradiated onions die o f f after cell elongation. Brown colouring
o f the sprouts may be minimized by the use o f well-ripened onions, irradiated
immediately after harvest, and by careful processing.

N o negative results such as those recently reported by Zehnder [7] have ever
been obtained in our pilot experiments from 1981 to 1984 on 2000 t o f onions. On
the basis o f our positive pilot-scale results, a new high capacity irradiation plant
for the irradiation o f 4000 t o f onions and multipurpose use is now under
construction.

2. IR R A D IA T IO N O F SPICES

The use o f ethylene oxide for the reduction o f microbial load in spices is
prohibited in the German Democratic Republic. Therefore, the influence o f ionizing
radiation on the microbial load and taste o f selected spices and spice mixtures
was tested and it was proved that the use o f spices o f reduced microbial load in the
production o f deep-freeze ready cooked meals, preserves, and tins is reflected in the
high quality o f the products. T o utilize these results immediately, the project
was subdivided into three stages:

— Examination o f the reduction o f the microbial load and modification o f the

sensorial properties o f spices and spice mixtures as a function o f the dose applied
— Investigation into the influence o f radiation on microbial loads and sensorial
properties in test products manufactured with irradiated spices
— Testing the results obtained under production conditions.

In co-operation with other institutes and enterprises positive results were

achieved in all three stages o f this project. In spices such as pepper, paprika,
thyme, marjoram, mustard powder and mixed spices (such as curry powder and
mixed spices fo r special products) in general microbial loads o f the order o f 1 0 6 to 1 0 7
microorganisms per gram o f spice were found. The yielded Djo values by irradiation
(Fig.3) and the initial microbial load o f the spices permit calculation o f the radiation
dose, guaranteeing an acceptable reduction o f the microbial load. With radiation
doses o f 7.5 kGy, a reduction in the initial number o f viable microorganisms by a
factor o f 104 to 10s in various spices was achieved. Some sensorial differences
40 WETZEL et al.

ю1-

ю6-

70s -

70*-

103 -

101-

101--------------------------------------------------------------------
О 3 U.S 6 7.58 10 к бу

FIG.3. The reduction of the n u m b e r of microorganisms in spices as a

function of dose.

resulted from irradiation. In the case o f individual spices, for which definite
notions o f taste and smell exist, sensorial deviations after radiation treatment
can be detected more easily than with mixed spices. But there was no clear
connection with the doses,and even with the highest doses used ( 10 kG y) these
modifications were insignificant.
In the charges as well as under production conditions the follow ing products
have been made using irradiated spices:

— B eef goulash in gravy as a deep-frozen food

— Thick frankfurters
— Braised meat.

In the test product beef goulash a considerable improvement in microbial

quality as compared with the control could be ascertained. The irradiation o f mixed
spices for thick frankfurters also had a positive effect on bacterial contamination
 IAEA-SM-271/16 41

o f the ready-made products. Comparative experiments on braised meat preserves

yielded the result that the use o f mixed spices irradiated at 7.5 kGy reduces the
number o f microorganisms in the product immediately after pasteurization; the growth
o f the remaining microbes, however, raises their number again after short storage. The
use o f mixed spices irradiated at 10 kGy combined with heat treatment with slightly
raised temperature o f the preserve yields a product which fully satisfies stability tests
on the meat tins. Sensorial deviations found in the spices such as increase o f hotness
o f pepper had little effect in the final products and can be compensated for by
a modification o f the spice mixture as well as o f the amount o f spice used [ 8 ].
Under production conditions the reduction in bacterial count in spices is not the
only factor influencing the required hygienic status o f the final product but it
is also the prerequisite fo r solving other problems o f the production regime
implied. Moreover, various o f our results indicate that the spores entering the
product together with the spices are more difficult to inactivate by subsequent
heat treatment than, for example, microorganisms growing on the meat. Apart from
raising the hygienic status there are a number o f other reasons for the use o f irradiated
spices, e.g. reduction o f losses and storage stabilization o f the spices themselves
and o f goods produced with them, insect disinfestation in spices simultaneously
at irradiation fo r reduction o f microbial load, and the manufacture o f new products
which otherwise would not be storable at all. Another aspect is the possibility
o f reducing the energy needed for the sterilization o f tinned products, because
a shorter heating period is required as a result o f the reduced degree o f conta­
mination o f the products or because lower core temperatures are sufficient for
obtaining sterility [ 8 ].

3. IR R A D IA T IO N O F E N Z Y M E SO LU TIO N S

Biotechnology is gaining increasing importance in the production o f drugs,

foodstuffs, industrial auxiliary substances, and other products. Usually, the
producing organisms or other contaminating microorganisms have to be separated from
the final product. The microbial quality required can be achieved by multistage
filtration or centrifugation. However, several disadvantages such as high expen­
diture o f manual labour, uncertain results in the number o f viable microorganisms in
the reduction o f the final products, and the prohibition o f the use o f asbestos materials
in the food industry o f the German Democratic Republic render more difficult or rule
out the industrial application o f filtration fo r enzyme production.
It has been demonstrated that irradiation is an interesting alternative for
reduction o f microbial load in technical enzyme solutions [9]. The radiation dose
needed depends on the initial bacterial load, the D 10 value o f the microorganisms,
and the microbial quality to be reached in the final product. T o preserve the
enzyme activity the radiation dose should be as low as possible. In m odel experi­
ments in 250 and 1000 m L polyethylene bottles, in 50 L polyethylene canisters,
42 WETZEL et al.

and in a 7 L model reactor it has been demonstrated that doses o f 7 to 10 kGy

reduce the counts o f living bacteria by a factor o f 10 3 to 10 s in liquid en zym e,
glucoamylase, and alpha amylase. N o negative effects on the enzyme activity
and stability in the irradiated samples in comparison with the untreated solutions
were observed. The effectiveness o f the radiation treatment by gamma radiation
from a 60Co source was not influenced by

— temperature changes over the range o f 15 to 30°C,

— changes o f the pH-value between 5 and 6 ,
— water content o f the enzyme solutions in the range o f 55 to 83%,
— intermixing o f the culture solution by ventilation or by a vibromixer,
— dose rates in the range o f 1 to 8.2 kGy/h.

An important factor influencing the irradiation effects is the content o f

colloidal solutes o f the enzyme solutions. An initial reduction o f the number o f micro­
organisms from 10s —10 10 perm L to about 10s — 106 per m L in the culture solutions
by rough filtration or centrifugation follow ed by an irradiation with a maximum
dose o f 10 kGy is most efficient in reducing this number to values less than 104 per
m L without any change in the enzyme activity.
On the basis o f these results a special batch-process irradiator for enzyme
solutions with a performance o f 3000 m 3 /a is now under construction by
VEB PRO W IK O , Schonebeck. The initial load o f the GBE 82 irradiation unit
is 2.33 PBq 60Co. The new technology o f the reduction o f microbial load by irradiation
treatment o f enzyme solutions yields the follow ing advantages in comparison
with the conventional filtration technique:

— Manpower reduction by a total o f fifteen workers

— Decrease in the prime cost o f the enzyme production by 8 to 10%
— Reduction o f the amount o f wastes
— Improvement o f product quality.

4. A M U LTIPU R PO S E G A M M A IR R A D IA T IO N F A C IL IT Y

Calculations show that food irradiation is only an economically acceptable

process i f a minimum quantity o f products can be irradiated and i f the available
cobalt-60 is used throughout the year. For these reasons a gamma irradiation
facility for multipurpose use is under construction [10]. This facility is being built
in an agricultural co-operative which produces onions. During the onion harvest
about 4000 t will be irradiated in this facility. A great variety o f products may
be irradiated simultaneously at different doses during the rest o f the year.
The multipurpose gamma irradiation facility consists o f a central irradiation
room, 5.5 X 7.5 X 3.5 m. The product containers are taken on and delivered in
a storage hall. A labyrinth divided into an entrance line and an exit line connects
 IAEA-SM-271/16 43

FIG.4. Ground plan of the multipurpose g a m m a irradiation facility.

the storage hall and the irradiation room (Fig.4). The inner part o f the labyrinth
is single-line, in accordance with radiation safety calculations.
The irradiator will be loaded with about 10 PBq 60Co. A water pool with
a depth o f 6.50 m is used as source storage. The cobalt-60 sources are placed
in a cylindrical arrangement.
The facility works on the container principle. The containers are trans­
ported by an active driving roller conveyor from the storage hall to the irradiation
room and back. Within the irradiation room the transport o f the containers is
performed by roller conveyors and carrying chain conveyors. Thus the orientation
o f the container remains constant during the transport around the irradiation source
making possible a four-sided irradiation. The containers have outside dimensions
o f 1.00 X 1.20 X 1.95 m for onions and 1.00 X 1.20 X 2.40 m for all other
products. Each position o f the transport system can be loaded with up to 1 t.
Eight containers can be positioned round the radiation source.
44 WETZEL et al.

The irradiation plant works with tw o different programmes, one for the
irradiation o f onions, garlic or potatoes, the other for all other products.
Both programmes are computer-controlled. The programme for the irradiation
o f onions, garlic or potatoes works at the highest speed possible with the present
conveyor system. The loading o f the source arrangement is calculated for the dose
needed for the product to be irradiated, i.e. 3 0 -7 0 G y fo r onions, considering the
time fo r one irradiation cycle. Loading and unloading o f the aluminium containers
is computer-controlled follow ing the same working rhythm. The whole onion
irradiation process in this facility is integrated into the harvest and storage o f the
onions.
The computer-controlled program for all other products is planned
in such a way that during each transport cycle around the source arrangement
(8 sets o f steps) an overall average dose o f 2 kGy is absorbed by the products
within the containers. According to the dose requested and considering the density
o f the product, the number o f cycles in the irradiation room is calculated and
controlled by the computer. A fte r each cycle the computer compares the number
o f cycles programmed with the number completed and decides on another cycle or
transport to the storage position after termination o f the irradiation. This concept
allows the simultaneous irradiation o f different products with different doses.
Containers with individual fixed doses may be placed at each o f the eight positions
on the conveyor system around the radiation source. Only the number o f cycles
(and the density o f the product) is decisive for the total dose, which at a density
o f 0.3 is an integral multiple o f 2 kGy. A t a loading o f the irradiation facility with
5.25 PBq 60C the time for one cycle will be about 6 hours.
The radiation field, the distance o f the containers from the radiation sources,
the size o f the containers, and the maximum density o f the products are calculated
for a maximum overdose ratio o f 1.5. Maximum and minimum dose, dose rate,
overall average dose, irradiation time, date, number o f cycles, number o f container
and product are printed out at the end o f the irradiation process.
For sprout inhibition o f onions a dose o f 30 to 70 G y (overdose ratio 2.3)
is sufficient. This dose is realized at the maximum conveyor velocity by a load
o f about 1.4 X 10ls B q 60Co which yields a capacity o f about 15 t/h. Thus, only
15—20% o f the total 60 Co load o f the facility is needed during the harvest for
onion irradiation in the multipurpose irradiator. Therefore, it is planned to take
most o f the 60 Co from the multipurpose facility during the onion harvest and to
use it in bulk cargo irradiators o f the type described in Section 1.
By combining both types o f irradiators, the bulk cargo irradiator and the
multipurpose gamma irradiator, an optimum utilization o f the available cobalt-60
throughout the year is guaranteed. Calculations have proved that such a
multipurpose irradiator works economically at a minimum load o f about
4 .5 -5 .5 PBq 60Co and about 5000 h/a. Consequently, the design and construction
o f a multipurpose gamma irradiation facility is recommendable and it can
 IAEA-SM-271/16 45

operate economically only i f the food irradiation programme in a country

ensures a certain level o f utilization o f the available capacity. Food irradiation
in the German Democratic Republic has reached this state.

REFERENCES

[1] D O E LL ST A E D T , R ., H U E B N ER , G., F oo d irradiation: Activities and potentialities,

Zfl-Mitt. 9 8 (1 9 8 4 ) 590.
[2] D O E LL ST A E D T , R., et al., Irradiation facility GBZ 81, Zfl-Mitt. 70 (1 9 8 3 ) 178.
[3] DAHLH ELM , H., M A TEJK O , C., H U EBN ER , G., Experim ents on sprouting inhibition
in onions, Zfl-Mitt. 69 (1 9 8 3 ) 395.
[4] Recom m ended International Code o f Practice for the Operation o f R adiation Facilities
Used for the Treatm ent o f F oods, Codex Alimentarius Commission X V , Edn. 1,
FAO/WHO (RCP 1 9 - 1 9 7 9 ) 1 -1 3 .
[5] H U E BN ER , G ., et al., Process engineering aspects and the further developm ent o f the
onion irradiator GBZ 81, Zfl-Mitt. 9 8 (1 9 8 4 ) 606.
[6 ] P E T E R S, P., H U EBN ER , G., N E B E, D „ Z EU T SC H EL, K.-H., Bestrahlung von Speise-
zwiebeln mit 60 Co zur Verlângerung der Lagerdauer im Normallager und Qualitâts-
sicherung bis zum Endverbraucher, Gartenbau 31 (1 9 8 4 ) 259.
[7] Z EH N D ER , H .J., Zur Strahlenkonservierung von Zwiebeln — Versuche 1977—1983,
Alimenta 23 (1 9 8 4 ) 114.
[8 ] W EISS, D., W EISS, B „ D O E LL ST A E D T , R., H U EBN ER , G., A comparative study o f the
production of preserves using irradiated spice m ixtures (7.5 and 10.0 kG y) and
commercially available spices, Zfl-Mitt. 98 (1 9 8 4 ) 648.
[9] B A E R , M „ E N F E L D , G., H O FFM EIST ER , H., REIN H A R D T, J., W OELBING, М., Reduction
in bacterial count o f enzyme solutions by gamma radiation, Zfl-Mitt. (in press).
[10] H U EBN ER , G., A new m ultipurpose gamma irradiation facility, Zfl-Mitt. 9 8 (1 9 8 4 ) 578.
 IAEA-SM-271/6

ECONOMIC EVALUATION OF RADIATION

INHIBITION OF POTATO SPROUTING IN EGYPT

A .A . M AHM OU D , H.M. R O U SH D Y
National Centre fo r Radiation
Research and Technology,
Cairo, Egypt

Abstract

ECONOMIC E V A LU A TIO N OF RAD IATIO N INHIBITION O F POTATO SPRO U TIN G IN

EGYPT.
The present study reviews the status o f p otato cultivation in Egypt, annual production,
local consum ption and export volume during the period 1 9 7 6 -1 9 7 8 . The data presented reflect
the magnitude o f annual crop loss due to sprouting, fungal attack, insect infestation and chemical
changes. A ttem pts have been made to ensure longer and better keeping quality o f potatoes
through many conventional treatm ents, e.g. refrigeration and chemical treatm ent. However,
the percentage of annual loss of potatoes harvested in E gypt is still far from being
acceptable. Irradiation processing o f p otatoes for sprouting inhibition has always been considered
a feasible technology in Egypt. Extensive studies have been carried out in E gypt since the
1960s to investigate the technological and nutritional status o f irradiated potatoes. Nevertheless,
not enough comprehensive studies have been undertaken to evaluate the econom ic feasibility o f
such a technology as calculated under local environmental conditions. This is the objective of
the paper.

IN T R O D U C T IO N

Extensive research programmes carried out internationally since the 1950s

have clearly shown that radiation preservation o f fo od can significantly contribute
to reducing the high rate o f food losses. This has been o f particular interest to
many o f the developing nations, especially where traditional preservation techniques
cannot be applied, either through lack o f the technical preconditions or through
economic circumstances.
The problem o f annual losses in cultivated potatoes was one o f the first
problems to be tackled by irradiation processing. Irradiation treatment o f potatoes
has proved to inhibit tuber sprouting during storage. Since such treatment results in
only a slight ( i f any) rise in the temperature o f the tubers while being irradiated,
no alteration in the organoleptic, physical or chemical characteristics could be
determined at the irradiation level technologically required to fulfil the objective
o f the process. Accordingly, the optimal radiation levels fo r fulfilling the preser­
vation requirements ensure that there are no harmful chemical changes in the fo od ­
stuff and that the safety precautions for human consumption are maintained.

47
48 MAHMOUD and ROUSHDY

The public acceptability and the wholesomeness o f irradiated potatoes have

stimulated the interest o f many investigators fo r more than tw o decades. A fter
critical revision o f the data accumulated world wide on the toxicological testing
o f irradiated tubers, clearances have been progressively issued by the competent
health authorities o f many countries, while the international campaign issued
conditional clearances follow ed by unconditional ones. Late in 1980 unconditional
clearance for all sorts o f foodstuffs irradiated at a dose level not exceeding 10 kGy
was recommended by the Joint W HO/FAO/IAEA Expert Committee, confirming
that “ toxicological testing is no longer necessary for any food conserved by radiation
dose levels not exceeding 10 k G y” [ l ] .
Since 1981 many countries o f the world have resumed or initiated their
studies in order to explore the potential application o f radiation preservation
o f food under the prevailing local conditions. Egypt, like some other countries,
did not discontinue its research programmes on radiation preservation o f food started
in 1964 [2 —4]. Accordingly, Egypt seems to be in a better position to commer­
cialize batch samples o f certain irradiated foodstuffs including potatoes. Such an
objective would require an economic feasibility study on the transfer and adaptation
o f the technology to local Egyptian conditions.

P O T A T O PR O D U C TIO N A N D LOSSES IN E G Y PT

Egypt is one o f fifteen countries o f the world undertaking large-scale

cultivation and production o f potatoes (F ig .l) [5]. In this respect Egypt recog­
nizes its own share o f responsibility to decrease the rate o f annual potato losses.
In 1977 the annual production from the cultivated area under potatoes in
Egypt amounted to more than one million tonnes (Table I). Harvested potatoes
are usually kept in ordinary storage where they are subject to sprouting, fungal
attack, infestation by harmful insects and undesirable chemical changes. The
magnitude o f these incidences increases progressively. The average annual (estimated)
loss in potato crops stored for 6 —8 weeks has been evaluated at 8 8 kt (Table II),
i.e. 9% o f total production.

D EC R E A SIN G P O T A T O LOSSES IN E G Y P T

Attempts have repeatedly been made to minimize the rate o f annual loss
in potato crops, including low temperature storage and chemical treatment for
sprout inhibition. However, the increasing opposition to food additives and
the higher cost o f refrigeration have shown the pressing need fo r an alternative
method o f preservation which can meet the requirements. Irradiation processing
o f potato tubers has proved to be successful in this respect. Economic feasibility
studies for commercialization o f such a technology under local environmental
 IAEA-SM-271/6

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F/G. 7. Average yield per feddan of the major potato producing countries in the world
(in tonnes).

conditions are required. As a comprehensive example “Egypt’s Mega Gamma I

industrial irradiator is considered for the present cost-benefit analysis.

M A T E R IA L A N D METHODS

Potato varieties

Potato tubers o f the Alpha variety were used in the experiment. This is a
summer crop widely cultivated in the northern part o f Egypt. Three thousand
kilograms o f potato tubers o f medium size and almost symmetrical, uniform
shape were chosen one month post harvest. Injured and infected tubers were
eliminated.
The required sizes were obtained by using special sieves to obtain tubers
o f 5 to 6.5 cm diameter, which is the most suitable size for export. The sieves
were arranged on top o f each other. The upper one had holes o f 6 .6 cm
diameter, the lower one had holes o f 4.9 cm diameter.
50 MAHMOUD and ROUSHDY

T A B L E I. M A G N IT U D E O F A N N U A L Y IE L D O F RIPE P O T A T O CROPS
IN V A R IO U S E G Y P T IA N G O V E R N O R A TE S (in kt)

Governorate 1976 1977 1978

Alexandria 26 105 29 546 33 857

Behaira 221 324 252 758 194 731
Gharbia 145 186 167 825 80 417
Kafr el Sheich 4 609 6 115 3 125
Dakahlia 59 417 61 725 50 621
Dam itta 10818 10691 10 627
Sharkia 6 400 10415 10 633
Ishmailia 745 1 627 2 355
Suez 14 11 25
Monofia 188 803 211538 122 993
Kalubia 22 675 22 770 20 524
Cairo - 1 060 902

Low er Egypt 686 096 776 081 530 810

Giza 144 245 178 678 187 644

Beni Sueif 11 288 11 596 7 306
Fayoum 222 386 345
Minia 4 0 676 33 368 40 461

Middle Egypt 196 431 224 028 235 756

Assiut 1 100 925 410

Sohag 9 022 8 975 5 374

Qena 14 357 14

Upper Egypt 10 136 10 257 5 798

TO TA L 892 663 1 010 366 772 364

Agrie. Econ. (1 9 7 9 ).
 IAEA-SM-271/6 51

T A B L E II. A N N U A L P R O D U C TIO N A N D CO N SU M PTIO N O F PO TA TO E S

IN E G Y P T (in kt)

Year 1975 1976 1977

Parameters
Production 720 893 1 010
E xp ort 100 158 166
Im port 35 30 31
Local consum ption 655 765 875

Seed potatoes 152 167 153

Losses 66 77 88
Human diet 437 521 639
kg/a 10 11.7 3.9

Agrie. Econ. (1979).

In the experiments the tubers were stored in bags under ordinary room
conditions, each bag containing 50 kg. The range o f temperature fluctuation
was 11—24°C and that o f relative humidity was 45—80%.

E G Y P T ’S IN D U S T R IA L IR R A D IA T O R

The A E C L type JS-6500 industrial cobalt-60 gamma irradiator “ Egypt’s

Mega Gamma I ” has been in operation at the National Centre fo r Radiation
Research and Technology (N C R R T ) since January 1979 at an initial cobalt-60
capacity o f 400 kCi .1 The plant is furnished with a ventilated concrete biological
shield, a water p ool for source storage, a principal mechanical conveyor, an extra
research channel fo r pilot irradiation o f high density products, a source pass
mechanism with pneumatic pushers and all other devices fo r interlocks, radiation
safety and absorbed dose measurements. The plant design has already been
described [ 6 ] and the dosimetric calculations for irradiation processing have been
worked out [7].

1 Ci = 3.70 X 1010 Bq.

52 MAHMOUD and ROUSHDY

COST C O N SID E R A TIO N S F O R R A D IA T IO N PROCESSING O F PO TATO ES

For the present cost evaluation, the follow ing parameters were taken into
consideration:

— Capital cost: including cost o f building, concrete biological shield, radio­

active source and mechanical installations.
— Operation cost: including cost o f labour, overheads, utilities and radiation
dosimeters.
— Plant utilization and source efficiency.
— Rate o f radioactive decay and depreciation.
— Interest and rate o f return.

RESULTS

Cost-benefit studies revealed the follow ing data:

— Source activity at time o f calculation: — 187 kCi

— Plant housing capacity for circulating boxes per run: 59 boxes
— Size o f irradiation box: 0.19 m 3
— Weight o f loaded potatoes per standard irradiation box: 70 kg
— Total weight o f potatoes per run: 4.13 t
— Dose level required fo r sprout inhibition: 0.08 kGy
— Circulating time fo r product box: 10 minutes
— Circulating boxes per hour: 6
— Throughput per hour: 24.78 t
— Net cost o f plant operation per hour: 30.30 L.E. [ 8 ] 2
— Cost o f irradiation processing o f potatoes per tonne: 1.22 L.E.
— Cost o f product irradiation per kilogram: 1.22 X 10” 3 L.E.
— Average annual production o f potatoes: 1 000 000 t (Table II)
— Annual export o f potatoes: 160 000 t
— Potatoes stored fo r local consumption: 840 000 t
— Operating time for potato irradiation: 33 898 h (1412 d = 3.92 a)
— Total annual cost: 1 024 800 L.E.
— Average percentage o f annual potato losses (estimated): 9%
— Volum e o f annual losses: 8 8 0 0 0 1
— Cost at current rate: 7 040 000 L.E.
— Rate o f return per annum: 700%
— Total cobalt-60 source activity needed fo r irradiation processing o f potatoes
in Egypt: 1.3 MCi.

2 L .E . = Egyptian pounds.
 IAEA-SM-271/6 53

DISCUSSION

From the results o f previous investigations [9] it has been proved that the radiation
treatment o f potato tubers during the deep dormancy period extending about tw o
months is more effective for sprouting inhibition. Accordingly, radiation processing
o f the whole annual crop designated fo r local consumption could be accomplished
during this two-month dormacy period. This would require larger sources with a
high throughput. Nevertheless, the annual potato crop in Egypt is produced from
tw o annual cultivations with tw o annual yields: the N ili and the summer crop.
This contributes to actual saving o f the source activity and, consequently, radio­
active decay.
It should also be mentioned that a central facility offering irradiation processing
for potatoes harvested all over the country would necessarily result in transport
problems and increasing extra costs.
The idea o f installing more than one facility covering the three main regions
in Egypt, Lower, Middle and Upper, was considered as an alternative. However,
it is still felt that a mobile irradiator o f a suitable capacity and specifications, which
could move with the potato harvest, would contribute significantly to the pro­
motion o f irradiation processing o f many field crops [10]. This would significantly
contribute to maximizing utilization o f the radioactive source and increasing its
throughput. However, the design o f the irradiator, its weight and manipulation
should be revised by the manufacturers in order to take into consideration the
conditions prevailing in the rural areas with narrow roads and weak bridges
crossing anastomosing water canals. Solving this problem would contribute
significantly to spreading radiation processing o f food commodities world wide.

REFERENCES

[1] JE C F I, Wholesomeness o f Irradiated F o o d , Rep. Jo in t FAO/IAEA/W HO E xpert Com m ittee,

WHO Technical Reports Series No. 659 (1981).
[2] KA M A L, Т.Н., et al., “Advances in reducing food losses and increasing food production
in E gypt” , Peaceful U ses o f Atom ic Energy (Proc. 4th Int. Conf. Geneva, 1971), Vol. 12,
UN, New York and IAEA , Vienna (1 9 7 2 ) 3 6 1 - 3 7 1 .
[3] R O U SH D Y, H.M., SH U K R Y , K ., MAHMOUD, A.A., “ Low er radiation levels for better
storageability o f potatoes and onions using certain chemical treatm ents” , Radiation
Preservation o f F oo d (Proc. Sym p. B om bay, 1972), IA EA , Vienna ( 1973) 105—125.
[4] R O U SH D Y, H.M., EL-M AGO LI, S.B ., “ E gypt’s policy concerning food irradiation research
and technology” , F oo d Preservation by Irradiation (Proc. Sym p. Wageningen, 1977),
Vol. 1, IAEA , Vienna (1 9 7 8 ) 2 9 - 4 1 .
[5] Agricultural E conom y 1979, Ann. Rep. Inst. Agrie. Econ. Statist., Agricultural Research
Centre, Cairo (in Arabic).
[6 ] RO U SH D Y, H.M., “Prospects for radiation sterilization o f m edical products in E gypt” ,
Radiosterilization o f Medical Products (Proc. Sym p. Bom bay, 1974), IA EA , Vienna (1 9 7 5 )
4 7 7 -4 9 1 .
54 MAHMOUD and ROUSHDY

[7] EL-BEH Á Y, A.Z., RA G EH , E L-A SSY , N!B., RO U SH D Y, H.M., Int. J. Appl. Radiat.
lsot. 3 2 (1 9 8 1 ) 3 7 - 4 2 .
[8 ] Cost Studies for Irradiation Services, Int. Rep. Ministry o f Planning/N CRRT, Cairo
(1 9 7 9 ) (in Arabic).
[9] MAHMOUD, A.A ., Ph. D. Thesis, Hungarian Acad. Sci., Budapest (1978).
[10] MAHMOUD, A.A., RO U SH D Y, H.M., Int. Sym p. Ioniz. Rad. Rijadh, March (1982).
 IAEA-SM-271/36

EFECTO DE LA RADIACION GAMMA

EN MANZANAS “DELICIAS” ALMACENADAS
AL MEDIO AMBIENTE Y EN REFRIGERACION

H.J. L A S T A R R IA -T A P IA , N. SEQUEIROS
Universidad Nacional Agraria,
La Molina, Lima, Perú

Abstract-Resumen

E F F E C T O F GAMMA R A Y S ON ‘D ELIC IO U S’ APPLES ST O R ED U N D ER EN V IRO N ­

M EN TA L CONDITIO NS AND U N D ER R E FR IG ER A T IO N .
This study was made with a Gam macell 200 irradiator, the radioactive source in which
is cobalt-60. The following doses were studied in detail: 0.5, 1.0, 1.5, 2.0, and 4 kGy. As a
com parison, an unirradiated sample was studied at the same time. The storage conditions
for refrigeration were 2 ± 1°C and r.h. from 85 to 90%, while for environmental storage
they were 26 ± 1°C and r.h. between 63 and 80%. During storage periodic checks were
carried out to ascertain weight loss, appearance, titratable acidity, soluble solids and
vitamin C. The results obtained for the tests during storage both under environmental con­
ditions and under refrigeration show that there is no great variation between the doses
applied. It is also found that irradiated apples stored in the environment can be kept
14—15 days more than the unirradiated ones. Similarly, the refrigerated irradiated apples
have a shelf-life o f more than 150 days, whereas the unirradiated ones last only up to
120 days. It was also found that a dose o f 2 kG y is the best one for preserving apples, since
they then last 240 days, while keeping a good colour and appearance.

E FEC T O DE LA RADIACIO N GAMMA EN M ANZANAS “ D E L IC IA S” ALM ACEN AD AS

A L MEDIO A M BIEN TE Y EN R E FR IG ER A C IÓ N .
La presente investigación se efectuó utilizando un irradiador Gammacell 200, cuya
fuente radiactiva es 60Co. Se estudiaron en detalle las siguientes dosis: 0,5, 1,0, 1,5, 2,0
y 4,0 kG y. Asim ism o, con fines com parativos, se estudió una m uestra no irradiada. Las
condiciones de alm acenamiento en refrigeración fueron: 2 C ± 1 y una HR entre el 85 y el
90%, mientras que al medio ambiente se situaron en 2 6 °C ± 1 y una HR entre el 63 y el 80%.
Durante el alm acenamiento se realizaron controles periódicos de pérdidas de peso, aspecto,
acidez titulable, sólidos solubles y vitamina C. L os resultados obtenidos en los controles
durante el alm acenamiento tanto al medio am biente com o en refrigeración indican que no
hay variación considerable entre las dosis utilizadas. También se encontró que las manzanas
irradiadas alm acenadas al medio am biente se conservan de 14 a 15 días más que las no
irradiadas. Asimismo, las manzanas irradiadas en refrigeración sobrepasan los 150 días de
vida útil, mientras que las no irradiadas solo pueden conservarse hasta 120 días. Igualmente
se halló que la dosis de 2 kG y es la más apropiada para la conservación de manzanas, pues
éstas alcanzaron 240 d ías manteniendo sus características de buen color y aspecto.

55
56 LASTARRIA-TAPIA y SEQUEIROS

IN TR O D U C C IO N

Las necesidades mundiales de alimentos siguen en aumento mientras que

la producción y productividad son reducidas o limitadas. A sí mismo, los
problemas de almacenamiento y tratamiento de alimentos persisten, lo cual
obliga a buscar nuevos métodos de conservación. El tratamiento de alimentos
por partículas o radiaciones ionizantes es un m étodo reciente y todavía poco
utilizado que permite destruir en ciertos casos algunos o casi todos los micro­
organismos presentes en los alimentos; también se emplea para destruir insectos,
inhibir o retardar procesos fisiológicos de maduración y germinación de productos
vegetales. Estos tratamientos son posibles siempre y cuando no se afecte en
forma adversa la comestibilidad de los alimentos; se debe tener en cuenta que
según las dosis aplicadas se producen o pueden producirse modificaciones
químicas en componentes alimenticios.

M ETODO

El presente trabajo se desarrolló siguiendo el diagrama mostrado en la

Figura 1. Además, durante el almacenado, se realizaron controles físícos
y químicos.

RE S U LTA D O S Y DISCUSION

La variación del contenido de humedad en manzanas almacenadas al medio

ambiente se muestra en la Fig.2, donde se observa que las manzanas no irradiadas
disminuyen de humedad con mayor rapidez que las irradiadas, lo cual indica
que la radiación retarda los procesos fisiológicos de las manzanas. Con respecto
a las manzanas refrigeradas tanto irradiadas como no irradiadas, después de los
120 días de almacenamiento, se presenta una marcada diferencia con respecto
a la pérdida de humedad, pues las no irradiadas alcanzan humedades inferiores
al 83%, lo que ocasiona encogimiento de la cáscara; mientras que las irradiadas,
a los 150 días tienen humedades entre el 83,20%, y el 83,72%, lo que permite que
la cáscara mantenga aún sus características de frescura.
En cuanto a la acidez titulable, las manzanas no irradiadas almacenadas al
medio ambiente experimentan mayor pérdida de sus ácidos que las irradiadas,
especialmente durante los 15 primeros días. Con respecto a las manzanas refrigeradas,
la Fig.3 muestra que las manzanas irradiadas y no irradiadas presentan una similar
tendencia a perder sus ácidos, siendo más notoria la pérdida en las no irradiadas,
pero éstas solo pudieron alcanzar un período de vida útil de almacenamiento de
120 días; no así las irradiadas que se conservaron más de 150 días. Estos
resultados coinciden con lo reportado por Fernández [1].
 IAEA-SM-271/36 57

FIG.l. Diagrama del flujo seguido en el experimento.

La variación de los sólidos solubles en manzanas irradiadas y no irradiadas

almacenadas al ambiente presenta la misma tendencia a incrementar su con­
centración. Similar fenómeno ocurre con las manzanas irradiadas y no
irradiadas en refrigeracón, cuyo resultado se muestra en la Fig.4. La alta
variabilidad de los resultados obtenidos se puede atribuir a las diferentes
características del mismo fruto, tales como tamaño, grado de madurez,
composición, etc. El incremento de sólidos solubles indica que la irradiación en
las dosis utilizadas atenúa el proceso de maduración y extiende el período de
vida útil de las manzanas. Además, los sólidos solubles al incrementar aumentan
el sabor dulce de las manzanas, pues están constituidos principalmente por
azúcares [ 2 ].
La Fig.5 muestra el comportamiento de la vitamina С en manzanas
almacenadas al medio ambiente, en donde se observa una tendencia general a
disminuir en concentración. La destrucción de vitamina С es consecuencia
58 LASTARRIA-TAPIA y SEQUEIROS

Días

FIG.2. Variación del contenido de h u m e d a d de manzanas no irradiadas e irradiadas durante

su almacenamiento al medio ambiente (T: 26 ± 1°C, H R : 6 3 — 80%).

Días

FIG.3. Variación de la acidez titulable total en manzanas no irradiadas e irradiadas durante su

almacenamiento en refrigeración (T: 2 ± 1°C, H R : 85-90%).
 IAEA-SM-271/36 59

Días

FIG.4. Variación del contenido de sólidos solubles en manzanas no irradiadas e irradiadas

durante su almacenamiento en refrigeración (T: 2 ± 1°C, H R : 85-90%).

D fas

FIG.5. Variación del contenido de vitamina С en manzanas no irradiadas e irradiadas durante

su almacenamiento al medio ambiente (T: 26 ± 1°C, H R : 63-80%).
60 LAST ARRI А-TAPIA y SEQUEIROS

de los cambios metabólicos de oxidación del fruto por efectos de la radiación,

aunque ésta puede convertir a la vitamina С en ácido dehidroascórbico, que
también puede ser metabolizado como vitamina С [3]. Asimismo, se puede
afirmar que hay una mayor tendencia a disminuir de vitamina С en las manzanas
no irradiadas. En cambio, las irradiadas muestran menor tendencia, posiblemente
debido al efecto protector de ciertos ácidos, como el málico, el fumárico y el
oxálico sobre la vitamina (Tappel y Knapp [4 ]), razón por la cual, según estos
autores, las pérdidas de vitamina С en frutas rara vez excede del 20 al 30%
cuando las dosis son menores de 5 kGy.

CONCLUSIONES

De acuerdo con los resultados obtenidos se puede concluir que las dosis
de 0,5, 1,0, 1,5, 2,0 y 4,0 kGy prolongan el período de vida útil de las
manzanas almacenadas en refrigeración y al medio embiente. Asimismo, los
mejores resultados se obtuvieron con la dosis de 2 kGy.

REFERE N C IA S

[1] FE R N A N D EZ , S .J., E ffects of ionizing radiation on the acid-metabolism o f apple,

J.Sci. Food Agrie. (1 9 6 2 ) 78.
[2] F IL D E R , J.C ., “ Refrigeración de manzanas y peras” , Ed. Acribia Zaragoza, España
(1 9 8 0 ) 8 - 4 3 .
[3] SNAUW AERT, F ., “ Influence o f gam m a irradiation on the provitamin A (|3-carotene)
in solution” , Radiation Preservation o f Food (Proc. Sym p. Bom bay, 1972), IAEA ,
Vienna (1 9 7 3 ) 29.
[4] TA PPEL, A .L., KNAPP, F.W., Comparison o f the radiosensitivities of the fat-soluble
vitamins by gamma-irradiation, J . Agrie. Food Chem. (1961).
 IAEA-SM-271/65

PROSPECTS AND PROBLEMS

OF IRRADIATING PAPAYA
A case stu d y in Hawaii *

J.H. M O Y
Department o f Food Science
and Human Nutrition,
University o f Hawaii at Manoa,
Honolulu, Hawaii,
United States o f America

Abstract

PR O SPECTS AND PR O BLEM S O F IR R A D IA T IN G PAPAYA - A C A SE ST U D Y IN HAWAII.

The United States Environmental Protection Agency’s (EP A’s) ban o f ethylene dibromide
(E D B ) as a fruit fum igant has forced Hawaii’s papaya industry to search for alternative treatments.
Am ong various alternatives considered, irradiation process is the m ost efficacious because fruits
can be sorted, packaged, chilled and conveyed to an irradiator for low-dose treatm ents (0.26 kGy
for disinfestation) before shipment to export m arkets. The papaya industry in Hawaii, however,
has not assigned a high priority to the irradiation process. Instead, the industry opted for the
double-dip hot water treatment which was rushed to become an USDA-approved procedure
shortly before 1 Septem ber 1984. Three m ajor concerns expressed by the papaya industry about
the irradiation process as a replacement for chemical fum igation are: (1 ) Capital investment;
(2) Logistics o f irradiation processing and fruit transport; and (3) Consumer acceptance. The
outlook for radiation disinfestation of Hawaii-grown papaya is quite good in spite of these
concerns expressed by the industry. Som e packers are beginning to feel that there are more
advantages and benefits in adopting this process than the disadvantage o f negative publicity
about nuclear technology. With the availability o f irradiation, the fruit and vegetable industry
in Hawaii could be expanded by increased production and sales o f new or existing crops. A
worthwhile task ahead would be for the food insutry, government agencies and researchers to
join forces in conducting an effective consumer education programme by assuring the public
that irradiated foods are safe. Concurrently, certain segments o f the food industry should
consider and prepare for the processing and marketing o f irradiated foods.

INTRODUCTION

Disinfestation of insects in food and agricultureal

products by ionizing radiation is one of six beneficial
applications of this food preservation technology. A few
years after ethylene dibromide (EDB) became an officially
approved fumigant in the U S A for quarantine treatment of
fruits and vegetables, Balock and his co-workers foresaw the

* Journ al Series N o .2936 o f the Hawaii Institute o f Tropical Agriculture and Human
Resources, University o f Hawaii, Honolulu, Hawaii.

61
62 MOY

potential application of irradiation to fruit fly control [1].

His proposal led to the initiation of a project in 1957 at the
U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) Hawaii Fruit Flies
Investigation Laboratory to study the effect of gamma-radiation
on fruit flies infesting papayas in Hawaii. The effectiveness
of gamma-radiation as a potential commodity treatment technology
was recently reviewed by Burditt [2].

In 1965, an irradiation project supported by the then U.S.

Atomic Energy Commission (AEC) was initiated at the University
of Hawaii aiming at acquiring new knowledge and data on
dosimetry, tolerance and shelf-life extension related to dis­
infestation of fruits and vegetables by gamna-irradiation.
Primary emphasis was on factors related to quality and shelf-
life, FDA clearance, marketing and economics, packaging and
product handling, with major attention directed toward Hawaii-
grown papaya and several other tropical fruits 13]. In 1967,
the Hawaii Development Irradiator (HDI), one of two USAEC-
funded pilot, quasi-commercial food irradiators, was built in
Honolulu. Results of close working relations and cooperation
between research workers at the Hawaii Research Irradiator
(HRI), the Hawaii Development Irradiator and the USDA Hawaii
Fruit Fly Investigation Laboratory have established that gamma-
radiation at 0.26 kGy can disinfest the papaya of 3 species of
fruit flies (Mediterranean, Oriental and melon flies) and that
papaya can tolerate gamma-radiation at 1.0 kGy without any
quality changes under laboratory conditions and after long'
distance surface and air shipments. In addition, the shelf-
life of irradiated papaya can be extended for 3-4 days more
than its fumigated counterpart when hot water treated at 49°C
for 20 min. followed with irradiation at 0.75 kGy [4,5].

Until 1984, the two accepted quarantine treatment

procedures for disinfestation of fruit flies in Hawaii-grown
papayas were ethylene dibromide (EDB) and vapor heat treatment
(47°C fruit surface temperature in 8-10 hrs). Chemical
fumigation was predominantly used because it took less time
and the fruit's ripening was not accelerated as was the case
of the vapour heat process. Both were batch processes and
fruits for both treatments had to begin at ambient temperature
(21OC or above).

In December, 1977, the U.S. Environmental Protection

Agency (EPA) published a notice that it was starting the
Rebuttable Presumption Against Registration (RPAR) process for
EDB and invited interested persons to submit rebuttals or other
information on its hazards to human health [6]. In December,
1980, USEPA took the next major step by announcing that "the
Agency has concluded that the presumptions for oncogenicity,
mutagenicity and reproductive disorders resulting from handling
 IAEA-SM-271/65 63

EDB-treated food products or using EDB as a pesticide has not

been rebutted." Also announced was a preliminary decision to
cancel the use of EDB on stored grain immediately and on citrus
and tropical fruits effective 1 July 1983. Other uses would
be continued but on a restricted basis. The 1980 EPA notice
says flatly, "It should be emphasized that the Agency believes
that, in the long run, measures short of outright cancellation
will not reduce the risks sufficiently to alter the conclusion
that the use of EDB for quarantine fumigation of citrus,
tropical fruits, and vegetables poses unreasonable adverse
effects on the environment..."

The request to USEPA for a hearing on EDB by several U.S.

fruit industry groups resulted in an extension of the deadline
for cancellation of EDB. Finally, EDB was banned as a grain,
fruit and vegetable fumigant on 1 September 1984 [7]. Hawaii's
papaya industry was forced to search for alternative quarantine
treatments. The vapour heat method was not used because of the
disadvantages mentioned.

PROSPECTS OF IRRADIATING PAPAYA

The processing of papayas up-to 1 September 1984 involved:

picking, hot water treatment (49°C, 20 min.; 23°C, 20 min. for
fungal disease control), fumigation, waxing, grading, packaged,
cold storage, and shipping. Among various alternatives
considered, which included phosphene, microwave, ultrasound,
double-dip hot water, and irradiation, the irradiation process
is easily the most efficacious because harvested fruits can be
sorted, graded, packaged, chilled and conveyed to an irradiator
for low dose treatments (ca. 0.26-0.30 kGy for disinfestation)
in a very efficient flow system before shipment to export markets.

There are several advantages in using radiation to

disinfest papayas of fruit flies: (1) there is no radio­
activity or toxic residues remain on the fruit; (2) the fruit
is not softened, nor is ripening accelerated; (3) it ensures
complete disinfestation; (4) it can and will improve processing
efficiency because it can be applied at any stage in the post­
harvest processing line and is easily adaptable to a continuous
flow system; and (5) it delivers a superior product to the
market because the time saved in total processing could permit
the fruit on the tree to be picked later for better appearance
and taste, or allow more time for shipping and marketing, or a
combination of these.

Extensive research and semi-commercial processing and

shipping of papayas have demonstrated that the three species
of fruit flies can be controlled, and the sensory, chemical
and ¡.,¡ni e n t qualities of the papaya are retained 13,8].
64 MOY

Dependent upon which concept or criterion is used for quarantine

treatment, the minimum absorbed dose can be either 0.26 kGy for
probit 9 security, a quarantine terminology synonymous with
negligible pest risk (less than 32 survivors per 1 million
treated), or 0.05 to 0.10 kGy if the criterion is the inability
of the insect to produce viable offspring [9]. If the latter
criterion is used, which is currently being investigated, then
the concept of a two-stage quarantine treatment schedule might
become a reality in the future which will make the radiation
processing even more attractive economically because of the
low dose required.

With all the advantages mentioned, four main factors will

govern the commercial application of radiation as a disinfes­
tation process:

Technical efficacy

There seems to be no question about the technical efficacy

of radiation disinfestation of fruits. It is supported and
established by ample research data.

Government approval

Worldwide activities of food irradiation have gained

momentum since the early 1980s largely because of the
recommendation in 1980 by the Joint FA0/IAEA/WH0 Expert
Committee on Food Irradiation that "food treated up to an
overall average dose of 10 kGy presents no toxicological
hazard and no nutritional or microbiological problems" [10],
and the adoption in 1983 of the International Standard for
Irradiated Foods by the Codex Alimentarius Commission [11].
After an extensive review of all research data on irradiated
foods by an internal task force, the U.S. Food and Drug Admin­
istration (FDA) published in 1982 the intent of proposed rule
changes in irradiated foods, and subsequently on February 14,
1984 in the Federal Register the proposed rule changes in
irradiated fruits and vegetables for insect disinfestation and
delayed maturation. These moves represent FDA's belief and
position that food irradiated at doses up to 1.0 kGy is safe
for human consumption.

Industry interest

Interest in using the radiation process for whatever

purpose and application must be shown by the food industry
because it is the beneficiary of all the research but it has to
demonstrate "user" interest. There may be two scenarios to
this factor, however. Food industries in the developed
countries have not been too quick to participate in and consider
 IAEA-SM-271/65 65

this technology because there are other competitive, established

food preservation technologies available such as canning and
freezing. They are also aware of the sizable capital invest­
ment a food irradiator will require. Food industries in the
developing countries, on the other hand, might see the larger
benefits of food irradiation because the need to minimize food
spoilage is more urgent and other forms of processing and
energy to preserve foods are not as readily available. However,
economic factor still plays a role because a commercial
irradiator of any size still requires a major investment.

Consumer acceptance

This is probably the most important factor in commercial

application of food irradiation because of unfavorable events
and negative publicity about nuclear energy in the past 12-15
years. Issues on nuclear weapon deployment and nuclear waste
disposal, and documentaries on nuclear war and reactor leaks in
nuclear power plants cast a shadow on the consumer's mind
about the safety of irradiated foods.

CONCERN OF THE PAPAYA INDUSTRY

The papaya industry in Hawaii, quite well informed about

the technical efficacy of radiation disinfestation, has not
assigned a high priority to the irradiation process as one of
the alternatives to chemical fumigation. Instead the industry
opted for the double-dip hot water treatment which was rushed
to become an USDA-approved quarantine procedure shortly before
1 September 1984. The other physical treatment methods tested,
ultrasound and microwave, did not work because of problems in
energy attenuation or overheating of the fruit.

Three major concerns have been expressed by the papaya

industry in Hawaii regarding irradiation which are also the
reasons for its not being ready to consider the irradiation
process to replace chemical fumigation:

Capital investment

A number of papaya packers appear to prefer to be part

owners of an irradiator facility instead of being a user on a
fee basis. Depending upon the throughput, product type,
package configuration, absorbed dose, and other requirements,
a commercial scale irradiator to be built in Hawaii in 1984-85
could cost about U.S. $2 million or more. Even a fraction of
this sum would be a sizable investment for some packers.

However, more than one irradiator manufacturers in the

USA and Canada have indicated interest in building a papaya
66 MOY

irradiator for Hawaii. Methods of financing will vary. One

company has offered the packers the option of buying shares
into the irradiator facility which is exactly what some of
the packers wanted.

A recent economic feasibility study on irradiation of

Mexican fruits sponsored by IAEA and conducted by Moy and
scientists at the National Institute of Nuclear Research,
Salazar, Mexico [12] shows that with a projected throughput
of 50 000 and 100 000 metric tons of mangoes irradiated per
year, and 100 000 and 150 000 metric tons of oranges and
tangerines irradiated per year, the irradiation costs will be
U.S. $0,026 to 0.041 per kg of mangoes and U.S. $0,022 to 0.026
per kg of citrus at an assumed minimum absorbed dose of 0.30
kGy for controlling the emergence of Mexican fruit flies. The
cost is realistic and is certainly very competitive with
chemical fumigation ($0,050 per kg papaya in Hawaii). Still
lower cost can be realized if the cost of the irradiator
facility is less than that indicated in the study (ca. U.S.
$2.1-3.3 million per irradiator plant).

Based on the above cost analysis, capital investment or

cost of irradiation should not be a major concern of the user -
the papaya industry in Hawaii.

Logistics of irradiation processing and fruit transport

Papayas are produced mainly on the Islands of Hawaii and

Kauai for the export market with the volume ratio of about 7
to 3. Total production for 1984 was estimated to be 40 000
metric tons. The commerce center and air freight capacities
are located on the Island of Oahu, about 300 km from the Island
of Hawaii and 150 km from the Island of Kauai. Thus the
locations and number of irradiators to be built to meet the
required throughputs need to be carefully defined. Some
packers feel that even if one irradiator can serve all the
papaya packers on one island, there might still be a scheduling
problem. The availability and the extra cost of interisland
freights to move the fruits from an island without an irradiator
to another island with an irradiator facility might present
additional problems.

One irradiator manufacturer indicated that a minimum

throughput for an irradiator to treat papaya in Hawaii should
be about 20 000 metric tons per year, with design flexibility
to increase the source strength for a higher capacity. Because
of flexibility in fruit ripeness and fruit temperature during
irradiation processing, the logistics problems seem to be solvable
 IAEA-SM-271/65 67

Consumer acceptance

Several members of the Hawaii papaya industry consider

this a very important issue because of uncertainty about
consumer reactions to irradiated foods. It is probably true
that news in recent years about various negative aspects of
nuclear technology have tended to invoke suspicion about the
safety of irradiated foods. It is unfortunate that during the
several decades when food irradiation research was conducted
around the world, assurance of safety and quality of irradiated
foods had not been well publicized to the consumers.

The recently adopted double dip hot water treatment has

created a consumer acceptance problem of another kind. The high
thermal energy applied to the papaya by this treatment has
apparently inactivated two enzymes in the fruit responsible for
its ripening and has also caused the production of a gas within
the fruit called benzyl isothiocyanate which inhibits ripening.
As a result, many of the treated papayas did not ripen and had
a lumpy, hard texture with little or no flavor. Papaya sales
in California has plummetted in recent months because of consumer
resistance to the double-dip hot water treated fruit.

OUTLOOK AND CONCLUSION

The outlook for radiation disinfestation of Hawaii-grown

papaya is good in spite of several concerns expressed by the
industry. Some packers are beginning to feel that the
advantages and benefits of irradiation will outweigh the
concerns and negative publicity about nuclear technology.
Legislation was introduced in the U.S. Congress in November
1983 to amend the classification of food irradiation from the
category of a food additive to a food process [13]. The USFDA
since the summer of 1984 has been reviewing the comments on the
proposed rule changes in irradiated fruits and vegetables and
has indicated that the legislation introduced by Congressman
Morrison would not affect the rule changes.lt is quite likely that
the rule changes will become official before the summer of 1985.

In conclusion, adoption of the irradiation process would

improve the handling of papaya from the time of harvest to
delivery to the consumer by reducing the delays inherent in all
of the other batch treatment processes. Besides a competitive
treatment cost of about U.S. $0.05 per kg of fruit, the
economics is additionally favored by using an efficient process
which brings savings in inspection and packaging.

It is quite conceivable that radiation processing of

papaya could be the beginning of a new postharvest technology
68 MOY

for other products in Hawaii. Disinfestation of mangoes,

cucurbits and other tropical fruits is an obvious possibility.
New or increased production and sales of these crops could make
an important contribution to the agricultural industry in Hawaii.

A worthwhile task ahead would be to conduct an effective

consumer education program on the safety and benefits of
irradiated foods, a joint effort by the food industry, govern­
ment agencies and researchers. Concurrently, certain segment of
the food industry should seriously consider and prepare for the
processing and marketing of irradiated foods.

REFERENCES

[1] BALOCK, J.W., CHRISTENSON, L.D., BURR, G.O., Proc. 31st

Ann. Meet. Haw. Acad. S c i . (1956) 18.
[2] BURDITT, A.K., JR., Food Technol. 36 11 (1982) 51.
13] MOY, J.H., AKAMINE, E.K., BREWBAKER, J.L., BUDDENHAGEN,
I.W., ROSS, E., SPIELMANN, H., UPADHYA, M.D., WENKAM, N..
HELBER, D., DOLLAR, A.M., HANAOKA, М., MCCLISH, G.A.,
Proc. FАО/IAEA Panel Meet. Honolulu, STI/PUB/299 (1971 ) 43.
[4] BURDITT, A.K. JR., SEO, S.T., Proc. FAO/IAEA Panel
Meet. Honolulu, STI/PUB/299 (1971) 33.
[5] MOY, J.H., J. Food Technol. 12 5 (1977) 449.
[6] WALSH, J., Science 215 (1982У1592.
[7] ANONYMOUS, Part VIII, U.S. Fed. Register 48 197 (1983)
46228.
[8] MOY, J.H., Final Summary Rpt. to USAEC (1964-71) UH-235-
P5-X-1 (1972) 41 pp.
[9] OUYE, M.T., GILMORE, J.E., Proc. Intl. Conf. Rad.
Disinfest. Food & Agr. Prod., Honolulu (1984) (in press).
[10] ANONYMOUS, FAO/IAEA/WHO Rpt Series No. 659, Geneva (1981).
[11] ANONYMOUS, FA0/WH0 Codex Alimentarius Vol. XV-Ed 1 (1984).
[12] MOY, J.H., REYES L., J., RAMIREZ G., T., BUSTOS R . , E.,
IAEA Proj. Rpt. МЕХ/5/011-01 (1984) 42 pp.
[13] ANONYMOUS, Food Chem. News (U.S.) May 14 (1984) 48.
 IAEA-SM-271/75

RADIATION DECONTAMINATION
OF DRY CHAMOMILE FLOWERS
AND CHAMOMILE EXTRACT

B. K A T U S IN -R A Z E M , D. R A ZE M , I. D V O R N IK
‘ Ruder Boskovic’ Institute,
Zagreb

S. M A T IC , V. M IH O K O V IC
Public Health Institute o f Croatia,
Zagreb

Yugoslavia

Abstract

RAD IATIO N DECONTAM INATION O F D RY CHAMOMILE FLO W ERS AND CHAMOMILE

EX T R A C T .
Chamomile flowers show very high m icrobiological contam ination, up to 108 m icroorganisms
per gram. It is dem onstrated that about 7% o f therm orésistant bacteria survive to chamomile tea,
and about 3% o f sporogenic bacteria survive the extraction with aqueous ethanol. Commercial
concentrated chamomile extracts also contain a high level o f m icrobial contam ination which
persists for a long time. The presence o f microorganisms in herbs and extracts presents a health
hazard and can cause the spoilage o f food. F o r radiation decontam ination o f concentrated
chamomile extracts higher doses are required than for dry chamomile flowers. The com ponents
o f ethereal oil and hydrophilic com ponents obtained from irradiated dry flowers did not change
up to a 10 kGy dose. No im m ediate radiation-induced change o f the com ponents obtained from
concentrated extract was observed at 15 kG y, except for a 17% decrease o f herniarin. However,
for commercial sterility, lower doses would be adequate. The content o f en-in-dicyclo-ether
decreased only over an extended storage time. R adiation is an efficient and convenient method
for decontam ination o f dry plants and the only choice for decontam ination o f heat-sensitive
extracts and concentrates.

1. IN T R O D U C T IO N

Microbiological contamination o f plant materials used as dry food ingredients

and processing aids is a w idely recognized problem [1]. The survey o f a number
o f dry tea herbs (chamomile flowers, mint leaves, dog-rose hips and linden flowers)
marketed in Yugoslavia has also revealed a significant level o f microbial conta­
mination [2]. Chamomile flowers appeared to be the worst case with respect to
both the spectrum and the number o f microorganisms. Total count as high as
10 7 —10 8 microorganisms per gram was found in about 10 % o f suspected cases
investigated, while about 80% o f the samples contained between 1 0 s and 1 0 7

69
70 KATUS i N-RAZ e M et al.

microorganisms per gram. The presence o f microorganisms indicative o f faecal

pollution was found in a m ajority o f the samples. Similar findings in France,
Belgium and Poland have also been published [3 —5].
Apparently, chamomile has no significant inherent antimicrobial activity,
such as found in some other plants [ 6 ]. One year old samples still contained a
significant level o f contamination. Other authors have also reported on the
survival o f Enterobacteriaceae in dry plant material after one year’s storage [5].
Chamomile is one o f the principal medical herbs in Yugoslavia, which is
finding an increasing use in the food industry. The novel process o f room temperature
extraction assisted by ultrasound, enables essential components to be extracted
with good yields and without appreciable destruction [7 ], yielding a valuable
and versatile product. The convenient reduction o f volume, unfortunately, is not
accompanied by the reduction o f microbial contamination.
As an extension o f the previous work [2] we were interested in determining
the microbial population which survived the processes o f preparing infusions and
extracts from dry chamomile flowers, as well as in the possibility o f radiation
decontamination o f chamomile extracts.
The study o f chemical changes in irradiated dry chamomile flowers was
extended to 10 kGy and to hydrophilic components. The effect o f storage time
on the contents-of essential components in irradiated and unirradiated extracts
was also studied.

2. EXPERIM ENTS

Dry chamomile flowers were obtained from the same location as for the
previous study [2]. These samples were used in the studies o f chemical composition
o f dry flowers as a function o f dose. Contaminated samples withdrawn from the
market were used for microbiological studies.
Commercial concentrated chamomile extracts were factory made by room
temperature extraction with 56% ethanol, assisted by ultrasound and follow ed
by vacuum evaporation o f alcohol. A concentrated extract containing 71% o f dry
matter ( 7 = 1.366 g/mL) and 1% o f ethereal oil was obtained. Extracts were also
prepared in the laboratory by percolation o f crushed dry flowers with 67% ethanol
according to Ref. [ 8 ]. Extracts containing 60% ethanol and 0.2% ethereal oil
(7 = 0.90 g/mL) were obtained.
Infusions were prepared by soaking dry chamomile flowers in hot water for
10 minutes. During this time the temperature would drop to 64°C.
Dry chamomile flowers were irradiated in sealed polyethylene bags, while
extracts were irradiated in stoppered test tubes. Irradiations with 60 Co gamma rays
were performed at a dose rate o f 50 Gy/min.
 IAEA-SM-271/75 71

M icrobiologie analyses were performed according to the Yugoslav O fficial

Code o f Practice fo r m icrobiological analyses o f food [9]. Enterobacteria were
determined by direct inoculation on violet red bile agar [ 1 0 ].
T o study eventual chemical changes brought about by irradiation o f essential
lipophilic constituents, dry chamomile flowers and concentrated extracts were
subjected to steam distillation yielding ethereal oil. The composition o f ethereal
oil was analysed by gas chromatography and spectrophotometry as already
described [ 2 ].
Hydrophilic constituents o f dry chamomile flowers and concentrated extracts
were extracted by a polar solvent, such as methanol. Total flavonoids were deter­
mined by spectophotometry as a complex with A l3+ [11].
The coumarin herniarin was first isolated by preparative thin-layer chromato­
graphy on silica gel, using benzene-ethylacetate mixture (9 :1 ) as developing solvent
and methylene dichloride fo r elution. It was determined spectrophotometrically in
ethanol solution using molar absorbance at 323 nm o f (17 265 ± 518)M _1 -cm -1
as determined by six calibration experiments.

3. RESULTS

Commercial concentrated chamomile extracts were found to contain an

unacceptably high microbial contamination, about 1 0 6 microorganisms per gram.
This population was persistent in the extract for many months. The test o f
inhibition revealed that E, coli only was affected by concentrated extract over a
2 mm zone, while Sarcina flava and Pseudomonas aeruginosa were unaffected.
Microorganisms surviving adverse treatments were studied in laboratory-
prepared infusions and extracts from ‘naturally’ contaminated chamomile flowers.
Table I shows that the most thermorésistant fraction o f aerobic flora (2% ) survives
hot water treatment and is subsequently found in infusion. A non-trivial 3% o f
spore form ing bacteria are also found to survive in the extract.
The survival o f microorganisms in concentrated chamomile extract as a
function o f radiation dose is shown in Fig. 1. While the survival fraction o f micro­
organisms in dry chamomile flowers was well approximated with a straight line,
the corresponding function in the extract shows tw o different features. First,
the efficiency o f radiation, expressed as decimal reduction dose D i0, is lower
in the extract (higher D 10, Table II), and second, the efficiency in the extract
increases with increasing dose.
The results o f chemical analysis o f the components o f ethereal oil o f
chamomile flowers irradiated with 5 and 10 kGy are shown in Table III.
The results with 10 kGy are in agreement with the previous ones with 5 kGy,
showing that no radiation degradation o f lipophilic components takes place up
to 10 kGy.
72 KATUS i N-Ra ZEM et al.

T A B L E I. M IC RO O RG A N ISM S S U R V IV IN G IN IN F U S IO N A N D E X T R A C TS
PR E PA R E D O F IN D IG E N O U S L Y C O N T A M IN A T E D D R Y CH AM O M ILE
FLO W ERS3

Species or groups Dry flower Infusion Extract

o f microorganisms (m .o./g) (m .o./m L ) (m .o./g flower) (m .o./m L ) (m .o./g flower)
(calculated) (calculated)

Total count of 6 200 000

590 ± 140 120 000 ± 2 8 000 2± 1 6 ± 3
aerobic bacteria ± 920 000
Spore-forming 38 000
bacteria ± 8 200 430 ± 340 1 400 ± 1 100
Germinating 1 100
0 0 0 0
mould spores ± 460
Enterobacteria 590 000
0 0 0 0
± 82 000
E. Coli 2 200
±700
Sulphite-reducing
clostridia in 10 + — ----
;« 11
Ш
in 0.1 +++ ---- ----
in 0.01 ++-
in 0.001 ----

3 Three determ inations ± SD. m.o. = microorganism.

An analysis o f hydrophilic components o f chamomile flowers is shown in

Table IV . Herniarin which is present in chamomile flowers in concentrations
five times higher than the other coumarin umbelliferone shows a slight sensitivity
to irradiation at 10 kGy. Total flavonoids, i.e. flavon aglycons forming complexes
with A l3+, do not change with doses up to 10 kGy.
The composition o f ethereal oil obtained from commercial concentrated
extracts as a function o f dose and storage time is shown in Table V. The irradiation
with a dose o f 15 kGy necessary for sterilization causes the content o f en-in-
dicyclo-ether to decrease faster than in unirradiated samples (~ 3 5 % over 4 months).
The content o f chamazulene decreases in both unirradiated samples and in samples
irradiated with 15 kGy at the same rate o f about 3% per month. Chamazulene in
dry flowers also decreases with storage and at a somewhat faster rate (~ 5 % per
month).
The effect o f irradiation and storage time on the content o f hemiarin and
flavonoids is shown in Table V I. The irradiation with 15 kGy caused an immediate
 IAEA-SM-271/75 73

D (к Gy)

FIG.l. Survival of microorganisms as a function of radiation dose in commercial concentrated

chamomile extract.
Circles: total count; Squares: spore forming aerobic bacteria.

T A B L E II. D E C IM A L R E D U C TIO N DOSE (D 10) IN D R Y CH AM O M ILE

FLOW ERS A N D C O N C E N TR A TE D E X T R A C T

D 10(kG y)
Species
Dry flowers Extract

Total count o f aerobic bacteria 1.4 3.3

Spore-forming bacteria 1.5 3.2

17% decrease o f hemiarin which was not further affected by storage time. Total
flavonoids expressed as apigenin did not change, either on irradiation or with
storage time.

4. DISCUSSION

Dry herbis have been used as spices, condiments and flavouring aids since ancient
times. Their extracts and concentrates have been used in the preparation o f
refreshing drinks and teas, cakes, candies and beverages. Many plants have also
had a number o f non-food related uses, mostly based on their pharmacologically
active constituents. Chamomile is one such plant which is finding an increasing
use in the food, pharmaceutical and cosmetics industries.
74 KATUSlN-RAÊEM et al.

T A B L E III. CO M PO SITIO N O F E T H E R E A L O IL OF D R Y CH AM O M ILE

FLO W ERS AS A F U N C T IO N O F DOSE

Component % in ethereal oila

GC 0 kGy 5 kGy 10 kGy

Farnesene 2.9 ± 0 .2 2.8 ± 0 .3 2.9 ± 0 .1

Bisabolol oxide В i
13.2 ± 3.4 12.5 ± 0 .7 13.2 ± 0 .9
(-)-a-Bisabolol *
Chamazulene 3.7 ± 0.3 3.5 ± 0.1 3.5 ± 0.1
Bisabolol oxide 13.6 ± 0.4 14.3 ± 1.3 14.4 ± 1.3
En-in-dicyclo-ether 5.8 ± 0 .8 5.6 ± 0.8 5.7 ± 0 .3

a Four determ inations ± SD.

GC = gas chrom atography.

T A B L E IV . C O N T E N T OF H Y D R O P H IL IC COM PONENTS (C O U M A R IN S
A N D F L A V O N O ID S ) IN D R Y CH A M O M ILE FLO W ERS AS A F U N C T IO N
OF DOSE

Dose Herniarin Total flavonoids3

(kG y) (m g/ 100 g flowers)b (m g/ 100 g flowers)b

0 3 5 .9 ± 3.6 1 6 3 0 ± 150
5 3 4 .2 ± 3 .0 1590 ± 30
10 3 2 .3 ± 3 .2 1 6 6 0 ± 150

a Expressed as apigenin.
b Five determ inations ± SD.

However, many plants and their parts harbour a variety o f microorganisms,

chamomile flowers being one o f the most susceptible to microbiological conta­
mination. Besides representing a direct health hazard to the consumer, micro-
biologically contaminated herbs facilitate the dissemination o f harmful micro­
organisms. Concentrated extracts are a convenient form to handle and keep the
essential constituents o f plants in a much smaller volume fo r an extended period
o f time. Storage properties o f extracts are therefore important from both the
chemical and the microbiological point o f view. The presence o f microorganisms
 IAEA-SM-271/75 75

T A B L E V. CO M PO SITIO N O F E T H E R E A L O IL O F C O M M E R C IA L
CH A M O M ILE E X T R A C T S AS A F U N C T IO N O F DOSE A N D STO R A G E TIM E

% in ethereal oila
Dose
Com ponents Time after irradiation (m onths)
(kG y)
0 2 4

Bisabolol
0 2.5 ± 0.3 2.4 ± 0.3 2.5 ± 0 .3
oxide В
15 2.6 ± 0.3 2.5 ± 0.2 2.3 ± 0.3
(GC)
(-)-a-bisabolol 0 2.6 ± 0.3 2.3 ± 0.2 2.4 ± 0.2
(GC) 15 2.7 ± 0.3 2.4 ± 0.2 2.2 ± 0.3
Bisabolol
0 4.8 ± 0.7 4.7 ± 0.6 5.2 ± 0.4
oxide A
15 4.7 ± 0.5 4.4 ± 0.2 4.4 ± 0.5
(GC)
En-in-dicyclo-
0 4.1 ± 0.5 4.0 ± 0.6 4.0 ± 0.4
ether
15 4.0 ± 0.6 3.2 ± 0 .2 2.6 ± 0.4
(GC)
Chamazulene 0 0.98 ± 0.06 0.88 ± 0.02 0.82 ± 0.02
(SP) 15 0.90 ± 0.04 0.84 ± 0.02 0.78 ± 0 .0 1

a Six determ inations ± SD.

GC = gas chrom atography; SP = spectrophotom etry.

T A B L E V I. C O N T E N T O F H Y D R O P H IL IC CO M PO NENTS (C O U M A R IN S
A N D F L A V O N O ID S ) IN C O M M E R C IA L C H A M O M ILE E X T R A C T S AS A
F U N C T IO N OF DOSE A N D STO R A G E TIM E

Dose Herniarin Total flavonoids3

(kG y) (m g/ 100 g extract)15 (mg/ 100 g extract)*5
Time after irradiation (m onths)
0 6 0 6

0 168.5 ± 9 .4 169.1 ± 6 .4 2880 ± 1 5 0

15 138.9 ± 4 .7 136.0 ± 4 .2 2860 ± 180 2730 ± 1 3 0

a Expressed as apigenin.
b Five determinations ± SD.
76 KATUS i N-RAZEM et al.

in extracts can cause the spoilage o f food and pharmaceutical and cosmetics pre­
parations to which the extract is added.
A fraction o f the microbial population thriving on dry chamomile flowers
is resistant to heat treatment and" another one to percolation with alcohol, as
shown in Table I.
Radiation decontamination o f dry herbs appears to be a more promising
method than fumigation, while in the case o f extracts it seems to be the only
reasonable choice i f the advantages o f the room-temperature process are to be
preserved.
The concentrated extract provides a better medium fo r microorganisms
than dry flowers as evidenced by the initial values o f decimal reduction dose, D 10,
amounting in the former case to 1.’4 kGy as compared with 3.3 kGy in the latter.
We hypothesize that this may be due to the enhanced availability o f nutrients
in the liquid as compared with the dry matter. On the other hand, the convex shape
o f the survival curve at higher doses can be attributed to the enhanced effect o f
damaging short-lived radiolytic products reaching microorganisms by diffusion
from the bulk, while irradiation o f the solid support was able to produce only
direct damage to the microorganisms which were hit.
Indirect action o f radiolytic products on en-in-dicyclo-ether in etherial oil from
the extract is probably responsible fo r the radiation-induced degradation
progressing with time. The aromatic nucleus o f chamazulene is more sensitive
to irradiation in solution than in the solid state, as was found fo r closely related
compounds azulene [12] and guaiazulene [13]. The presence o f other constituents
probably exerts a protective effect on chamazulene in the concentrate preventing
its radiolytic degradation. However, the loss o f chamazulene is proportional to
storage time in both irradiated and unirradiated samples. Herniarin was also
found to be decreased by the immediate action o f radiation on the extract, while
prolonged storage had no further effect in irradiated samples and no effect whatso­
ever on herniarin in unirradiated ones.

5. CONCLUSIONS

Dry chamomile flowers withstand irradiation up to 10 kGy without detectable

changes o f the composition o f ethereal oil or hydrophilic components.
T o achieve commercial sterility o f commercial concentrated extracts doses
higher than 10 kGy may be necessary. Some o f the essential lipophilic and
hydrophilic constituents may be partially degraded by higher doses o f radiation
acting immediately or inducing slow post-irradiation decay. Radiation deconta­
mination o f extracts is not only possible, it is more practical than irradiation o f
bulky volumes o f dry plants, and offers a better protection o f the final product.
 IAEA-SM-271/75 77

AC KN O W LE D G EM EN T

The authors are indebted to Mrs. M. Rajkovic fo r technical assistance.

REFERENCES

[1] F A R K A S, J., Radiation Decontam ination o f Dry F oo d Ingredients and Processing

Aids , IF F IT Report No. 49 (1984).
[2] KA TU SIN -RA ZEM , B., R A 2E M , D., D V O RN IK , I., M A TlC, S., Radiat. Phys. Chem. 22
(1 9 8 3 ) 707.
[3] B E R N A R D , J., Actual, pharm. 196 (1 9 8 3 ) 32.
[4] DONY, J., J. Pharm. Belg. 34 (1 9 7 9 ) 260.
[5] GRABOW SKA, H., K ED Z IA , B., Herba Polonica 28 (1 9 8 2 ) 205.
[6 ] CO NN ER, D .E., BEU CH AT, L .R ., J. F oo d Sci. 49 (1 9 8 4 ) 429.
[7] V ITE Z, L., M IHELIC, E., R A H T E L J, B., “Efficiency o f some extraction processes of
plant m aterials” , A bstracts o f the 4th Meeting o f food Technologists, Biotechnologists
and N utritionists o f Croatia, Zagreb, Yugoslavia, 13—15 June 1984, Zagreb (1 9 8 4 ) 10.
[ 8] K U ST R A K , D., BE N Z IN G E R , F „ Farm . Glasn. 32 (1 9 7 6 ) 395.
[9] Regulation Concerning M icrobiological Analysis and Superanalysis o f F o o d , Yugoslav
Gazette 25 (1 9 8 0 ) 867.
[10] M O SSEL, D .A .A ., Appl. Microbiol. 5 (1 9 5 7 ) 379.
[11] RÔMISCH, H „ Pharmazie 15 (1 9 6 0 ) 33.
[12] B A SSA N E L L I, R., L IL L A , E „ PE R E Z , G., PO SSA GN O, E ., Polish J. Chem. 56 (1 9 8 2 ) 321.
[13] NIWA, T., OG U RA , I., Nippon Genshiryoku Gakkaishi 14 (1 9 7 2 ) 27, reported in
Chem. Abstr. 78 (1 9 7 3 ) 90918.
 IAEA-SM-271/73

TECHNOLOGICAL AND IRRADIATION CONDITIONS

FOR RADAPPERTIZATION OF CHICKEN PRODUCTS
USED IN THE UNITED STATES ARMY RALTECH
TOXICOLOGY STUDY

E. W IERB IC KI
United States Department o f Agriculture,
Agricultural Research Service,
Eastern Regional Research Center,
Philadelphia, Pennsylvania,
United States o f America

Abstract

TECH N O LO GICA L AND IR RA D IA TIO N CONDITIONS FO R RAD A PPERTIZA TIO N OF

CHICKEN PRO DU CTS U SED IN THE U N ITED ST A T E S ARM Y R A LTECH TO XICO LO GY
STUD Y.
The paper describes the processing and irradiation conditions for the preparation of
approxim ately 140 000 kg o f meat for a multigeneration animal study o f the wholesomeness
of ionizing radiation sterilized chicken meat. This study was initiated by the U S Army in 1976
at Raltech Scientific Services, Inc. in St. Louis, Missouri, United States o f Am erica. Four
m eat diets were prepared for the study as follow s: (a) Frozen control chicken: Boneless,
enzyme-inactivated (heated to an internal temperature o f 7 3 —8 0 °C ) chicken was canned and
frozen, (b ) Thermally processed chicken: Boneless, enzyme-inactivated chicken was canned
and thermally treated to commercial sterility (F 0 = 6). (c) Cobalt-60 irradiated chicken:
Boneless, enzyme-inactivated, canned in vacuo chicken was sterilized by gamma irradiation
from cobalt-60 (45 to 68 kG y at —25 ± 15°C ) and stored without refrigeration. ( à) Electron-
irradiated chicken: Boneless, enzyme-inactivated chicken was vacuum packed in flexible
pouches and sterilized by 10 MeV electron irradiation (45 to 68 kG y at —2 5 ° ± 15°C ) and
stored w ithout refrigeration. Representative sam ples o f the irradiated and control chicken
meat were analysed for their chemical and organoleptic qualities during a 2-year period, and
for 7 years for lipid oxidation changes. Shelf stability was dem onstrated by no increase in
non-protein nitrogen and pH during storage. Irradiated samples had lower peroxide values
and thiobarbituric acid reactive oxidation products than non-irradiated samples. The free
fatty acid contents o f the chicken fat o f the thermal control and o f the irradiated samples
were directly related to the length o f storage. The four chicken products received acceptable
ratings for colour, odour, flavour, texture, and overall acceptance by trained panels over a
2-year period.

1. INTRODUCTION

During the period of June 1, 1976 through June 30, 1983 a

large comprehensive toxicological study of chicken meat sterilized
by ionizing radiation was conducted by the Raltech Scientific

79
80 WIERBICKI

Services^ (Raltech), a division of the Ralston Purina Company,

St. Louis, MO. The Raltech study was sponsored and monitored by
the U.S. Army under a research contract until September 30, 1980,
then completed under the monitoring and supervision of the U.S.
Department of Agriculture (USDA).

Twenty separate studies were involved in the evaluation of

the nutritional and toxicological properties of irradiation
sterilized chicken meat and these studies required production of
over 140 000 kg of precooked chicken meat. The product preparation
and irradiation processing followed the official protocol prepared
by the U.S. Army Medical R&D Command [1]. The protocol was
reviewed and efforts coordinated with the FDA, USDA, and the
National Academy of Sciences, Committee on Food Irradiation [2].
The study final reports are available from the National Technical
Information Service [3].

This paper summarizes the key technological and irradiation

processing parameters, including shelf-stability and chemical and
sensory properties, of the four chicken meat groups used in the
Raltech toxicological studies. A detailed description of the
product technology, industrial processing, irradiation by 60Co
gamma rays and electrons, and post irradiation evaluations was
described in a technical report by Wierbicki [A].

2. PRODUCT PROCESSING

2.1. Total quantity

Table I lists the quantity of the chicken meat of the four

groups produced by Oscar Mayer & Co. in Madison, WI during
1976 through 1978. The total quantity of 135 405 kg of the
enzyme-inactivated chicken meat (called "wholesomeness chicken
meat") of the four groups (FC, TP, GAM, and ELE) represents about
96% of the total production; four percent of the meat was used as
the samples retained by the U.S. Army Natick Research and Development
Center (NLABS), rejected after post-irradiation inspection, and
during packaging operation.

2.2. Processing

Fresh chicken broilers or friers, 3 to 3.5 lb carcass weight,

were obtained, packed on ice, one day after slaughter, from USDA
inspected poultry plants. Over 230 000 chilled, eviscerated
broilers and friers were needed to produce the total quantity of
the chicken meat shown in Table I.

^Reference to brand name or firm name does not constitute endorsement

by the U.S. Department of Agriculture over others of a similar
nature not mentioned.
 IAEA-SM-271/73 81

TABLE I. PRODUCTION OF THE "WHOLESOMENESS CHICKEN MEAT" AT OSCAR MAYER AND COMPANY,INC.

Enzyme-inactivated, kg:

Contract no. Production Production Meat FC TP GAM ELE,

NLABS no. dates kg (F) (T) (« (ЕГ

DAAG17-76-C-0042 1 April-May 76 57.2 6 435 5 677 5 749 6 052

DAAK60-77-C-0024 2 Feb.-Apr. 77 57.2 10 459 9 652 10 196 9 778

DAAK60-78-C-0023 3 Feb.-Apr. 78 57.2 9 925 10 425 9 581 9 448

Modificación
DAAX60-73-C-0023 ЗА April-May 78 57.2 12 755 6 535 6 320 6 320

TOTAL, kg 228.8 38 674 32 287 31 846 31 598

Grand total, enzyme inactivated meat: 135 405 k¿

Codes used by Raltech foe the experimental diets containing 35% of the meat in the

total diet and are defined as follows:

FC: Frozen Control Chicken, Boneless, enzyme-inactivated (heated to an internal

temperature of 73-80eC) chicken was canned and frozen.

TP: Thermally Processed Chicken. Boneless, enzyme-inactivated chicken was canned

and thermally treated to commerical sterility (Fq = 6).

GAM: Colbalt-60 Irradiated Chicken. Boneless enzyme-inactivated, canned in vacuo

chicken was sterilized by gamma irradiation from Cobalt-60 (45 to 68 kGy

at -25° ± 15°C) and stored without refrigeration.

ELE: Electron-Irradiated Chicken. Boneless, enzyme-inactivated chicken was

vacuum packed in flexible pouches and sterilized by 10 Mev electron irradiation

^ (45 kGy to 68 kGy at -25° ± 15°C) and stored without refrigeration.

The broiler carcasses were hand deboned into lean meat and
skin with subcutaneous fat and were hung on a moving conveyor.
Mechanically deboned meat from the residual carcasses was not
used in the formulation of the meat product for this study.
Table II gives the proximate composition of the lean meat and the
chicken skin. The lean meat represented about 82% and the skin
18% of the deboned raw material.
Thus, the meat formula for the processed chicken meat consisted
of 18% skin and 82% lean meat. For each 100 kg chicken meat and
skin mixture were added 0.75 kg salt (sodium chloride)
and 0.30 kg sodium tripolyphosphate (TPP) to reduce the loss of
82 WIERBICKI

TABLE II. PROXIMATE COMPOSITION 0Г RAW CHICKEN MEAT AND SKIN

Mean ± SD (%)
No.
Component samples Protein Fat
H 2°

Lean Meat 30 72.78 ± 1.68 20.12 ± 2.52 7.07 ± 2.52

Skin 20 49.59 ± 4.76 9.29 ± 1.80 40.47 ± 6.54

natural juices during enzyme-inactivation [5]. Also, 3 kg of

crushed ice or cold water was added to each 100 kg meat formula
to facilitate dissolution and distribution of the additives
within the product. The addeà water was removed by evaporation
during the enzyme inactivation process.
The meat, skin, and additives, mixed under vacuum, in 1 600 lb
batches, were tightly stuffed into cellulose casings, laid horizon­
tally on wire screened trucks and then enzyme inactivated by heat
and steam in the smokehouse chambers, without smoking. One
smokehouse (cookhouse) load was about 6 000 lb of the product.
Drip loss was prevented by starting the chamber temperature at
46-52°C which assured the formation of a protective protein skin
on the surface of the chicken rolls. Only moisture was lost
during the process. At a final chamber temperature of 90°C the
internal temperature of the chicken rolls was between 73 and 80°C
and the yield was 87% of the total meat formula. Fig. 1 presents
typical time and temperature parameters used for the enzyme
inactivation process under industrial conditions. The chicken
meat for the packaging in flexible pouches (ELE) was formed prior
to the enzyme-inactivation processing by stuffing it into casings
placed into stainless wire cages of 9.0 X 12.5 X 91.5 cm in size.
A total of 61 cookhouse loads were processed with the yield of
the enzyme-inactivated product to the raw product of 86.7 ± 0.7% [4].

2.3. Packaging

The FC, GAM, and TP products were packed in metal cans,

No. 404 X 309, 10.8 cm in diameter and 9.0 cm in height. The
cans were made from 80 to 90 basic weight, No. 25 tinplate,
coated overall inside with an epoxy-phenolic enamel with aluminum
pigment in accordance with Federal Specification PPP-C-29E,
Canned Subsistence Items, Packaging and Packing [4]. The lids
contained the can sealing compound designated as a blend of cured
and uncured butyl rubber. Reliability of the commercially available
tinplate containers were determined for the packaging of irradiation
processed foods and described elsewhere [6, 7]. The cans were
filled with 595 ± 7 g enzyme-inactivated product and sealed under
highest attainable vacuum before colapse of the cans, which was
-635 to -686 mm Hg. The cans were filled to about 84% of the can
inside volume, thus allowing accommodation of hydrogen gas produced
 IAEA-SM-271/73 83

TIM E (hours)

FIG.l. E n z y m e inactivation process of chicken meat rolls.

in the can by irradiation as a result of radiolysis of water in

the food and the food components [8, 9, 10].

After can closure, 24 cans (14.3 kg) of the FC product were

packed in fiberboard shipping cases, arranged in a pattern of
4 cans in length, 3 cans in width, and 2 cans in depth with
fiberboard separators between the individual cans. The packed
shipping cases with the cans of the chicken meat were then stored
in -23 to -40°C freezers until shipment in the frozen state to
Raltech, where they were maintained in the frozen state until use
as frozen control chicken meat in the toxicological studies.

For the TP chicken meat group, the product after the can
closing was heat sterilized in commercial autoclaves at 115.6°C
to the sterility level of F = 6, by certified retort operators
[4, 11]. Thermal sterilization of the TP chicken meat in this
study was less severe than usually carried out by industry who
operate their autoclaves at 121°C. The use of the retort tempera­
ture of 115.6°C [11] resulted in the end product which still
could be sliced for sensory evaluation; retorting at 121°C resulted
in a considerable loss in texture of the product [4]. Representative
samples of the retorted product were subjected to incubation
tests as required by the USDA inspection for the canned meats.
The finished product was packed in shipping cases and shipped,
nonrefrigerated, directly from the processing plant in Madison,
WI, to Raltech, where it was stored, nonrefrigerated, until use.

The GAM chicken meat, after canning, packing, and freezing,

was shipped frozen to Natick, MA where it was frozen stored
before irradiation using 60Co gamma facility of the U.S. Army
Natick R&D Center.

The ELE chicken meat was packed in flexible packaging. The

enzyme-inactivated, chilled, rectangular chicken blocks were cut
into 1-in (26 mm) thick slices and vacuum packed in preformed
84 WIERBICKI

flexible packaging. The flexible packages were 165 mm X 208 mm

in size, fabricated with 0.025 mm polyiminocaproyl (Nylon 6) as
the outside layer, 0.0090 mm aluminum foil as the middle layer,
and 0.051 mm polyethylene terephthalate-medium density polyethylene
as the food contacting layer [4]. The reliability of this flexible
packaging for irradiation sterilization of prepackaged foods,
using either 60Co gamma rays or electrons was demonstrated in
previous experiments [12]. Medium density polyethylene, used as
the food contactant in this flexible packaging does not produce
extractives as the result of irradiation, over the levels designated
by FDA, when in contact with nonirradiated foods [13, 14].
Single 1-in thick ELE chicken meat slices, in average 241 g
product per slice, were packed into the flexible prefabricated
pouches and sealed under maximum attainable vacuum of 28.5 to
29 in (-724 to -737 mm H g ) . The evacuation time was preset so as
to result in not more than 4 ml headspace gas in any pouch after
sealing, as indicated by the method of Shappee and Werkowski
[15]. The vacuum sealing of the filled pouches was accomplished
at the rate of 32 pouches per min using the Swissvac, Model
CVEP 100 vacuum sealing machine [4]. After vacuum packaging and
sealing, the sealed pouches that passed visual inspection were
held in a -2.2 to 5°C cooler overnight prior to assembly in the
irradiation boxes. After being retained in the cooler overnight,
each pouch was inspected for maintenance of the vacuum and tight
adherence of the pouch to meat slice. The pouches that were
observed with leaks in the seals or pinholes in the body of the
pouch lost vacuum during this period in the cooler. The samples
showing "poor vacuum" were rejected and the pouches opened, the
meat repacked and resealed, and the inspection cycle repeated.
Twelve filled and vacuum sealed pouches (four pouches in length,
three pouches in width, and one pouch in depth) were placed into
one "irradiation box" of proper dimensions [4]. Five irradiation
boxes containing meat were than packed in a shipping box, the box
sealed and placed into a -23 to -40°C freezer until shipment,
in the frozen state, to the NLABS for electron irradiation.

In comparison with the GAM chicken meat that were vacuum

packed in metal cans, the ELE chicken meat was exposed to much
less residual air in the package. This was brought about as a
result of the latter being sealed under higher vacuum and being
kept overnight at a refrigerated temperature before freezing,
thus allowing aerobic bacteria in the ELE packaged meat to consume
the residual oxygen in the headspace and the air trapped by the meat.

Processing and packaging of the chicken meat in this study

was carried out under continuous USDA inspection. At the time of
packaging the enzyme inactivated chicken meat never exceeded the
temperature of 10°C [4].
 IAEA-SM-271/73 85

3. IRRADIATION PROCESS

3.1. The sterilizing dose used

At the time of the irradiation of the chicken product from

the first procurement, May-June 1976, the 12-D irradiation sterilizing
dose for chicken was still not determined. However, based on the
data available for other foods the 12-D dose was estimated to be
not higher than 45 kGy. Therefore, this sterilizing dose was
selected as the minimum dose for processing the chicken product
for this study. A 50% dose spread was added to provide a reasonable
economical dose range for irradiation sterilization that might be
carried out under industrial conditions. Consequently, the dose
range selected for irradiation was 45 kGy minimum to 68 kGy
maximum. The Microbiology Group at the U.S. Army Natick R&D
Center was requested, at the same time, to determine by an inoculated
pack study with Clostridium botulinum spores, the 12-D dose for
this chicken product. This was accomplished, and the irradiation
sterilizing dose (under the 12-D concept) for the chicken product
used in this study was determined to be 42.7 kGy at the product
temperature during irradiation of -30° ± 10°C [16]. An area of
concern in irradiation sterilization processing of foods is that
viruses are more radiation resistant than the most-resistant
bacterial spores (e.g., C. botulinum types A and B) [17]. For
example, some members of the Moraxella-Acinetobacter group of
bacteria are also more radiation resistant than C. botulinum
spores [18]. These bacteria and viruses are, however, far more
sensitive to heat [17, 19] and were inactivated during the heat
inactivation of enzymes (Fig. 1).

3.2. 60Co irradiation of GAM chicken meat

The GAM chicken meat, packed in cans, was tempered in a

liquid N 2 cooler (-40°C ± 5°C) and irradiated, in the frozen
state, at the U.S. Army Natick 60Co Irradiation Facility which
had 2.5 million curies source strength in 1976. The facility has
been described by McDonald [20]. Irradiation was performed in
batches of eight cases per run, with each case containing 24 cans,
or a total of 114.4 kg product per run. The case carrier was
mapped for the dose distribution within the batch to ensure the
minimum and maximum absorbed dose spread required. For compliance
the cases of the product located in the minimum dose position in
the carrier were monitored during irradiation. The carrier
containing 8 cases of the product was equipped with liquid N 2
line to control temperature in the carrier between -45°C and
-30°C during irradiation as described by McDonald [20]. Table III
gives a summary of 60Co irradiation of the GAM product. As the
data indicate, the minimum dose received in the "minimum dose"
location in the carrier was 46 kGy. The maximum dose was 68 kGy
and the average dose 56 kGy. The ferrous-cupric sulfate chemical
dosimeter was used to measure the dose absorbed as described by
Jarrett and Halliday [21].
86 WIERBICKI

TABLE III. SUMMARY OF 60CO IRRADIATION OF GAM CHICKEN MEAT

Dose Transient Run

Prodn. race dose túne kGy1 Run2
no. Date Gy/mia Gy min. Received no.

1 May-June 1976 6.70 x 102 1.95 x 102 68.37 46.0 1 - 52

2 Apr.-May 1977 S .94 x 102 1.70 x 102 77.15 46.0 53 - 142

3 March. 1978 5.26 x 102 1.50 x 102 87.17 46.0 143 - 182

ЗА Apr.-May 1978 5.21 x 102 1.48 x 102 8 8.01 46.0 183 - 283

* Dose received in the "minimum dose location" in the carrier.

2
Each run (batch) consisted of 8 cases of the product being irradiated,

14.3 kg product per case.

3.3. Electron irradiation of ELE chicken meat

Electron irradiation of ELE chicken meat has been performed

using U.S. Army NLABS 10 MeV Electron Accelerator (LINAC), as
described by Rees and Caspersen [22]. ELE chicken meat, packed
in fiberboard shipping cases was stored in a liquid N 2 storage
box (-45°C ± 5°C) before irradiation. Each shipping box contained
five "irradiation boxes", each containing 12 packaged 1-in slices
of ELE chicken meat, with an average of 241 g product per package.
Two sequentially numbered "irradiation boxes" were placed into
one polystyrene foam box (to keep the samples frozen during
irradiation) for electron irradiation processing, representing
one irradiation run (total 5.784 kg product per run). Details on
the irradiation processing were described in Wierbicki's technical
report [4]. In order to obtain the dose spread from 45 to 68 kGy
the machine had to be set for the average dose of 59 kGy, 3 kGy
higher than the average dose used for 60Co irradiation of GAM
chicken meat. The chemical ferrous-cupric sulfate dosimeter was
attached outside of the polystyrene foam boxes to cross-check the
accuracy of the dosimetry [21]. For each irradiation run the
energy of the electron beam used was automatically measured and
recorded. The electron beam energy, as taken from the irradiation
records [4], was 9.7 to 10.0 MeV. A total of 5 462 runs of
electron irradiation of ELE chicken meat was performed, comprising
136 472 pouches of the packed product for a total net weight of
32 957 kg [4].

3.4. Product temperature control during irradiation

In the course of 60Co irradiation of 31 846 kg (Table I)

GAM chicken meat, 54 cans were equipped with the thermocouples
and the temperature of the product before and after irradiation
was recorded. The product temperature before irradiation was
 IAEA-SM-271/73 87

-39.5° ± 3.3°C and after irradiation -15.3° ± 3.2°C. This

represented a temperature rise of 4.3°C for each 10 kGy absorbed
gamma ray energy. During electron irradiation, 641 samples were
checked for the product temperature, which was -40° ± 2.9°C
before irradiation and -9.9° ± 1.8°C after irradiation. This
represented a temperature rise of 5.1°C for each 10 kGy of electron
energy absorbed [4].

For the electron irradiation, the temperature rise was about

0.8°C greater than for 60Co irradiation since no cooling could be
provided during electron irradiation. For the best quality
radappertized product, the product temperature after irradiation
should be -20°C or lower [23]. This was not achieved during
irradiation of these chicken products and was a deliberate decision
made to obtain radappertized products under less than "ideal"
conditions for toxicological studies.

3.5. Post-irradiation inspection

After irradiation, the GAM and ELE groups of the irradiated

chicken product were moved to a noncontrolled area for defrosting
at room temperature (21 to 25°C), for inspection of each can
(GAM) and each pouch (ELE) for the absence of induced radioctivity
[24], for packaging integrity, vacuum of the cans (undestructive),
and marking of the samples (production no., samples no., dose,
run no., and date of irradiation). Samples showing any sign of
damage, or missing markings, particularly the qualitative "go-no-go"
dosimeter (red after irradiation), were removed and destroyed.
The inspected samples were repacked, palleted and shipped without
refrigeration to Raltech for nonrefrigerated storage until the
toxicological studies were performed.

4. PRODUCT EVALUATION

4.1. Radiolysis products

Radiolysis products in the four groups of the enzyme-inactivated

chicken products used in the Raltech toxicological studies (FC,
TP, GAM, and ELE), along with the frozen samples of raw chicken
meat, have been reported separately in a comprehensive technical
report by Merritt [25]. The radiolysis products were determined
on duplicate samples for each chicken meat group initially and
after storage for 12, 24, and 36 months. The raw chicken meat
and the frozen control enzyme-inactivated chicken meat (FC group)
were stored in -29°C freezers. The irradiation sterilized chicken
meat (GAM and ELE) and the thermally sterilized chicken meat
samples (TP) were stored in a 21°C room. The same storage temperatures
were used for the FC, GAM, ELE, and TP chicken samples for the
chemical and sensory quality evaluations at the NLABS. The
subject report by Merritt [25] also contains radiolysis product
information on radappertized beef, pork, ham, and bacon with
88 WIERBICKI

TABLE IV. CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF ENZYME-INACTIVATED CHICKEN MF a t

Product Group:
No. ------ -----— ---------------------------------------
Composition samples FC TP GAM ELE

H 20 , « ) 12 65.4 + 0.7 65.3 1 .0 65.1 Î 0 . 8 65.3 0.3

Protein (I) 12 2 0 .2 0.6 19.9 + 0.7 20.0 0.4 20.4 j 0.4

Fat (X) 12 12.4 ± 1.1 12.7 1 .2 13.0 + 0.9 12 .6 0.3

Ash (%) 12 1.9 0.1 1.9 0.1 1.9 0.1 1.9 ± 0 . 0

NaCl ( M 12 0.85 + 0.05 0.87 0.05 0.85 + 0.08 0.87 0.05

P (ng/100g) 12 265 + 9 263 + 9 260 10 266 + 12

N PN1 8 0.36 0 .0 2 0.35 ± 0.03 0.38 ± 0 .0 2 0.38 ± 0 .0 2

pH S 6.39 0 .1 0 6.33 + 0.08 6.40 0.08 6.39 + 0.08

1 NPN = Nosprotein nitrogen as % total N.

computer analysis of the commonality of the radiolysis products

in the five different meats.

4.2. Chemical composition

Table IV presents the chemical composition of the four

groups of the enzyme-inactivated chicken meat (FC, TP, GAM, and
ELE) as determined using the AOAC standard methods for food
analyses [26]. The samples analyzed were withdrawn from all
three production lots of the product and subjected to the analyses
initially and after 6 and 12 months of storage; detailed tabulations
of the results are available [4]. The data, as summarized in
Table IV, indicate a very homogeneous product from group to group
submitted to Raltech for toxicological studies. There were no
changes of these chemical quality indexes during the storage of
the items for 2 years [4]. The nonprotein nitrogen (NPN) is an
index of proteolytic enzyme activities in protein foods. The NPN
content was the same in the samples stored for 2 years (0.34 ±
0.02%) [4] as before storage (Table IV). The fact that there
were no changes in the NPN content with the storage time without
refrigeration in the irradiated products (GAM and ELE) indicate
that the preirradiation enzyme-inactivation treatment as shown in
Fig. 1 was effective for the purpose.

4.3. Headspace gas composition

Irradiation produces gases in packaged irradiation sterilized

foods in the headspace of the cans. The gases produced may
result in bulged or swelled cans. Therefore, since users of
canned food will normally interpret a swelled can as a sign of
 IAEA-SM-271/73 89

TABLE V. HEADSPACE GAS COMPOSITION IN CANS OF 60C0-

IRRADIATED, NONIRRADIATED AND THERMALLY

PROCESSED PRODUCTS

3
GAM3 FC4 TP
2 2 2
G AS1 Initial 12 Months. Initial 12 Months Initial

24.5 25.3 0 0 0
H2
62.a 60.6 88.7 89.6 93.3
N2
1.1 0.9 1.5 1.7 1.4
°2
11.6 12.9 1 0.0 9.3 5.4
О
О
ro

ch4 0 0.4 0 0 0

Co 0 0 .1 0 0 0

As percent o£ total headspace gas.

Samples frozen stored for 2 months before analysis.

3 Stored at 21°C.
4
Frozen stored at -29°C.

bacterial spoilage, the cans filled with food for irradiation

should not be filled to more than 84% of the can volume. Hydrogen
gas is the dominant gas produced by the radiation process [8, 9]
as a result of radiolysis of water and the food components [10,27].

The headspace gases were analyzed for hydrogen (Hg), nitrogen

(N2 ), oxygen (O 2 ), carbon dioxide (CO 2 ), methane (CH4 ), and
carbon monoxide (CO) in the headspace gas removed fiom the packages
by water displacement by the method of Pratt et al. [8, 9]. The
headspace gas composition for the GAM, FC, and TP products packed
in metal cans is given in Table V. As the data indicate, the
frozen control (FC) and thermally processed chicken meat (TP)
contain no hydrogen in the headspace. To the contrary 60Co
irradiated product (GAM) contained about 25% hydrogen. After 12
months storage traces of methane and carbon monoxide were also
detected in the headspace gas of the GAM product. Similar headspace
compositions were found for electron irradiated samples [4].
However, very little (<l-mL) headspace gas could be collected
from the ELE chicken samples to allow accurate quantitative
determinations. Determination of hydrogen in thé headspace gas
of irradiated foods packed in metal cans, may have the potential
to be used to identify whether a product was irradiated or not.
90 WIERBICKI

TABLE VI. EFFECT OF PROCESSING AND STORAGE ON FAT OXIDATION

2 2
FC1 GAM2 ELE TP
Fat
oxidation 81 81 81 81
index Initial^ Mon. Initial^ Mon. Initial^ Mon. Initial^ Mon.

PV4 38.1 1.6 11.3 0 .6 14.1 0.9 0 1.1

TBA5 4.4 1.6 0.2 0.2 2.0 0.3 0.2 0.2

FFA6 0.7 0.9 0.9 4.6 0.9 5.0 1.1 3.4

1 Stored frozen at -29°C.

2 Stored at 21°C.
3
3 month old samples (first evaluation).
4
PV = peroxide value as milliequivalent 0^/1000 g fat.

5 TBA = Thiobarbituric acid value in mg malonaldehyde/1000 g meat.

6 FFA = Free fatty acid as % oleic acid in the extracted fat.

4.4. Lipid oxidation indexes

Three fat oxidation indexes were determined to study the

changes in lipid oxidation in the four groups of the product (FC,
GAM, ELE, and TP), initially and after 6, 12, 24, 53, and 81
months of storage: (a) peroxide value (PV), which is an index
for the primary lipid oxidation products, using iodometric techniques
(where the PV is reported in milliequivalents of oxygen per 1 kg
extracted fat) [26]; thiobarbituric acid value (TBA) which is the
index of secondary oxidation products of polyunsaturated fatty
acids containing two or more double bonds [28] (expressed in mg
of malonaldehyde per kg sample) [29]; and free fatty acids (FFA)
(expressed as percent of oleic acid in extracted fat from the
food sample), using standard AOAC method [26].
Table VI summarizes the data for the PV, TBA, and FFA in
the four groups of the chicken products, initially, and after
81 months of storage. This data best illustrates the effect of
the further processing (60Co and electron irradiation and thermal
retorting) of the enzyme-inactivated chicken meat, when comparisons
are made with the frozen control (FC). The data also shows the
effect of long-term nonrefrigerated storage of the irradiated
(GAM and ELE) and thermally sterilized (TP) chicken meat. In raw
chicken meat before enzyme inactivation, the PV and TBA were
below the 2.0 units [4]. Enzyme inactivation increased the PV
and TBA, in the product as shown by the high initial data for the
frozen control (FC) samples; prolonged frozen storage significantly
reduced these fat oxidation indexes. Irradiation of the enzyme-
inactivated chicken meat, packed in v ac u o , greatly reduced, both
PV and TBA values; storage for 81 months decreased these fat
 IAEA-SM-271/73 91

oxidation indexes to about a zero level. Thermal retorting

destroyed both the PV and TBA fat oxidation indexes. This effect
of the thermal processing of canned foods is well documented [30].

Irradiation and thermal retorting slightly increased the FFA

and a further, significant increase took place during prolonged
nonrefrigerated storage of these chicken products (Table VI).
Since the enzyme-inactivation procedure (and in case of the TP
chicken meat, the further thermal processing) destroyed (inactivated)
the triglyceride hydrolyzing enzymes (lipases), the increase in
the FFA in the GAM, ELE, and TP products represents an autooxidation
of the lipids during storage at nonrefrigeration temperatures.
In fact, the increase in the FFA in the fat of GAM, ELE, and TP
chicken meat is directly related to the storage time, thus allowing
approximate determination of the length of time the products were
stored without refrigeration within 1 year accuracy. The increase
in FFA for GAM and ELE chicken products was 0.524% and for the TP
product 0.404% per year of nonrefrigerated storage [4].

4.5. Sensory quality

4.5.1. Expert panel evaluation

Ten permanent and four alternate members at the NLABS, were

trained as "expert" evaluators for color, odor, flavor, and
texture for the four groups of chicken meat used in this study [4].
The product, sliced into 1/4-in (6 mm) slices were served to the
panelists, either cold or after reheating in a covered pan held
over hot water (85 to 95°C). Scores were obtained by rating the
four quality attributes using the following rating scale:

Rating Quality

9 Excellent

8 Very Good

7 Good

6 Below Good - Above Fair

5 Fair

4 Below Fair - Above Poor

3 Poor

2 Very Poor

1 Extremely Poor
92 WIERBICKI

TABLE VII. EFFECT OF DIFFERENT PROCESSING AND STORAGE ON COLOR,

ODOR, FLAVOR, AND TEXTURE OF ENZYME-INACTIVATED CHICKEN

MEAT (Served Cold. Expert Panel, n = 10)

Sensory Scores:
Time of Product
storage group Color Odor Flavor Texture

Initial1 FC 6.4 ± 0.6 6.1 ± 0.7 5.6 ± 1.3 5.5 ± 1.3

GAM 5.9 ± 0.9 5.5 ± 1.2 4.9 ± 1.0 4.7 ± 1.4

ELE 5.9 ± 1.1 5.7 ± 1.4 5.3 ± 1.3 5.2 ± 1.7

TP 5.7 ± 0.9 5.7 ± 1.0 5.0 ± 1.2 4.4 ± 1.7

F: 0.67 0.46 0.63 0.95

LSD: NSD NSD NSD NSD

24 Months FC 5.9 + 1.9 6 . 2 ± 2 .1 6.1 ± 1.9 6.3a ± 1.3

GAM 5.6 ± 1.6 5.2 ± 1.8 4.9 ± 1.9 5.0a,b ± 1.6

ELE 5.6 ± 0.8 5.3 ± 1.4 5.0 ± 1.2 5.33 ± 1.4

TP 5.3 ± 1.1 6 . 0 ± 1.6 4.8 ± 1.2 3.9b ± 1 .2

F: 0.30 0.81 1.44 5.18

NSD NSD NSD 1.25

* First evaluation after 3 months storage.

LSD = Least significant difference.

NSD = No significant difference.

a,k = Means in the same column with different subscript letters

are significantly different (P < 0.05).

Ratings of 5 and above indicated acceptable products. Ratings of

5 and 4 indicated the products were of marginal quality, whereas
the rating of 3 (poor) and below indicated that the product might
not be accepted by the consumers who are particularly demanding
of this particular quality attribute. The four groups of the
product (FC, GAM, ELE, and TP) were subjected to sensory evaluation
for color, odor, flavor, and texture by the expert panels initially
and after 6, 12, and 24 months of storage. The means (M) and
standard deviations(SD) of the data obtained for each attribute,
and for the least significant differences (LSD) between the means
of the four groups of the product were evaluated using the statistical
method of Duncan [31]. The results of the expert panel sensory
taste testing of the four groups of chicken meat used in the
Raltech toxicological studies were published in 13 tables in
 IAEA-SM-271/73 93

TABLE VIII. EFFECT OF FURTHER PROCESSING CM COLOR, ODOR, FLAVOR AND TEXTURE

OF ENZÏME-INACTIVATED CHICKEN MEAT

Overall sensory scores1 :

Product
group Color Odor Flavor Texture

FC2 6.45b £ 0.44 6 .68b ± 0.48 6.40b £ 0.47 6 .11c ± 0.42

GAM3 6.28b £ 0.73 6.04a £ 0.S3 5.43a £ 0.38 5.40b £ 0.58

FTP3 6.30b £ 0.73 5.98a £ 0.58 5.40a ’

,b £ 0.56 5.35b £ 0.54

TP3 5.35a £ 0.89 5.73a £ 0.49 5.26a £ 0.48 5.35a £ 0.64

M £ SD: 6 .1 0 £ 0.72 6.11 ± 0.52 5.62 £ 0.48 5.30 £ 0.55

LSD: 0.73 0.53 0.49 0.56

1 All data combined: 4 storage times X 2 preparations for serving (n = 80

for each product group).

2
Frozen stored at -29°C.
3
Stored without refrigeration at 21°C.

a,*5,c = Means in the same column with different subscript letters are

significantly different (P < 0.05).

Wierbicki's technical report [4]. Representative findings are

summarized in Tables VII and VIII. In Table VII, ratings are given
for the chicken meat served cold (held in a refrigerator for
3 days in unopened containers before serving), initially and
after 24 month storage. Similar data were obtained on the
samples served reheated and on other withdrawals (after 6 and 12
month storage) [4]. As the data indicate, during the initial
evaluation there were no significant differences between the
four groups for all four quality attributes. However, the
frozen control samples (FC), which were not further processed
after enzyme-inactivation (cooking), scored slightly higher than
the chicken samples of the other three groups (GAM, ELE, and TP).
After 24 months storage only the samples of thermally retorted
meat (TP) received significantly lower scores for texture. In
Table VIII the scores received in all tests at different times on
the four groups of chicken meat were pooled together to more
accurately determine the overall effect of further processing on
the enzyme-inactivated chicken meat, by 60Co gamma irradiation
(GAM), electron irradiation (ELE), or thermal retorting (TP),
since only the processing affected the quality [4]. The data
represent the pooled results of the total of 80 scores received
by each product group for each attribute. The data indicate that
FC samples received the highest ratings for all attributes.
94 WIERBICKI

TABLE IX. PREFERENCE SCORES 1 OF WHOLESOMENESS CHICKEN MEAT SERVED COLD TO A

CONSUMER PANEL (a = 32 Panelists)

Initial evaluation: Production no. 2:

Product
group Production no. 2 Production no. 3 6 Months 12 Months

FC2 6.37** ± 1.60 6.00b ± 2.27 6.16C ± 1.39 6.19b ± 1.80

GAM3 5.00a ± 1.64 5.15a ± 2.13 4.28a ± 1.63 5.28a ± 1.97

ELE3 4.62* ± 1.77 4.81d ± 2.32 4.06a ± 1.34 5.06a £ 1.97
TP3 5.03a ± 1.80 5.94b ± 2.09 5.03^ ± 1.71 5.25a ± 1.95
LSD: 4 0.70 0.76 0 .6 1 0.6 6

9-point hedonic scale: 9 = like extremely; 5 = neither like-nor dislike;! =

dislike extremely.
?
Frozen stored at -29°C.

3 Stored without refrigeration at 21°C.

4
LSD = Least significant differences: means in the same column with different

subscript letters are significantly different (P < 0.05).

Further processing, either by irradiation or thermal retorting

decreased the quality ratings. However, the ratings for color
for the irradiated samples were not significantly different from
the nonirradiated frozen control and for flavor by electron
irradiation of the meat. There were no significant differences
in the ratings between 60Co and electron irradiated samples. The
thermally retorted chicken meat (TP), scored significantly lower
for color and texture than the irradiated and frozen control
samples. However, all scores were high enough (over 5) to consider
the products to be of acceptable quality.

4.5.2. Consumer panel evaluation

The "cold" and the "hot" chicken meat samples of the four
groups of the product (FC, GAM, ELE, and TP) were evaluated for
consumer acceptance using the 9-point hedonic scale of Peryam and
Pilgrim [32]. The statistical treatment of the data used the
randomized block method with 32 test subjects for means (M) and
standard deviations (SD), least significant differences (LSD),
and analysis of variance [31]. The test subjects were selected
from a pool of about 800 volunteers who were employees at the
NLABS. The subjects were not informed that two out of the four
chicken samples served for each test were irradiation treated.
Table IX gives the preference rating data for the four products
when served cold to the panelist. Table X gives the ratings
obtained when the chicken meat samples were reheated before serving.
 IAEA-SM-271/73 95

TABLE X. PREFERENCE SCORES1 OF WHOLESOMENESS CHICKEN MEAT SERVE!] REHEATED (HOT)

TO A CONSUMER PANEL (a = 32 Panelists)

Initial évaluation: Production no. 2 :

Product
group Production no. 2 Production no. 3 6 Months 12 Months

FC2 6 .88b ± 1.45 6.69 ± 1.69 7.00c ± 1.48 6.78b £ 1.10

GAM3 5 . 78a ± 1.64 6.09 t 1.80 6.22a,b ± 1.70 5.37a ± 1.84

ELE3 5.91a ± 1.91 5.97 t 2.01 6.55b,C i 1.52 5.87a ± 1.76

TP3 6.31а,Ь t 1.60 6.25 ± 2.03 5.78a ± 1.88 5.59b ± 1.84

LSD4 : 0.58 NSD 0.59 0.77

1 9-point hedonic scale: 9 = like extremely; 5 - neither like-nor dislike;! =

dislike extremely.
7
Frozen stored at -29°C.
3
Stored without refrigeration at 21°C.
4
LSD = Least significant differences: means in the same column with different

subscript letters are significantly different (P < 0.05).

The means of the ratings of the reheated samples from production

lot 3 in the initial evaluation did not reveal significant differences
between the groups (Table X ) . In all other tests the frozen
control chicken meat (FC) received significantly higher scores.
Reheating slightly increased the preference scores in all instances,
indicating that consumers prefer the chicken meat served after
reheating. Initial evaluations were performed on the products
from production No. 2 and No. 3 to confirm that the quality of
the products can be reproduced from one production lot to another.
The 6 and 12 month storage studies used only the chicken meat from
production 2. The consumer panel rated thermally processed (TP)
chicken meat either equally high or slightly higher in preference
to the irradiated samples (GAM, ELE), in spite of the fact that
TP samples received the highest number of comments for "poor
texture" [4].

The preference scores received by irradiated chicken meat in

Tables IX and X are in the acceptable range, even though irradiation
doses were relatively high, an ave. 56 kGy for 60Co and an ave. 59 kGy
for electron irradiated samples. Improved preference scores were
assigned by the same panel to a similar chicken product irradiated
under better control of radiation dose (45 to 55 kGy) and temperature
96 WIERBICKI

TABLE XI. PREFERENCE RATINGS OF IRRADIATED1

CHICKEN BREAST MEAT ROLLS

(Consumer Panel, n = 32)

2
Product Additives , «A-. Rating:
preparation
number NaCl TP? Heaa ± SD

1 0.0 0.0 5.1a ± 2.1

2 0.75 0.5 6.7b ± 1.4

3 0.75 0 .0 6.3b ± 2 . 0

4 0.75 0.3 6.2b ± 1.9

43 0.75 0.3 6.5b ± 1 .8

Least significant difference (LSD, P < 0.05): 0.3

1 45 to 55 kGy at -30°C ± 10°C.

2
9-point hedonic scale: 9 = "like

extremely," 5 = "neither-like-nor-dislike,"

6 = "like slightly."

3 Nooirradiated sample from product preparation 4.

(-30° ± 10°C) (Table XI) [4]. The preference scores given in

Table XI indicate also the importance of the additives, NaCl and
TPP, to the quality of irradiated products.

5. CONCLUSIONS

(a) Production of over 140 000 kg of enzyme-inactivated

chicken meat under industrial conditions for the Raltech toxicological
studies showed that the industry is capable of processing and
packaging large quantities of products for irradiation treatment.

(b) Irradiation processing by 60Co gamma rays and by 10 MeV

electrons, of about 35 000 kg product by each of the irradiation
source, showed that preservation of prepacked foods by sterilizing
doses of ionizing energy is possible. However, packaging of the
foods, under high vacuum with control of product temperature
during irradiation are essential in obtaining products of acceptable
quality.

(c) Enzyme-inactivated, vacuum packed chicken roll products

preserved with sterilizing doses of 6°Co gamma rays and 10 MeV
 IAEA-SM-271/73 97

electrons within the dose range of 45 to 68 kGy (D /D . =

1.51) were shelf-stable and were of acceptable q u a lify .mi)?he
quality and acceptance of the products might be upgraded by
reducing the irradiation sterilizing dose to the range of 43 to
56 kGy (D /D . = 1.30).
* max min
(d) The approval by the health authorities of the radap-
pertization process is needed before its industrial application.
The U.S. Army— USDA Raltech toxicology studies on chicken were
conducted to provide information for this purpose.

ACKNOWLEDGMENT

The participation and assistance in execution of this project

by the following scientists at the U.S. Army Natick R&D Center
are gratefully acknowledged: Ari Brynjolfsson, Fred Heiligman,
John J. Killoran, Gary W. Shults, John J. Howker, Joseph S.
Cohen, Vera C. Mason, Irwin A. Taub, and Robert D. Jarret (presently
with U.S. Department of Agriculture).

REFERENCES

[1] BAKER, R. W . , CHANDLER, H. K . , "Animal Feeding Study Protocol

for Irradiation Sterilized Test Foods," U.S. Army Medical
Research and Development Command Washington, DC, 1975.
National Technical Information Service, Springfield, VA
PB84-186998.
[2] ABPS, NRC, "ABPS Report No. 66, Interim Report, Task Group
on Feeding Study Protocols," Committee on Food Irradiation,
National Academy of Sciences, Washington, DC (1975).
[3] ERRC-ARS, "Irradiation Sterilized Chicken Toxicology Studies,"
National Technical Information Service, 5285 Port Royal Road,
Springfield, VA 22161, USA (1984).
[4] WIERBICKI, E., Technical Report: "Irradiation Sterilized
Chicken Products: Technology, Product Quality, Feasibility,"
ERRC-ARS Document No. 84. National Technical Information
Service, Springfield, VA PB84-186998 (1984) 290.
[5] SHULTS, G. W . , WIERBICKI, E., J. Food Sci. 38 (1973) 991.
[6] KILLORAN, J. J . , Chemical and physical changes in food
packaging material exposed to ionizing radiation. Radiation
Research Reviews, Elsevier Publishing Company, Amsterdam, 3
(1972) 369.
[7] KILLORAN, J. J . , HOWKER, J. J . , WIERBICKI, E., J. Food
Process, and Preserv. 3 (1979) 11.
[8] PRATT, G. B., KNEELAND, L. E., HEILIGAM, F . , KILLORAN,
J. J., J. Food Sci. 32 (1967) 200.
[9] PRATT, G. B . , KNEELAND, L. E., Irradiation Induced Headspace
Gases in Packaged Radiation Sterilized Food. Amer. Can
Company, Contract No. DA-19-129-AMC-119(N); Technical
Report 72-55-F4, NLABS (1972).
98 WIERBICKI

[10] SIMIC, M. G. , J. Agr. Food Chemistry 26 1 (1978) 6.

[11] COHEN, J. S., WIERBICKI, E., Transaction of ASAE 2_1 6
(1978) 1242.
[12] KILLORAN, J. J . , COHEN, J. S., WIERBICKI, E., J.Food
Process, and Preserv. 3 (1979) 25-34.
[13] Food and Drug Administration. The code of Federal Regulation
179 45: Packaging materials for use during the irradiation
of prepackaged foods. Federal Register, 32 (1967) 8360.
[14] KILLORAN, J. J . , Packaging Materials for Use during the
Ionizing Irradiation Sterilization of Prepackaged Chicken
Products. ERRC-ARS Document No. 82. National Technical
Information Service Springfield, VA PB84-186998 (1984) 180.
[15] SHAPEE, J . , WERKOWSKI, S. J . , Study of Nondestructive Test
for Determining the Volume of Air in Flexible Food Package.
Technical Report 74-4-GP, NLABS (1972).
[16] ANELLIS, A., SCHATTUCK, E., MORIN, М., SRISARA, B., QUALE,
S., ROWLEY, D. B., ROSS, E. W . , JR., J. Environmental
Microbiol. 34 6 (1977) 823.
[17] GRECZ, N., ROWLEY, D. B., MATSUYAMA, A. "The effect of
irradiation on bacteria and viruses," Preservation of Food
by Ionizing Radiation (J0SEPHS0N, E. S., PETERSON, M. S.,
Eds), CRC Press, Inc. II. (1983) 167.
[18] WELCH, A. B., MAXCY, R. B., Appl. Microbiol. 30 (1975) 242.
[19] FIRSTENBER-EDEN, R., ROWLEY, D. B., SCHATTUCK, E. G . , Appl.
Microbiol. 39 (1980) 159.
[20] MACDONALD, B. A., Gamma ray sterilization of meat. NLABS
Manuscript, presented at the First International Congress
on Engineering and Food, Boston, MA (1976).
[21] JARRET, R. D., HALLIDAY, J. W . , Dosimetry in support of
wholesomeness studies. NLABS Manuscript, presented at the
First International Congress on Engineering and Food,
Boston, MA (1976).
[22] REES, C. W . , CASPERSEN, J. М., Electron irradiation in
sterilization of meat. NLABS manuscript, presented at the
First International Congress on Engineering and Food,
Boston, MA (1976).
[23] WIERBICKI, E., Technological feasibility of preserving
meat, poultry, and fish products by using a combination of
conventional additives, and heat treatment, and irradiation
(Proc. Int. Symp. "Combination Processes in Food Irradiation,"
Colombo, Sri Lanka, 1980) IAEA, Vienna (1981) 81.
[24] MARTIN, Т. М., Ill, Health physics in food irradiation
facilities. NLABS Manuscript, presented at the First
International Congress on Engineering and Food, Boston, MA
(1976).
[25] MERRIT, C., JR., Radiolysis compounds in bacon and chicken.
ERRC-ARS Document No. 83. National Technical Information
Service, Springfield, VA 22161 PB84-187095 (1984) 466.
[26] A.O.A.C,, "Official Methods of Analysis", 12th ed. Assn.
Offic. Anal. Chem., Washington, DC (1975).
[27] TAUB, I. A., ROBBINS, F. М., SIMIC, M. G., WALKER, J. E.,
WIERBICKI, E., Food Technol. 33 5 (1979) 184.
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[28] DAHLE, L. K . , HILL, E. G., HOLMAN, R. T., Arch. Biochem.

Biophys. 98 (1962) 253.
[29] TARLADIS, B. G . , WATTS, В. M., YOUNATHAN, M. T., J. Am. Oil
Chem. Soc. 37 (1960) 44.
[30] PEARSON, А. М., LOVE, J. D . , SHORTLOUD, F.B . , Adv. Food
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[31] DUNCAN, D. B., Biometrics 1_1 (1955) 1.
[32] PERYAM, D. R . ,PILGRIM, F. J., Food Technol. 11 9(1957).
 IAEA-SM-271/37

PRESERVATION OF POTATOES BY IRRADIATION

AND ECONOMIC CONSIDERATIONS

W. FISZER, J. ZA B IE L S K I, J. M RÓ Z
Laboratory o f Nuclear Methods
in Agriculture,
University o f Agriculture,
Poznañ, Poland

Abstract

PR ESER V A TIO N OF PO TATO ES B Y IR RA D IA TIO N A ND ECONOMIC CO N SID ERA TIO N S.

In Poland potatoes are a m ajor food item for human consum ption, fodder and industrial
applications. Many experim ents have been carried out in our laboratory during the past few
years while studying the extension o f the storage-life o f irradiated potatoes. The paper describes
the weight losses due to some biochemical changes, consum er acceptance and the economic
evaluation of tw o varieties. The losses of irradiated potatoes were reduced by a factor of
2 - 2 .5 in com parison with controls. Polyphenol oxidase activity and chlorogenic acid content,
which are responsible for darkening o f raw and boiled tubers, respectively, were of statistical
significance; nevertheless, these changes seem to have no practical value. Irradiation o f potatoes
had a significant effect on the reducing sugars content, but no influence on quality for
industrial applications. Consumers accepted those irradiated potatoes that had always received
the higher scores. In view o f the Polish climate, irradiation o f potatoes is economically
reasonable; however, the greatest advantage can be expected from a m ultipurpose irradiator.

1. IN T R O D U C T IO N

Poland is the second largest producer o f potatoes in the world. Annual

production amounts to 40—50 million tonnes. The cultivation area is about
2.5 million hectares and has remained stable at that level for many years because
o f the great importance and significance o f potatoes in Polish agriculture, being 25%
o f the total mass crop production.
In Poland potatoes are mainly used for the following purposes:

- 12% for human consumption ( 160 kg per capita per year),

- 14% for reproduction,
- 60% fo r fodder,
- 14% fo r industrial applications and export.

The potato industry manufactures over 100 different products, o f which

starch and alcohol are the most important.

101
102 FISZER et al.

According to the vegetation period, properties and destination, the following

groups o f varieties may be selected: early, middle early, middle late, late and very
late, for human consumption, fodder and/or industrial purposes. New material
is developed along the follow ing lines: eating quality, early maturation, starch
and protein content, suitability fo r light soil and resistance to virus, phytophtora,
common scab and storage diseases.
Owing to Polish climatic conditions potatoes are stored from the end o f
September till the beginning o f July. The main part o f the crop is stored in
traditional clamps covered with a layer o f straw and soil, resulting in high losses
due to dehydration and respiration, sprouting and rotting. Only a small proportion
is stored under controlled temperature and humidity conditions. The value o f
1% o f the potato storage losses in Poland is equal to 5 - 6 X 109 zloty [1 ].
Radiation technology offers certain possibilities for reducing storage losses
o f potatoes as was confirmed by earlier laboratory experiments performed on
several varieties.
The present study has been conducted under the IA E A Research Co-ordinated
Programme. The aim was to gain experience in pre-commercial application o f
potato irradiation in Poland.

2. M A T E R IA L S A N D METHODS

T w o thousand kilograms o f tw o varieties, ‘ Ronda’ and ‘ Mila’ , were used for the
experiment performed from 1982 to 1984. Potatoes were harvested in September
in the University Experimental Agricultural Station near the city o f Poznañ. The
varieties are medium resistant to moulds and bacterial diseases.
A fter 2—3 weeks o f storage and selection, the irradiation o f potatoes was
carried out in IF F IT Project’s gamma irradiator at the Dutch Pilot Plant for Food
Irradiation in Wageningen with a dose o f 75 Gy, which had been found earlier to
be effective in inhibiting sprouting.
Both irradiated and control tubers were stored at ambient conditions for
a period o f 9 months in open plastic baskets in a dark basement equipped with
mechanical ventilation only.
During storage the temperature and relative humidity varied from 7 to 17°C
and 57 to 93%, respectively, depending on the weather conditions outside the
building. The storage conditions were comparable with those in urban households
in Poland.
The storage losses due to sprouting, dehydration and respiration were
measured gravimetrically. The losses were calculated as a percentage o f the initial
weight o f the portions used. Several batches o f potatoes were taken to determine
the weight o f rotten tubers and the losses were calculated as a percentage o f the
initial weight o f the batch.
 IAEA-SM-271/37 103

Analyses o f reducing sugars [2 ], polyphenol oxidase activity [3 ] and chloro-

genic acid content [4 ] were carried out over the whole storage period at regular
intervals.
The consumer acceptance o f irradiated potatoes was determined in two
separate experiments. The judges, members o f the teaching staff o f the Food
Technology Faculty o f the University o f Agriculture, Poznañ, and their families (the
experiment was also conducted under domestic conditions), were invited to parti­
cipate in the follow ing tests: 9-point hedonic-scale description o f the colour,
flavour and texture o f boiled potatoes and a food action rating scale for measuring
food acceptance — F A C T [5 ].
The economic calculations were performed on the basis o f the savings
resulting from the reduction in the loss o f irradiated potatoes in the second part
o f the storage period.

3. RESU LTS A N D DISCUSSION

3.1. Storage losses

The relation between storage losses and time was calculated from the experi­
mental data; the results are listed in Table I. These data indicate that the losses
o f both control and irradiated tubers increased linearly versus time, except those
for rotting. The linear character o f the relationship was statistically proved.
The intensity o f the dehydration and respiration processes was significantly
lowered in irradiated potatoes in comparison with the controls. For the ‘ Ronda’
variety the dynamics o f dehydration and respiration was +0.48% per week in
irradiated tubers, as against +1.06% per week in controls. For the ‘Mila’ variety
these values were +0.98 and +1.40%, respectively.
Because o f the complete inhibition o f sprouting at a dose o f 75 G y in both
varieties, total losses were reduced by a factor o f 2—2.5 in comparison with
untreated potatoes.
The above results indicate also that the ‘ Ronda’ variety was rather resistant
to rotting. A t the end o f the experimental period (33 weeks) less than 2%
rotten tubers were found, whereas in the ‘Mila’ variety rotten tubers appeared
after the 9th, 22nd and 32nd week o f storage. The susceptibility o f tubers to
rotting was slightly higher in irradiated material o f both varieties. The preliminary
phytoalexin determinations seem to confirm the higher intensity o f rotting after
irradiation. Phytophtora infestons predominates among the many microorganisms
causing the rotting o f tubers. Nevertheless, some data indicate that this
microorganism is sensitive to radiation within the dose range fo r sprouting
inhibition [ 6 ].
104 FISZER et aL

T A B L E I. D YN A M IC S O F W EIG H T STO RAG E LOSSES O F PO TATO E S (%)

VERSUS TIM E (t = weeks)

Source Variety Control Irradiated

of losses

Dehydration Ronda % = 1.06 X t - 3.57 %= 0.48 X t + 0.28

and
respiration Mila % = 1.40 X t - 1.33 %= 0.98 X t - 1.19

Ronda % = 0.58 X t - 3.96 % = 0.00

Sprouting
Mila % = 0.62 X t - 3.81 % = 0.00

Ronda % = 0.00 1.47 ± 1.40(t = 33)

Rotting
Mila 1.84 ± 1.71 (t = 9) 2.31 ± 2.43 (t = 9)
3.32 ± 2.19 (t = 22) 6.48 ± 3.75 (t = 22)
0.54 ± 0.53 (t = 32) 0.45 ± 0.51 (t = 32)

Ronda % = 1.60 X t —6.57 % = 0.48 X t + 0.28

Total
Mila %= 1.95 X t —3.52 % = 1.06 X t —0.86

Note: The above relations were statistically significant at the level > 95%.

weeks o f storage

FIG.l. Changes of the reducing sugars content during storage (mean of 2 varieties).
 IAEA-SM-271/37 105

T A B L E II. R E L A T IV E CHANGES O F P O L Y P H E N O L O X ID A S E A C T IV IT Y
A N D C H LO R O G E N IC A C ID C O N TE N T D U R IN G TH E STO R A G E PERIO D
(IR R A D IA T E D : C O N T R O L R A T IO )

Storage time Polyphenol oxidase activity Chlorogenic acid content

(w eeks) Ronda Mila Ronda Mila

5 1.09 1.26 1.02 1.09

10 0.86 1.06 0.96 0.96
15 0.40 0.97 0.82 0.87
19 0.94 0.89 1.42 1.33
23 0.89 0.76 1.47 1.19
29 1.07 1.06 0.76 0.48
34 1.17 0.35 0.96 0.81

3.2. Reducing sugars content

The results presented in Fig. 1 indicate that the irradiation o f potatoes had a
significant effect on the reducing sugars content at the beginning and end o f the
experimental period. The concentration o f reducing sugars in potatoes determines
the usefulness o f the material for industrial and domestic purposes. It is known
that below the level o f 250 mg o f reducing sugars per 100 g o f potato tissue the
raw material can be used fo r chip production [7]. A higher content o f reducing
sugars results in a brown discoloration.
Considering the reducing sugars content as an indicator o f quality for industrial
application, irradiation o f ‘ Ronda’ and ‘Mila’ varieties did not influence their
usefulness.

3.3. Polyphenol oxidase activity

The polyphenol oxidase activity is responsible for enzymic darkening o f

wounded or peeled tubers. Since the enzymic activity might be related to the
variety o f potatoes as well as the conditions o f cultivation, changes o f this para­
meter are expressed in relative values, e.g. the ratio irradiated : control, and are
listed in Table II.
Generally these results indicate that the changes in polyphenol oxidase
activity were statistically significant; a slight increase was observed at the
beginning o f the storage period (var. ‘Mila’ ). Nevertheless, these changes are
o f no practical value [7].
106 FISZER et al.

T A B L E III. SENSO RY TESTS IN 9-POINT HEDONIC SCALE

Ronda3 Milab
Control Irradiated Control Irradiated

A. Performed under domestic conditions

FACT 3.6 4.5 4.2 5.7

Colour of boiled
tubers (hedonic) 4.4 5.8 4.7 6.3
Flavour (hedonic) 5.2 5.9 4.6 6.0
Texture (hedonic) 5.3 6.5 4.9 5.7

B. Consumer acceptance

FACT 4.9 5.6 3.9 6.4

Colour o f boiled
tubers (hedonic) 5.9 6.8 6.3 7.4
Flavour (hedonic) 5.9 6.5 5.6 7.0
Texture (hedonic) 6.1 7.2 4.8 7.0

Note: The differences between irradiated and controls were statistically significant at the
level >95%.
a Tests performed in May after 7 months’ storage.
b Tests performed in June after 8 months’ storage.

T A B L E IV . COST-BENEFIT E S T IM A T IO N DUE T O TH E R E D U C TIO N OF

STO R A G E LOSSES OF IR R A D IA T E D PO TATO E S
(Mean o f 2 varieties)

Probable storage time 26 March 23 April 28 May 23 June

from 1 October to (25 weeks) (29 weeks) (34 weeks) (38 weeks)

Control losses (%) 39.33 46.43 55.31 62.41

Irradiated losses (%) 18.96 22.04 25.89 28.83
Control losses (t) 4720 5572 6632 7489
Irradiated losses (t) 2275 2645 3107 3460
Savings (t) 2445 2927 3525 4029
Savings (z i) 36 675 500 43 905 000 52 875 000 60 043 500

Note: Material to be irradiated per season 12 000 t. Price of potatoes 15 000 zi/t.
 IAEA-SM-271/37 107

3.4. Chlorogenic acid content

The chlorogenic acid content is responsible for the non-enzymic darkening

o f boiled tubers. N o significant irradiation effect was observed in either variety
at the beginning o f the storage period. Between the 19th and the 23rd week o f
storage (March—A p ril) a slight increase in chlorogenic acid content was found in
irradiated tubers (Table II). This may be due to the significant temperature
increase that occurs at the beginning o f the spring season in Poland [ 8 ].
Considering this parameter as an indicator o f discoloration o f boiled tubers,
the changes described were not confirmed by the sensory tests.

3.5. Sensory tests

Forty-three persons participated in the tests performed under domestic condi­

tions for the ‘ Ronda’ and 28 for the ‘Mila’ varieties. Consumer acceptance was
determined by 45 and 51 participants in each test, respectively.
The results o f these tests are presented in Table III. It is clear from these
data that irradiation has a positive effect on the quality o f potatoes stored up to
7—8 months. The irradiated material always received the higher scores and the
differences were statistically significant (see Table IV ).
It seems also important to emphasize that the consumers accepted the
irradiated potatoes, as indicated by the results o f the F A C T test.

3.6. Economic evaluation

One factor severely limits the economic feasibility o f potato irradiation in

Poland and this is the operating time o f the plant. Owing to the frosty tempera­
tures that may occur in December or even earlier, the period for possible trans­
port o f the material to and from the plant is limited. As a result o f this the
effective operating time o f a plant would not be longer than 900 hours per season.
Taking these limitations into account, the economic feasibility o f potato
irradiation would be the following:

A. 1. Source 60Co: 100 kCi

2. Materials to be irradiated per season: 12 000 t
3. Operating time per season: 900 h.
4. Throughput: 13 t/h

B. Capital cost Polish z-t

1. Cost o f source 23 100 000
2. Cost o f conveyer system, safety and
other electronics 25 000 000
3. Transportation and source loading 2 655 0 0 0
4. Building, storage, biological shielding and plant 40 000 000
Total 90 755 000
108 FISZER et al.

C. Annual operating cost Polish zï

1. Operation and maintenance (10% ) 9 075 500
2. Depreciation o f source (12%) 2 772 000
3. Depreciation o f equipment (20% o f B.2.) 5 000 000
4. Miscellaneous charges (2% ) 1 815 100
5. Transportation o f the material to and from
the plant 5 400 000
Total 24 062 600

D. Total expenses
10 years’ operation В + (С X 10) 331 381 000
Cost per tonne (12 000 t X 10) 2 761
Cost per kilogram 2.7

E. Capital recovery time on the storage period

Till March:
12 000 t - 18.96% = 9 724.8 t X 17.7z*/kg = 172 128 960
9 724.8 t X 15 zt/kg = 145 872 000
Cost o f irradiation 26 256 960
Material savings 36 667 500
Effective cost benefit 10410 540
Cost recovered in 38.8 years
Till April: Cost recovered in 17.8 years.
Till May: Cost recovered in 11.5 years.
Till June: Cost recovered in 9 years.

It is clear from the above calculations that an increase in cost due to radiation
treatment from 15 zl/kg to 17.7 zi/kg would be accepted by consumers. Neverthe­
less an investment recovery period as long as 9 years, makes the idea o f a single­
purpose potato irradiator debatable. Therefore a more pronounced economic
benefit may be expected from a multipurpose plant.

REFERENCES

[1] PIETKIEWICZ, J., Potato protection against losses during storage, Ochr. RoSlin 2
(1984) 4.
[2] SAMOTUS, B„ KUJAWSKI, М., Ann. Tech. Chem. Food 15 (1969) 5.
[3] KOJ, F., The evaluation of the methods for quality estimation of different potato
varieties, Czçstochowa (1959).
[4] MUKHIN, E.N., Dokl. Akad. Nauk SSSR, Ser. Khim. 148 (1963) 1405.
[5] SCHÜTZ, H.G., A food action rating scale for measuring food acceptance, J. Food Sci.
(1965) 365.
[6] BOGUCKA, H., LEWOSZ, W., DÇBINSKI, W., The effect o f low dose radiation ( “ Co)
on the growth o f common moulds and bacteria in potatoes, Bull. Potato Inst. 31 (1985).
[7] KUBICKI, K., The results o f potato storage investigations, lung, Warsaw, Ser. P 6 (1964).
[8] GABRIEL, W., Potato, Warsaw (1974) 264.
 IAEA-SM-271/21

INTRODUCTION OF IRRADIATION TECHNOLOGY

INTO THE HUNGARIAN FOOD INDUSTRY

B. K Á L M Á N , E. KÉKESSI
A G R O S TE R
Irradiation Company,
Budapest

R. S Á N T A
State O ffice for Technical
Development,
Budapest,

Hungary

Abstract

INTRODUCTION OF IRRADIATION TECHNOLOGY INTO THE HUNGARIAN FOOD

INDUSTRY.
By the beginning of the 1980s basic technological research and development work in
Hungary resulted in starting food irradiation on a pilot-plant scale. Pilot-plant and industrial-
scale irradiation was carried out by an enterprise whose task was to introduce and spread this
new technique in the food industry. The international possibilities of food irradiation,
standardization, and favourable decisions by the responsible authorities of other countries
combined with the results achieved in Hungary demonstrated the necessity of the industrial-
scale application of this new technology. The above considerations were acknowledged by
the Hungarian authorities who decided in favour of setting up a large-scale food irradiation
centre in Budapest. The realization of this project will start in 1985 with the elaboration of
plans to be carried out by the end of 1988. The irradiation centre will be equipped with an
18.5 PBq 60Co source. Preliminary economic calculations and production data support the
belief that its operation will be profitable.

1. IN T R O D U C T IO N

Modern food industry is searching for new technologies and techniques to

improve the production o f larger volumes o f food. Food irradiation is such a
new technology. Research and development o f this new technology has reached
the point where its large-scale application can be introduced throughout the
world, and thus also in Hungary.
Food irradiation on an industrial scale, under the conditions o f the highly
developed and export-oriented Hungarian food industry, has posed special
problems. Only a complete economic analysis can enable the optimum parameters
and most important tasks to be determined.

109
110 KÁLMÁN et al.

The paper summarizes the results and conclusions o f the technological,

technical and economic research that form the basis for its application, taking
into account the potentialities o f large-scale food irradiation in Hungary.

2. RESEARCH A N D IN V E S T IG A T IO N S PRE CED ING TH E A P P L IC A T IO N

OF FOOD IR R A D IA T IO N O N A N IN D U S T R IA L SCALE

2.1. Technology and consumer acceptance tests

Radiation research in the food industry started at the beginning o f the

1960s under the direction o f Prof. Dr. Kàroly Vas.
In the course o f this work the Hungarian researchers participated in many
international programmes. Experimental radiation treatment was established
in the middle o f the 1970s and pilot-plant food treatment by the beginning o f
the 1980s.
Parallel with this intense technological research, the marketing possibilities
o f radiation-treated food were also systematically studied. An example o f this
work is shown in relation to radiation-treated onions.
The marketing study carried on for several years with onions irradiated to
prevent sprouting strongly recommended that the Hungarian authorities grant
unlimited clearance to this commodity.
Table I summarizes the marketing studies with radiation-treated onions.
It can be seen that the volume o f marketing tests continually increased from

T A B L E I. M A R K E T IN G STUDIES O N IR R A D IA T E D O NIO NS IN H U N G A R Y

Quantity of
Year of Number of towns Number of
irradiated onions
marketing participating selling shops
sold during
study in the study
marketing study
(kg)

1976 1 4 3 500
1977 1 3 2 000
1978 5 15 30 000
1979 11 25 25 000
1980 a a 300 000

a Irradiated onions were sold in more than three counties in Hungary.

 IAEA-SM-271/21 111

FIG.l. Onion irradiation process by a special onion irradiator at Rákóczi co-operative farm
in Hungary.
1. Transporter vehicle 6. Take out belt from theirradiator
2. Onion feeding belt into the irradiator 7. Storage crate for irradiated onions
3. Irradiator facility 8. Fork lift
4. Radiation source 9. Storage r o o m
5. Source container

year to year with regard to the quantity o f the product marketed as well as the
number o f sales stalls.
The yearly sales were follow ed up by public opinion polls which provided
very useful information.
The example o f the onions shows that the technology o f radiation treatment
has been worked out and that the Hungarian customer received adequate informa­
tion on food irradiation and its consequences.

2.2. Technical tests

Apart from the development o f radiation treatment, the development o f the

equipment and technique enabling the most economical realization o f irradiation
began in the mid-1970s.
A study o f the products that seemed likely to profit by radiation treatment
suggested the necessity o f setting up both a special-purpose plant and an irradiation
centre in Hungary.
T o deal with a large amount o f produce grown in a given place the setting up
o f special-purpose plants seems to be the most suitable. These have to be fitted
with specialized handling apparatus to avoid damaging the material and are
operated only in the season.
This concept was sufficiently supported by experience gained over several
years with the irradiator set up in 1979 in Rákóczifalva for the specific purpose
o f treating onions. The flo w diagram o f that onion treatment is shown in F ig .l.
112 KÁLMÁN et al.

F or produce that can be treated all the year round in the dose range o f
1 to 10 kGy, a centrally located facility seems to be the best expedient. Such a
central arrangement requires a complete handling system taking account o f the
physical characteristics and packaging units o f all the products to be treated.

2.3. Economic considerations

The decision to scale up any new technology fo r industrial production can

be made only on the foundations o f complex economic investigations and analyses.
Thoroughly organized complex economic studies assist the final decision on
the applicability o f new methods considered useful from the aspects o f technique,
technology and hygiene.
The econom y o f no state can be separated from the general economic and
trading mechanisms affecting the whole world. However, when introducing a
new technology the national factors must be taken into consideration first and
foremost.
This does not mean, naturally, that there are as many economic situations
as there are countries. Many countries, and thus Hungary too, can be included
in the same category as a number o f other countries with similar potentialities.
The given conditions and their consequences and local terms have to be taken
into account.
In the economic analysis o f industrial-scale food irradiation the follow ing
aspects and their positive or negative effects had to be considered:

— the state o f technology and quality in the given branch o f the food industry;
— the requirements in quantity and distribution o f the food item to be treated
within Hungary;
— the quantity and marketing structure o f Hungarian and imported produce
to be irradiated for the population;
— foreseeable advantages and disadvantages o f radiation treatment in the
export o f products;
— comparison with other technologies leading to similar results.

3. IN D U S T R IA L -S C A L E FOOD IR R A D IA T IO N AS P L A N N E D IN H U N G A R Y

On the basis o f investigations carried out for several years, the industrial
irradiation o f foods in Hungary is planned in two definite directions.

3.1. Irradiation o f large masses o f agricultural produce

The irradiation o f onions grown in the southern part o f Hungary is intended

to start in the near future. A special-purpose facility o f 20 t/h capacity is planned.
 IAEA-SM-271/21 113

T A B L E II. ECONOMICS O F O N IO N IR R A D IA T IO N O N A 10 000 TONNE/

M ONTH SCALE (1985 US$)

Establishment cost 200 000

— building 120 000
— machinery 80 000

Running, costs per year 63 500

— treatment per tonne 5
— treatment per 10 000 tonnes 50 000
— energy 1 000
— labour 1 500
— amortization
— building 2.5% 3 000
— machinery 10.0% 8 000

Profit per yeara 150 000

— loss reductionby irradiation 15%
— onion price per tonne 100

a One year = one radiation season.

Preliminary investigations have shown that 10 000 tonnes o f onion can be

smoothly irradiated within 30 days with a 50 ± 20 G y radiation dose by operating
the above facility for 20 hours per day. As planned, the active charge o f the
equipment will be 3.7 PBq 60Co and 20% utilization can be expected.
Table II shows the economics o f a special-purpose facility and it can be seen
that the total investment is recovered in tw o seasons. A further special-purpose
facility is being planned for the brewery industry and it is hoped, on the basis
o f results achieved so far, that this facility will operate all the year round.
As regards special-purpose facilities the irradiators used for the disinfestation
o f cereals are very important in Hungary. In this field the experience gained with
the cereal irradiator operated at Odessa in the USSR was utilized.
Potato sprouting could also be prevented most economically with a local
special-purpose facility. However, this question requires further complex analysis
and study.

3.2. Establishment o f a central industrial-scale fo od irradiation plant

A ‘ Study Document’ prepared in the State O ffice for Technical Development

in 1981 suggested the establishment o f a central industrial-scale food irradiation
114 KÁLMÁN et al.

plant. The paper summarizes domestic and international experience in the field
o f irradiation.
T o establish large-scale radiation treatment, at the suggestion o f the
competent governmental authority the A G R O S TE R Joint Irradiation Development
Company was established in 1982. This company started the irradiation o f
seasonings and packaging materials on a pilot scale. Apart from studying the
technology and development the company assessed the requirements to be met
by a large-scale industrial irradiator in the next 10 years.
The results are as follows:

(a ) The establishment o f a large-scale industrial radiation treatment centre in

Hungary is necessary.
(b ) Because o f the central position o f Budapest the radiation treatment centre
should be built in the capital.
(c ) From the aspect o f economy treatment in the range o f 1 to 10 kGy is
envisaged, thus the economic structure should be adjusted accordingly.
(d ) The capacity o f the centre should amount to at least 7500 hours o f treat­
ment per year.
(e ) The initial activity o f the plant should be 18.5 PBq 60Co.
(f) Calculated on the irradiation o f 1 kg o f product with 1 kGy and taking into
account the precalculated treatment, the cost should be US$ 0.04/kg (1985).
(g ) Handling o f the material on site should be mechanized and automated as
far as possible.

On the basis o f the above considerations the Hungarian authorities found the
setting up o f an industrial-scale radiation plant timely. In agreement with this
decision, the irradiation centre should be a state firm; thus on 1 January 1985 the
A G R O S TE R Joint Irradiation Development Company was replaced by the
A G R O S TE R Irradiation Company which is operating under direct ministerial
direction.
Operation is planned to start by the end o f 1988. The investment costs are
expected to amount to about US$ 6 million and will be covered partly by bank
credit and partly by direct government subvention.
Economic calculations show that the requirements shown so far will ensure
total utilization o f the plant’s capacity by 1989. The expected returns will pay o ff
the long-term credit.
Preliminary economic calculations also show that, presuming an unchanged
capacity for 10 years, the profit will enable the total investment to be repaid
within 10 to 12 years, under prevailing conditions in Hungary.
T o sum up, it may be said that as one o f the pioneers o f the technology o f food
irradiation Hungary is ready to introduce this technology on an industrial scale.
This step enjoys the whole-hearted support o f the competent Hungarian authorities
because they realize that radiation treatment reduces food losses while achieving
an improvement in quality through increased hygiene.
 IAEA-SM-271/21 115

REFERENCES

SA N TA , R ., et al., Radiation Technologies used in the F oo d Industry, Study docum ent

o f State O ffice for Technical Development, N o. 8-8104-T, Budapest (1981).
KÁ LM Á N , В., Storage L osses Study o f Seed Grown Onion Irradiated by a Special Onion
Irradiator, CF RI. Rep. (1980).
ST E N G E R , V ., S.T.O .D . Study docum ent No. 8-8104-T, Budapest (1 9 8 1 ) 122.
KÁ LM ÁN , В., “ E ffe ct o f irradiation on the storage losses o f onions” , New Technology
in Agriculture, MEM, Budapest (1 981) 87.
K É K E S I, E ., KÁ LM Á N , В., Suggestion to establish a food irradiation Center in Hungary,
Manuscript (1984).
 IAEA-SM-27Í/32

FEED RADICIDATION IN ISRAEL - AN UPDATE

Y. K L IN G E R
Kimron Veterinary Institute,
Bet Dagan

M. LA PID O T, I. ROSS
Soreq Nuclear Research Center,
Yavne

Israel

Abstract
FE ED RAD ICID ATION IN IS R A E L - AN UPDATE.
There has been a continuous increase in the num ber o f salmonella isolations and in the
number o f human cases o f salmonellosis o f animal origin in Israel in recent years. Salm onellosis
also endangers the poultry industry itself, and prevents exports o f poultry meat to a num ber o f
countries. The custom ary procedure to reduce salmonellae in poultry feeds, which represent
the m ajor source o f salmonellae in poultry flocks, is pelletization. This, by itself, does not
eliminate com pletely all enterobacteria and fungi, and there is a significant chance for reconta­
mination. Radicidation is the most reliable method for drastic reduction o f salmonellae and
other enterobacteria as well as o f pathogenic fungi in poultry feeds. The dose to achieve
reductions o f 6 - 8 logs in non-pelletized feeds or feed com ponents is about 0.75 Mrad and in
pelletized feeds about 0.375 Mrad. It has been dem onstrated that radicidation has no detri-
mentral effect on the com position or biological value o f poultry feed. Clearance o f gamma
radicidized poultry feed, up to a dose o f 1.5 Mrad, was granted in 1973, and o f electron pro­
cessed feed, up to the same dose, in 1985. A semi-commercial dem onstration project in the
largest local feed mill com prises a 75 kW accelerator (1.5 MeV and 50 mA), which allows
throughputs o f about 15 t/h unpelletized feed or 30 t/h pelletized feed. It also incorporates
storage silos for untreated and treated feed, a conveying system , ventilation system s, radiation
safety system s, a thick-walled biological shield, and autom atic control system s for accelerator
and conveyors. The feed will be tested in a specially adapted 80 000 chicken poultry farm.

1. IN T R O D U C T IO N

There has been a continuous increase in the number o f salmonella isolations

and in the number o f human cases o f salmonellosis o f animal origin in Israel in
recent years [1 ]. Salmonellosis was diagnosed here when poultry raising was still
in the backyard stage, and it has not disappeared despite modern intensive
husbandry methods. Salmonellosis endangers the poultry industry itself, particu­
larly the turkey flocks (as experienced during a paratyphoid outbreak in 1973—75)
[2] and also severely limits exports because o f recent regulations in CEC and other
countries [3].

117
118 KLINGER et al.

One o f the major sources o f contamination o f poultry is the mixed feed [4 ],

in addition to other sources such as the polluted environment, animal and bird
droppings, and even human attendants. Some components o f the feed, particu­
larly those o f animal origin (bone-, meat-, blood-, and fish-meals) are more heavily
contaminated than others. Indeed, some health authorities have recognized this
hazard to flock and human health, and are attempting to combat it. Thus the Swiss
authorities require all imported mixed feed components to be rendered salmonella
free [5 ]. The veterinary services in Israel have issued conditions for the licensing
o f mills producing feeds fo r reproduction and breeder flocks [3 ].

2. R E D U C TIO N OF S A L M O N E L L A IN FEEDS

The most commonly used process in feed mills is pelletization. The exposure
o f mixed feed components to heat and pressure reduces contamination from
10s — 106 enterobacteria per gram to 1 — 10. However, during cooling and
storage, recontamination o f about one order o f magnitude has been observed [ 6 ].
Also, this process became expensive in the years o f the energy crisis, and it does
not reduce all fungi [7].
Another method is based on the use o f bacteriostatic or fungistatic chemicals,
such as form ic [ 8 ] or propionic acids [9 ]. These are even more expensive than
heating, and may reach costs o f the order o f US $30—40 per tonne. Also, the
treatment cannot be applied on line, since a contact time o f several days may be
required to achieve full penetration. The quantities o f form ic and propionic acids
produced world wide are limited, and may be insufficient to meet requirements
o f even a few countries.
The most adequate process fo r this need is, therefore, irradiation with gamma
or electron rays. Experiments performed locally have shown that a dose o f
7.5 k G y is effective, and achieves reductions o f 6 — 8 logs in contaminations o f
non-pelletized and untreated feeds or feed components [ 6 ]. For pelletized feeds
the radicidation dose could be reduced by one half. Experiments in other countries
such as the Netherlands [1 0 ], Denmark [1 1 ], the United Kingdom [1 2 ], the
Federal Republic o f Germany [13], and Canada [14] have confirmed these results.
In another long-term experiment, an SPF 1 poultry flock (200 birds) were
fed radiation sterilized feed for a period o f two years [1 5 ]. No disease or disease-
induced mortality was observed, despite the absence o f vaccination.

3. WHOLESOMENESS A N D C LE AR A N C E S

T o demonstrate the wholesomeness o f irradiated animal feeds, several multi­

generation feeding studies have been performed on radicidized (10 k G y) and

1 SP F = Specific pathogen free.

 IAEA-SM-271/32 119

radappertized (2 0 -3 5 k G y ) poultry rations in the U SA [16] and Canada [17].

The positive results o f these studies, as well as the reports and data, were incor­
porated in a petition to clear radicidized poultry feed in Canada [1 8 ], and
clearance was granted by the Canadian Department o f Agriculture in 1971 [19].
A local study has been performed to investigate the effects o f radicidized
(10—15 kG y) poultry feed concentrates in the case o f a layer flock (groups o f
300 hens and 50 roosters each) fed for one year (including 6 months o f laying)
and in the case o f the hatched chicks fo r 2.5 months [2 0 ]. N o detrimental effects
(as compared with untreated feed) were observed with respect to weight o f chicken,
feed utilization, breeding eggs production, fertility, hatchability, and other
characteristic parameters such as mortality. N o metabolic diseases were observed.
The vitality o f the second generation chicks was also unaffected.
A petition fo r clearance o f radicidized poultry feed was submitted in 1972
[2 1 ] based on the above data, as well as on additional studies performed locally
and abroad [22]. An amended schedule o f the Public Health (Preservation o f
Food by Radiation) Regulations was published in 1973, permitting radicidation
o f animal feed mixtures (fo r poultry) at doses o f up to 1.5 Mrad (15 k G y) using
cobalt-60 gamma radiation [2 3 ].2
Economic considerations (given below ) have required modification o f this
clearance. Therefore, a new petition, requesting clearance o f poultry feed
radicidized at a dose o f up to 15 kGy, but using electrons accelerated to energies
o f up to 10 MeV, was submitted on 24 December 1983 [2 4 ]. In this petition the
equivalence o f gamma and electron radiation with respect to food irradiation was
discussed on the basis o f the recent Codex Alimentarius recommendations. The
clearance has now been granted and the new schedule was published in March
1985 [25].

4. TECHNO-ECONOM IC ASPECTS O F P O U L T R Y FEED R A D IC ID A T IO N

4.1. Feed throughputs and radicidation power requirements

Many feed mills, producing various animal feed mixes, operate at through­
puts o f the order o f 60 000 to 300 000 t/а. Usually these mills operate at one
to tw o shifts, and only rarely is a third shift implemented. Assuming that the
larger feed mills will be radicidizing only part o f their annual production, techno-
economic considerations here are centred on three throughputs o f 1 0 , 2 0 , and
30 t/h, operating three shifts per day, five days per week and 50 weeks per year,
i.e. a total o f 60 0 0 0 , 1 2 0 0 0 0 and 180 0 0 0 t/а, respectively.

2 1 rad = 1.00 X 1 0 '2Gy.

120 KLINGER et al.

о о о о о о о О о о о о о о
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AT 7.5 kGy USING

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RADICIDATION

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I. ECONOMIC

1 Ci = 3.70 X 1010 Bq.

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 IAEA-SM-271/32

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FEED

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CONSIDERATIONS

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TABLE II. ECONOMIC

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1 22 KLINGER et al.

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 IAEA-SM-271/32 123

The amounts o f radiation power required for such throughputs can be

calculated for unpelletized and pelletized feeds, requiring a minimum o f 7.5 and
3.75 kGy, respectively. Thus, at the three throughputs considered, the power
required is 50, 100, and 150 kW for unpelletized, and 25, 50, and 75 kW for
pelletized feed, assuming an absorption efficiency o f 40% (at this efficiency,
1 kW will yield 1.5 k G y t).

4.2. Radicidation facilities

Feed mills produce in bulk - products being flours, pellets, or crumbles.

Some mills market their products in sacks. In this study bulk processing o f
feeds and feed components has been considered (bag processing will be somewhat
more costly).
Cobalt-60 gamma irradiation facilities could apply some o f the early designs
developed by NUCHEM [26] and others [27] fo r gamma disinfestation o f grains.
In such continuous gravity flow systems the feed flows from large hoppers, •
through a series o f concentric annular channels surrounding the cobalt-60 source
rods, and is collected by means o f a rotating tube flow regulator with adjustable
orifices (controlling the flo w rate through each channel, so that the residence
time corresponds to the dose rate, which decreases with the distance from the
source rods’ cage at the centre).
Electron irradiators could apply 1.5—3.0 M eV accelerators for one-sided,
vertical irradiation o f feed conveyed in 6 - 1 2 mm layers, or 0.75—1.0 M eV
accelerators fo r nearly horizontal, double-sided irradiation o f free falling feed.
The tw o acceleration tubes would draw power from a single high-voltage d.c.
power supply, and would be placed opposite to each other, but staggered or
at a slight angle, to avoid impingement o f electrons from one to the other [28].

4.3. Economic feasibility

Economic considerations for radicidation o f unpelletized and pelletized

mixed feeds, using cobalt-60 gamma or accelerated electron facilities, are
presented in Tables I—III.
In the case o f gamma radiation facilities three outputs have been assumed —
60 000, 120 000, and 180 000 t/а, respectively. Operation fo r 3 daily shifts,
5 days a week, and 50 weeks per annum has been considered. However, the
possibility o f operating the facility for 3 daily shifts, 7 days a week, and 51 weeks
per annum has also been considered, in order to allow full utilization o f the
cobalt-60 in the facility. One week should be enough fo r cobalt-60 replenishments
and essential simple maintenance.
Am ortization and interest rates o f 10% each have been assumed in this
simplified economic feasibility scheme, and an annual replenishment o f 13%
cobalt-60; maintenance costs have been assumed to be 2, 3, and 4 US $/h,
124 KLINGER et al.

proportionate to the increasing throughput, and power consumptions o f 16.7,

33, and 50 kW-h in proportion to the increasing throughput. The manpower
required is 1 per shift, with 2 in reserve fo r 5 days a week and 4 in reserve for
7 days a week, the operator cost being assumed as US $15 000 per annum.
Contingencies are 15%.
One must point out that the cobalt-60 requirements o f these facilities are
extremely high, even for pelletized feed radicidation. Very few o f today’ s modern
radiation facilities contain 3 MCi or more o f cobalt-60. Assuming that facilities
with several times that capacity could be built, and that such amounts o f
cobalt-60 were available (tens or perhaps even a hundred facilities might be needed
in the next decade) the investment cost is still very high, even in the smaller
facilities.
The cost o f the treatment is high, and in the case o f unpelletized feed it
approaches that o f formic or propionic acid treatments, when operating for five
days a week. The cost estimates range from 28, 25.4, and 24.6 US $/t (fo r the
3 annual throughputs) at 5 days a week, or 22, 19, and 18 US $/t at 7 days a week,
for the unpelletized feed, to 16.4, 14, and 11.8 or 13.5, 11, and 9.3 US $/t for
the pelletized feed. These costs might decrease somewhat in the future if the
cost o f cobalt-60 were to decrease again in view o f possible improvements in
large-scale production facilities.
The economic feasibility changes remarkably in the case o f the electron
accelerator facilities. In Table III the same three annual throughputs have been
assumed. However, since no isotope is wasted and more maintenance time will
very likely be required, only 5 days a week operation has been considered.
The same amortization and interest rates (10% each) have again been assumed,
with maintenance costs double those o f the isotopic facilities (4, 6 , and 8 US $/h,
proportionate to the increasing capacity). Power requirements are considerable,
and are assumed to be treble the actual power output o f the electron beam
(considering 80% power utilization in the accelerator, 125% for cooling, and
some 50% for conveying, ventilation, etc.). Manpower requirements have been
assumed fixed at all throughputs — 2 operators per shift, and 2 in reserve, at a
somewhat higher cost o f US $17 000 per annum, because o f higher proficiency
requirements. Contingencies are again 15%.
Investments range from US $1.2 to 1.9 million. Treatment costs per tonne
decrease from US $9.1 and 8 .1 at the lower capacity to US $4.6 and 3.5 at the
higher capacity. These costs are quite competitive with those o f chemicals at all
levels, and with pelletization costs at the higher capacities.

4.4. Industrial demonstration facility

T o enable the above techno-economic considerations to be checked, an

industrial demonstration project was funded jo in tly by the largest local feed mill,
the Soreq NRC, a US manufacturer o f industrial accelerators, and the US-Israel
 IAEA-SM-271/32 125

Binational Industrial R&D Foundation [29]. The accelerator power is 75 kW, and
at 40% energy utilization the throughput capacity at full beam should be 1 5 t/h
for unpelletized and 30 t/h for pelletized feed.
The major components o f the facility are the accelerator itself, the biological
shield, the conveyor system, storage silos fo r untreated and processed feed,
auxiliary systems o f the accelerator and the conveyor, automatic control systems,
ventilation systems for removal o f ozone and dust, radiation safety systems, and
auxiliary devices.
The running in o f the system has started. Management, economic,
physiologic, microbiologie, mycologie, nutritional and veterinary aspects o f
feeding poultry with electron radicidized feed w ill be studied throughout 1 985
in a poultry farm o f 80 0 0 0 chicks.
Special measures protect the feed along the transport and dispensing chain
from recontamination, and the chicken from exposure to contaminating agents.

REFERENCES

[1] SEC H T ER , I., “ Salm onellosis in Israel — New facts during the last four years” , Proc.
14th Ann. Conv. World’s Poultry Sci. Assocn, Israel Branch (WPSA, Israel 1976),
Zichron Yaakov, 57.
[2] OKO N O V SKI, Z., “ Econom ic losses from salmonellosis in Israel” , WPSA, Israel
(loc. cit.), 59.
[3] THUMIM, A., “ Salm onella eradication in poultry feeds” , WPSA, Israel (loc. cit), 70.
[4] A SH B E L L , G., “ Salm onella bacteria in fodder products” , WPSA, Israel (loc. cit.), 73.
[5] K L IN G E R , Y., private com m unication, 1983.
[6 ] BRUCHIM , A., A D L E R , J.H ., E ISE N B E R G , E „ LAPIDOT, M „ Int. J. Radiat.
Sterilization 1 4 (1 9 7 4 ) 293.
[7] K L IN G E R , Y ., LAPIDO T, М., “ Pathogen Free Animal Feeds” , CRC Press, 1986
(in preparation).
[ 8] VAN D E R W ALL, P., “ Salm onella control o f feedstuffs by pelleting or acid treatm ent” ,
Proc. 14th Ann. Conv. World’s Poultry Sci. Assocn, Israel Branch (WPSA, Israel 1976),
Zichron Yaakov, Appendix.
[9] PIETSCH, O., private com m unication, 1983.
[10] M O SSEL, D .A .A ., Radiation Control o f Salm onellae in F o o d and Feed Products, Techni­
cal Reports Series No. 22, IAEA , Vienna (1 9 6 3 ) 61.
[11] H ANSEN, P.-I.E., ibid., p. 73.
[12] LEY , F. S., ibid., p. 107.
[13] SCH M IDT-LORENTZ, W„ ibid., p. 69.
[14] IDZIAK, E.S., EPPS, H.A., “ Microbiological aspects o f poultry feed irradiation” ,
Process for the Elimination o f Salm onella from Animal Feeds by Gam m a Radiation —
A Technologic Review, Bio-Research Labs. L td., Point Claire, Quebec and Commercial
Products, A E C L, O ttawa, Ontario, Canada (May 1971) Vol. I.
[15] A D L E R , J.H ., E ISE N B E R G , E., LAPIDO T, М., T S IR , D., “ Treatm ent o f animal feeds
with ionizing radiation. II: E ffects o f gam m a radicidation on the biological value o f
poultry feed” , Food Preservation by Irradiation (Proc. Sym p. Wageningen, 1977), Vol. 2,
IAEA, Vienna (1 978) 243.
126 KLINGER et al.

[16] BROW NELL, L .E ., E C K STE IN , H.C., BU R N S, C.H., “ Wholesomeness of a gamma-

irradiated diet fed to chickens” , Office o f the Surgeon General U S Arm y Unpublished
data, 1955,
[17] Process for the Elimination o f Salm onella from Animal Feeds by Gam m a Radiation —
A Technologic Review, Bio-Research L abs L td ., Point Claire, Quebec and Commercial
Products A E C L , Ottawa, Ontario, Canada (May 1971), V ols II - I V .
[18] Process for the Elimination o f Salm onella from Animal Feeds by Gamma Radiation -
A Technologic Review, Bio-Research Labs. L td., Point Claire, Quebec and Commercial
Products A E C L, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada (May 1971), V ols I - V .
[19] STEV EN SO N , C.L., Letter o f Approval, Chief, Feed and Fertilizer Section, Plant Products
Division, Dept o f Agriculture, Canada, Oct. 1971.
[20] A D L E R , J. H., Use o f Ionizing Radiation in Agriculture (Proc. Workshop Wageningen,
March 1976),CEC, E U R 5815 EN (1 9 7 7 ) 73.
[21] E ISE N B E R G , E., LAPIDOT, М., Petition to Ministry o f Health, 2 Oct. 1972, Soreq NRC,
Yavne.
[22] E ISE N B E R G , E., LAPIDOT, М., “ Treatm ent o f animal feeds with ionizing radiation.
V. Petition and clearance for radicidized poultry feed” , F oo d Preservation by Irradiation
(Proc. Sym p. Wageningen, 1977), Vol. 2, IAEA , Vienna (1 9 7 8 ) 255.
[23] SHEM TOV, V., PADE, B., Public Health (Preservation o f Food by Radiation) Regulations
5 7 3 3 - 1 9 7 3 (A m ended) 19 Ju ly 1973, p. 3036 (in Hebrew).
[24] LAPIDO T, М., Petition to Ministry o f Health, 24 Dec. 1983, Soreq N RC, Yavne.
[25] G U R, М., M ICHAELI, I., Public Health (F o o d ) (F o o d Preservation by R adiation)
Regulations 5 7 4 5 - 1 9 8 5 , issued in March (signed in February).
[26] BA IN ES, B.D., M O SELY, J., “ Econom ics o f grain irradiation” , Food Irradiation (Proc.
Sym p. Karlsruhe 1966), IAEA, Vienna (1 9 6 6 ) 813.
[27] TILTO N , E.W., BROW ER, J.H ., CO G BU RN, R .R ., Int. J. Radiat. Engng 1 1 (1 9 7 1 ) 49.
[28] LAPIDOT, М., PADOVA, R., “ Treatm ent o f animal feeds with ionizing radiation.
VI. Technological and econom ic feasibility o f poultry feed radicidation” , Food Preserva­
tion by Irradiation (Proc. Sym p. Wageningen, 1977), Vol. 2, IAEA , Vienna (1 9 7 8 ) 185.
[29] LAPIDO T, М., A Project Proposal, US-Israel BIR D Foundation, Nov. 1979, Soreq NRC,
Yavne.
 IAEA-SM-271/76

ECONOMIC PROSPECTS OF FOOD

IRRADIATION IN ZAMBIA

B.E. C H ISH Y A , K.D. CH ALW E

Food Technology Research Unit,
National Council for Scientific Research,
Lusaka, Zambia

Abstract

ECONOMIC PRO SPECTS O F FOOD IR R A D IA TIO N IN ZAMBIA.

Instances o f econom ic benefits which are likely to be considered when introducing food
irradiation as an industrial and commercial food processing method in Zam bia are discussed
from a point o f view o f increasing both the local and external marketing potential o f various
local food com m odities. The present status o f the food irradiation programme is also briefly
discussed.

IN T R O D U C T IO N

The National Council for Scientific Research o f Zambia (N C S R ), which was

established under Parliament A ct in 1967, three years after the country attained
political independence, possesses several functions, three o f which are:

(1 ) to advise the Government o f the Republic o f Zambia on the national

scientific policy and activities within Zambia;
(2 ) to determine priorities in the national research programme, particularly in
relation to national development plans;
(3 ) to promote and encourage such research as is required to meet the nation’s
needs.

With these objectives in view the NCSR established the Food Technology
Research Unit whose functions relate directly to the subject matter o f discussion
at this international symposium. Before discussing the economic propsects o f food
irradiation processing in Zambia the present status o f Zambia’s food irradiation
programme is outlined.

PRE SE N T S TA TU S O F TH E FO O D IR R A D IA T IO N PRO G R AM M E IN Z A M B IA

For the past five years Zambia has embarked on a vigorous food production
programme to diversify the country’ s mono-economy based on copper earnings.
This came about after recognition o f agriculture as a precondition fo r economic

127
128 CHISHYA and CHALWE

recovery and also the widening gap between food demand and supply which called
fo r urgent action. I f food imports had been allowed to increase to make up for
the deficit in food supplies, it would have ultimately led not only to a crisis in
terms o f payments for food imports, but would also have impaired the develop­
ment o f the capabilities and means to increase home food production.
The task o f increasing food supplies by growing more agricultural produce
lies in the hands o f the Ministry o f Agriculture and Water Development. This
task is elucidated in the two volumes o f the Zambia Strategies for Agricultural
Research and Extension o f Novem ber 1984. However, in anticipation o f the
increase in food production as a result o f the current food production strategies
and also in view o f the large energy input needed to grow more agricultural
produce, 25 to 40% o f which would again be doomed to perish under the present
circumstances, it is logical that the search for methods o f preserving existing and
future food supplies by reducing food and crop spoilage constitutes a primary task
for food research and technology. In this regard the NC SR gave the Food
Technology Research Unit (F T R U ) a mandate to create an infrastructure for
research and experimental development in food processing, post-harvest and
storage technologies, including up-scaling and improving the existing traditional
methods o f fo od preservations and post-harvest storage techniques.
Considering the present economic situation in the country and indeed in all
parts o f the world and also the ever-increasing costs and health hazards associated
with current methods o f fo od preservation such as canning, freezing and chemical
fumigation, a search for new and cheaper methods o f food preservation, including
food irradiation techniques, which would cater for a wide range o f foods and
foodstuffs, is fully justified.
With this in mind, the F T R U , when setting up a F ood Irradiation Programme,
recommended the NC SR to approach the International A tom ic Energy Agency
(IA E A ) fo r technical assistance to establish a multi-purpose gamma irradiation
facility. The Agency responded favourably by providing expert service to enable
feasibility studies for the establishment o f the facility to be carried out. The
Expert’s recommendations are contained in his report, Ref. N o. IAEA-TA-2169
o f December 1983. The Expert’s mission resulted in the Agency approving the
assistance to the multi-purpose gamma-irradiation facility, project Ref.
N o. ZAM/8/003. This project includes, among other envisaged activities, food
irradiation, the specific needs and objectives o f which were submitted to the
IA E A fo r consideration fo r further technical assistance.
Am ong the Zambian Government’s contributions towards the establishment
o f the multi-purpose gamma irradiation facility is the construction o f the housing
for the irradiation source and laboratories for analytical quality control. This
structure is expected to be completed and the irradiation source installed in the
course o f 1985. Some activities planned under the F ood Irradiation Programme are:

( 1) to study the application o f ionizing radiation fo r bacteria and parasite

disinfection o f foods, insect disinfestation o f stored grains, particularly
 IAEA-SM-271/76 129

maize, rice, sorghum, millet etc. and increasing the shelf-life o f perishable
food commodities such as mangoes, bananas, strawberries, tomatoes, etc.,
including control o f senescence in potatoes, onions and garlic;
(2) to carry out microbiological, nutritional and toxicological evaluation o f
irradiated foods. In this regard, we intend to carry out investigations on the
absence o f microorganisms, microbial toxins, and o f any significant amounts
o f toxic compounds formed in foods as a result o f irradiation and evaluate
the nutritional value o f irradiated foods;
(3 ) to make — on the basis o f the results o f the investigations — recommendations
to the Government on the possible application o f food irradiation technology
at an industrial and commercial level.

The choice o f foods to study the efficacy o f food irradiation is based on the
current research programme priorities o f the Zambia agricultural research and
extension project. These priorities are given in Table I. The results o f the agri­
cultural research project are expected to contribute to overcome the scarcity o f
food supplies in the near term and also to restructure the econom y to make it
more balanced.

ECONOM IC PROSPECTS

The subject o f economic advantages or benefits o f food irradiation is wide

and very complex with several aspects to be considered, such as capital costs,
operating or variable costs, energy input etc., to assess the total costs o f irradiating
a variety o f food commodities. Therefore, when considering the economic
prospects o f food irradiation in Zambia we shall try not to examine the economic
feasibility o f food irradiation as such, since this has been the subject o f discussion
and research fo r some time now in many parts o f the world. Instead we shall try
to look at some instances o f the econom ic benefits Zambia can anticipate from
food irradiation.

Anticipated economic benefits

T o obtain the economic benefits o f food irradiation, the whole irradiation

process must be weighed against its costs. A simplistic definition o f economic
benefit is: to be economically beneficial an undertaking must basically more than
pay fo r its costs. Therefore, food irradiation must compete economically
with a number o f existing preservation methods (physical, chemical and biological)
or, better still, prove its economic superiority over any other existing alternative.
For further explanation, on a general basis, some o f the anticipated economic
benefits o f food irradiation fo r a country like Zambia with respect to the produc­
tion levels and market potential o f selected local food items are outlined.
TABLE I. AGRICU LTU RAL RESEARCH AND EXTENSION PROJECT: RESEARCH PROGRAMME P R IO R IT IE S ,
130

N E A R -TE R M
CHISHYA and CHALWE
 IAEA-SM-271/76 131

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 IAEA-SM-271/76 133

Insect disinfestation o f grain

Cereal grains are the staple foods in Zambia, maize in particular. Table I
gives the position o f maize and other agricultural produce in relation to national
goals and their respective market potential. This potential, together with
production levels, is given in Table II for selected food items.
Insect disinfestation o f maize, fo r example, by fumigation with methyl
bromide in 1982 cost 0.55 Zambian Kwacha per 90 kg, that is excluding labour
and capital costs (1 Zambian Kwacha was equivalent to 0.47 US dollars
at the time o f writing this paper.) Therefore, the cost o f disinfesting an annual
output o f half a million tonnes o f maize in 1982 amounted to over three million
Zambian Kwacha. Hence, analysing this cost in comparison with the cost o f
irradiation treatment capable o f achieving the same or a better end result (capital
and labour costs excluded), it is reasonable to suggest that the cost o f chemical
treatment will be lower. In this case, the advantages o f using irradiation treatment
rather than fumigation fo r disinfestation are the absence o f toxic residues on the
treated grain, less time required to accomplish the treatm ent, and complete
elimination o f the insects and sterilization o f their eggs. It is noteworthy,
however, that i f the chemicals to be used in place o f irradiation caused health
hazards to the consumer, then the economic advantage o f the chemicals should
not be a sufficient reason to use them. Therefore, the economic equality or
superiority o f irradiation is invalid. It should also be remembered that in some
cases the cost o f irradiation treatment can be lowered by increasing the volume
o f throughput.

Fruit preservation and extension o f shelf-life

The relationship o f fruit to national goals and the market potential are
indicated in Table I, and their importance is largely associated with nutritional
benefits.
According to current agricultural production programmes, fruit production
in Zambia is anticipated to more than double the present production level in the
coming decade. It is clear, therefore, that besides increasing the production
output, much effo rt should be made to search fo r methods capable o f preserving
as much as possible o f the fruit after harvesting. This effort will undoubtedly
lead to the opening up o f several markets and distribution o f fruit to areas where
demand exists. Attention must also be paid to the enhancement o f fruit quality
in order to compete economically, especially on the export market, with similar
or other food products from the same source or elsewhere. The export potential
for selected local fruits is given in Table II.
One o f the serious problems facing the fruit industry in Zambia is the
distribution o f fresh fruit because o f distances which have to be covered to
reach the markets. Generally, fruits have poor keeping quality under local
134 CHISHYA and CHALWE

(tropical) conditions. Major losses occur as a result o f rotting and insect infestation.
Referring to Table II, great losses, for instance, are encountered in mangoes due to
lack o f adequate preservation. T o this list (Table I I ) we can add fruits such as
oranges, lemons, guavas and papayas which, like mangoes, suffer from high losses,
usually in the range o f 60—70%.
It is a common feature in Zambia that a lot o f the fruits are eaten fresh at
production localities and only a small fraction reaches the market and/or is
processed into jam, puree and fruit juices. A n y process which can improve the
keeping quality o f fresh fruits to enable uniform distribution and the opening up
o f new markets, therefore, merits great attention. Although irradiation may not
solve all the problems associated with fresh fruit preservation, it can play a very
important role. For example, irradiation can delay ripening o f fruits (bananas).
It can be applied to control mould growth on many fruits. In certain cases much
better results are achieved by irradiation in combination with other methods.
It is worth noting here that the use o f chemical disinfectants is prohibited in
many countries because o f their residual toxicity and potential carcinogenicity.
The International Programme on Chemical Safety, the United Nations Environ­
mental Programme and other national and international programmes, for instance,
have expressed great concern at the indiscriminate use o f hazardous chemical
substances in human and non-human environment. Since Zambia has embarked
on a programme to increase fruit production by the coming decade, it should,
therefore, be expected that the use o f disinfectants as a means o f fruit preservation
may double or even treble, thus posing a great health hazard to the country’s
population. On the other hand, application o f other preservation processes such
as refrigeration at sub-zero temperatures can be comparatively more expensive than
irradiation because o f enormous energy requirements. The energy requirements
for frozen poultry can serve as an example for refrigeration at sub-zero temperatures.

Inhibition o f microbial growth and sprouting in tubers

Tubers in Zambia have been traditional sources o f food for centuries.

However, in the course o f industrial development in the country tubers are
increasingly gaining popularity as raw materials for the manufacture o f industrial
products such as starch (from cassava, sweet potatoes, etc.) and formulations o f
new foodstuffs. Despite this industrial potential, their keeping quality poses
problems associated with fungal diseases and sprouting. Many o f these problems
can be solved by irradiation. The efficacy o f irradiation to prevent microbial
growth and sprouting has been demonstrated by various research workers and still
further improvements are taking place to make the process o f irradiation o f greater
economic value and nutritional significance.
The examples cited above clearly demonstrate evidence o f the potential
economic benefits food irradiation processing can bring to Zambia.
 IAEA-SM-271/76 135

CO NCLU SION

There is ample evidence and opportunity for Zambia to make full use o f the
new technology in the fight against the plagues o f hunger, malnutrition and disease.
A t this stage in Zambia we lack sufficient experience to determine all
beneficial factors. However, only by experimenting, testing both in the laboratory
and market place, by being alert to opportunities for doing something which could
not be accomplished or by seeing an opportunity to solve old problems, can we
derive meaningful economic benefits from this new and versatile process.

ACKN O W LE D G EM EN TS

Grateful acknowledgement is given to the IA E A fo r technical assistance to

the F ood Irradiation Programme in Zambia. The authors are indebted to the
NCSR for technical guidance and the sanctioning o f the programme.

B IB L IO G R A P H Y

BA LA ZS-SPR IN CZ, V., Evaluation o f the econom ic feasibility o f radiation preservation of

selected food com m odities, At. Energy Rev. I S (1 9 7 7 ) 407.

B R Y N JO L F SSO N , A., “ Energy and food irradiation” , F oo d Preservation by Irradiation (Proc.

Sym p. Wageningen, 1977), V ol.2, IA EA , Vienna (1 9 7 8 ) 285.

B R Y N JO L F SSO N , A., “ Factors influencing econom ic evaluation of irradiation processing” ,

Factors Influencing the Econom ical Application o f F oo d Irradiation (Proc. Panel Vienna, 1971),
IA EA , Vienna ( 1973) 13.

D E K K E R , J., System atic Fungicides, 2nd edn (M ASH, R.W., E d), Longman, London (1 977)
1 7 6 -1 9 7 .

Department of Marketing and Cooperatives, Annual Report for the Year Ended 31 December 1982,
Ministry o f Agriculture and Water Development (1 984) (in print).

Maize Research in Zambia, Preliminary R eport to the World Bank Consultants (1984).

Report o f the FA O Global Survey of Pesticide Susceptibility o f Stored Grain Pests, Food and
Agriculture Organisation o f the United N ations, Rom e (1976).

Zambia Strategy for Agricultural Extension (1984).

Zambia Strategy for Agricultural Research (1984).

 IAEA-SM-271/42

COMMERCIAL EXPERIENCE
IN INTRODUCING RADURIZED FOODS
TO THE SOUTH AFRICAN MARKET

H.J. V A N DER U N D E , H.T. BR O D RIC K

Chemistry Department,
Nuclear Development Corporation o f
South Africa (P ty ) Ltd,
Pretoria, South Africa

Abstract

COM M ERCIAL E X P E R IE N C E IN IN TRO DUCING R A D U RIZED FO O D S TO TH E SOUTH

A FR IC A N M A RKET.
In the wake o f the test marketing campaign with radurized products in 1978, the stage
has now been reached where food radurization has become a fully commercial undertaking
in South Africa, with three facilities involved in the processing o f a wide variety o f foodstuffs.
During the past three years several thousand tonnes o f products have been radurized and sold
on the South African market. During this period the cam plexity o f the food chain, from
producer to consumer, was repeatedly encountered and it was realized that the transfer o f a
new technology is both a com plex and a difficult task and that the application o f radurization
in this chain has to be precisely determined in order to achieve maxim um benefit from this
new process. In general, it was found that the technology transfer with processed products
presented far fewer problem s than in the case o f fresh produce, but in both cases it was found
that the transfer was not a single-step exercise from R & D to the actual retailing stage but
should embrace a fully integrated interaction between the scientist or food technologist and
all the other participants in the food chain. The involvement o f the R & D scientist(s) should
be a continuous and ongoing exercise which never should or can be terminated at the transfer
stage, as involvement is necessary for the transfer o f the technology. If it is terminated, a
vacuum ensues which could lead to the collapse o f the transfer process itself. It is essential
that a well-planned strategy be developed and executed in order to overcome the numerous
problem s encountered during technology transfer. The involvement and responsibility o f the
various partners in the transfer o f technology require the implementation o f a comprehensive
strategy. The strategy and various factors influencing the transfer o f technology tb private
industry in South A frica are discussed in greater detail.

INTRODUCTION

S i n c e t h e ini t i a 1 i nt ro d c t i o n o f irra d iate d food s

to t h e S o u t h Af r i can ma k e t in 1 978, ra d u r i s a t i оn
has p r o g r e s s e d t 0 bee om e a f u l l y c o m m e r сi a 1 P roces S
today in ou r CO u n t ry • Three g a m m a i rra d i a t i оn
facilities a re a t p r es e t i n v o l v e d in i r r a d iatin g

137
138 VAN DER LINDE and BRODRICK

a wide variety of b o t h f r e s h a nd p r o c e s s e d f oo d
products. Even though not al l the problems
relating to u n i v e r s a l a c c e p t a n c e by c o n s u m e r s and
food handlers have been s o l v e d t o t a l l y as y e t ,
radurisation is s t a r t i n g t o b e c o m e an e s t a b l i s h e d
food processing technique next to the e x i s t i n g
t r a d i t i o n a l ones. The p r o s p e c t s for f u r t h e r gro w t h
and expansion look very promising but are
presently hampered by the severe economic
recession and t h e c u r r e n t s t r e n g t h of t he d o l l a r
against major world currencies.
In spite o f t h e s u c c e s s e s a c h i e v e d up t o n o w o u r
efforts in c o m m e r c i a l i s i n g r a d u r i s a t i o n have not
been without some f a i l u r e s and d i s a p p o i n t m e n t s .
During the past seven y e a r s we h a v e l e a r n t t he
h a r d w a y t h a t t h e i n t r o d u c t i o n of a n ew t e c h n o l o g y
is n o e a s y a n d s t r a i g h t f o r w a r d e x e r c i s e b u t a v e r y
complicated affair with many unknown and
unexpected parameters affecting its successful
i m p l e m e n t a t i o n . B e f o r e d i s c u s s i n g t h e s e f a c t o r s in
greater detail it is n e c e s s a r y to have a bri e f
look at t h e s t r a t e g y d e v e l o p e d in o u r c o u n t r y t o
introduce radurisation on a c o m m e r c i a l s c a l e and
to s u m m a r i s e the m ost i m p o r t a n t m i l e s t o n e s r eached
up to t he p r e s e n t .

S t r a t e g y f or c o m m e r c i a l i s i n g f o o d i r r a d i a t i o n
In order to attain our ultimate goal of
e s t a b l i s h i n g r a d u r i s a t i o n as a c o m m e r c i a l p r o c e s s ,
we recognised at a v e r y e a r l y s t a g e t h a t it w a s
necessary to f o r m u l a t e and e x e c u t e a w e l l - p l a n n e d
strategy involving all partners in the food
production and distribution chain, from farmers
and producers, to food handlers, retailers,
consumers and g o v e r n m e n t d e p a r t m e n t s i n v o l v e d in
controlling and regulating food p r o d u c t i o n and
distribution country-wide. The strategy would
consist of v a r i o u s p h a s e s w h i c h s h o u l d be c a r r i e d
out consec u t i v e l y .
Research and Development Programme

Meeting of Regulatory Requirements

I
I n f o r m a t i o n and Test M a r k e t i n g C a m p a i g n
i
T r a n s f e r of T e c h n o l o g y to F o o d I n d u s t r y
 IAEA-SM-271/42 139

During the pas t d e c a d e we have p r o g r e s s e d t h r o u g h

all the various phases and the most i m port ant
lesson learnt was that the variou s stages can n o t
b e s e p a r a t e d c h r o n o l o g i c a l l y in t h e s e n s e t h a t o n e
phase can or s h o u l d be c o m p l e t e d b e f o r e t h e n e x t
one starts. They a l l f o r m a n i n t e g r a l w h o l e of,
and play an equal role in, the technology
d e v e l o p m e n t e x e r c i s e a n d a r e t h e r e f o r e all o n g o i n g
processes which should be carried out
simultaneously.

Initial m a r k e t i n g t r i a l s
In order to monitor consumer reaction towards
irradiated fo ods and also to tes t r a d u r i s e d food
under commercial conditions, a limited marketing
campaign w a s l a u n c h e d in 1 9 7 8 . T h e r e s u l t s o f t h e
marketing trials are well documented by now
[ 1 , 2 , 3 ] ,andit will s u f f i c e t o s u m m a r i s e t h e m b r i efly.

During the p e r i o d A u g u s t 1 9 7 8 t o M a y 1 9 7 9 , 133 t

of potatoes, 20 t m a n g o e s , 20 t p a p a y a s an d 7 t
strawberries were processed in two open-pool
irradiators, one at Pelindaba and one in t h e
North-eastern Transvaal at T z a n e e n , a n d a l s o in
the experimental loop of t h e p a c k a g e i r r a d i a t o n
plant at Pelindaba. The r a d u r i s e d pr o d u c t s were
s o l d t h r o u g h 20 s u p e r m a r k e t s t o r e s in J o h a n n e s b u r g
and P r e t o r i a f o r a n i n e - m o n t h p e r i o d . All p r o d u c t s
were m a r k e d with the R A D U R A e m b l e m and i n f o r m a t i o n
was given and q u e s t i o n s a n s w e r e d at t h e p o i n t of
sale for the first few weeks. The nam e s and
addresses, or t e l e p h o n e n u m b e r s , of c o n s u m e r s w h o
bought the products w ere r e c o r d e d and they wer e
contacted telephonically afterwards to d o c u m e n t
their findings and opinions. A ninety percent
a c c e p t a n c e f i g u r e was r e c o rded.

T hi s m a r k e t i n g c a m p a i g n w a s f o l l o w e d by a N a t i o n a l
Symposium with t he p u r p o s e of i n f o r m i n g t he f o o d
industry, consumer organisations, representatives
from agricultural control boards and other
interested parties about the outcome of the
marketing trials. The symposium was held to
discuss further prospects with special reference
to the w i d e r a n g e of a p p l i c a t i o n s of i r r a d i a t i o n
in the agricultural sector in g e n e r a l , a n d t h e
food industry in particular. The s y m p o s i u m was
140 VAN DER LINDE and BRODRICK

well a t t e n d e d by a p p r o x i m a t e l y 160 d e l e g a t e s f r o m
various organisations i n v o l v e d in f o o d r e s e a r c h ,
inspection and quality control, p r o c e s s i n g and
marketing, many o f w h o m p a r t i c i p a t e d a c t i v e l y in
the pr oce edi ngs.
The marketing campaign, although very successful,
also revealed the many problems facing a new
technology and a strong nee d d e v e l o p e d for the
p r o t e c t i o n of t he p r o c e s s , t h e p r o c e s s o r s and a l s o
the retailers. Consequently, a National Steering
Committee was constituted. This committee with
representatives from various government
departments, the trade, the rad i a t i o n pro ces s o r s
and other interested organisations, a c t s in an
advisory c a p a c i t y to t h e M i n i s t e r of A g r i c u l t u r e .
Ideally, the committee should co-ordinate all
aspects relating to the m a r k e t i n g of r a d u r i s e d
food and form t he link b e t w e e n t he r e s e a r c h and
development activities and the food industry.

E x p a n s i o n of m a r k e t i n g t r i a l s

The s u c c e s s f u l o u t c o m e of t h e s e t r i a l s led to t h e
formation of a p r i v a t e c o m p a n y w h i c h c o m m i s s i o n e d
a batch irradiator in February 1982 for the
radurisation of freshproduce. With the
commissioning of t h i s i r r a d i a t o r , t h r e e f u l l s c a l e
facilities in S o u t h A f r i c a b e c a m e i n v o l v e d in t h e
radurisation on foodstuffs [3]. T h e s e are:

(i) The P e l i n d a b a irradiator: A E C L JS 6 50 0

T h i s i r r a d i a t o r is f u l l y automated and
w a s r e c e n t l y u p g r a d e d , b o t h by i n c r e a s i n g t h e
source s t r e n g t h t o 3 2 0 k C i a n d by i n c r e a s i n g
the conveyor s p e e d bya f a c t o r of f o u r . This
plant c a n at t h e t i m e o f w r i t i n g , p r o c e s s 7t
of p r o d u c t p e r h o u r a t a d o s e of 2 k G y a n d a
density of 0 . 4 g / c m 3 . S e v e r a l d i f f e r e n t fo o d
products such as various meats, spices,
potatoes, onions anda s p a r a g u s , have been
treated during the past four years. However,
most of th e emphasis u p t o n o w h a s b e e n on
t h e r a d u r i s a t i o n of s t r a w b e r r i e s . More than
1 000 t of t h i s product have already been
radurised. Recently, several new products
 IAEA-SM-271/42 141

w e r e a d d e d a n d N U C O R n o w i r r a d i a t e s 50 t / w e e k
of i t e m s s u c h as h e r b a l tea, s u g a r c a n e y e a s t ,
m a n g o a c h a r and v e g e t a b l e pastes.

(il) The H E P R O irradiator: A E C L JS 8 2 0 0

This is a batch irradiator with a present
cobalt-60 loading of 100 kCi a n d c a p a b l e
of t r e a t i n g 1.7 t o f p r o d u c t p e r h o u r a t a
dose of 1 k Gy and a d e n s i t y of 0 .4 g/ c m.
During the past t h r e e years , p r o d u c t s such
as mangoes, papayas, bananas, mango achar,
avocadoes, litchis and t o m a t o e s have been
r a d u r i s e d on a c o m m e r c i a l s c a l e .

(iii) Th e I S 0 - S T E R i r r a d i a t o r : A E C L JS 8 9 0 0
This facility is primarily used for the
sterilisation of disposable medical
products but l a tel y has a ls o been i n v o l v e d
in the r a d u r i s a t i o n of a l a r g e v a r i e t y of
processed products s u c h as dehydrated
vegetables, s p i c e s and l a r g e q u a n t i t i e s of
herbal tea (more than 500 t d u r i n g the past
2 m o n t h s ).

Wit h t h e s e t h r e e f a c i l i t i e s se ver al t h o u s a n d tonnes

of products have b e e n r a d u r i s e d in S o u t h A f r i c a
during the past f i v e y e a r s and we a re c o n f i d e n t
t h a t t h i s t e c h n o l o g y is in t h e p r o c e s s o f b e c o m i n g
accepted by the food i n d u s t r y and the c o n s u m e r s .
H o w e v e r , it w a s a l s o r e a l i s e d t h a t t h e t r a n s f e r of
a new t e c h n o l o g y is b o t h a c o m p l e x a n d a d i f f i c u l t
task with many f a c t o r s i n f l u e n c i n g its e v e n t u a l
acceptance, as stated previously at several
i n t e r n a t i o n a l m e e t i n g s [4, 5, 6].

Factors influencing th e technology transfer

process - t he rol e of t h e v a r i o u s p a r t i c i p a n t s in
th e f o o d c ha i n
The most import ant lesson learnt during the past
few yea r s was that the t r a n s f e r p r o c e s s was not a
single-step exercise from R & D to I n d u s t r y but
rather an ongoing process requiring the full
p a r t i c i p a t i o n of all t h e v a r i o u s p a r t i c i p a n t s . The
i n t e r r e l a t i o n s h i p betwee n the variou s p a r t i c i p a n t s
and t h e c o n t r o l p o s i t i o n o f t h e R & D a c t i v i t y as
set out in Fig. 1 are the crucial factors
142 VAN DER LINDE and BRODRICK

FIG.l. Interrelationship between the various participants and the control position of the
R & D activity.

determining the successful transfer of the

technology.
Let us now look in greater detail at the
activities and responsibilities of the various
partners.

R & D Scientist /Food Technologist

(i) Product development

The goal of the scientist is t o i d e n t i f y

commodities which can benefit from the
a p p l i c a t i o n of a n e w t e c h n o l o g y an d o f f e r e c o n o m i c
benefit to the co untry. The p r o d u c t d e v e l o p m e n t
programme should involve a progression from
l a b o r a t o r y - s c a l e e x p e r i m e n t s to l a r g e - s c a l e t r i a l s
involving simulated and non-commercial tests
carried out under m a r k e t c o n d i t i o n s . This should
 IAEA-SM-271/42 143

be followed by s e m i - c o m m e r c ia 1 t r i a l s and
large-scale test marketing prior to full
c o m m e r c ia 1 i s a t i o n .

(ii) C o m p i l a t i o n of d a t a f o r c l e a r a n c e s
Although many governments accept the
recommendations of t h e 1980 J E C F I of W H O / F A O / I A E A
on wholesomeness of radurised foods, national
health authorities in general require petitions
for individual commodities before these products
can be traded commercially. This is w h e r e t h e
R & D scientist h a s an e s s e n t i a l f u n c t i o n in t h e
c o m p i l a t i o n of d a t a fo r c l e a r a n c e s .

(iii) T r a n s f e r of i n f o r m a t i o n
One of the major problems facing the
transfer of the n e w t e c h n o l o g y is t h e f a c t t h a t
the s c i e n t i s t has f or t oo long be en i s o l a t e d f r o m
industry. It is i m p e r a t i v e t h a t h e s h o u l d p l a y an
a c t i v e r o l e in " s e l l i n g ” h i s f i n d i n g s t o i n d u s t r y .
In order to a c h i e v e t h i s he m u s t be p r e p a r e d t o
carry this information into the grey a r e a of
marketing and co-operate with experts in t h i s
f i e l d in o r d e r t o b r i n g it t o t h e a t t e n t i o n o f t h e
producer/fa r m e r , radiation processor, wholesaler,
retailer and c o n s u m e r . This in v o l v e s the t r a n s f e r
of i n f o r m a t i o n to t he v a r i o u s p a r t i c i p a n t s t h r o u g h
scientific and technical articles, close
co-operation with the food r e s e a r c h in s t i t u t e s ,
the food i n d u s t r y and c o n s u m e r o r g a n i s a t i o n s and
the organising of national and international
symposia and conferences. The successful
commercialisation of the technology greatly
d e p e n d s on t h e s u p p o r t t h a t t h e r e s e a r c h s c i e n t i s t
re c e i v e s from his m a n a g e m e n t .

T h e c e n t r a l r o l e t h a t t h e R & D s c i e n t i s t p l a y s in
t h e t e c h n o l o g y t r a n s f e r p r o c e s s in r e l a t i o n t o t h e
various participants can be summarised as
f o l 1o w s .

F a r m e r and P r o d u c e r
T he s u p p o r t and e n t h u s i a s m of th e p r i m a r y p r o d u c e r
of f o o d is d e p e n d e n t on h i s d e g r e e o f f a m i l i a r i t y
with the new t e c h n o l o g y . The e x e c u t i o n of j o i n t
projects is of g r e a t i m p o r t a n c e to a c h i e v e t hi s
144 VAN DER LINDE and BRODRICK

and t o c o n v i n c e h i m o f t h e p o t e n t i a l b e n e f i t s . He
m u s t be c o n v i n c e d t h a t t h e s u c c e s s of r a d u r i s a t i o n
is dependent on a s o u n d GMP1 p r o g r a m m e i n v o l v i n g
quality control such as orchard and factory
sanitation, p a c k a g i n g , h a n d l i n g a n d t r a n s p o r t . It
is therefore necessary that close collaboration
between the s c i e n t i s t a n d t h e p r o d u c e r e x i s t s at
all stages of t h e d e v e l o p m e n t p r o g r a m m e and t h a t
c o n t a c t e x i s t s at all t i m e s .

Radiation Processor
One o f t h e m a j o r s t u m b l i n g b l o c k s in e s t a b l i s h i n g
food irradiation on a commercial s c a l e is t h e
availability of large i r r a d i a t i o n pl ant s, and a
"chicken and egg" s i tua tio n exists. These plants
are h i g h l y ca pit al i n t e n s i v e and will o nly f u n c t i o n
economically with large thr o u g h p u t s . These large
processing quantities can only materialise once
t h e f o o d i n d u s t r y is c o n v i n c e d o f t h e b e n e f i t s a n d
t h i s c a n o n l y b e e x p e r i e n c e d w h e n it is b e i n g d o n e
on a large enough scale to be commercially
attractive. S p e c i f i c a l l y p e r t i n e n t in t h i s r e g a r d
is the question of converting the scientific
benefits into f i n a n c i a l p r o f i t s . It is t h e r e f o r e
necessary to go t h r o u g h a p i l o t - p l a n t s t a g e w h e r e
the research scientist should collaborate with
potential users o f t h e t e c h n o l o g y in f e a s i b i l i t y
a n d p i l o t - p l a n t s t u d i e s a n d in t h e e v a l u a t i o n a n d ,
if necessary, modification and design of new
facilities. We e x p e r i e n c e d that with the success
achieved dur i n g the test m a r k e t i n g tr i a l s and the
s u b s e q u e n t e x p a n s i o n of o u r t r i a l s , m a n y p o t e n t i a l
radiation processors appeared on t h e s c e n e . In
most cases t h e y had v e r y l i t t l e or no e x p e r i e n c e
of r a d i a t i o n p r o c e s s i n g o r t h e f o o d i n d u s t r y . E v e n
experts in the field of medical sterilisation
require much m o r e b a c k g r o u n d k n o w l e d g e of f o o d s ,
especially fresh produce, because the latter
differs m a r k e d l y in d i v e r s i t y a n d c o m p l e x i t y f r o m
plastic materials, used for medical dis p o s a b l e s ,
as f a r as t h e i r r a d i a t i o n b e h a v i o u r is c o n c e r n e d .
T h e s c i e n t i s t h a s t h e r e f o r e an e x t r e m e l y i m p o r t a n t
role to play in transfering his k n o w l e g e and
expertise to potential r a d i a t i o n p r o c e s s o r s . An
i m p o r t a n t r e s p o n s i b i l i t y in t h i s r e g a r d is q u a l i t y

GMP = Good manufacturing practice.

 IAEA-SM-271/42 145

control through a C o d e of P r a c t i c e c o m p i l e d f o r
s p e c i f i c c o m m o d i t i e s . It w a s i n v a r i a b l y f o u n d t h a t
all p r o b l e m s r e l a t i n g t o t h e e n d p r o d u c t , e.g. p o o r
quality, d a m a g e d u e to t r a n s p o r t or h a n d l i n g , e t c
were ascribed to the process and not to the
product. This point is very c r i tical and could
easily lead to the c o l l a p s e o f an e x c i t i n g a n d
viable technology.

Wholesaler
In o r d e r to o v e r c o m e th e p r e j u d i c e s of t h e a g e n t s
handling produce on the market who are oft en
reluctant to accept something new, it was
necessary to familiarise them with radurised
products over an extended period. This involved
t he e r e c t i o n of d i s p l a y c a b i n e t s d e m o n s t r a t i n g t h e
b e n e f i t s of t h e t r e a t e d p r o d u c t o v e r t h e u n t r e a t e d
control under identical commercial conditions,
i.e. in t h e m a r k e t p l a c e . T h e a s s e s s m e n t o f t r i a l s
under actual market conditions cannot be
emphasised enough as l a b o r a t o r y e x p e r i m e n t s are
often c a r r i e d out un d e r n ear ideal c o n d i t i o n s and
do not reflect the p e r f o r m a n c e of t he c o m m o d i t y
under commercial conditions. During our marketing
trials it was observed that certain radurised
products do not behave in the same way as
t h e i r u n t r e a t e d c o u n t e r p a r t s eg. i r r a d i a t e d b a n a n a s
are m o r e s u s c e p t i b l e to c ol d i n j u r y and r a d u r i s e d
papayas should not be subjected to t he f o r c e d
ripening process u s i n g h i g h t e m p e r a t u r e s as t h i s
l e a d s t o a b r e a k - d o w n in q u a l i t y . It is a d v i s a b l e
that guidelines be drawn up and t h a t th e fo od
handlers be familiarised with the recommended
procedures on the c o r r e c t h a n d l i n g , s t o r a g e and
transport of radurised products.

R e t a i 1er
Unless the full co-operation of retailers is
obtained, i r r a d i a t e d f o o d s c a n n o t be s u c c e s s f u l l y
sold to the consumer. Familiarisation with
t h e t e c h n o l o g y is t h e r e f o r e a prerequisite before
embarking on test m arketing. The R & D scie n t i s t
has also in t h i s ca s e , a v e r y i m p o r t a n t r o l e to
play in convincing t h e r e t a i l e r of t h e p o s s i b l e
a d v a n t a g e s o f t h e p r o c e s s . T h i s c a n b e a c h i e v e d by
repeated discussions and especially by
146 VAN DER U N D E and BRODRICK

co-operative t r i a l s c a r r i e d o u t s i m u l t a n e o u s l y by
the research o r g a n i s a t i o n i nv ol ve d and the retail
store which has the necessary infrastructure.
Initially, it was fo u n d that man y r e t a i l e r s were
reluctant to sell i r r a d i a t e d f o o d b e c a u s e of f e a r
of their competitors. To overcome t h i s it w a s
decided that a National Steering Committee under
t h e a u s p i c e s o f t h e M i n i s t e r of A g r i c u l t u r e s h o u l d
be formed w h o s e m a i n t a s k w o u l d b e t o h a n d l e all
problems relating to t h e r e t a i l i n g of i r r a d i a t e d
foods. In s p i t e of t h i s , h o w e v e r , s o m e r e t a i l e r s
s t il l d i d n ot w a n t to c o m m i t t h e m s e l v e s d u r i n g th e
first f e w y e a r s , b u t as t h e a c c e p t a n c e g r e w , m o r e
and more have been getting involved. In t h i s
context the efforts of t h e s c i e n t i s t d e v e l o p i n g
the technology are i n d i s p e n s i b l e on a c o n t i n u o u s
basis to supply information and technology
country-wide. B e c a u s e of l ack of k n o w l e d g e of the
technology by the r e t a i l e r it is a l s o n e c e s s a r y
that the scientist draws up g u i d e l i n e s on th e
R A D U R A p r o d u c t s w i t h r e s p e c t to h a n d l i n g , s t o r a g e ,
display, price structuring a n d l a b e l l i n g . It is
inherent in t h e e s t a b l i s h m e n t o f a n e w t e c h n o l o g y
that u n e x p e c t e d p r o b l e m s can be e x p e r i e n c e d and a
"fire brigade" activity becomes necessary to
c o u n t e r a c t t h e m , e . g . q u a l i t y p r o b l e m s a s c r i b e d by
r e t a i l e r s or c o n s u m e r s to th e r a d u r i s a t i o n p r o c e s s
and not the product itself. Therefore regular
inspections and m o n i t o r i n g of t h e p e r f o r m a n c e of
RADURA products throughout the season with proper
controls are of the utmost importance.

Consumer
The most i m p o r t a n t l i n k in t h e f o o d d i s t r i b u t i o n
chain is the consumer. Unless consumers are
convinced of t h e b e n e f i t s of t h e n e w p r o c e s s t h e y
w i l l b e u n w i l l i n g t o p u r c h a s e t h e t r e a t e d f o o d . It
is thus necessary t h a t t h e c o n s u m e r be p r o p e r l y
i n f o r m e d abo u t the r e a s o n for i r r a d i a t i n g food and
the b e n e f i t s tha t can ac c r u e t h r o u g h this pr ocess.
The R & D s c i e n t i s t is t h e r e f o r e r e s p o n s i b l e f o r
planning and executing a comprehensive and
extended information campaign dealing with these
matters. S u c h a c a m p a i g n s h o u l d n o t be a o n e - t i m e
e f f o r t to c o i n c i d e w ith the i n t r o d u c t o r y pha s e but
a continuous activity involving schools,
universities, c o n s u m e r o r g a n i s a t i o n s and the food
 IAEA-SM-271/42 147

industry through popular a r t i c l e s in t h e p r e s s ,

scientific magazines, programmes on radio and
t e l e v i s i o n and the publication of information
brochures and booklets.
Due to the anti-nuclear feeling prevailing,
in s o m e c o u n t r i e s , and t h e c o n f u s i o n of t h e t e r m s
radiation and radio-activity, the question
of acceptance of irradiated foods and the
associated q u e s t i o n of labelling have been the
major issues regarding the acceptance of
irradiated foods during the past t h r e e d e c a d e s .
Although this question has been p o s e d at m a n y
international m e e t i n g s no u n a n i m o u s a g r e e m e n t has
been reached or final decision taken on this
issue.
In South Africa the D e p a r t m e n t of H e a l t h has
accepted the 1980 JECFI WH0/FA0/IAEA
recommendation on w h o l e s o m e n e s s and accepted
irradiation as a p r o c e s s , t h e r e f o r e no l a b e l l i n g
is r e q u i r e d f o r r a d u r i s e d p r o d u c t s o t h e r t h a n t h a t
needed for other preservation techniques. Products
are to be l a b e l l e d w i t h t h e R A D U R A e m b l e m a t t h e
wholesale level and it is u p t o t h e r e t a i l e r t o
advertise o p e n l y w h e t h e r h i s p r o d u c t is r a d u r i s e d
or n o t . A s p r o b a b l y c o u l d be e x p e c t e d n o r e t a i l e r
initially committed himself to t h i s b u t as t h e
process is becoming increasingly accepted, this
fact is starting to become advertised.
It is i n t e r e s t i n g t o m e n t i o n t h a t d u r i n g t h e t e s t
marketing campaign, individual products were
labelled in order to test consumer reaction;
however, endless problems were e nco untered which
were ascribed to t h e p r o c e s s b u t w h i c h w e r e , in
f a c t , i n h e r e n t in t h e p r o d u c t i t s e l f . T h i s h a s led
us to t h e p r e s e n t p o l i c y of l a b e l l i n g o n l y at t h e
wholesale level.

SUMMARY
It is c l e a r f r o m t h e f o r e g o i n g t h a t t h e a c t i v i t i e s
of t h e R e s e a r c h a n d D e v e l o p m e n t S c i e n t i s t and f o o d
Technologist form the bridges on which the
i n t e r r e l a t i o n s h i p s b e t w e e n t h e v a r i o u s p a r t n e r s in
the food c h a i n a re b u i l t . The i n v o l v e m e n t of th e
R & D scientist should be a c o n t i n u o u s and
148 VAN DER LINDE and BRODRICK

ongoing exercise which never should o r c a n be

terminated at the transfer stage as this; is
necessary for t h e t r a n s f e r o f t h e t e c h n o l o g y . If
this involvement is terminated, a vacuum ensues
which could lead to t he c o l l a p s e of th e t r a n s f e r
pr ocess itself.
In conclusion I w o u l d like to r e i t e r a t e t h a t the
t r a n s f e r o f a n e w t e c h n o l o g y is a l o n g a n d a r d u o u s
task beset with pitfalls and c o mplex problems;
therefore it is h o p e d t h a t t h e e x p e r i e n c e w e h a v e
gained d u r i n g t h e p a s t s e v e n y e a r s c a n be o f s o m e
benefit to o t h e r c o u n t r i e s e m b a r k i n g on t h e s a m e
path.

REFERENCES
[ 1 ] VAN D E R L I N D E , H J B R O D R I C K , H T; S t r a t e g y f o r t h e
Market Testing of Irradiated Foods in South
Africa; P r o c e e d i n g s of N a t i o n a l S y m p o s i u m on F o o d
I r r a d i a t i o n , P r e t o r i a ( 1979 ) p 19p 1.
[2] B R O D R I C K , H T, VAN D E R L I N D E , H J; T e s t w i t h t h e
Retailing of Several Irradiated F o o d s in S o u t h
A f r i c a , Ibid, p 18 p 1.
[3] VAN DER LINDE, H J; Ma rk e ti ng e x p e r ie n ce with
R a d u r i s e d P r o d u c t s in S o u t h A f r i c a , P r o c e e d i n g s of
National S y m p o s i u m on I o n i z i n g T r e a t m e n t of F o o d ,
Sydney ( 1983 ), 89.
[4] VAN D E R L I N D E , H J; E c o n o m i c C o n s i d e r a t i o n s of t h e
I r r a d i a t i o n P r e s e r v a t i o n of F o o d s in S o u t h A f r i c a ,
FAO/IAEA Advisory Group Meeting on E c o n o m y and
Energy Analysis of Food Irradiation, Vienna
( 1979).
[5] Factors i n f l u e n c i n g T h e E c o n o m i c a l A p p l i c a t i o n of
Food Irradiation (Proc. F A O / I A E A Panel, Vienna,
1971), I A E A , V i e n n a ( 1973) 137 pp.
[6] R e q u i r e m e n t s for the Irradiation of F ood on a
Commercial Scale (Proc. F A O / F A E A , P a n e l Vienna,
1974), IAEA, V i e n n a ( 1 9 7 5 ) 2 1 9 pp.
 PILOT-SCALE
FEASIBILITY STUDIES

(Poster Session I)
Poster Presentations
IAEA-SM-271 / ÎOOP

D IS IN F E S T A T IO N O F C O M M E R C IA L L Y
PACK ED D R Y D ATES B Y C O M B IN A T IO N T R E A T M E N T S *

M.S.H. AHM ED, A .A . HAM EED, A .A . K A D H U M

Faculty o f Agriculture and Biology,
Nuclear Research Centre,
Baghdad, Iraq

N o significant difference has been found between the damaging ability o f

male and female larvae irradiated with low disinfestation doses o f gamma
radiation.
The longevity o f Ephestia cautella larvae detected in dry date packages was
significantly shorter when these packages were treated with 0.7 kGy, exposed to
40°C for 48 h, then transferred to 25°C and stored fo r 15 days as compared to the
irradiated control which was kept at 25°C only.
Treatment w ith 0.35 kG y and heat also brought about some decrease in
longevity. On the other hand, the damaging ability o f irradiated E. cautella
larvae was significantly lower when last instar larvae treated with 0.7 kG y gamma
radiation were exposed to 40°C fo r 72 h.
Thus combination treatment could lead to a decrease in the feeding ability
o f the highly date damaging stage o f E. cautella, and to a shorter period o f time to
cause 1 0 0 % m ortality which w ill comply with conventional quarantine restrictions.
Other types o f treatments also showed the superiority o f combination treatments
for date disinfestation.

* This work is part o f IAEA-Iraq Agreement N o.2918/C F .

151
152 POSTER PRESENTATIONS

IAEA-SM-271 /95Р

SEM I-COM M ERCIAL T R IA L S O N R A D IA T IO N

P R E S E R V A T IO N O F PO TATO E S
U N D E R T R O P IC A L C O N D ITIO N S *

I. K H A N , A . S A T T A R , M. W AH ID , M. JAN
Nuclear Institute fo r Food
and Agriculture,
Tarnab, Peshawar, Pakistan

Four varieties o f potatoes - Cardinal, Desiree, Multa and Patrones - were

irradiated at a dose o f 0.1 kG y and stored at 20°C and under ambient conditions
(3 0 —45°C). The percentage o f sprouting, rotting and weight loss was determined
during storage. Samples were analysed for ascorbic acid and sugars as well as
evaluated for sensory characteristics such as colour, taste and texture in the form
o f boiled potatoes and potato chips. The effect o f packaging materials and mode
o f transport over a distance o f 1000 km on rotting o f potatoes was studied. The

T A B L E I. EFFEC T OF IR R A D IA T IO N A N D STO RAG E ON TH E Q U A L IT Y

OF PO TA TO E S

Variety Rotting Weight loss Sensory scores? Ascorbic acidb Reducing sugars0
(%) (%) Chips Boiled (m g/ 100 g) (%)

Cardinal

Control 30.0 14.0 5.1 5.5 4.2 0.8

Radiated 20.0 9.0 5.9 5.0 3.9 0.7

Patrones

Control 20.0 13.0 5.0 5.3 5.7 1.0

Radiated 17.0 8.0 6.0 5.2 4.9 1.1
Mean 21.7 11.0 5.5 5.2 4.6 0.9
c.v.d 26,2 26.7 9.5 4:7 17.1 20.0

Note: Storage period was 6 months at 20°C.

a Maximum scores = 10.
b Initial ascorbic acid = 18.5 — 20.4 m g /100 g.
c Initial reducing sugars = 0.9 — 1.0%.
d C.V. = coefficient o f variance.

* Supported by the IA EA under Research Contract N o .3 0 16/RB.

 POSTER PRESENTATIONS 153

Control

P>XyV*;?3 Irradiated
Jute I
20 -

Wooden crates
10- TR A IN

Л. R

Cardinal patrones

Cardinal patrones
20- TRUCK

R
cRT
10-

FIG.l. Effect of packaging materials and m o d e of transport on potato rot.

data revealed that irradiation com pletely suppressed sprouting regardless o f storage
temperature and variety. The percentage rot was significantly higher (6 0 —85%)
in potatoes kept at ambient conditions than at 20°C (3 - 5 % ) during the initial
two months’ storage (P = 0.05). Weight loss varied between 12 and 40% under
ambient conditions and between 4 and 11% at 20°C. A t the end o f six months’ storage
at 20°C, there was higher rot (2 0 —30%) and weight loss (1 3 —14%) in unirradiated
than in the irradiated potatoes having a rot o f 17—20% and a weight loss o f 8—9%
depending on the variety, as shown in Table I. The effect o f irradiation and storage
was severe on ascorbic acid but negligible on reducing, non-reducing and total
sugars. The sensory quality o f potato chips was improved as a result o f radiation
treatment. Data on transport trials as shown in Fig. 1 indicated that there
were significantly higher losses when using jute bags and transport by truck than
when w ooden crates and transport by train was chosen (P = 0.05). The irradia­
tion cost, using a 100 kCi source, was estimated to be US $3,00/t o f potatoes. It
was concluded that irradiated tubers (0.1 k G y ) could be stored with minimal
losses fo r six months at 20°C.
154 POSTER PRESENTATIONS

IAEA-SM-271/19P

EFFECT OF LOW DOSE IRRADIATION

AND CALCIUM TREATMENT
ON THE MICROSTRUCTURE AND THE
SHELF-LIFE EXTENSION OF FRUITS

E. K O V Á C S
Central Food Research Institute,
Budapest

Á. KERESZTES, J. K O V Á C S
Eotvós Loránd University,
Budapest

Hungary

The storability o f apples and pears was examined. The fruits were irradiated,
Ca-treated and subjected to combined treatment. The ultrastructure and Ca-
mobilization in the fruit were studied and the texture and other parameters o f the
fruits were determined.
It was established that there was a close relationship between surface spoilage
(physiological disorders) and Ca-content o f the fruit. The spoilage o f the fruits
increases with Ca-treatment, while it decreases with irradiation treatment. The
spoilage o f the fruit is further decreased by the effect o f the combined treatment.
The structure o f the epidermal layer in combined-treated samples is similar to
that o f fresh controls. The cell walls have slackened in the stored control and
irradiated samples and the middle lamellae have frequently been dissolved.
The cell walls o f samples treated with calcium showed a compact fibril structure.
The cells o f combined-treated samples are o f a gradually looser structure from the
cytoplasm to the outside. Even if the middle lamellae show signs o f dissolution
they are not structureless and frequently seem to be intact, even in the vicinity o f
intracellular lamellae.
The calcium content o f the flesh diffuses towards the skin and core seeds
during storage. It is likely that this process has a connection with the pectin
dissolved from the middle lamellae o f cell walls and the calcium released, thereby
contributing to the softening o f the fruit.
From the point o f view o f the nutritive value o f fruit, the combined-treated
sample proved to be the best in the majority o f cases.
The positive effect o f a combined treatment cannot yet be explained.
 POSTER PRESENTATIONS 155

IAE A-SM-271 /30Р

G A R L IC IR R A D IA T IO N F O R SPROUT
P R E V E N T IO N IN IS R A E L *

M. LA P ID O T , M. M OLCO, R. P A D O V A ,
K. ROSENBERG, I. ROSS
Soreq Nuclear Research Center,
Yavne, Israel

Israeli agriculture has an economic interest in applying gamma radiation to

extend the storage life o f garlic from 6 —8 to 10—12 months. N o data on the
effect o f radiation on the composition and quality o f garlic were found in existing
petitions, and hence a project was initiated to collect such data with a view to
preparing a local petition for clearance o f irradiated garlic.
Preliminary tests in 1965 and 1966 showed that doses o f 7.5 to 17.5 krad
effectively eliminated sprouting and reduced weight loss in garlic . 1 Irradiation
o f tw o new cultivars in 1974 at doses o f 2 to 10 krad eliminated internal and
external sprouting, lowered weight loss, and extended shelf-life until the new
crop was harvested. A four-year project centred on the two current dominant
varieties — Ethiopian and Brazilian, which are harvested in March and May,
respectively. Bulbs were irradiated at different intervals from harvest, at doses o f
2, 10, and 50 krad, and were kept up to 11 months mostly at ambient temperature
but also at 2°C. The two lower doses effectively eliminated sprouting and reduced
weight loss and emaciation, increasing the proportion o f saleable garlic. Composites
o f 10 bulbs each were analysed fo r dry matter, protein, crude fibre, ash and N F E 2
(individual variability in fat content prevented consideration o f this component).
Radiation at doses up to 50 krad did not influence the composition o f the non­
volatile macro-components o f garlic. Special organoleptic studies o f garlic showed
no discernible difference in taste or aroma between unirradiated garlic and irradiated
garlic (50 krad). An adapted T L C technique showed no difference between the
chromatograms o f unirradiated garlic and irradiated garlic (50 krad). A petition
for clearance o f garlic, incorporating these results, was submitted to the Ministry o f
Health, and clearance was granted (published in March 1985). A 1 t lot was
irradiated to allow consumer acceptance tests.

* Partially supported by the IAEA.

1 1 r a d = 1.00 X 10~2 Gy.
2 N FE = Nitrogen-free extract.
156 POSTER PRESENTATIONS

IAEA-SM-271/7P

F E A S IB IL IT Y O F E X T E N D IN G S H ELF-LIFE OF
M A T U R E S TR A W B E R R Y F R U IT B Y IO N IZ IN G R A D IA T IO N

A .A . M AHM O UD , H.M. R O U SH D Y, M.A. HUSSEIN,

R.A . H E G A Z Y
National Centre fo r Radiation Research
and Technology,
A tom ic Energy Authority,
Cairo

M.B. D O M A
Faculty o f Agriculture,
Mansoura University,
Cairo

Egypt

The present investigation has been undertaken to illustrate the possible

application o f gamma irradiation processing to prolong the shelf-life o f mature
strawberry fruit. Dose levels were 1, 2 and 3 kGy and the storage temperature
was 4 ± 1°C.
The paper discusses the effect o f gamma irradiation on moisture content,
sugar content, pH values, ascorbic acid level, anthocyanin pigments, carbonyl
compounds and total volatile acidity o f mature strawberry fruit.
In general, irradiation at levels o f 1, 2 and 3 kGy effectively prolonged the
shelf-life o f strawberries stored at 4 ± 1°C by 5, 13 and 16 days, respectively,
over the shelf-life o f the unirradiated control fruits.
 POSTER PRESENTATIONS 157

IAEA-SM-271/64P

O P T IM IZ IN G IR R A D IA T IO N PROCESSING
A N D P A C K A G IN G OF P A P A Y A S *

J.H. M O Y
Department o f Food Science
and Human Nutrition,
University o f Hawai at Manoa,
Honolulu, Hawai

J.G. P A R K E R , E. O ’S U L L IV A N , G. P A R K E R
International Nutronics, Inc.,
Palo A lto , California

United States o f America

In the tropical and subtropical regions o f the world, where many species o f
fruit flies exist, fresh fruits and vegetables must be treated for shipment to non­
infested export markets. The ban o f ethylene dibromide (ED B ) in the United
States o f America on 1 September 1984 necessitated the search for alternatives
to chemical fumigation by the fruit and vegetable export industries.
Irradiation processing in the form o f gamma radiation is one o f several
alternatives. The technical efficacy o f using ionizing radiation to disinfest a variety
o f fruits as a quarantine treatment has been studied and proven. The minimum
absorbed dose to meet quarantine requirements for Hawaii grown papayas is
0.26 kG y [ 1], while a hot water treatment (49°C, 20 min) combined with a
dose o f 0.75 kG y would extend the marketable life o f papayas by three to
four days beyond that for fumigated fruits [2]. Recent studies on California
grown stone fruits and citrus showed qualities o f irradiated peaches, nectarines,
plums and oranges retained at 0.50 kG y [3]. T o achieve M edfly egg mortality,
however, a gamma-radiation dose o f 0.40—0.60 kG y was required [4].
Since transit bruising and fungal diseases have been problems affecting the
marketability o f papayas, experiments were conducted to determine i f combining
irradiation with a m odified polyethylene film wrap o f the papaya might offer
some advantages such as: ( 1 ) protecting the fruit from transit bruising;
( 2 ) synergizing hot water and irradiation treatments for maximum shelf-life; and
(3 ) providing a clean and attractive looking fruit. This film has the follow ing
permeability in cm 3/m2 per 24 hours: oxygen, 9000,- C 0 2, 3000,- ethylene,
2200 and moisture 1.3. Treatment variables included single hot water (49°C,

* Experim ental film furnished by Cryovac/W. R. Grace Co. Assistance in film

wrapping by R. Idol, D. Anderson and G. Horiuchi is gratefully acknowledged.
158 POSTER PRESENTATIONS

20 min) versus double hot water dip (42°C, 40 min; 49°C, 20 min), irradiation
at 0.26, 0.50 and 0.75 kG y with and without the film wrap. A fter treatment,
the fruits were refrigerated at 10°C up to 6 weeks and then moved to 22 ± 1°C
to simulate supermarket display conditions.
Results showed that the film wrap did protect the papayas from bruising
and gave the fruit a shiny, attractive appearance. Measured in days as post-refrigeration
marketable shelf-life, the film-wrapped, irradiated and the film-wrapped, double-
hot-water-treated fruits were comparable with about 6—7 days as compared to
3—4 days for those unwrapped. The flavour o f the irradiated papayas was superior
to that o f the double-hot-water treated. The flavour in the latter probably did not
develop normally due to the hot water treatment. Results from duplicate experi­
ments indicated the optimal shelf-life and quality were obtained with irradiated
fruits refrigerated at 10°C up to 3 weeks and maintained at 21—23°C for an
additional 6^7 days. The film used in the experiment could not be considered
completely satsifactory. Small air pockets have caused moisture retention leading
to fungal decay and gas permeability o f the film might not be the most optimal
for papayas. While more research is needed, these results did suggest some
advantages o f combining suitable packaging and low-dose irradiation to retain
quality with an extended marketable life for export shipment o f fresh fruits.

REFERENCES

[1] BU R D IT T, A .K ., Jr., SEO , S .T., “ Dose requirements for quarantine treatment of fruit
flies with gamma irradiation” (Proc. FA O /IA E A Panel Honolulu, 1970), IA EA , Vienna,
(1 971) 33.
[2] MOY, J.H ., et al., “ Dosim etry, tolerance and shelf-life extension related to disinfestation
o f tropical fruits by gamma irradiation” (Proc. FA O /IA EA Panel Honolulu, 1970),
IAEA , Vienna (1 9 7 1 ) 43.
[3] MOY, J.H ., K A N ESH IRO , K .Y ., OHTA, A .T ., N A G A I.N ., J . F oo d Sci. 48 (1 9 8 3 ) 928.
[4] K A N ESH IR O , K .Y ., et al., Proc. Hawaii, Entom ol. Soc. 24 2 - 3 (1 9 8 3 ) 245.
 POSTER PRESENTATIONS 159

IAEA-SM-271/47P

R A D IC ID A T IO N OF PRE-COOKED F R O Z E N
T R O P IC A L SHRIM P
A microbial ecological study

N. W O NG CH IND A, Y. P R A C H A S IT T H IS A K D I,
H. STEG EM AN , J. F A R K A S
International Facility for Food
Irradiation Technology,
Wageningen

D .A .A . MOSSEL
Department o f the Science o f
Food o f Anim al Origin,
Faculty o f Veterinary Medicine,
The University o f Utrecht,
Utrecht

Netherlands

The impact o f gamma irradiation on the psychrotrophic and mesophilic

m icroflora o f frozen pre-cooked and peeled shrimps originating from Malaysia
was studied. In addition, the m icroflora o f thawed shrimps was determined
after low (12°C) and high ( 2 1°C) temperature abuse storage simulating mishandling.
Deep-frozen blocks were irradiated w ith doses up to 4 kGy.
Radiation with 4 kG y resulted in 3 log cycles reduction o f the aerobic
psychrotrophic and mesophilic colony counts. Enterobacteriaceae Lactobacillus
spp., Lancefield D streptococci and Staphylococcus aureus were sensitive to
irradiation and not detected in 1 g aliquots with doses between 2 and 4 kGy. In
the initial psychrotrophic flora o f the frozen shrimps Micrococcus spp. were
predominant and in the mesophilic flora Staphylococcus spp., follow ed by
Streptococcus spp. and the coryneform group. In the frozen shrimps irradiated with
2 or 4 kGy, psychrotrophic Micro соccus spp. and mesophilic Micrococcus spp.
and Staphylococcus spp. were the most prevalent organisms.
A fte r thawing and storage fo r 84 hours at 12°C the spoilage flora o f the non­
irradiated shrimps consisted o f psychrotrophic and mesophilic Moraxella spp.
and the coryneform group, follow ed by no coagulase-positive mesophilic
Staphylococcus spp.
Moraxella spp. became the predominant organisms in the irradiated shrimps.
The main spoilage flora o f non-irradiated shrimps which developed in 36 hours
at 21°C was more heterogeneous than the flora at 12°C and consisted mainly o f
psychrotrophic and mesophilic Moraxella spp., the coryneform group, Lactobacillus
spp., mesophilic Micrococcus spp., and psychrotrophic Acinetobacter spp.
160 POSTER PRESENTATIONS

Moraxella spp. follow ed by Acinetobacter spp. were predominant in the

irradiated samples held at 21 °C.
N o growth o f Staphylococcus aureus could be detected in the two kinds o f
shrimps held at 12 and 21°C.
These results support the view that irradiation does not present a hazard
resulting from a shift in the m icroflora in the event that frozen shrimps are thawed
and stored in temperature abuse situations. Irradiation can be recommended to
improve the safety and quality o f frozen products.

IAEA-SM -271/88P

P R E S E R V A T IO N O F SAU SAG E BY 60Co

G A M M A IR R A D IA T IO N

Renli Y A N G , Shupei L IU , Qixun CHON,

Yongzhi W AN G , Huachuan DENG
Institute o f Applied Nuclear
Technology o f Sichuan Province Sha He Bao,
Chengdu, Sichuan, China

Sausage freshly produced from the workshop was packaged in vacuumized

plastic bags and irradiated with 7 -rays at doses o f 5 - 8 kG y from a 60Co-source
at ambient temperature.
Since the bacteria were killed by irradiation, and oxidization and recontamina­
tion were prevented by vacuumized plastic bags, the irradiated sausage may be
preserved for as long as six months at ambient temperature. There was no loss
o f water and nutrients, no oxidization, no change o f taste or decay during storage.
The colour o f the lean meat was redder than the control and its red and white
colours were clear and fine. The physical and chemical hygienic parameters, such
as water, salt, peroxide value, acid value, bacteria count and saprophytic germs,
were in agreement w ith the‘Food Hygienic Standards o f China G B N 16-77’ .
Moreover, by reducing the amount o f nitrite used the health hazard is probably
reduced. The transport, preservation, carry-over and sales o f irradiated sausage
were improved, which is o f great advantage.
The economic effects o f ‘irradiated sausage’ are as follows:

(1 ) Sausage can be produced in any season instead o f only in winter, therefore

the utilization o f the equipment was doubled.
(2 ) It can be transported by carriage or truck instead o f by air or cooler, thus
the cost o f transport was considerably reduced.
 POSTER PRESENTATIONS 161

(3 ) The cost o f co ol storage, about 45 yuan per tonne per month, is saved.
(4 ) The good quality brought about an increase in price in the country and abroad.
A profit o f 1.4 yuan may be gained on every kilogram in the province o f
Sichuan, 2.2 yuan in other provinces and 4—5 yuan in certain regions o f
our country.
(5 ) The waste from decay and losses through heavily reduced prices were
obviously decreased.
(6) ‘Irradiated sausage’ promotes the production and supplies the market demand,
thereby advancing the development o f the processing, packaging and
manufacturing o f sausage in China.

IAEA-SM -271 /1 16P

M U LTIPU R PO SE PIC O W AV E PROCESSING P L A N T (M 4 p)

J.N. GOEBEL
NU KEM GmbH,
Hanau, Federal Republic o f Germany

The new design o f the Multipurpose Picoware Processing Plant offers

excellent flexibility at low cost for all kinds o f industrial picowave processing
using 60Co or 137Cs as energy sources. The advantages are the following:

Original packaging. The goods w ill be treated in their original packaging,

stacked on pallets. N o extra packing work is necessary.
Dose homogeneity. Owing to intelligently positioned attenuators a
reproducible dose hom ogeneity w ill be applied. An overdose factor o f 1.3 is
achievable fo r goods with a density o f 0.5 g/cm3. F or medical products the
overdose factor is < 1.1 !
Savings. There are 70% less area and 20% less 60Co requirements and about
50% lower costs for handling and maintenance o f the M 4 p compared with a
traditional flat source plant.
Flexibility. Goods w ith four to eight different densities and subjected to
different doses can be processed simultaneously, depending on the size o f the plant.
162 POSTER PRESENTATIONS

IAEA-SM-271/ 111P

E FFE C T O F O X Y G E N -F R E E P A C K IN G
A N D IR R A D IA T IO N O N TH E K E E PIN G Q U A L IT Y
OF DRIED A N C H O V IE S (Engraulis anchoita)

М. M A H A , D. M U S T A F A
Centre for the Application o f
Isotopes and Radiation,
National A tom ic Energy Agency,
Jakarta Selatan, Indonesia

In the study, the effect o f oxygen-free packing and irradiation on the keeping
quality o f dried anchovies packed in PVDC laminate and polypropylene pouches
was investigated. Th e oxygen-free condition was obtained by incorporating an
oxygen absorber called ‘ ageless’ in the pouches. The irradiation dose used ranged
from 0 up to 4 kGy. Storage life o f the samples at ambient conditions was
determined using subjective evaluation supported by chemical parameters such as
TB A , F F A and T V B N numbers, and browning intensity, as w ell as microbiological
tests. In packages without ‘ageless’ , the fish turned yellowish to light brown
within seven days, and became darker with the increase o f storage time. Oxygen-
free packing in PVD C film laminate was found to be effective to prevent oxidative
browning and rancidity in stored dried anchovies. Samples packed in such a
way and irradiated at 2 to 4 kG y were still in good quality even after six months’
storage, while the unirradiated ones released putrid odour after three months’
storage. The use o f ‘ ageless’ in PP film packages is less effective to protect the
quality o f dried anchovies, as PP film is still permeable to oxygen.
 POSTER PRESENTATIONS 163

IAEA-SM-271/lO lP

IN SECT D IS IN F E S T A T IO N O F PULSES, O IL
SEEDS A N D TO B AC CO LE A V E S
B Y IR R A D IA T IO N IN B A N G LAD E SH

A.D. B H U IY A , M. AHM ED , R. R E Z A U R ,
G. N A H A R , S.M.S. H U D A , S.A.K.M. H O SSAIN
Institute o f Food and Radiation Biology,
Bangladesh A tom ic Energy Commission,
Dhaka, Bangladesh

IN T R O D U C T IO N

Bangladesh produces annually about 0.2 million tonnes o f pulses,

0 .1 2 million tonnes o f mustard and 0 .0 2 2 million tonnes o f oil and large quantities
o f tobacco leaves. The average storage losses caused by insects are found to vary
from 6—15%, despite the traditional methods o f pest control. The insects
identified as causing considerable damage to the above-mentioned agricultural
products include: Callosobruchus chinensis (L .), Callosobruchus analis (Fab.),
Sitotroga cerealella (01.), Oryzaephilus surinamensis (L .), Lasioderma sericorne (F .).

SUBJECTS OF S TU D Y

(i) Survey o f economic losses caused by insect pests in pulses, oil seeds and
tobacco leaves in various areas o f Bangladesh.
(ii) Determination o f lethal and sterilizing doses o f major insect pests o f pulses,
oil seeds and tobacco leaves.
(iii) Selection o f suitable packaging materials to prevent reinfestation o f treated
products and the irradiation o f jute/gunny bags before repeated use to avoid
insect contamination.
(iv ) Comparative study o f the economic feasibility and efficiency o f radiation
for the disinfestation o f pulses, oil seeds and tobacco leaves as against
traditional methods o f pests control.

RESU LTS A N D C O NCLU SIO NS

The extent o f insect infestation was found to be variable in agricultural

commodities and losses increased with storage time. The maximum infestation
was recorded in grams (5 0 -5 5 % ) and the minimum in oil seeds (6 -1 0 % ).
164 POSTER PRESENTATIONS

The dose range for the control o f different developmental stages, e.g. egg,
larva, pupa and adult o f the above-mentioned insects, was found to vary from
0.04 to 0.1 kGy, 0.1 to 0.35 kGy, 0.2 to 0.4 kGy and 0.2 to 0.5 kGy, respectively.
PVC and high density polyethylene were found to be resistant to insect
penetration, compared with gunny bags, gunny bags lined with polyethylene,
polypropylene, polypropylene lined with craft paper, etc.
Irradiated products did not show further infestation compared with
insecticidal treatments when these were kept in insect-resistant packages.
Irradiation (1 k G y ) confirmed 100% kill o f the above insect pests.
The authors gratefully acknowledge the assistance and financial support o f
the IA E A and BAEC in carrying out the research work.

IAEA-SM -271 /1 02P

IR R A D IA T IO N D IS IN F E S T A T IO N O F PULSES
(B R O A D BE AN , COWPEA, etc.) D U R IN G
STO R A G E IN E G Y PT

E.A. E L -K A D Y
Faculty o f Agriculture,
University o f Ain Shams,
Cairo, Egypt

Broad bean (Vicia fabae) is the most important legume among pulses for
human and livestock consumption. The crop is known to be attacked by
Bruchus rufimanus Bot. and Bruch.id.ius incarnatus Schm., rendering the seeds
unsuitable for planting or for human consumption. An average o f 12.5% natural
infestation with both insect species, B. rufimanus and B. incarnatus, was found
initially in broad bean seeds.
The three doses tested (400, 600, and 800 G y) were sufficient to kill the
larvae and pupae o f both B. incarnatus and B. rufimanus inside broad bean seeds
directly after irradiation. The same effect was found in the adult stages o f
B. incarnatus inside the seeds before emergence.
With regard to adult B. rufimanus present inside the seeds, only dead non­
emerging adults were found in all four different treatments with 0, 400, 600,
and 800 Gy during nine successive observations, before and after irradiation.
This is justified by the fact that the adults o f B. rufimanus lay eggs only on the
flowers o f broad bean plants in the field and do not infest broad bean seeds
during storage periods. Subsequently, immature stages that develop to adults
 POSTER PRESENTATIONS 165

during storage die inside the broad bean seeds and fail to emerge from the seeds.
This is emphasized by the absence o f alive or dead adults inside the sacks.
With regard to B. incarnatus, 800 Gy was effective against adults present
in the sacks after 20 days, while 400 and 600 G y were effective after one month
from irradiation. Adults o f B. rufimanus were not tested because none emerged
from the seeds inside the sacks during the storage period.

IAEA -SM -271/103P

D IS IN F E S T A T IO N O F W H EAT GERM A N D B R A N
B Y IR R A D IA T IO N A N D M A R K E T IN G

E. K O V Á C S *, I. K ISS *, M. H O R V Á T H -M O S O N Y I**,
Cs. F A R K A S * * * , Ny. H O R V A T H * * * * , Gy. J A K S O *** *,
* Central F ood Research Institute,
Budapest
** Department o f Dietetics,
Faculty o f Advanced Paramedical Training at
the Institute for Postgraduate Medical Education,
Budapest
*** Canning Research Institute,
Budapest
**** Cereal Industry,
Budapest

Hungary

Wheat germ and bran are very important foods in Hungary, the former
because o f its high vitamin content, and the latter for its high dietary fibre
content.
A t present wheat products cannot be stored fo r more than 30 days since
Tribolium confusum infestation progresses very quickly.
Our aim was to irradiate these products to inhibit both infestation and
propagation.
(1 ) The artificially infested samples (imagos) were irradiated with 0, 0.2,
0.4 and 0.8 kGy, and stored at different temperatures (5°C , 20°C, 18—28°C).
L 50, L 90, L 99 values were determined. L o w temperature (5 °C ) retarded the
vital functions o f insects, and by combining irradiation with cooling insects
were destroyed after approximately 20 days.iLarvae are more sensitive than imagos.
166 POSTER PRESENTATIONS

(2 ) The tocopherol content o f wheat germ was reduced to 50% o f the

initial value during a storage period o f 1 year (in absolute values between
14.0 and 18.7 mg%).
(3 ) An analysis o f the free fatty acids in the samples showed that the main
component o f these acids was linolic acid (more than 50%). It was found that
there was no difference between the control and irradiated samples (at 5°C).
In the fresh control the ratio o f the saturated to unsaturated fatty acids was
17.6:80.8. The fraction o f the saturated fatty acids increased by about 2—3%
in the irradiated samples, which were stored at 1—28°C. This difference was
not significant.
(4 ) Dietary fibre is a very important component o f wheat bran. Its formation
was determined after 6 months’ storage. N o significant difference could be
detected in the dietary fibre content and the amount o f dietary fibre components
o f irradiated (0.4 kG y) samples compared with fresh samples.
(5 ) The irradiation dose was 0.4 kGy from a 60Co source. The maximum
absorbed dose within a lot must not exceed 0.8 kGy. Both the individual and
collective packages must indicate that the contents have been irradiated. No. o f
permission: 40.409/1984 and 40.056/1984. Ministry for Agriculture and F o o d ,
Department for Animal Hygiene and Food Hygiene (2000 kg wheat germ and
2000 kg wheat bran).
( 6 ) As packaging material paper, impregnated paper, foils o f paper
character, single and combined foils on PP base (K-23, L -l and L-2) were used.
From the foils tested only foil L-2 showed a destructive effect on insects
because o f its selective gas permeability.
 POSTER PRESENTATIONS 167

IAEA-SM-2711104P

D IS IN F E S T A T IO N O F C O PR A , DESICCATED
CO C O NU T A N D COFFEE BEANS
B Y G A M M A R A D IA T IO N

E.C. M A N O T O , L.R. B LAN C O , A.B. M EN D O ZA,

S.S. R E S IL V A
Philippine A tom ic Energy Commission,
A tom ic Research Centre,
Diliman, Quezon City, Philippines

Several pests were observed attacking copra in storage, the most prevalent
o f which is the copra beetle (CB ), Nocrobia rufipen DeGeer. While in coffee,
the coffee bean weevil (CBW), Araecerus fasciculatus DeGeer showed preference
for arabica, liberica and excelsa varieties but none for robusta coffee.
For mass rearing, the most efficient diet for CB was a combination o f
desiccated coconut and yeast (2 :1 ) and for CBW, dried cassava chips and yeast
(3 :1 ). Using the above diet, the life cycles were completed in 43 to 60 days and
42 to 56 days in CB and CBW, respectively.
Irradiation studies for the tw o species showed the eggs to be the most sensitive,
follow ed by the larvae and the pupae. A dose o f 0.05 kGy prevented adult emergence
from irradiated eggs and younger larvae, while doses o f 0.10 to 0.25 kGy were
effective in eliminating adult survival from irradiated older larvae and pupae.
Organoleptic tests showed no changes in aroma, flavour and general acceptability
between treated and untreated coffee bean samples.
A dose o f 1.0 kGy caused 40% reduction in the initial count o f Salmonella
enteritidis, while a dose o f 6.0 kG y was sufficient to eliminate any surviving
bacteria. Thus, for disinfestation o f copra and coffee beans, a dose o f 0.25 kGy
would be required to prevent initial infestation o f CB and CBW in the respective
products, and 6.0 kGy for a zero bacterial count in desiccated coconut.
168 POSTER PRESENTATIONS

IAEA-SM-271/105P

D IS IN F E S T A T IO N O F M E D F L Y IN O RAN G E S
B Y C O M B IN IN G G A M M A R A D IA T IO N
A N D COLD TR E A T M E N T S

J.H. M O Y
Department o f Food Science
and Human Nutrition,
University o f Hawaii at Manoa,
Honolulu, Hawaii

A .T. O H TA , K .Y . K A N E S H IR O
Department o f Entomology,
University o f Hawaii at Manoa,
Honolulu, Hawaii

N .Y. N A G A I
Honolulu Poi Co. Ltd,
Honolulu, Hawaii

United States o f America

L o w dose gamma radiation follow ed by cold treatment was tested for its
effectiveness in disinfesting the Mediterranean fruit fly (Ceratitis capitata) in
oranges (var. Navel) and for retention o f fruit quality (var. Valencia). A fter
treatment at 0.30—0.6 kGy, the infested oranges were stored at 6 °C for egg
hatchability and larval survival studies. For quality study, non-infested oranges
were irradiated at 0.30—1.0 kGy and then stored at 7°C for seven weeks
(Storage I) or 7°C fo r four weeks, then at 21°C fo r two weeks (Storage II).
These time-temperature schedules simulated post-harvest storage, surface ship­
ment, and supermarket display conditions.
Results show that fruits irradiated at 0.30 kG y or higher and stored at
6 °C for 14—21 days had very low or no hatching o f mature medfly eggs. Neither
was there any adult eclosion when mature larvae in infested fruits were irradiated
at the same dose. The same suppression o f egg hatchability or adult eclosion was
obtained in 7 days when infested fruits were irradiated at 0.50—0.60 kG y and
stored at 6 °C.
The quality o f oranges irradiated up to 0.75 kGy was retained for at least
seven weeks when kept at 7°C. Storage II conditions (7°C , 4 weeks, 21°C,
2 weeks) retained the quality o f fruits irradiated up to 0.50 kGy.
These results demonstrate that radiation disinfestation o f oranges at
0.26 kGy for probit 9 security is technically achievable while preserving their
market quality.
 POSTER PRESENTATIONS 169

IAEA-SM-271/107P

IR R A D IA T IO N D IS IN F E S T A T IO N OF APPLES

C.J. R IG N E Y
NSW Department o f Agriculture,
Gosford Horticultural
Postharvest Laboratory,
Gosford, NSW, Australia

B. SUD ATIS
O ffice o f Atom ic Energy for Peace,
Bangkok, Thailand

M. IZ A R D
Australian A tom ic Energy Commission,
Lucas Heights, NSW, Australia

Old larvae o f Queensland fruit fly (Dacus tryoni) are the most tolerant
stage o f this insect in apple fruit to irradiation. Treating infested fruit in air at
a dose o f 50 Gy resulted in 100% mortality o f Queensland fruit fly eggs and
young larvae, but only 98.736% mortality o f old larvae; the standard o f
survival was the emergence o f an adult insect. On treating more than 250 000 old
larvae in apples with 75 Gy, 100% mortality was achieved. These results are
virtually identical with those o f earlier studies with this insect in oranges and
avocados, tw o markedly different fruit types, suggesting that a general comm odity
treatment o f fruit with 75 G y is suitable to provide quarantine security against
this insect pest.
Irradiation o f Jonathan, green Granny Smith and tree-ripened Granny Smith
apples with doses from 0 to 600 Gy led to no dose related change in the
respiratory pattern o f the fruit. The production o f ethylene by the Jonathan
and tree-ripened Granny Smith apples was suppressed by the irradiation treat­
ment, while that by the preclimateric green Granny Smith fruit was increased,
albeit slightly. Softening o f the fruit was not effected by treatment with 600 Gy,
at which dose disinfestation should be achieved against Queensland fruit fly,
Mediterranean fruit fly ( Ceratitis capitata) and codling moth ( Cydia pomponella).
170 POSTER PRESENTATIONS

IAEA-SM-271/108P

R A D IA T IO N D IS IN F E S T A T IO N OF
TO B AC CO BALES A N D CO FFEE BEANS

M.H. S O E M A R T A P U T R A , R.S. H A R Y A D I,
A. R A H A Y U , S. K A R D H A , Z.I. PU R W A N TO ,
R. CHOSDU
Centre fo r the Application o f
Isotopes and Radiation,
National Atom ic Energy Agency,
Jakarta Selatan, Indonesia

Radiation disinfestation o f tobacco was carried out on 36 export-size tobacco

bales (each about 100 X 75 X 40 cm in size and 100 kg in weight). Each bale
was infested with 25 larvae, 25 pupae and 50 adults o f Lasioderma serricorne.
One week after infestation the bales were divided into three groups: the first
group were untreated controls, the second group was irradiated at a dose range
o f 0.30 to 0.60 kGy and the third group was fumigated with 3 g phosphine/m3.
Insect density and leaf moisture content were controlled two months during a
six-month storage period. Supporting experiments were performed separately
to study the dose distribution, packaging material, and the effects o f gamma
radiation on chemical characteristics o f tobacco leaf. Radiation disinfestation
o f coffee beans was carried out on 24 bags (2 kg each) o f Arabica coffee beans. Each
bag was infested with 100 adults o f 3 to 8 day old Araecerus fasciculatus. One
month after infestation the bags were divided into six groups (fou r bags each).
Five groups were irradiated with doses o f 0, 0.05, 0.10, 0.20 and 0.40 kGy, while
the sixth group was fumigated with about 3 g phosphine/m3. Insect population
and weight loss o f the beans were controlled every 2 weeks during a 24-week
storage period.
There were still about 13% insects surviving in irradiated bales up to two
months o f storage. As long as the Trade Regulations demand that no live insects
(even sterile) should be found in tobacco bales, a dose higher than 0.60 kGy will
be required in order to kill all the insects whithin a week. It seems that
carton boxes can be used as additions to the traditional packaging in an attempt
to prevent the reinfestation and to maintain the aroma o f tobacco after
irradiation. Gamma radiation at a dose o f 5 kGy does not change the nicotine,
volatile-oil and moisture contents, the volatile-oil characteristics and the pH value
o f tobacco leaves. A dose o f 0.40 kGy apparently would be effective to dis­
infest small-size samples o f coffee beans. However, to kill all the insects in a
commercial-size bag within a short time (less than a week), a higher dose will
be required.
 POSTER PRESENTATIONS 171

IAEA-SM-271/ 11 OP

D IS T R IB U T IO N O F M IC R O O R G A N ISM S IN SPICES
A N D T H E IR D E C O N T A M IN A T IO N BY
G A M M A IR R A D IA T IO N

H. ITO , H. W A T A N A B E , S. BA G I AW A T I,
L.J. M U H A M A D , N. T A M U R A
Takasaki Radiation Chemistry
Research Establishment,
Japan A tom ic Energy Research Institute,
Takasaki, Japan

Heavy contamination by microorganisms in imported spices causes serious

problems for the food industry in Japan, the high summer humidity being
especially responsible for mould or bacterial growth.
A survey o f 26 kinds o f imported spices revealed that 50% o f the spices
exceeded 104 spore-forming bacteria per gram. The most highly contaminated
spices were black pepper, white pepper, turmeric and basil with 2 X 106 to
4 X 107 per gram. Coliforms were also counted in eight spices as 2 X 102 to
2 X 106 per gram. The main aerobic spore formers were identified as Bacillus
pumilus, B. subtilis and B. megaterium. Moulds were counted in 18 spices from
1 X 102 to 2 X 104 per gram, and consisted mainly o f Aspergillus glaucus group,
A. restrictus group, A. flavus group, A. fumigatus, A. niger and Pénicillium.
From a study o f the inactivation o f microorganisms in 17 kinds o f spices,
doses o f 5 to 15 kGy o f gamma irradiation were required to reduce the total
aerobic bacteria below the detectable level, while 4 to 10 kGy doses were re­
quired to decrease spore-forming bacteria below the detectable level. Coliforms
in various spices were eliminated at 4 to 10 kGy. In the storage study o f
humidity higher than 80% at 30 to 35°C, mould counts increased up to 108 per
gram in many kinds o f powdered spices in polyethylene pouches during one to
3 months o f storage, whereas samples irradiated at 4 kGy were free from moulds.
Six spices, namely mace, sage, rosemary, clove, thyme, and oregano had
high activities to inhibit the growth o f Bacillus and Staphylococcus, and no
changes in their antimicrobial activities were observed up to 40 kGy. The
activity to prevent oxidation o f fat was determined in several spices, and their
anti-oxidative activities were hardly changed even at 30 kGy.
 REPORTS
ON FOOD IRRADIATION DEVELOPMENTS
IN SOME REGIONS OF THE WORLD

(Session III)

Chairman

F.K. K À F E R S T E IN
WHO
 IAEA-SM-271/90

ASIAN REGIONAL CO-OPERATIVE PROJECT

ON FOOD IRRADIATION (RPFI)*

P. L O A H A R A N U
Food Preservation Section,
Joint F A O /IA E A Division o f Isotope and
Radiation Applications o f A tom ic Energy
for Food and Agricultural Development,
IA E A , Vienna

Abstract

ASIAN R E G IO N A L CO-OPERATIVE P R O JE C T ON FOOD IRRAD IATIO N (R P F I).

Activities on food irradiation in Asia and the Pacific, especially those co-ordinated by
the IAEA under the Asian Regional Co-operative Project on F oo d Irradiation (R P F I) are
reviewed. Twelve institutions in eleven Member States o f the IAEA participated in the first
phase o f the RPFI from 1980 to 1984, with the objective o f conducting research and develop­
ment work, including pilot-scale studies, in the field o f food irradiation, aimed at achieving
commercialization o f selected food item s o f econom ic im portance to the region, i.e. fishery
products, mangoes, onions and spices. The efficacy o f irradiation for insect disinfestation of
dried and cured fish, disinfestation o f Oriental fruit flies (Dacus dorsalis) in and shelf-life
extension o f mangoes, sprout inhibition o f onions and decontam ination o f spices is described.
Results o f these studies have dem onstrated that the technology could be effectively transferred
to relevant industries. Participating countries in the R PFI such as Bangladesh, the Republic
o f Korea, Pakistan, the Philippines, and Thailand are planning or are considering the construction
o f large m ultipurpose irradiation facilities for such a technology transfer. Plans to implement
activities under the second phase o f the R PFI on technology transfer o f food irradiation as well
as the prospects o f com mercialization o f the technology in the region are discussed.

INTRODUCTION

Research on food irradiation in Asia and the Pacific started in

India and Japan in the 1950s and was soon followed up in Australia,
Indonesia, the Republic of Korea, Pakistan, the Philippines and Thailand
in the 1960s. Since then, most other countries in the region have real­
ized the potential benefit of this technology in reducing food losses and
facilitating trade. Data generated from research and development on food
irradiation in Asia and the Pacific has contributed greatly to the
advance of this technology in the region and world wide.

An important development in food irradiation occurred in Japan in

1973 when the Government, together with the Shihoro Agricultural Coopera­
tive, located in Hokkaido, decided to build the Commercial Potato Irrad-

* This paper was presented in lieu o f a review paper entitled “F oo d irradiation develop­
ments in Asia and the South Pacific” , by P. Thom as (India), who was unable to attend.

175
176 LOAHARANU

iator as part of the potato processing complex in Shihoro. This con­

struction started a new era in the commercialization of food irradiation
processes, which, at present, is being actively pursued and carried out
in a number of countries such as Belgium, France, Hungary, Italy, the
Netherlands, South Africa, USA and USSR, for specific applications.

This paper presents the summary of development on food irradiation

in Asia and the Pacific, particularly relating to the co-ordinating role
of the IAEA within the Asian Regional Co-operative Project on Food Irrad­
iation in facilitating the application of the technology in the region.

REGIONAL CO-OPERATIVE AGREEMENT (RCA)

At the request of several developing Member States in Asia, the

Agency initiated the Regional Co-operative Agreement for Research, Devel­
opment and Training Related to Nuclear Science and Technology (RCA) to
co-ordinate research and development on a number of projects related to
nuclear technology in the region as early as 1972. Thirteen Member
States in Asia and the Pacific eventually became party to the RCA Agree­
ment and are actively collaborating with the Agency at present. It is
important to note that, in view of the widespread interest and research
activities being carried out in the field of food irradiation in Asia and
the Pacific at that time, a project entitled "Radiation Preservation of
Fish and Fishery Products - RPF" was selected as the first project to
launch the activities of the RCA. Fourteen projects were eventually
carried out under the RCA.

RADIATION PRESERVATION OF FISH AND FISHERY PRODUCTS (RPF)

Research was successfully conducted under the RPF from 1973 to

1978, with the participation of eight institutions in Bangladesh, India,
Indonesia, the Republic of Korea, Pakistan, the Philippines and Thai­
land. The results of this work showed the technological feasibility of
irradiation for shelf-life extension of fresh mackerel and milk-fish,
which are common fish species in the region. The use of irradiation for
insect disinfestation of dried fish appeared to be very promising. In
addition, microorganisms of public health significance in fresh, dried
and processed fish products can be controlled or eliminated by appro­
priate radiation treatment.

Results of research and development work on radiation treatment of

fish and fishery products, especially from the Asian and Pacific region,
were reviewed at the FAO/IAEA Advisory Group Meeting (AGM) on Radiation
Treatment of Fish and Fishery Products, held in Manila, 13-16 March
1978. The AGM recommended very strongly that radiation preservation of
dried and cured fishery products should be given the highest priority for
Africa and Asia, where annual production of these products was 345000 and
723000 tonnes, respectively, at that time. Dried and cured fish provide
the most important source of animal protein to the population in these
regions, but this commodity suffers high losses, mainly due to insect
infestation during storage and marketing. Often, insecticides were used
to overcome the infestation problem.
 IAEA-SM-271/90 177

RADIATION PRESERVATION OF DRIED FISH

The Agency therefore initiated a new co-ordinated research pro­

gramme (CRP) on "Radiation Preservation of Dried Fish Indigenous to Asia
- RPDF" in 1978. The CRP was in the initial stage of operation when the
Japanese Government decided to join the RCA in mid-1978 with a special
interest in supporting a project on food irradiation. Consequently a
special mission was sent by the IAEA, under the sponsorship of the
Japanese Government, in September 1979 to evaluate the status of food
irradiation and to assess the interest and the need of developing Member
States in the region in implementing food irradiation programmes on a
practical scale. From the six countries visited by the mission, it was
clear that the interest in the application of food irradiation in these
countries as well as in other countries in Asia was not limited to dried
and cured fish. The mission strongly recommended that the Agency should
assist developing Member States of the RCA to expand the scope of the
RPDF to a regional project on radiation preservation of food of economic
importance to the region.

WORKSHOP ON FOOD IRRADIATION

Under the sponsorship of the Japanese Government, a t h r e e - w e e k

workshop on food irradiation was convened at different institutions
responsible for research and development in this field in Japan, from 22
October to 15 November 1979. The objectives of the workshop were to
train senior scientists from developing Member States of RCA on method­
ology and research on large-scale radiation treatment of food items of
interest to the region. Fourteen scientists from seven developing coun­
tries in Asia participated in the workshop. One outcome of the workshop
was a proposed plan of research on radiation preservation of a number of
food items to be co-ordinated by the IAEA on a regional basis.

ASIAN REGIONAL CO-OPERATIVE PROJECT ON FOOD IRRADIATION (RPFI)

Considering the interest of a number of countries in Asia and the

Pacific in realizing the practical application of food irradiation, and
based on the recommendation of the expert mission, the IAEA proposed to
the Japanese Government during 1979 to consider funding a co-ordinated
research programme (CRP) in this field for three years at a total cost of
US$236000. After careful consideration, the Japanese Government agreed
to sponsor the CRP under the title of "Asian Regional Co-operative Pro­
ject on Food Irradiation (RPFI)" for three years, with the amount
requested. The objective of the RPFI is to conduct research and develop­
ment, including pilot-scale studies in the field of food irradiation
aimed at achieving commercialization of selected food items of economic
importance to the region.

A legal agreement establishing the RPFI was developed and entered

into force on 28 August 1980 when the Japanese Government and the Govern­
ments of Indonesia, the Republic of Korea and the Philippines notified
the Agency of their acceptance of the agreement. Eventually, eleven Gov­
ernments, i.e., Bangladesh, India, Indonesia, Japan, the Republic of
Korea, Malaysia, Pakistan, the Philippines, Sri Lanka, Thailand and Viet
Nam became party to the agreement.
178 LOAHARANU

Owing to the limited financial resources available for the project

and in order to concentrate efforts on studies on irradiated food items
which are likely to find practical application in the near future, only
fishery products, mangoes, onions and spices were selected for research
under the RPFI. Consequently, fourteen research contracts and agreements
were concluded with twelve institutions to carry out the work during the
past four years.

Scope of work

To conduct research on the use of irradiation for:

(a) insect disinfestation and improving hygienic quality of dried and
cured fishery products;
(b) insect disinfestation and shelf-life extension of tropical fruits
such as mangoes;
(c) control of sprouting of onions;
(d) improving hygienic quality of spices.

ProRress and achievements

Results of work conducted under the RPFI in the past four years
were reviewed annually by the RPFI Project Committee which consisted of
representatives of Governments party to the RPFI Agreement. These
results may be summarized as follows:

(a) Dried and cured fishery products

A radiation dose of 0.3 - 0.5 kGy can effectively destroy
insect species which cause infestation in dried and cured fish.
Together with proper packaging, the treated products, which have a
moisture content below 20% can be kept insect-free at ambient tem­
peratures for several months. Irradiation of prepackaged dried
fish having intermediate moisture content (20-40%) with a dose of
2-4 kGy together with potassium sórbate or with an oxygen absorber
resulted in a shelf-life extension of the products up to 6 months
at ambient conditions. Irradiation plus packaging costs for dried
fish using a dose of 1 kGy were estimated to be less than 3% of the
price of the product.

(b) Tropical fruits (mangoes)

A minimum dose of 0.5 kGy resulted in no adult emergenc

Oriental fruit flies (Dacus dorsalis) in mangoes. A dose of 0.75
kGy together with a hot water dip treatment (55°C for 5 minutes)
can extend the shelf-life of mangoes at ambient conditions from 8
to 12 days. Trial shipments of irradiated mangoes from the Philip­
pines to the Netherlands by air and from Bangkok to Singapore by
surface showed promising results.

(c) Onions
Pilot-scale studies showed that a dose of 0.1 kGy is effective
for sprout inhibition and reduction of weight losses of onions
stored under ambient conditions in a model storage facility with
good ventilation in India. A similar dose can inhibit sprouting of
onions and other crops such as potatoes and garlic in a natural low
temperature storage room (2-20°C, 70-80% R.H.) which is equipped
with internal forced ventilation in Korea. Similar results were
achieved on sprout inhibition of shallots stored under ambient con­
ditions in Bangladesh. All studies used tonne quantities of onions.
 IAEA-SM-271/90 179

(d) Spices
A dose of 5 kGy could reduce the microbial load of spices
(black and white pepper, nutmeg) by as much as 2-4 log cycles for
the total plate count and 1-3 log cycles for the total mould and
yeast counts. Packaging irradiated spices either in tin cans or in
woven polypropylene bags lined with polypropylene film caused no
significant change in aw values and moisture content during pro­
longed storage. A trial shipment by surface from Jakarta to Wagen­
ingen, the Netherlands, showed that irradiation with 5 kGy could
effectively decontaminate spices without altering their chemical
composition and sensory properties.

In addition, an evaluation mission consisting of experts on food

irradiation from Japan, India, the U S A and the IAEA was sent by the
Agency to several countries participating in the RPFI in June 1983. The
mission concluded that the work conducted under the RPFI has demonstrated
the technological and economic feasibility of radiation treatment of
fishery products (dried and cured), tropical fruits (mangoes), onions and
spices. Food irradiation technology in several RPF1 countries has
reached the stage where it can be effectively transferred to the relevant
industries. The infrastructure required for such a technology transfer
is already existent in these countries. In most cases, pilot or large
scale demonstration irradiators are either being constructed or are
planned for this purpose in several RPF1 countries (Bangladesh, India,
Indonesia, the Republic of Korea, Pakistan, the Philippines and Thailand).

Based on encouraging results obtained under the RPFI, Bangladesh

and Thailand have decided recently to build multipurpose irradiators to
treat food and medical products. The Government of Bangladesh approved
irradiated wheat, potatoes, onions, chicken, papaya, rice, strawberries
and fish for human consumption on an unconditional basis while approving
irradiated shrimp and frog legs on a provisional basis in December 1983.
The Republic of Korea and Pakistan are considering construction of either
large demonstration irradiators and/or commercial irradiators in the near
future.

SECOND PHASE OF THE ASIAN REGIONAL CO-OPERATIVE PROJECT ON FOOD IRRADIA­

TION (RPFI PHASE II)

Based on the encouraging results obtained under the original phase

of the RPFI (Phase 1), it was already considered by the RPFI Project Com­
mittee at its third meeting held in Bangkok in November 1982, to plan
follow-up activities for the RPFI Phase I, especially on transferring
food irradiation technology to local industries. Following the positive
recommendation of the evaluation mission, a proposal for a three year co­
ordinated plan for technology transfer of food irradiation was developed
by the Agency. The proposal was considered and later accepted by the
RPFI Project Committee at its fourth meeting, held in Seoul in April
1984, according to the following:

Objectives

To assist national authorities in developing Member States party to

the RCA to transfer food irradiation technology to local industries for
the purpose of reducing malnutrition of the population and widening dis­
tribution of food in.the trade and in particular to:
 180 LOAHARANU

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182
LOAHARANU

THAILAND Multipurpose irradiator (200 kCi) planned for 1986 food in general
Bangkok
 IAEA-SM-271/90 183

(a) demonstrate the practical application of food irradiation tech­

nology with regard to insect disinfestation of fruits and stored
products, improving hygiene of processed seafood to the national
authorities and food industries of developing Member States party
to the RCA;

(b) assist national and international agencies in their assessment of

the commercial feasibility of radiation processing of food;

(c) monitor progress on research and development on food irradiation to

be conducted in close collaboration with the relevant industries in
RCA countries.

Scope of the project

The following general scope of work on the use of irradiation was
agreed to be carried out under RPFI Phase II:

(a) disinfestation and decontamination of stored products;

(b) improvement of hygiene and storage ability of processed seafood;

(c) insect disinfestation of fruits for quarantine purposes;

(d) sprout inhibition of root crops.

Governments party to the Agreement Extension

The agreement establishing the RPFI was subsequently extended for

three years starting from 28 August 1984. The following Governments are
party to the Agreement Extension: Bangladesh, India, Indonesia, Malay­
sia, Pakistan, the Philippines, Thailand and Viet Nam. The Government of
Australia has agreed to sponsor the RPFI Phase II for a duration of three
years at a total cost of US$260000.

Implementation of RPFI Phase II

Activities of the RPFI Phase II will be implemented with a workshop

on food irradiation, to be held at the Australian Atomic Energy Commis­
sion (AAEC), Lucas Heights, Australia from 29 April to 10 May 1985. The
purpose of the workshop is to demonstrate the use of irradiation for food
preservation at pilot-scale with emphasis on process control and quality
assurance. Participants of the workshop are expected to be selected from
scientists and representatives of food industries (industrialists), to
enable them to carry out the appropriate technology transfer activities
in their own countries.

PROSPECTS FOR COMMERCIALIZATION OF FOOD IRRADIATION IN ASIA AND THE

PACIFIC

Japan was the first country to commercialize irradiated potatoes

successfully in 1973. Up to now, Japan remains the only country in Asia
and the Pacific which treats potatoes by irradiation on an industrial
scale. Small-scale commercialization of irradiated food is reported in
the People’s Republic of China, the Philippines, Taiwan and Thailand.
The commercial activities on food irradiation in different countries are
summarized in Table I.
184 LOAHARANU

The delay in commercialization of irradiated food in the region

could be partly because of the lack of legislation in this field in most
countries. Only Bangladesh, Japan, the Philippines and Thailand have
regulations on food irradiation. This problem should be overcome in the
near future with the acceptance of the Codex Alimentarius Commission’ s
Codex General Standard for Irradiated Foods and the Recommended Code of
Practice for the Operation of Radiation Facilities used for Treatment of
Food. Also, it is only recently that the food industry in the region
became aware of the possible benefits of food irradiation to their pro­
ducts, especially those which are subject to health or quarantine inspec­
tions. In addition, most countries, especially developing ones, lack
suitable irradiators to treat food on a commercial scale.

It is encouraging to note, however, that a number of countries in

Asia and the Pacific, as well as those in other regions, are either con­
structing or are planning to build large irradiators for treating food
and non-food items in their countries, according to Table II.

CONCLUSIONS

After some three decades of research and development, food irradia­

tion is gaining recognition and acceptance in many countries. In Asia
and the Pacific, where a large amount of research data on different
applications of food irradiation has been accumulated, the technology
could play an important role in reducing losses and facilitating wider
distribution of certain food products. The RPFI has provided a strong
impetus for several countries to co-ordinate their programmes effectively
towards the practical application of this technology to combat the high
rate of food losses and to make more food available to the population in
the region.
 IAEA-SM-271/91

Invited Paper

FOOD IRRADIATION DEVELOPMENT IN AFRICA

B. CH IN SM A N
Division o f Technological
Consulting Services,
The African Regional Centre
for Technology,
Dakar, Senegal

Abstract

FOOD IR RA D IA TIO N D EV ELO PM ENT IN A FR IC A .

The paper assesses prospects for using irradiation technology in the preservation of staple foods
and in the treatment ofl agricultural com m odities in the African region. This assessment is made
in the light o f the magnitude o f the losses that occur, and the priority attributed by African States
to ensuring that foods currently produced are better conserved to reach their consumers in edible
condition with minimum loss. Estim ates are presented o f the cost o f food losses and for the
consequent food im ports necessary to satisfy regional requirements. The principal causes o f food
loss include bacteria and insect attack, sprouting, m aturation and senescence decay. A review of
the literature is made which indicates that there is already some limited experience in food
irradiation processing in the region. This review and other relevant studies suggest that the m ajor
causes o f loss in staple foods and deterioration in other agricultural com m odities can be controlled
or delayed by the application o f irradiation doses below the maxim um levels perm itted by the
Codex Alimentarius. In the light o f these observations and considering the high estim ated cost o f
food losses and food im ports in the region, the paper notes that a system atic assessment o f the
cost-benefit potential o f irradiation processing in the region would be highly desirable. It is
advocated that this assessment should determine the feasibility o f including irradiation processing
as part o f the overall technological package required for the preservation o f a wide range o f foods
and cash crops produced in the region. Attention is also drawn to a number o f issues to be
resolved before commercial-scale operations can be contem plated. These relate to lack o f
manpower and experience, financial resources and appropriate infrastructure, which may impede
a rapid introduction o f the technology. In conclusion, details are presented o f a co-operative
project which is designed to improve national capacities in food irradiation in selected institutions
to start overcoming some o f the barriers identified to the introduction o f the process in the region.

1. IN T R O D U C T IO N

Many countries in Africa today experience problems o f food shortage and famine.
The situation has worsened steadily over the past decade because o f the widening gap
between the rates o f food production and population growth. The Food and Agricul­
ture Organization o f the United Nations (F A O ) has estimated that the average annual
growth rate o f basic food production fell from 2.7% in the 1960s to 1.3% in the

185
186 CHINSMAN

1970s, these rates being in any case less than 50% o f rates recorded in other regions.
On the other hand, A frica’s population growth rate over these periods has
steadily increased to a current level o f about 3%. This imbalance between production
and consumption by itself constitutes a major obstacle to the achievement o f
the development objectives o f the region.
There is a second factor that further compounds this problem. A high pro­
portion o f the food harvested in Africa is lost to rodents, birds, insects and fungi
because o f poor preservation, processing and storage. Traditional methods for
food preservation (sun-drying, fire, smoke, palm-oil, etc.) are inadequate, especially
for long conservation. Often, they do not prevent the loss o f nutritive properties
or that o f original flavours and even facilitate insect and microbial attack.
It is ironic that a food crisis and famine should be occurring in Africa at a time
when major advances in science and technology have led to vastly improved food
production and food preservation methods in other regions o f the world. Few
attempts have, however, been made to appraise the potential o f selected new
technologies systematically with a view to determining their suitability for
introduction in the region. It is within this context o f identifying and applying
a suitable mix o f viable techniques to improve the self-sufficiency in food
in the African region that interest in irradiation processing should be seen.

2. SOURCES A N D E X T E N T O F TH E FO O D LOSS PRO B LEM IN A F R IC A

2.1. Traditional pattern o f fo od production

Almost all the food and agricultural commodities produced in Africa are
cultivated under conditions which rely on the climate. This dependence
on the weather imposes severe constraints on the whole system o f production
as the main periods o f rainfall in most o f the countries in the continent
occur within a single season lasting 3 to 6 months each year. Under such conditions
only one annual crop is normally cultivated and any variations in climatic patterns
such as late or early rainfall, or too little or too much rainfall, can cause severe
disruption and significant reductions in output.
This reliance on rain-fed agriculture also creates another set o f problems. The
necessity to produce a year’s supply o f food in a single period o f each year results
in enormous post-harvest problems. First, there is the problem o f storage capacity
and efficiency which bears directly on the magnitude o f the losses which subse­
quently occur. The conditions in the rural areas are also adverse to long storage
o f food as both the nature o f the staple foods and the warm climate and high
humidity favour the rapid growth o f organisms which cause spoilage and accelerate
chemical and physical deterioration. Food therefore tends to be relatively abundant,
and prices are consequently lower, immediately after harvest, and to become pro­
gressively scarcer and more expensive over the rest o f the year. This scarcity and
 IAEA-SM-271/91 187

the accompanying rise in prices are the result o f both the pattern o f production
and the high levels o f food loss which occur after harvest.
The lack o f all-year round supplies also creates problems for food processing
enterprises as such activities even when conducted on a small scale cannot be
assured o f regular supplies o f raw materials at stable prices. A number o f food
processing enterprises in the region have actually failed precisely fo r this reason.
These constraints have contributed to the steady increase o f food imports
into the region as the food processing sector in Africa has largely remained under­
developed. However, with increasing urbanization this situation would need to
be corrected. A t the current rates o f urbanization, half the African population
will be living in towns and cities by the year 2000. Preservation o f foods for
wider marketing and distribution in the fresh state and for subsequent transfor­
mation into more stable, storable and convenient forms o f utilization will there­
fore become increasingly necessary. Reliable data on the origins and magnitude
o f food losses are therefore important, first, for defining appropriate measures
to reduce the losses and, secondly, fo r appraising the suitability o f alternative
preservation and processing technologies fo r reducing food losses.

2.2. Food loss estimates

Losses in foods can be assessed both quantitatively and in terms o f the decline
in quality and nutritional value which occur after harvest. Loss estimation studies
have, however, concentrated on measuring quantitative losses. Data obtained from
these studies fo r the major foods produced in the region are summarized in Table I.
Although a standard method o f measurement was not used in these studies, the
figures are instructive in indicating that substantial losses do occur. The incidence
o f such high levels o f losses in foods suggests that the starting point for improving
the food situation in the region should be the introduction o f effective preservation
methods. Considering also that traditional food consumption and culinary practice
in Africa often calls fo r the use o f fresh foods, methods that preserve foods in as
near to the fresh state as possible will be desirable both from the point o f view o f
maintaining food habits and for prolonging shelf-life to facilitate marketing and
distribution.

2.3. Causes o f deterioration and losses in staple foods

The major causes o f deterioration in staple foods in Africa are summarized

in Table II. The table shows that physiological and pathological damage are the
principal causes o f food losses. Insect attack can occur in maturing crops in the
field as well as subsequently after harvest. Fungal infestation often follows such
attack giving rise to the production o f toxins.
In the case o f roots and tubers, their botanical entities, structures and high
water content make them unsuitable fo r long-term storage as primary commodities.
188 CHINSMAN

T A B L E I. LOSSES IN S TA PLE FOODS

Staple foods R eported range o f losses

(%)

R oots and tubers

Cassava 20-60
Yam s 15-60
Potatoes 8-95
Cereals
Maize 10-30
Sorghum 6 -40
Millet 10-50
Rice 6-24
Plantains and bananas 3 5 -1 0 0
Fish
Fresh 20 -50
Dried 20 -3 5
Fruits
Citrus 20-95
Pineapple 2 0-7 0
Mango 20-50
Papaya 40 -1 0 0
Avocados 43
Vegetables
Tom atoes 20-50
Onions 16
Pepper 15
Lettuce 62
Cauliflower 49
Cabbage 37
Carrots 44

Major sources Refs [1—4].

However, tubers, which are underground stems, have distinct periods o f dormancy,
giving a time-lag between harvest and sprouting, which makes them suitable for
limited storage. Nevertheless, physiological activities such as respiration and trans­
piration go on throughout the dormancy period. F or yams studies have shown that
losses could be greatly increased by pathogenic attack even before the cessation
o f dormancy. The rate o f respiration and, therefore, weight loss is greatly enhanced
when visible pathogenic attack has occurred. Studies have shown that sprouting
o f yams cannot be controlled by the conventional sprout suppressants that are
comm only used fo r stored potatoes [5, 6 ]. Similarly, no effective control measures
 IAEA-SM-271/91 189

have been found to reduce nematode attack in yams [7]. Cassava, on the other
hand, is a root and not an underground stem. It has no dormancy phase and under­
goes senescence soon after harvest. Deterioration in cassava occurs in tw o stages.
The first, comm only known as vascular streaking or vascular discoloration, is
a purely physiological effect in which specific microorganisms cannot consistently
be isolated from freshly deteriorating tissue nor can symptoms be reproduced
by inoculation with isolates from the cassava. The second stage, however, is patho­
logical and involves massive invasion o f the already deteriorated roots by a wide
variety o f bacteria and fungi.
For fruits and vegetables losses result from physiological changes (senescence,
ripening, respiration, transpiration and sprouting) and from pathological attack
which is facilitated by the ease with which this produce can suffer mechanical
damage. Cereals on the other hand suffer losses as a result o f insects, pests and fungi.
Varying degrees o f qualitative and quantitative losses occur in the various
foods. Deterioration, however, tends to be relatively slow in cereals and pulses
(durable products) and more rapid in roots and tubers, fruits and vegetables, and
fish and sea products (perishable products). Under the conditions prevailing in
the traditional system, perishable products can lose half their quality within two
weeks and cannot be graded after three weeks; on a quantitative basis, half the
product may be eaten after tw o and a half weeks and none after four weeks. On
the other hand, freshly caught fish may deteriorate within hours. Durable crops
can retain harvest quality during the first 8 weeks, lose half their quality after
18 to 26 weeks and are undergraded after 26 weeks. Quantitative loss is, however,
slower in durable crops, o f which about half the original stock will remain after one
year’s storage.

2.4. Cost o f post-harvest fo od losses

F or cost estimation purposes, minimum overall losses o f 10 to 12% for

durables and 20% fo r roots and tubers and 30% fo r fruits and vegetables can
be assumed. These figures are on the conservative side when compared with the
losses given in Table I. A n extrapolation in monetary terms o f these minimum
loss estimates for 1980 is given in Table III. The table shows that a conservatively
estimated minimum o f 20% o f the total food produced in A frica is lost after
harvest. Six million tonnes o f cereals are lost, while almost the same quantity
o f maize and rice is imported. For root and tuber crops and fruits and vegetables,
losses in each case stand at over 16 million tonnes. Even at 1980 levels o f production,
a reduction in post-harvest food losses o f 50% as called fo r in the Lagos Plan o f
Action will save an estimated 1.8 X 109 US $ worth o f food annually in the region.

2.5. Cost o f food imports

The average food import bill per African country between 1961 and 1965
was 37 million US $. By 1968 the figure was 64 million US $. The average annual
TABLE II. SUMMARY OF MAJOR CAUSES OF LOSS IN STAPLE FOODS
190
CHINSMAN

Grain legumes
 IAEA-SM-271/91 191

T A B L E III. M AJO R S TA PL E FO O D PR O D U C TIO N A N D LOSSES (1980)

Average Estim ated Estim ated

Com m odity Production Price/t Im ports
loss loss- loss
(kt) (%) (kt) (U S $) (1 0 9 U S $) (kt)

Rice 8 429 12 1 011 400 3 404 2 383

Maize 27 191 10 2 719 195 530 3 140
Sorghum and millet 20 454 11 2 250 310 697 -
R oots and tubers 83 903 20 16 718 25 419 -
Fruits and vegetables 56 323 30 16 897 100 1 690 135

TO TA L 196 300 39 650 3 740 5 658

D ata based on R efs [9, 10].

food import bill per country in 1982 stood at about 100 million US $. More
recent figures for total food imports in the region are even more striking: 25 million
tonnes for 1982 and 29 million tonnes fo r 1983 and forecasts show that average
food imports per African country may exceed 125 million US $ by 1990 and
216 million US $ by the turn o f the century i f present trends continue [ 8 ].
For the ECOWAS subregion, annual food imports between 1962 and 1964
were estimated at about 200 million US $. By 1972-76 this figure had increased by
over 300% to some 648 million US $ in current value. Although exports also
increased, this was only by 157% thereby widening the food gap.
In Nigeria 5.26 X 109Naira (6.5 X 109 US $) was spent on food imports
between 1970 and 1980. From 1978 to 1980 food imports alone amounted to
1.85 X 109 Naira (2.3 X 109 US $). In Sierra Leone 21 million US $ representing
75% o f earnings from exports o f agricultural crops was spent on rice imports
alone in 1981/82.
A considerable part o f these fo od imports is necessitated by food losses
after harvest that arise from pathogenic deterioration, insect attack as well as
by physiological and metabolic changes, such as ripening, senescence and sprouting.
Most o f these food-loss creating factors can be controlled by irradiation. It is
against this background that the investments necessary for the safe and effective
introduction o f fo od irradiation processing in Africa should be viewed.

3. SCOPE O F TH E A P P L IC A T IO N O F IR R A D IA T IO N TE C H N O L O G Y IN
S TA PLE FOOD P R E S E R V A T IO N

The reduction o f post-harvest losses in staple foods is now a central part

o f national strategies fo r alleviating the fo od crisis in the African region. The
192 CHINSMAN

Lagos Plan o f A ction accords high priority to the reduction o f food losses and
stipulates that measures should be introduced to reduce such losses by 50% in
the short term. The major part o f the effort to reduce food losses has been
directed towards the upgrading o f traditional techniques and adaptation o f
classical methods o f food preservation and processing such as drying, canning,
freezing, fermenting and milling o f foods into flours and other stable forms
o f storage. Few attempts have been made to explore the possibilities o f other
techniques such as irradiation processing which could be considered in the
comprehensive programme for reducing food losses in the region.
Apart from the limited access to the necessary facilities in the region, lack
o f information has been a major drawback in generating interest in food
irradiation. This has made it difficult to convince national health authorities
and consumers that foods processed by irradiation are wholesome and safe for
consumption. The recent decision in 1983 by the Codex Alimentarius
Commission to adopt the recommendation o f the Joint FAO/IAEA/W HO Expert
Committee on the Wholesomeness o f Irradiated F ood (JE C FI) will serve to
alleviate the fears and anxieties that the method had evoked and will serve to
prom ote the practical applications o f food irradiation.
A further development that will generate interest in food irradiation in the African
region is the growing realization that some chemical additives that have fo r long
been used in food preservation in the region are unsafe and can have an adverse
effect on public health and the environment. Furthermore, many African countries
continually lose a large share o f their potential earnings from international trade
in agricultural produce because o f the poor state o f these products, necessitating
quarantine measures and lower prices. Whereas chemical treatment was generally
permitted in the past, there is now a growing trend to restrict such treatment
o f agricultural commodities in international trade.

3.1. General principles

Irradiation o f foods can render inactive or destroy the biological alteration

agents found in foods, such as bacteria, yeasts and moulds, and which effect
food deterioration. The process can be applied in several ways. Foods can be
pasteurized to extend conservation duration; however, similar precautions to those
taken for products pasteurized by heating (e.g. refrigeration) must be taken after
such processing. Pasteurization by irradiation can be used to preserve fish and
sea products, which are major sources o f protein in many African countries. Large
quantities o f fish caught in the coastal areas are lost or destroyed during transport
to the hinterland. The possibility o f improving the shelf-life economically by
only a few days will not only change this situation but will also open up new
markets fo r surplus production. Pasteurization is equally effective for the pre­
servation o f meat and poultry, particularly against contamination by salmonella,
as well as in limiting the extensive spread o f fungi in fruits.
 IAEA-SM-271/91 193

Sterilization, which is more often used for medical instruments and equipment,
can equally be applied to foods. The method has been shown to be applicable
to various types o f food such as meat, poultry, fish and some vegetables but not
to others such as milk and dairy products because o f the unpleasant flavour changes
that may occur. Just as in the case o f sterilization by heating, foods sterilized by
irradiation can be conserved for long periods provided the packaging remains intact.
The advantage o f irradiation over thermic processing lies in the fact that the
products can be processed in the dry state in large capacity containers without
introducing any alteration in the flavour, texture or colour o f the original product.
Disinfestation o f foods can be achieved at low doses o f irradiation which can
destroy parasites and insects found in grains, flour, fruits and other stored products.
The method is therefore useful as it can be an effective alternative to chemical
fumigation, which has the disadvantage o f being toxic.

3.2. Experience in specific applications

3.2.1. Disinfestation treatment in Ghana

Trials with gamma irradiation [11] have been conducted in Ghana for the
disinfestation o f maize, cocoa beans and cowpeas. Cowpeas are leguminous
grains and are important sources o f protein in Africa. The traditional preser­
vation o f cowpeas involves repeated sun-drying and, apart from being laborious,
it is ineffective as the grains are exposed to insect and beetle attack resulting in
high losses. Preservation by chemicals leaves harmful residues in the grains and
constitutes a danger to public health.
Experiments to establish the technological feasibility o f gamma irradiation
o f red and white varieties o f cowpeas [ 1 1 ] indicated that at doses between 0.1
and 0.5 kGy the irradiated cowpeas showed no loss in weight over a period o f
11 months. Visual inspection o f the irradiated white cowpeas after 11 months
showed that they maintained their original colour and texture. In contrast,
the non-irradiated red peas lost 4% o f dry weight and experienced at 3.8% rise
in spoilage due to insect attack. N o mouldiness was, however, defected even though
the moisture content had changed from 11 to 14% during the period. In the case
o f the non-irradiated white cowpeas, there was significant moisture increase from
9.5 to 18% and an increase in spoilage o f about 30% over the 11 month period.
The untreated peas were mouldy and had deteriorated into a sticky mass.

3.2.2. Treatment of spices in Egypt

In Egypt spices are widely used in food preparation at the domestic level
and by the food industry. Spice consumption is rapidly increasing because o f the
steady growth o f the food industry and the production o f processed foods. Results
o f preliminary studies [12] indicated that irradiation with 10 kGy decreased
194 CHINSMAN

essential oils in caraway by 10 %, had no effect on the pigment content o f paprika,

nor on the content o f total and reducing sugars o f caraway, coriander and black
pepper. N o significant differences were found in the contents o f 10 different
fractions o f volatile oils in coriander as a result o f irradiation with 10 kGy. Pilot trials
have also been successfully conducted on potatoes, onions and garlic.

3.2.3. Germination and budding inhibition in Nigeria

Utilization o f low irradiation doses inhibits the germination or budding o f

roots and tubers (carrots, sweet potatoes, potatoes, yams) or bulbs (onions, garlic) and
thus extends their conservation period. This process offers considerable advantages
over the use o f chemical substances fo r the same purpose. From experiments per­
form ed in Nigeria with gamma radiation doses o f 0.075 kGy and above have been
reported to completely inhibit sprouting in yams for periods o f up to eight months
without adverse effects on physical appearance and palatability [13]. Doses o f 0.2 to
0.3 kGy eliminated 70 to 80% o f the nematode population in yam peels infected with
Soutellonema bradys [14]. Studies have also been successfully conducted on the
possible use o f ionizing radiation to inhibit sprouting in Nigerian onion cultivars
and to extend the shelf-life and improve the rehydration properties o f dehydrated
vegetables. It therefore seems that, on the basis o f available evidence, irradiation
could be a useful tool for extending the storage life o f perishable foods.

3.2.4. Maturation and senescence delays

Maturation in fruits such as banana, mango, papaw, guava, pear, some o f

which are already important commodities in international trade, can be considerably
delayed by low-dose irradiation (0.25 to 0.35 kG y). The advantage o f this process
fo r tropical fruits lies mainly in the fact that these products display extensive
sensitivity to physiological effects (chilling injury) when they are stored at
temperatures below 10—15°C [15].

3.2.5. Other applications

Irradiation o f meat products (ham, bacon, corned beef, sausage) helps to

reduce or eliminate the utilization o f some food additives such as nitrites. These
substances are needed for the retention o f flavour and colour and equally play
a role in inhibiting the development o f some pathogens such as Clostridium botu­
linum, thus preventing the production o f toxin. However, under some conditions,
the nitrites can combine with other chemical constituí en ts to form nitrosamines
which may lead to health problems [16]. It is thus possible, through irradiation,
to maintain the nitrite content at a minimum level that is sufficient to guarantee
the retention o f the products’ flavour.
 IAEA-SM-271/91 195

3.3. Nutritional aspects

The effects o f irradiation on food nutritional quality have been considered

from tw o approaches. The first involved the determination o f the chemical
composition o f the processed foodstuffs, while in the second experiments were
conducted on animals fed with irradiated food. The large volume o f data obtained
from these studies on various foodstuffs such as fruits, vegetables, cereals, meat,
poultry, fish, shrimps, and spices, revealed that foods irradiated with the pres­
cribed doses do not change in any way their nutritional quality [17].
In some specific cases, minor losses o f vitamin С and carotene were, however,
noted in some fruits such as mango [18]. These losses were insignificant compared
with those occurring under freezing or processing by heating [19]. Irradiation with
a dose o f 3 kG y was found to lead to a 15% loss o f thiamine and a 26% loss o f
pyridoxine in some fishes such as mackerel [ 2 0 ].
Further studies are, however, required under the conditions prevailing in
the African region to determine maximum safe doses both from the point o f
view o f public health and safety and the increased risks due to manpower and
infrastructural limitations. In addition, further studies will be required on the
effects o f shelf-life extension and decay control. These results are expected to be
different from those obtained in studies in other regions because o f varietal
changes and composition, physiological response to radiation treatment and post-
irradiation storage conditions especially arising from the higher ambient tempera­
ture and humidity in Africa, and the type and degree o f infestation or contami­
nation o f produce before irradiation.

3.4. Economic and financial aspects

Few studies have been conducted on the economic feasibility o f food

irradiation in developing countries. The available studies suggest that costs will
vary with the type and quantities o f produce processed. Estimates made in
1982 indicated that costs will range from US $ 3 to 6 /t o f rice, US $ 2 to 6 /t
o f fruits and US $ 40 to 70/t o f fish [21]. The F A O / IA E A Consultants Group
on the use o f irradiation as a quarantine treatment o f agricultural commodities [ 2 2 ]
estimates that processing costs fo r irradiation disinfestation o f fruits are less
than US $ 60/t and could be as low as US $ 20—30/t depending on capitalization
requirements and minimum treatment dose.
Preliminary assessments in the Ivory Coast [23] indicate that, provided
sufficient quantities o f produce can be treated, inhibition o f germination in roots
and tubers using low doses o f 0.1 kGy, and disinfestation o f agricultural produce
using radiation doses o f 10 kG y will be economically feasible. These assessments
confirm that irradiation processing can be economically feasible where there is a
large concentration o f urban consumers with sufficient resources for purchasing
196 CHINSMAN

the preserved foods. However, where these conditions are not satisfied, the tech­
nique could in addition be utilized for the treatment o f export crops, such as
cacao and certain exotic fruits.
On the basis o f this experience, the economic feasibility o f food irradiation
in Africa will depend on the quantity o f produce to be treated, the plant location,
and infrastructural requirements and the capital and operating cost o f the plant.
The magnitude in monetary terms o f losses caused by insects and other food-
deteriorating agents indicated in Table III suggests that serious consideration
should be given to studying in greater detail the economic feasibility o f irradiation
processing as part o f the strategic technological package for reducing food losses
and enhancing exports o f agricultural produce in the African region.

3.5. Problems and perspectives fo r Africa

The application o f food irradiation in Africa will be confronted with problems

relating to investment costs, lack o f qualified staff, lack o f maintenance structures
as well as some geographical constraints. The lack o f an adequate transport net­
work linking the centres o f food and agricultural production with urban centres
will create problems in collection and distribution. In most cases, food irradiation
may be economically feasible only where there is a concentration o f production or
storage. Furthermore, the technique is associated with a number o f problems
that must be overcome first i f it is to be used widely and effectively. By far the
greatest o f these is the difficult task o f convincing national health authorities and
consumers that foods processed by irradiation are wholesome, i.e. safe for con­
sumption. F ood irradiation still evokes fears and anxieties even in developed
countries. In the African context the technique will obviously require even greater
caution.
Quite apart from the problem o f safety, food irradiation also poses problems
o f an infrastructural nature. This has to do with the establishment o f the required
facilities or, where they already exist, with the strengthening o f such facilities.
Irradiation techniques require laboratories and other physical facilities that are
specially designed and that meet certain safety standards. Food treatment by irra­
diation is no exception. Basic infrastructure is required for the handling,
distribution and storage. Irradiated foods often also require sustained levels o f
cold storage and hermetic packaging to prevent deterioration. In most African
countries facilities for grading foods are either lacking or non-existent and energy and
electricity supplies pose serious problems for industry both from the standpoint
o f cost and reliability o f supplies.
There is also the problem o f resources. Most African countries may not have
the resources that would enable them to exploit on a significant scale the potential
that.irradiation offers as a technique for food treatment. The resources required
fall into three broad categories: ( 1) trained manpower, ( 2 ) equipment and radio­
chemicals, and (3 ) information and literature.
 IAEA-SM-271/91 197

Sizeable investment will be required to train technical and financial manpower

and fo r research and development activities. The introduction o f food irradiation
processing will require a multidisciplinary approach demanding co-ordination and
interaction between policy-makers, scientists, technologists, and industrialists in
the agro-food sectors, trade and industries, and in the public health, safety,
standards and legislative sectors. Most o f these are either in their infancy or non­
existent and many African countries will experience difficulty in marshalling the
necessary resources fo r developing them.
A t the level o f technology choice, the entire plant for irradiation processing
will have to be imported. Contemporary designs o f food irradiation plants are
more suited to conditions in the developed countries. It may be necessary
to determine parameters fo r more suitable designs that economize on capital
and increase the labour component.
Many items required in the irradiation process such as plastic packaging
material, process/handling equipment and special building materials will also have
to be imported at greatly increased prices into the African region. A t the same
time food prices are generally kept low and may make investment costs relatively
high in relation to the value o f the products preserved. There may thus be a need
to develop smaller, reliable and simple irradiators fo r use in the African region.
African countries can best be assisted to overcome these obstacles through a
comprehensive programme o f international co-operation. It is in the light o f this
realization that the African Regional Centre fo r Technology, A R C T , has initiated
a co-operative project for reinforcing selected African institutions that already
have some o f the basic facilities necessary for conducting irradiation trials on
staple foods and training manpower fo r such activities. A list o f institutions that
already have some basic facilities is given in Appendix 1. The project is
being elaborated in co-operation with the IA E A .

4. OBJECTIVES O F TH E C O -O PE R A TIV E PROJECT O N FOOD

IR R A D IA T IO N F O R TH E A F R IC A N REG IO N

The project seeks to address the problems identified in food irradiation

processing in the region with the primary aim o f increasing food supplies, and
enlarging the potential earnings from exports o f foods and cash crops. The
specific objectives include:

(i) In collaboration with A frican national health standards and legislative

authorities and with relevant subregional, regional and international
bodies, to define norms, practices and legislation appropriate for food
irradiation in African environments;
(ii) T o establish and/or strengthen selected laboratories in Africa fo r food
processing by means o f radiation techniques;
198 CHINSMAN

(iii) T o train fo r such laboratories ‘seed’ staff capable o f using radiation

techniques in food treatment and o f training others to em ploy such
techniques;
(iv ) T o train technicians in the use, maintenance and servicing o f equipment
used in the treatment o f food by radiation and o f other relevant nuclear
instruments;
(v ) T o provide advisory services to African countries with regard to the
application o f radiation to food treatment and the formulation o f
appropriate legislation;
(v i) T o establish an information system aimed at disseminating knowledge
about the scientific, health, legal and commercial aspects o f irradiation as
a food-processing technique.

The objectives would be achieved primarily through a programme o f activities

involving strengthening selected national institutions for carrying out irradiation
trials on food, and exchange and fellowship schemes that will enable African
researchers to work in relevant institutions in developed and other developing
countries. The research activities would involve trials to determine parameters for
the safe irradiation o f common staple foods and other agricultural commodities.
The exchange and fellowship scheme will be designed to prom ote technical
co-operation between African and non-African institutions working or irradiation o f
foods. Training courses will be directed not only towards researchers but also other
technical personnel who will be responsible fo r the operation and maintenance
o f the equipment. A reference manual will be developed on the activities o f African
institutions engaged in work on food irradiation which will indicate the capacity,
activities and potential o f each institution.
T o carry out the co-operative activities in the project, three types o f resources
will be required: (i) personnel, (ii) equipment, and (iii) funds for direct costs. It is
estimated that the resources required fo r all three categories will amount to
US $2.5 million over a period o f five years. O f these, about US $0.5 million
will be contributed by A R C T in the forms o f staff who w ill work on the
project and support services and facilities that the Centre w ill make available.
It is anticipated that when the project is finalized, the funds for its implementation
will be sought from donors and institutions wishing to participate in the project.

5. CO NCLU SIO NS

The potential o f food irradiation in Africa will depend on a number o f factors.

First, it will be necessary to demonstrate the technical feasibility o f the process and
that the food processed are nutritionally adequate and safe for human consumption.
Furthermore, and perhaps more importantly at the present stage o f development,
 IAEA-SM-271/91 199

the economic feasibility o f the process under African conditions would need to be
established both in terms o f capital and operating cost including energy demand
and the improved organizational and infrastructural requirements that would have
to be set up to ensure the proper and efficient use o f the technique.
The potential fo r using an established facility as extensively as possible for
the treatment o f a variety o f foods and export crops should be investigated to
ensure maximum utility o f the equipment. The seasonality o f production o f food
and agricultural commodities would require that the equipment be adapted for
treating different types o f foods and produce at diffèrent times o f the year. Certain
produce may also require special or combined treatment fo r the process to be
effective.
The assessment o f the economic feasibility o f the food irradiation process
in Africa should be conducted by comparing the technique with other food
processing methods. However, the objective should not be to present food
irradiation as an alternative replacement for existing traditional and other new
techniques o f preservation. Rather, the study should be in the context o f seeking
to determine the optimal conditions under which a variety o f technologies could
be applied and to define an integrated system by which the most appropriate
technologies could be used for addressing different post-harvest requirements in
the region. Food irradiation technologies should therefore be considered as a part
o f the spectrum o f technological options from which solutions to A frica’s post­
harvest problems could be derived.
A number o f problems which may impede a rapid introduction o f food
irradiation processing in the African region have been identified. It is, however,
relevant to note that even the well-established classic preservation technologies in
the industrialized countries have several limitations when transferred in their
entirety to the African region. Some o f these constraints are within the same
domain as those identified for food irradiation such as infrastructure, management,
costs and energy inputs. The classic food preservation systems have developed in
response to the needs in the industrialized countries and are as a result often
energy intensive. Moreover, cans and packages often needed in these processes
have to be imported at costs that are several times higher than the value o f the
processed food. The resulting distortion in the price o f the processed food, arising
from the disproportionately high cost o f the packaging, has often been a deterrent
to the development o f the food processing sector in the continent.
There is therefore some justification fo r m odifying and adapting existing
technologies to suit conditions in Africa. These conditions would need to take
into account the highly dispersed nature o f agricultural production and that total
production levels within individual countries are much lower than those o f the
developed countries. Highly skilled manpower is also very scarce. Under these
conditions, food irradiators would need to be small, simple to operate and maintain,
o f low cost and low energy consumption and low sensitivity to dust, high am bient.
temperatures and humidity and wide electric voltage fluctuations.
200 CHINSM AN

The positive conclusion o f the Joint FAO/W HO/IAEA Commission entrusted

with the study o f irradiated foods marks a significant advance which would facili­
tate increased utilization o f irradiation processing in food preservation. Further­
more, the adoption o f the recommendation by the Codex Alimentarius Commission
should serve to increase confidence and interest in the technique as a means o f
solving a wide range o f food-preservation problems.
The utilization o f the technique in Africa would, however, require that
appropriate standards be developed and legislation enacted based on the Codex
Alimentarius. The training o f specialist staff fo r plant operation and maintenance
will also be an a priori requirement. A careful assessment o f the economic and
financial viability o f the process, given the constraints that often exist in the region,
will also be necessary. Pilot trials should therefore be conducted in the region to
provide the parameters that will enable the cost-effectiveness o f the method to
be appraised.

Appendix 1

IN S T IT U T IO N S W ITH R A D IA T IO N F A C IL IT IE S IN A F R IC A

The Ghana A tom ic Energy Commission, Accra, Ghana.

The Centre for Nuclear Studies, University o f Dakar, Senegal.
The University o f N airobi, Kenya.
The University o f Ife, Nigeria.
The University o f Ibadan, Nigeria.
The University o f Tanzania, Tanzania.
The N ational Centre for R adiation Research Technology, Cairo, Egypt.
The University o f Sierra Leone, Freetow n, Sierra Leone.
The Centre for Nuclear Studies, Zaire.
The Faculty o f Science, University o f M orocco, M orocco.
The N ational School for Mineral Industries, R abat, M orocco.
The Centre for Nuclear Science and Technology, Algiers, Algeria.
The N ational Institute for Agronom ic Research, Algiers, Algeria.

REFERENCES

[1] ANON., Analysis o f Survey o f Post-Harvest Crop L osses in Developing Countries, FA O,

Rom e, AGPP: M ISC/27 (1977).
[2] Bostid Publication, Post-Harvest Food L osses in Developing Countries, National Academy
o f Sciences, Washington, D.C. (1978).
[3] C O U R SE Y , D .G., BOOTH, R.H ., Post-Harvest L osses o f Perishable Tropical Produce,
Proc. V lth Br. Insectic. and Fungi Conf. London (1 9 7 2 ) 673.
 IAEA-SM-271/91 201

OLO RU N D A, A.O., ABOABA, F.O ., “F oo d preservation by ionizing radiation in Nigeria:

Present and future status” , Food Irradiation (Proc. Int. Sym p. Vienna, 1978), Vol. 1,
IA EA , Vienna (1 9 7 8 ) 53.
[5 PA SSA N , H.C., Sprouting and apical dormancy in yam tubers, Trop. Sci. 191 (1 9 7 7 ) 2 9 —39.
[6 PA SSA N , H.C., “ Dormancy o f yam s in relation to storage” , Yam-Igname (M IEG E, J.,
LYO N GO , S.N ., Eds), O xford University Press (1 9 8 2 ) 3 5 7 —370.
[7 THOMPSON, A .K ., N em atodes in stored yams, E xp. Agrie. 9 3 (1 9 7 3 ) 2 8 1 —286.
[8 O LU KO -O LU KU N , I., Toward F oo d Self-Sufficiency, N LC/O A TU U Seminar, Lagos,
Nigeria (1982).
[9 FA O Trade Y ear Book Vol. 35 (1981).
10 FA O Production Year B ook Vol. 35 (1980).
11 T A K Y I, E .E .K ., Technological feasibility studies on gam m a irradiation o f cowpeas;
F oo d Irradiat. Newslet. 8 2 (1 9 8 4 ) 4 6 —49.
12 SH A R A B A SH , M.T., The effect o f gam m a rays on physical, biochemical and packaging
material concerning various spices, F o o d Irradiat. Newsl. 8 1 (1 9 8 4 ) 14.
13 A D E SU Y I, S.A ., The use o f gam m a radiation for control o f sprouting in yam s (Dioscorea
rotundata) during storage, Nig. J. Plant Protection 2 (1 9 7 6 ) 34.
14 A D E SIY A N , S.O., Studies on the effect o f gam m a radiation on storage life o f white
yam (Dioscorea rotundata var. efon) infected with Soutellonema bradys, Ann. Appl.
Biol. 86 2 (1 9 7 7 ) 213.
15 ANON., F oo d irradiation: R eady for a com eback, F oo d Eng. 4 (1 9 8 2 ) 7 1 —80.
16 ANON., Irradiation o f F oo d s, Booklet prepared by the American Council on Science
and Health, (A CSH ) (1982).
17 M U R RA Y , Т .К ., Nutritional aspects o f food irradiation, F oo d Irradiat. Inf. 11 (1 9 8 1 )
21 -3 2 .
18 THOM AS, A.C., B E Y E R S , М., Irradiation o f sub-tropical fuits — A comparison o f the
chemical changes occurring during norm al ripening o f mangoes and papayas with changes
produced by irradiation, J . Agrie. F oo d Chem. 27 1 (1 9 7 9 ) 157—163.
19 B E Y E R S, М., THOM AS, A.C., Irradiation o f sub-tropical fruits - Changes in certain
nutrients present in mangoes, papayas, litchis during canning, freezing, and irradiation,
J. Agrie. F oo d Chem. 27 1 (1 9 7 9 ) 4 8 - 5 1 .
20 U N D E R T A L, B., et al., The E ffect o f Ionizing Radiation on the Nutritional Value of
Mackerel, Lebensm.-W iss.,University o f Technology 9 (1 9 7 6 ) 7 2 —74.
21 OU W ERKERK, T., An Overview o f the Most Promising Industrial A pplications o f Gam m a
Processing, A tom ic Energy o f Canada Ltd (1982).
22 R eport on FA O /IA E A Group Meeting o f the Use o f Irradiation as a Quarantine Treatm ent
o f Agricultural Com m odities, University o f Hawaii, Manoa, Food Irradiat. Newsl. 8 2
(1 9 8 4 ) 9 - 1 0 .
23 PLA S, L ., Institute for Tropical Technology, A bidjan, Ivory C oast, private communication
(1984).
24 UM EDA, K ., Commercial experiences with the Shihoro potatoe irradiator, F oo d Irradiat.
Newsl. 7 3 (1 9 8 3 ) 1 9 - 3 2 .
 IAEA-SM-271/92

Invited Paper

FOOD IRRADIATION ACTIVITIES IN

LATIN AMERICAN COUNTRIES

T. RU BIO
Comisión Chilena de Energía Nuclear,
Santiago de Chile, Chile

Abstract

FOOD IRR A D IA T IO N A C TIV ITIES IN LA T IN AM ERICA N CO U N TRIES.

The paper gives general information on the status o f food irradiation in Latin American
countries, considering research activities and the concom itant aspects, such as economic
feasibility studies, irradiation facilities, legislation, etc. This general survey shows that the
development o f this technology varies between Latin American countries and that some problem s
need to be solved before this technology can be established in the region. The desirability of
co-ordination at regional level is pointed out.

IN T R O D U C T IO N

During the last three decades extensive work on food irradiation has been
conducted. As a result o f this work, at present a wide variety o f feasible applications
are available in many countries o f different socio- and techno-economic development.
In relation to Latin American countries, food irradiation can be a real solution
to such large problems as the huge post-harvest losses, which sometimes represent
more than 30—50%, especially where the climate conditions are adverse and/or
the commercial practices are not adequate. Also, food irradiation can be very important
for the Latin American countries in solving some public health problems and/or
in improving the quality o f the products they export. It is necessary to take into
account that Latin American countries export enormous quantities o f agricultural
and sea products, so their economies depend heavily on the currency these products
can generate.
This paper summarizes the main activities o f the Latin American countries in
the field o f food irradiation. This survey cannot be considered a complete review
but it gives a general idea o f the present stage o f development o f this technology
in the region.
Most o f the information collected is based on national reports, scientific
publications and especially on the trainees’ reports o f Latin American countries
participating in the IF F IT ’s courses.

203
204 RUBIO

T A B L E I. RESEARCH O N TUBERS A N D BULBS TO IN H IB IT SPRO U TIN G

Country
Argentina

Colom bia

Venezuela
Ecuador

Uruguay
Product

Mexico
Brazil

Cuba

Chile

Peru
Garlic + + + +
Onions + + + + + + +
Ollucos +
Potatoes + + + + + + +

According to these sources o f information, ten Latin American countries

have been or are working in this field: Argentine, Brazil, Colombia, Cuba, Chile,
Ecuador, Mexico, Peru, Uruguay and Venezuela.
The main institutions involved in food irradiation research in these countries
have been the national nuclear commissions, universities and other research institutes
related with food technology.
T o simplify this survey the information was classified into tw o groups: research
activities and other concomitant aspects such as economic feasibility studies,
irradiation facilities, legislation, and information activities.

1. RESEARC H A C T IV IT IE S

The research activities were grouped according to the main technological

effects.

1.1. Sprout inhibition

Table I illustrates the activity on the technological feasibility o f sprout

inhibition by irradiation. It shows that this application is o f common interest
to the majority o f Latin American countries, especially as applied to potatoes
and onions [1 —1 0 ].
On the other hand, this situation shows an unnecessary duplication o f work.
Sometimes tw o countries have carried out studies on the same product and variety,
obtaining the same results.
The research and pilot-scale studies have shown that it is possible to apply
this technology at the commercial or semi-commercial scale on these products with
 IAEA-SM-271/92 205

T A B L E II. RESEARCH O N TH E D IS IN F E S T A T IO N O F SOME PRODUCTS

B Y IO N IZ IN G R A D IA T IO N

Country

Venezuela
Argentina

Colom bia

Ecuador

Uruguay
M exico
Product
Brazil

Cuba

Chile

Peru
Barley +

Black beans +

Beans + + +

Citrus fruits + +

Cocoa beans +
Coffee
T
beans
Corn/corn
+ + + + + +
products
Oat flour +
Papayas + +

Rice/rice
+ + + +
products
Soja flour +
Wheat/
wheat + + + +
flour

benefit to the countries o f the region. Thus, for instance, in Chile potatoes, onions
and garlic are being irradiated on a semi-commercial scale.

1.2. Disinfestation

Table II shows the spread o f activities in the radiation-disinfestation o f food.

This application has acquired great importance, as an alternative to chemical
pesticides, not only for the internal market, but also for the exports from the
Latin American countries.
In this application Brazil and Mexico have carried out several studies in this
field [2, 11, 12]. Com , rice and wheat are the products that have been studied
most, so it can be deduced that they are among the most important products
fo r the region.
206 RUBIO

T A B L E III. RESEARC H ON TH E D E L A Y O F R IPE N IN G

Country

Venezuela
Argentina

Colom bia

Ecuador

Uruguay
Mexico
Brazil
Product

Cuba

Chile

Peru
Avocado + +
Babaco +

Banana + + + +

Mangoes + + +

Papaya +

Pineapple + +

Tom atoes + +

On the other hand, this situation again reflects that there are some products
and insects o f common interest to some Latin American countries. Thus, for
instance, rice and corn infested by Tribolium sp. is a common problem to Cuba
and Peru. Beans infested by Zabrotes sp. is a problem for Brazil and Peru [2, 12, 13].
N o t so many studies have been carried out on disinfestation o f fruits, but it
is possible that this application will acquire importance i f any chemical products
in common use are banned in the near future.

1.3. Delay of ripening

Table III illustrates the research done in the Latin American countries in
delay o f ripening and/or senescence ó f some fruits and vegetables, in order to
extend their shelf-life, using a combined treatment (heat plus irradiation) [ 14]
or only ionizing radiation.
According to the information available, Venezuela and Mexico are the
countries with the most studies in this field and bananas and mangoes appear
to be the most important products [2, 13, 15].

1.4. Delay of microbial spoilage

Table IV illustrates the research done in Latin America to delay microbial

spoilage [1, 2, 5, 8 , 11, 1 5-2 1].
This application is o f interest to all countries analysed and for a wide variety
o f products, including sea foods. Am ong the fruits, strawberries have had the
 IAEA-SM-271/92 207

T A B L E IV . RESEARC H O N TH E D E L A Y O F M IC R O B IA L SPO ILAG E

Country

Venezuela
Argentina

Colom bia

Uruguay
Ecuador
Product

Mexico
Brazil

Cuba

Chile

Peru
Apples + +

Bakery
+ + +
products
Beans +

Citrus fruits + + + + +

Cocoa ■
TX.
beans
Corn +

Cheese +

Fish
(fresh) + + + +
Fruit juice + + + +
Meat +
Mangoes +
Melons +

Papayas +
Peaches +
Pears +
Raspberries + +
Rice/rice -j- +
products
Shrimps + + +

Sugar cane +
Strawberries + + + + + +
Tom atoes + +

± = Objective not clear.

most attention, probably because they are very perishable. Citrus fruits and fruit
juices have also been studied in several Latin American countries. Am ong the sea
foods, fish, specially hake and shrimps, appear to be the most important.
208 RUBIO

T A B L E V . RESEARC H O N TH E D E C O N T A M IN A T IO N O F FOOD A N D FEED

Country

Venezuela
Argentina

Colom bia

Uruguay
Ecuador
Product

Mexico
Brazil

Cuba

Chile

Peru
Animal
feed
Dried
vegetables
Fish meal + +

Gelatine +

Spices + +

1.5. Control o f pathogenic bacteria

The use o f ionizing radiation to control pathogenic bacteria is another

potential application for Latin American countries. However, it has not drawn
enough attention up to now. Table V shows this situation.
In relation to this it would seem that Chile has carried out more studies [22]
and as a result o f this research dried vegetables and sometimes spices and animal
feeds are being irradiated on a semi-commercial scale.
According to the information available, the control o f helminths and parasitic
protozoa are not o f much interest to Latin American countries.
Perhaps an additional point o f interest are wholesomeness studies. Brazil is
the only Latin American country where some studies o f this type have been carried
out. Thus, nutritional studies, animal feeding and mutagenicity surveys were
carried out with irradiated potatoes, com , coffee and beans [ 2 ].

2. C O N C O M IT A N T ASPECTS

2.1. Economic feasibility studies

The introduction o f this technology depends not only on the technological

studies, but also on the economic feasibility. Both aspects must be very closely
linked in food irradiation plans.
 IAEA-SM -271/92 209

T A B L E V I. RESEARC H ON TH E C O S T/F E A SIB ILITY

Country

Venezuela
Argentina

Colom bia

Uruguay
Product

Ecuador

Mexico
Brazil

Cuba

Chile

Peru
Beans +*

Corn +*

Fish meal +*
Garlic +
Onions +* + +
Potatoes + +* +
Rice/rice
+*
products
Spices +*
Sugar
+
cane
Wheat/
wheat +*
products

: Benefit calculations.

Table V I shows that this is not the case fo r Latin American countries
[2, 6 , 8 , 23]. Because the economic feasibility may be greatly affected by local
circumstances, it is necessary to carry out these studies in different countries o f
the region. This is one o f the weak points in the development o f this technology
in these countries.

2.2. Irradiation facilities

The successful introduction o f irradiation techniques requires technological

experiments under realistic conditions.
From this point o f view, Latin America does not have a sufficient number o f
pilot irradiation facilities to carry out the first steps in the development o f this
technology.
Table V II shows the irradiation facilities available in the Latin American
countries, including the commercial irradiators being used for treating products
such as medical supplies [ 6 , 18, 22, 24].
210 RUBIO

T A B L E V II. E N G IN E E R IN G ASPECTS IN FO O D IR R A D IA T IO N

Country

Argentina

Venezuela
Colom bia
Topic

Ecuador

Uruguay
Mexico
Brazil

Cuba

Chile

Peru
Pilot plant + +
Pilot studies + + +
Commercial
w
irradiation

(+ ) = Pilot plant/Com m ercial purpose.

T o solve this problem from a regional point o f view, it would be desirable

to establish a Regional Co-operation Programme as soon as possible.

2.3. Studies on public acceptance: Inform ation activities

Table V II shows that only three Latin American countries have done studies
o f public acceptance [ 6 , 25, 26]. It is necessary to take this point into account in the
introduction o f the technology, including specific information activities such as
courses, seminars, exhibitions, press publications, T V programmes, etc.

2.4. Legislation

Another aspect o f great importance is the legislation and the authorization

to apply this technology in Latin America.
A t present, only Argentina, Chile and Uruguay have approved the use o f this
technology. The first tw o countries have approved the consumption o f irradiated
potatoes and Chile has approved the consumption o f all the foods evaluated
or re-evaluated by the Joint FAO/IAEA/W HO Expert Committee, Geneva,1980
[ 6 , 22, 27].
On the other hand, some Latin American countries have taken the first steps
to obtain authorization to use this technology. Ecuador and Cuba are tw o examples
[1 ,2 8 ].
Also in 1982, the Brazilian enterprise Embrarad requested permission to
irradiate onions, garlic, spices and condiments and later was informed that at
least one food manufacturer has already begun to use irradiated dried onions,
dried garlic and some irradiated spices in processed foods.
 IAEA-SM-271/92 211

According to the above-mentioned information, the other Latin American

countries should solve this problem o f legislation, taking into account the national
and international recommendations o f the Joint FAO/IAEA/W HO Expert Committee,
Geneva, 1980 [29] and the Codex General Standard for Irradiated Foods adopted
by the Codex Alimentarius Commission in 1983.

3. CONCLU SIONS

According to the information available it can be concluded that:

( 1) There is a different level o f development o f this technology in Latin American

countries. Some o f them are not active in this field at all.
(2 ) There is duplication among some Latin American countries in the research
carried out on some products, e.g. in onions, potatoes and garlic to inhibit
sprouting; in rice, corn and wheat to eliminate insects; in strawberries to
delay the microbial spoilage; and in bananas and mangoes to delay ripening.
This situation reflects a common interest but it also shows the lack o f funding
and human resources.
(3 ) It is urgent to develop surveys on economic feasibility and to establish
legislation in this field.
It would be desirable to carry out information activities to facilitate the
acceptance o f this technology in each country.
(4 ) Finally, it would be desirable to consider co-ordination o f research and other
activities associated with food irradiation at the national and regional level
in order to solve some o f the problems just mentioned.

REFERENCES

[ 1] ACO STA, S., R adiation of F oo d in Cuba at Present, Trainee’s Rep. presented at IF F IT

Training Course on Food Irradiation, Wageningen, Netherlands, 1984.
[2] B E R N A R D E S, B., The Current State o f F oo d Irradiation in Brazil, Trainee’s Rep.
No. R-45 presented at the IF F IT Special Training Course on Public Health Aspects, Proper
Application and Control o f F oo d Irradiation, Wageningen, Netherlands, 1982.
[3] CURZIO, O., CROCCI, C., Extending onion storage life by gam m a radiation, J. Food
Process. Preserv. (1 983) 19—23.
[4] CU RZIO , O., Programa preservación de alim entos por irradiación de la Universidad
Nacional del Sur, FA O /IA E A Seminar on Food Irradiation for Latin American Countries,
Lim a, Peru, 2 4 —28 Oct. 1983.
[5] E STR A D A DE SIF IE N T E S, L ., Present status o f food irradiation in Peru, Trainee’s
Rep. No. R-50 presented at the IF F IT Special Training Course on Public Health Aspects,
Proper A pplication and Control o f F oo d Irradiation, Wageningen, Netherlands, 1982.
212 RUBIO

[ 6] K A U P ER T , N., Evolución del program a de irradiación de alimentos en la República

Argentina, FA O /IA E A Seminar on Food Irradiation for Latin American Countries, Lim a,
Peru, 2 4 - 2 8 Oct. 1983.
[7] LA LA G U N A , F ., La experiencia venezolana en irradiación de alim entos, FA O /IA EA
Sem inar on Food Irradiation for Latin American Countries, Lim a, Peru, 2 4 - 2 8 Oct.
1983.
[ 8] M O NTALBAN, A., M ARTIN, V ., A ctuaciones realizadas en el campo de la irradiación de
alimentos de la República Oriental del Uruguay, Regional Course on F o o d Irradiation for
Developing Countries in Latin Am erica, Lim a, Peru, Oct. 1983.
[9] RUBIO, T., et al., Estudio a nivel piloto en cebollas tratadas con radiación gamma,
Nucleotécnica 4 ( 1983).
[10] U R BIN A , С., C A SA S, L ., Conservación de ajos (Allium satirum) mediante aplicación de
radiación gamma, Informe Interno CCHEN, Santiago, Chile (1976).
[11] C A B R ER A , М., C A RR A SC O , A., Survey o f food irradiation studies in Mexico, J . Agrie.
F oo d Chem., 26 1 (1978).
[12] U R IB E, R ., F oo d Irradiation in Mexico — A Review, Trainee’s Rep. No. R-24 presented
at the 3rd IF F IT International Training Course on F oo d Irradiation, Wageningen,
Netherlands, 1981.
[13] REVETT1, L., Progress in food irradiation, Venezuela, F o o d Irradiat. Inf. 4 (1975).
[14] KA RM ELIC , J., RUBIO, T., U RBIN A , C., Preservación de palta var. Fuerte mediante
radiación gamma, Nucleotécnica 5 (1983).
[15] ANON., Memoria Anual. Instituto de A suntos Nucleares, Ministerio de Minas y Energía,
B ogotá, Colom bia, 1982.
[16] C A SA S, L., Del PINO, G., ESPINOZA, J., CAMACHO, О., CORDOVA, М., Efecto de
la condición de envasado en la calidad del filete de merluza (Merlucius gayigayi) irradiado,
Nucleotécnica 3 (1982).
[17] CORDOVA, М., et al., Radurización del filete de merluza. Estudio de ajuste tecnológico,
Informe CCHEN, Santiago, Chile (1978).
[18] F A R K A S, J., Feasibility o f F oo d Irradiation Processes to Developing Countries, IF F IT Rep.
No. 35, Nov. 1982.
[19] LAZA N EO , H., Brief Report on the Current Status o f F oo d Preservation Methods in
Uruguay, Trainee’s Rep. No. 4 —11 —1 presented at the IF F IT Special Training Course on
Public Health Aspects, Proper Application and Control o f Food Irradiation, Wageningen,
Netherlands, 1982.
[20] PA BLIC, М., personal com m unication, 1984.
[21] SANCHEZ, М., Food Irradiation in the Escuela Politécnica N acional, Quito, Ecuador,
Trainee’s Rep. presented at IF F IT Training Course on Food Irradiation, Wageningen,
Netherlands, 1984.
[22] RU BIO , T., “Irradiación de alim entos en Chile. A spectos tecnológicos y legales” , FA O /IA EA
Seminar on Food Irradiation for Latin American Countries, Lim a, Peru, 2 4 —28 Oct. 1983.
[23] RU BIO , T., R E Y E S, J., ESPINOZA, J., Estudio sobre la factibilidad técnica económica
de la irradiación de cebollas en Chile, Informe CCHEN (1983).
[24] O RTIZ, P., MERINO, М., M ARTIN, V ., F A L L E R , V ., Irradiación de papas. Pruebas
tecnológicas a escala piloto, Informe CN EA , Uruguay (1974).
[25] ANON., Inform e preliminar sobre prueba de aceptabilidad para el público consumidor
de papa irradiada con rayos gamma para inhibir la brotación, Informe CN EA, Uruguay
(1974).
[26] SA N TA CRU Z, S., Study on public acceptance o f irradiated potatoes, F o o d Irradiat. Inf. 7
(1977).
 IAEA-SM-271/92 213

[27] VAN K O O IJ, J., “ Recent international developm ents on standardization o f the process of
food irradiation” , FA O /IA E A Seminar on Food Irradiation for Latin American Countries,
Lim a, Peru, 2 4 —28 Oct. 1983.
[28] ANON., Draft on the legislation o f the use o f ionizing radiation for food preservation in
E cuador, IF F IT Special Training Course on Public Health Aspects, Proper Application and
Control o f F oo d Irradiation, Wageningen, Netherlands, 1982.
[29] JE C F I, Wholesomeness o f Irradiated F o o d , Jo in t FAO/IAEA/W HO E xpert Committee,
WHO Technical R eports Series 659, World Health Organization, Geneva (1981).
 IAEA-SM-271/93

Invited Paper
RECENT DEVELOPMENTS IN FOOD IRRADIATION
IN EUROPE AND THE MIDDLE EAST

J. F A R K A S
Central Food Research Institute,
Budapest, Hungary

Abstract

R E C EN T D EV ELO PM EN TS IN FOOD IR RA D IA TIO N IN EU RO PE AND TH E M IDDLE EA ST.

The paper attem pts to give a picture o f the status o f food-irradiation research and develop­
ment in Europe and the Middle East. The region’s involvement in international projects and
co-operation is highlighted and the potential o f food irradiation is noted. Current research
activities o f 18 European and 5 Middle-Eastern countries are reviewed in tabular form , and an
overview is given on food/feed irradiation facilities in use or in construction or planning.
A general survey shows public health clearances for irradiated food item s already granted in
various countries o f the region, and emerging commercial activities in several countries are
recorded.

1. IN T R O D U C T IO N

Because o f the great potential o f food irradiation in contributing to the

improved preservation, storage and distribution o f a safe food supply, this process
has received the attention o f scientists and governments in Europe and in some
countries o f the Middle East for many years. Pioneering research on food irradia­
tion took place in the fifties mainly in the UK, the USSR, France and the Federal
Republic o f Germany, which were soon follow ed by many o f the European
countries. The Middle East, Egypt and Israel developed particularly extensive
R&D programmes.
The region’ s contribution to international developments in the field o f food
irradiation is well illustrated by the fact that three international projects on food
irradiation, namely the Seibersdorf Project in the late sixties, the Karlsruhe
Project (IF IP ) in the seventies, and the still active International Facility for Food
Irradiation Technology (IF F I T ) in Wageningen, were all hosted by European
countries.
The majority o f the members o f the International Food Irradiation Project
(IF IP ) were European and Middle-Eastern nations. The IF IP project, which was
hosted by the Federal Research Centre fo r Nutrition, Karlsruhe, greatly contri­
buted to the scientific basisof the historic conclusion o f the Joint FAO/IAEA/WHO
Expert Committee on Wholesomeness o f Irradiated Food (J E C F I) in November

215
216 FARRAS

1980 that irradiation o f any food comm odity up to an crverall average dose o f
10 kGy presents no toxicological hazard and irradiation o f foods does not pose
specific microbiological and nutritional problems [1 ]. The Karlsruhe Project was
concluded in 1981 because during a decade o f extremely valuable co-operative
activity it has achieved its primary objective, the acquisition o f data from a large
number o f wholesomeness and chemistry studies o f irradiated foods and food
components, which were evaluated by the JECFI [2 ].
The State Institute for Quality Control o f Agricultural Products (R IK IL T )
and the Pilot Plant o f Food Irradiation, Wageningen, are host institutions to the
International Facility for Food Irradiation Technology, an international project
jointly sponsored by the International Atom ic Energy Agency (IA E A ), the Food
and Agriculture Organization o f the United Nations (F A O ) and the Dutch Ministry
o f Agriculture and Fisheries. Since 1979 IF F IT has successfully organized seven
training courses on food irradiation for scientists and officials from developing
countries. A total number o f 141 participants from 45 countries have attended
these 3- to 6 -week courses. T o date 31 persons from 23 developing countries
have received longer term (3 —15 months) applied research training in the labora­
tories o f IF F IT and performed food-irradiation feasibility studies. IF F IT is also
involved in evaluating the quality o f trial shipments o f irradiated mangoes, papayas,
avocados, spices, shrimps, onions, garlic and dates from various developing countries,
and it provides food irradiation services fo r those countries that have not yet
established radiation facilities large enough for meaningful technological
experiments [3].
Half o f the 20 member countries o f the recently formed International
Consultative Group on Food Irradiation are in Europe and the Middle East. This
Consultative Group under the aegis o f the FA O , the IA E A and WHO offers through
its meetings the means o f jointly evaluating global developments in the field, o f
exchanging information and experience gained by members, and o f determining
priorities and objectives in the light o f international developments [4, 5].
The present report attempts to give a brief overview o f development in
implementation o f the food irradiation process in the region during recent years,
1.e. after the 1980 JECFI meeting and since the last F A O /IA E A Symposium on
Combination Processes in Food Preservation by Irradiation, held in November 1980
in Colombo [ 6 ].

2. P O T E N T IA L ROLES O F FOOD IR R A D IA T IO N IN TH E REG IO N

As the technical and socio-economical conditions that provide the framework

for technical development differ greatly in the region under consideration, it is
understandable that any new technique combatting post-harvest food losses and
preventing food-borne diseases could meet different needs and may play a different
role in the individual nations discussed in this review.
 IAEA-SM-271/93 217

In the highly industrialized countries o f northern and western Europe with a

temperate or cool climate and a well-established food preservation sector further
reduction o f post-harvest losses is needed less than in those areas o f the region
where the climatic conditions are more adverse to food storage, and refrigeration
and/or controlled chemical treatment o f food cannot be easily provided. Although
extensive food processing is not yet as developed in some o f the Middle-Eastern
countries as in Europe, as urbanization increases, processed and/or preserved food
becomes more and more important. In Europe the potential o f food irradiation lies
mainly in reducing the use o f suspicious chemicals such as certain fumigants posing
both occupational hazards and problems o f toxic residues. The other main benefits
are here the improvement o f food hygiene and energy savings in the food industry
and food distribution. N o wonder that the major commercial applications, which
have been emerged already, are in the field o f radiation decontamination o f food.
The relative low dose treatment needed to control pathogenic non-sporeforming
bacteria such as Salmonella could be o f immense benefit to public health protection.
More and more experts o f food-borne diseases in the region realize that radiation
pasteurization (radicidation) may well become as important in improving the
hygienic status o f solid foods o f animal origin or dry feeds as the heat pasteuriza­
tion o f liquid food like milk already is.
Particularly in the Middle East, special importance can be assigned to radiation
disinfestation as a residue-free treatment o f some agricultural commodities, e.g.
dried dates. The microbiological action o f ionizing radiation has been shown to
improve remarkably the microbiological quality o f spices, herbs and other natural
vegetable ingredients, also that o f frozen seafood and poultry, all o f which are
important items o f the international food trade in the w hole region.

3. C U R R E N T R ESEARC H A C T IV IT IE S

According to a literature survey mainly based on information provided by the

last four issues o f the Bibliography on Irradiation o f Foods [7 ], jointly published by
the Bundesforschungsanstalt fur Emahrung and IF IP in Karlsruhe, as well as on
additional reports collected by the IF F IT office, research papers and research reports
on food irradiation appeared since 1981 at least in eighteen European and five
Middle-Eastern countries. Tables I —IV summarize these current research activities
and show also the neglected areas o f research. T o facilitate comparison with an
earlier survey made by Prof. K. Vas in 1977 [ 8 ], the research activities are recorded
here in a form similar to that o f his excellent review. These tables show that in
spite o f current economic difficulties and diminishing research funds in many
countries, food irradiation research is still quite widespread in the region. This is
confirmed by the fact that an increasing number o f scientists participate from year
to year in the annual meetings o f the Food Irradiation Working Group o f the
European Society o f Nuclear Methods in Agriculture (E S N A ) [9 - 1 1 ].

■(Text cont. on p. 225)

218 FARKAS

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 IAEA-SM-271/93 219

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220 FARRAS

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 IAEA-SM-271/93 221

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TABLE VI. (SEMI)COMMERCIAL IRRADIATORS IN OPERATION. USED ALSO FOR PROCESSING OF S O M E

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 IAEA-SM-271/93 225

4. IR R A D IA T O R S A V A IL A B L E F O R FO O D IR R A D IA T IO N

Since larger radiation sources are prerequisites for the implementation o f the
process, the progress towards practical application can be illustrated by reviewing
the radiation facilities in operation or in construction. Larger experimental food/
feed irradiation facilities exist in a considerable number o f countries in the region
(Table V ), and several multi-purpose (sem i) industrial irradiators, which are used
partly also fo r processing some food or feed, are in operation in France, Israel,
the Netherlands, Norway, the United Kingdom and Yugoslavia (Table V I). T o the
author’s knowledge only tw o facilities are used in the region on a commercial level
entirely fo r the treatment o f food commodities, namely the batch irradiator o f
the M ED IRIS plant in Fleurus, Belgium, and the grain disinfestation plant at the
Odessa Port Elevator RDU, USSR (Table V II ) [12, 13]. The growing or renewed
interest in the process is shown by the increasing number o f demonstration or
(semi) commercial food/feed irradiation facilities that are in the planning, design
or construction stage in several countries (Table V III).
A more detailed review on recent developments in a number o f countries
was recently issued as an IF F IT Report [14].

5. TRE ND S OF L E G IS L A T IO N A N D A C C E PTA N C E O F T H E PROCESS

There is a great variety o f legislative attitudes to food irradiation among the

countries o f the region. Although the first clearances were already issued in the
late fifties in the USSR and a lo t o f e ffo rt was also devoted in the region to whole­
someness testing o f irradiated food, particularly in the Federal Republic o f Germany,
the United Kingdom, France, the Netherlands and Hungary, only a limited number
o f countries issued unconditional or provisional clearances o f irradiated foods
in the past decades. However, in recent years an increasing number o f approvals
were granted to individual irradiated foods or groups o f products, e.g. spices,
usually considered as one class o f food, under specific conditions. A survey o f
the ‘ unconditional’ and ‘ provisional’ approvals in the region is given in Table IX,
which also shows whether the clearances were issued before or since 1980. In
addition, some countries have provided restricted clearances for experimental
batches and/or for limited marketing tests. Such recent clearances are listed in
Table X.
Except in Israel, the clearance situation o f irradiated food.in the Middle-
Eastern countries lags behind that o f the most progressive European countries.
It is hoped that both the Codex General Standard for Irradiated Foods,
adopted by the Codex Alimentarius Commission in 1983, and the work o f the
International Consultative Group on Food Irradiation will reduce the disharmony
between countries in their acceptance o f irradiated foods.
 226
FARKAS

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 IAEA-SM-271/93 227

THE PLANNING. DESIGN OR CONSTRUCTION STAGE IN EUROPE AND THE MIDDLE EAST (AS OF JANUARY 1985)
TABLE VIH. DEMONSTRATION/PILOT-SCALE OR (SEMI(COMMERCIAL FOOD/FEED IRRADIATION FACILITIES IN

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228 FARRAS

T A B L E IX . U N C O N D IT IO N A L A N D P R O V IS IO N A L C L E A R A N C E S IN
E U R O P E A N D T H E M ID D L E E A S T (A S O F JA N U A R Y 19 8 5 )

Netherlands
Purpose of

Denmark

Hungary
Foods radiation

Belgium

Norway
France

USSR
Spain
treatment "oJ

Italy
л
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Dried fruits Disinfestation X

Dried vegetables Decontamination • •
Dry blood protein Decontamination •
Dry food concentr. Disinfestation X
Egg powder Decontamination •
Fish &fish prod. Raduriz. & radicid. X
Frozen fish Radicidation •
Frozen froglegs Radicidation X
Garlic Sprout inhibition X X X •
Grains Disinfestation X
Gum arabic Decontamination •
Malt Decontamination •
Mushrooms Radurization X
Onions Sprout inhibition X X • X X X X X
Potatoes Sprout inhibition X X X X X X X X
Poultry Radicidation X •
Rice & ground rice Disinfestation X
Rye bread Radurization X
Shallots Sprout inhibition X X •
Shrimps, boiled Radicidation •
Shrimps, frozen Radicidation •
Spices (condiments) Decontamination • • • X • •
Strawberries Radurization X

X : clearances issued before 1981.

• : clearances issued since 1981.

6. STEPS TO W ARD S C O M M E R C IA L IZ A T IO N

On the basis o f national regulatory systems, growing quantities o f irradiated

foods are being produced in several European countries. Wheat in the USSR,
frozen fishery products and dry ingredients in the Netherlands and Belgium, spices
and dry vegetable seasonings in Norw ay and France are such products. Smaller
scale applications for test marketing or for other purposes are in progress in the
German Democratic Republic, Hungary, Israel, Italy, and Yugoslavia. However,
 IAEA-SM-271/93 229

TABLE X. CLEARANCES ISSUED FOR EXPERI­

MENTAL BATCHES OR LIMITED TEST
MARKETING OF IRRADIATED FOOD SINCE
1981 IN SOME EUROPEAN COUNTRIES

D em o cratic

N etherlan ds
Food

R ep u b lic

H ungary
German

Poland
Cherries *

Fro zen chicken *

G rapes *

M ushroom s *

O nions * ♦

Pears *

P o tato es * *

Red currant *

R efrigerated sn ack s *
from m inced m eat

S o u r cherries *

Spices *

Straw berries *

at present the large-scale use o f radiation processing is still ham pered by the lack
o f world-wide legal acceptance o f irradiated foo d com m odities. It is not possible
to utilize irradiation facilities econom ically when only a few com m odities m ay be
irradiated and even these m ay not be exported. Therefore, not all countries that
have already granted clearances can actually use the process in practice.
An im p ortan t task is now to transfer the technology to the foo d producers,
processors and distributors, and to convince consum er organizations and consum ers
o f the safety o f the process. Because o f m isinform ation, and the fact that in the
mind o f m ost people the word ‘radiation’ is associated with danger, and with the
controversy over nuclear energy, a long-term policy o f inform ation and education
is required to overcom e these m isapprehensions. It is confidently expected,
however, that within the n ext few years m any countries will allow the process, and
u ltim ately the international trade in irradiated foo d will be ju st as acceptable as
the trade in irradiated m edical supplies.
230 FARRAS

REFERENCES

[1] Wholesomeness o f Irradiated Food, Report o f the Jo in t FAO/IAEA/W HO Expert

Com m ittee, WHO Technical Reports Series No. 659, World Health Organization,
Geneva (1981).
[2] Food Irradiation Inform ation, Bulletin o f the International Project in the Field o f Food
Irradiation, Karlsruhe, No. 1 - 1 2 (1 9 7 1 - 1 9 8 1 ).
[3] F A R K A S, J., Five Y ears’ Experience o f the International Facility for Food Irradiation
Technology, IF F IT Rep. No. 51 (Oct. 1984).
[4] VAN K O O IJ, J.G ., Food irradiation makes progress, IA EA Bulletin 26 2 (1 984) 17.
[5] Contributions Pledged to Support Work on Food Irradiation, IA EA Press Release
No. PR 84/24.
[ 6] Combination Processes in Food Irradiation (Jo in t IA E A /FA O Sym p. Colom bo, 1980),
IAEA , Vienna (1981).
[7] Bibliography on Irradiation of F o o d s No. 2 4 —28, Bundesforschungsanstalt fur Ernahrung
and International Project in the Field o f Food Irradiation, Karlsruhe (1 9 8 2 —1984).
[ 8] VAS, К., “ National and international program s” , Preservation o f Food by Ionizing
Radiation (JO SEPH SO N , E .S., PET ER SO N , M.S., E ds), Vol. 1, CRC Press, Inc.,
Boca Raton, F L A (1 9 8 3 ) 47.
[9] Report on the Food Irradiation Sessions at the X llth Annual Meeting o f ESN A , Food
Irradiat. Newsl. 5 3 (1 9 8 1 ) 36.
[10] F A R K A S, J., ESNA- X III Annual Meeting, Brno, 6 - 1 1 Septem ber 1982: Report of
Working Group 1 - Food Irradiation, F oo d Irradiat. Newsl. 7 1 (1 9 8 3 ) 26.
[11] F A R K A S, J., ESN A - X IV Annual Meeting, Madrid, Spain, 5 - 9 Septem ber 1983:
Report o f Working Group 1 — Food Irradiation, Food Irradiat. Newsl. 7 3 (1 9 8 3 ) 12.
[12] E TIEN N E, J.C.H ., B U Y L E , R ., “ Electrochem ical engineering aspects in irradiator design” ,
Paper presented at the International Seminar on Engineering Aspects o f Food Irradiation,
18 January 1984, London, Y. Food Engng (1985).
[13] High-Efficiency Industrial Plant for Radiation D isinfestation o f Grain, Techsnabexport,
Vneshtorgizdat, Moscow (1984).
[14] FA R K A S, J., Recent Developments in Im plem entation of Food Irradiation, International
Facility for Food Irradiation Technology, Wageningen, Rep. IF F IT No. 46a (rev., up-dated,
Aug. 1984).
CHEMICAL AND MICROBIOLOGICAL CHANGES
IN IRRADIATED FOOD

(Poster Session II)

 Poster Presentations
IAEA-SM-271/28P

EFFEC T OF R A D IA T IO N P A S T E U R IZ A T IO N O F CHICKEN
CARCASSES O N TH E T A S T E Q U A L IT Y O F TH E COOKED M E A T

D. B A SK E R
Agricultural Research Organization,
The Volcani Center,
Bet-Dagan

Y . K L IN G E R
Kimron Veterinary Institute,
Bet-Dagan

M. LA P ID O T , E. EISENBERG
Soreq Nuclear Research Center,
Yavne

Israel

In Israel poultry carcasses may now be 7 -irradiated with up to 7 kGy. The

effect o f irradiation within this limit on the shelf-life o f chilled but unfrozen
chicken was examined, as measured by the taste quality o f the cooked meat. Leg
meat and breast meat were prepared separately and packed commercially on the
bone, treated with 3.7 ± 0.5 kGy, and stored at 1 to 2°C. Frozen meat from the
same batches was used for comparison, as well as untreated meat from fresh
batches on each occasion.
A fter each storage period, up to 23 days for leg meat and 28 days for breast
meat, samples were cooked in water with the addition o f mild (background)
spicing. Approxim ately 40 unpreselected assessors participated in each o f four
taste panel sessions for each type o f meat. A trihedral taste test was used to select
subpanels o f discriminating assessors. On a 0-to-10 unit quality scale the subpanels
found that the taste quality o f the irradiated meat deteriorated as follows:
Leg meat: Quality score = 7.32 - 0.13 (days)
(r = -0 .3 8 , d.f. = 43, 0.001 < P < 0 . 0 1 )
Breast meat: Quality score = 7.82 - 0.08 (days)
(r = -0 .3 6 , d.f. = - 5 8 , 0.001 < P < 0 . 0 1 )
On a 13-point pictorial scale the sübpanels found that the percentage o f
better-than-neutral ratings decreased as follows:
Leg meat: 8 6 .3 -2 .1 (days)
(r = -0 .9 9 6 , d.f. = 2, 0.001 < P < 0 . 0 1 )
Breast meat: 8 2 .4 -0 .0 8 (days)
(r = -0 .9 2 , d.f.= 2, 0.05 < P < 0 . 1 0 )

233
234 POSTER PRESENTATIONS

It was concluded that the taste quality o f leg meat was satisfactory for
about tw o weeks, and decreased after about three weeks. Breast meat was
satisfactory for about three weeks, decreasing in quality after about four weeks.

IAEA-SM -271/89P

S A F E T Y E V A L U A T IO N O F IR R A D IA T E D FO O D IN C H IN A

Yin D A I
Institute o f Food Safety Control and Inspection,
Ministry o f Public Health,
Beijing, China

A nation-wide programme directed towards extending and applying food

irradiation techniques in China and to eliminate psychological barriers among the
people is currently being carried out. It consists o f tw o steps:
( 1) Human feeding trials and the setting up of temporary hygienic standards.
From the 1980s up to 1981 a series o f animal toxicity studies were carried out; no
adverse effects were observed. Based on this information and on the literature,
from 1982 until 1985 human feeding trials were carried out, i.e. for a period o f
tw o to three months five foodstuffs (rice, potato, mushroom, peanut and
sausage) were tested. In addition, fo r a period o f three months studies on the
human diet, mainly composed o f irradiated rice, vegetables and meat products,
were carried out at our Institute and the Shanghai Medical College. The studies
comprised the following: acceptability, clinical symptoms, appetite and
physical condition, anthropometric measurements, routine haematological
examinations, serum albumin and A :G ratio, serum urea nitrogen, serum
GPT,GOT,r-GT and alkaline phosphatase, serum and urinary 17 hydroxy cortisol,
chromosone abberation assay o f peripheral lymphocytes, ECG and ultrasonic
examinations o f the liver, spleen and gall bladder.
In comparing the hygienic standards o f unirradiated food with those o f
irradiated fo od it was established that the latter meets the same standards.
Based on the above studies China has approved the hygienic standards o f
the follow ing irradiated foods fo r domestic trial: rice, potato, mushroom,
peanut, onion, garlic and sausage.
(2 ) Long-term observation of human consumption and the setting up of
specific hygienic standards for irradiatedfoods. It is our intention to carry out
studies on both these points.
 POSTER PRESENTATIONS 235

IAEA-SM-271/55P

EFFECTS O F G A M M A R A D IA T IO N ON TH E SWEET P O TA TO
W E E V IL Cylas formicarius elegantulus (Sum .)*

M.A. DAWES, M.A. M U LLE N , J.H. BROWER,

R.S. S A IN I, P.A. L O R E T A N
The Carver Research Foundation,
Tuskegee Institute,
Tuskegee, Alabama
and
United States Department o f Agriculture,
Agricultural Research Service,
Stored-Product Insects Research Branch,
Savannah, Georgia

United States o f America

The sweet potato weevil Cylas formicarius elegantulus (Summers) is the most
destructive pest o f sweet potatoes in the southeastern United States o f America
and throughout the world. It was originally described in India, in 1792, and since
it was reported in New Orleans in 1875 the weevil has infested eleven southern
states at one time or another. The weevils concealed feeding habit, development
to the adult stage within the enlarging root, host specificity to Ipomoea sp., and
ease o f movement through commerce contribute to its persistence and spread.
Control with conventional insecticide application is very difficult and an effective
control method would be o f great benefit to the sweet potato industry.
The effects o f gamma radiation on all metamorphic stages o f the weevil were
studied to find an alternative control procedure. A ll stages were treated with a
series o f doses between 5 and 100 krad from a 60Co source having a strength o f
about 260 Ci and a dose rate o f 300 rad/min. The irradiator was calibrated by
using a lithium fluoride thermoluminescence dosimetry system. Eggs (ages 1, 3
and 5 days) irradiated at 5—20 krad were unable to develop to the larval-stage at
any treatment level. Twelve-day old larvae irradiated at 5—50 krad, were unable
to develop to pupae above 10 krad and no adults emerged at any treatment
level. When 5-day old pupae were irradiated at 5—50 krad, adult emergence
occurred with doses as high as 20 krad but not at 35 krad. Some adults that
emerged after irradiation at all levels had abnormal elytra. A dose o f 5 krad in
the pupal stage was enough to cause sterility in the emerged adults. Adults were
irradiated at 10-1 00 krad and maintained at 32°C (normal curing temperature for

* Study perform ed at Stored-Product Insects Research Branch, Agricultural Research

Service, United States Department o f Agriculture, Savannah, Georgia, with support from the
United States Department o f Energy, U SA.
236 POSTER PRESENTATIONS

sweet potatoes) and 27°C (optimal rearing temperature for the sweet potato
weevil post treatment. A t 100 krad all the adults died within 7 days at 32°C and
11 days at 27°C. The higher temperature accelerated mortality at all doses and
survival time o f irradiated adults decreased with increasing dose at both
temperatures. The reproductive ability o f irradiated adults was considerably
reduced at doses as low as 5 krad and complete sterility occurred at doses o f
25 krad and above.

IAEA -SM -27I/9P

R A D IA T IO N D E A C T IV A T IO N O F B A C T E R IA L F L O R A
IN SOME E G Y P T IA N P O U L T R Y FEED

Y .A . EL-ZAW A-H RY*, Y .A . YOUSSEF,

H.M. RO U SH D Y, N.H. A Z IZ
National Centre for Radiation Research
and Technology,
and
Faculty o f Science, Ain Sham University,
Cairo, Egypt

The bacterial flora o f poultry feeds sampled from three different companies
and the possible role o f gamma radiation in the elimination o f these pathogenic
bacteria to ensure the hygenic safety for man and poultry were studied. The
common bacteria isolated from the poultry feed samples were classified in the
families o f Pseudomonadaceae, Micrococcaceae, Bacillaceae and Enterobacteriaceae.
These species o f bacteria were identified as 10 Gram-negative and 13 Gram-
positive species. The radiation dose required to inihibit completely the natural
bacterial flora in tested samples o f poultry feed was 20 kGy. The most radio­
resistant bacterial isolates subjected to a sublethal dose o f 15 kGy were identified
as Bacillus cereus, B. polymxa and B. megaterium. The dose response curves o f
B. cereus and B. polymxa started with shoulder portion follow ed by an exponential
death, whereas B. megaterium exhibited a straight-line relationship directly. The
D 10-value o f B. megaterium spores (3.30 k G y) was about 1.5 and 1.7 fold
the D 10-value o f B. polymxa and B. cereus, respectively. The present work
indicated also that the exposure o f poultry feeds to an irradiation dose o f ‘
10 kGy ( 1 Mrad) reduced the number o f bacteria considerably and destroyed all
spoilage and pathogenic bacteria, especially Salmonella, and finally increased
the shelf-life during storage periods. A higher radiation dose o f 15 kGy failed
to show any greater reduction o f viable bacterial counts.

* Present address: Faculty o f Science, Zagazig University, Zagazig, Egypt.

 POSTER PRESENTATIONS 237

IAEA-SM-271/58P

M E A T IR R A D IA T IO N T E C H N O L O G Y C E N TE R (M IT C ) FO R
RESEARC H IN TH E IR R A D IA T IO N PROCESSING O F M E A T

N. F E R R E L L , D.P. S L O A N
CH2M H IL L ,
Albuquerque, New Mexico,
United States o f America

As an important facet o f the United States Department o f Energy’s

Byproducts Utilization Program, and in keeping with their commitment to transfer
technology to industry, a demonstration and research irradiator is being developed
to transfer caesium-137 irradiator technology to the meat industry. The facility
will be located at or near an existing meat handling system to allow integration o f
the system into the process flow.
The M ITC will be sited within a region characterized by high meat pro­
duction, where interest in new developments and innovative technology is
essential to market position. This will stimulate industry to participate in the
research and to supply parameters for scale-up o f research data to commercial
application.
The major design objective is to assist the pork industry to develop the data
base fo r FS IS 1 regulations regarding irradiation certification o f pork as trichina-
safe and free o f toxoplasmosis and other parasites.
Secondary objectives are the development o f new meat products, market and
consumer research, and other related meat irradiation research.
Facility design and programme management is discussed in detail in the paper
along with the roles o f the institution and industry participation.

1 F S IS = Food Safety Inspection Service.

238 POSTER PRESENTATIONS

IAEA-SM-271/59P

O B S E R V A T IO N S ON TH E USE OF
G A M M A IR R A D IA T IO N TO C O N TR O L
N IT R O S A M IN E F O R M A T IO N IN BACON

W. F ID D LE R , J.W. PENSABENE, R.A. GATES,

R.K. JENKINS, E. W IERB IC KI
United States Department o f Agriculture,
Agricultural Research Service,
Eastern Regional Research Center,
Philadelphia, Pennsylvania,
United States o f America

A fter N-nitrosopyrrolidine (N P Y R ) and to a lesser extent N-nitroso-

dimethylamine were found in the fried edible portion o f bacon and its drippings,
the United States o f America passed regulations reducing the ingoing N a N 0 2
level from 156 to 120 mg/kg and also required the addition o f 550 mg/kg sodium
ascorbate/erythrobate (NaAsc/Ery) [ 1]. As a result o f the continuing concern
about the possible adverse health effect o f consuming cured meats containing
nitrosamines, particularly fried bacon, considerable research was carried out on
developing alternatives to the use o f nitrite [2]. In one o f the alternatives we
developed, bacon was prepared with 120 mg/kg N a N 0 2 and 550 mg/kg NaAsc
and then irradiated with 60Co (30 kG y at - 4 0 ° C ). Residual N a N 0 2 was reduced
to almost non-detectable levels (< 1 mg/kg) before frying. This resulted in less
than the 10 ¡ig/kg violative level o f N P Y R after frying compared with the non­
irradiated controls which had higher values [3].
Initial studies with bacon prepared in the same manner and subjected to
137Cs irradiation at 0, 10, 20 and 30 kGy, indicated that 30 kGy 137Cs might not
be as effective as 30 kGy 60Co in reducing residual N a N 0 2 and N P Y R . An apparent
elevation o f N P Y R values in fried bacon was observed in the 10 kGy samples. To
determine if this observation was real, we conducted three experiments in which
sixteen bacon bellies were cured with and without NaAsc, then irradiated at
5°C with 137Cs (0 to 15 kGy in 2.5 kGy increments). Subsequent to frying
and analysis, in duplicate, all the sample sets indicated elevated N P Y R in the
edible portion between 2.5 and 7.5 kGy. The non-irradiated controls (0 kG y)
were typically > 1 0 jug/kg N P Y R and the concentrations were lowered by doses
greater than 10 kGy. In the earlier study, where bacon was irradiated with 137Cs
or 60Co at 0, 10, 20 and 30 kGy, this elevation o f N P Y R in fried bacon was not
observed in the 60Co samples — only a dose related decrease.
These findings suggest that dose rate and/or the energy o f the gamma rays
may be an important determinant in nitrite destruction and nitrosamine formation-
 POSTER PRESENTATIONS 239

destruction. Therefore, direct comparison between the same isotopes ( 137Cs or

60C o) at different source strengths and 137Cs versus 60Co studies are warranted.
These same factors may have important implications for the formation-destruction
o f radio lytic compounds, heretofore not observed.
Gamma irradiation at the higher than 15 kG y dose levels still significantly
reduces the N P Y R in fried bacon compared with non-irradiated bacon and offers
the best opportunity fo r nitrosamine and microbiological control with maintenance
o f quality attributes when low (2 0 -4 0 mg/kg) N a N 0 2 is employed.

REFERENCES

[ 1] U N ITED ST A T E S D EPA RTM EN T O F A G R IC U L T U R E , N itrates, Nitrites and

A scorbates (or Isoascorbates) in Bacon, Federal Register 4 :2 0 9 9 2 .
[2] N ATIO N A L ACADEM Y OF SC IE N C ES, Alternatives to the Current Use o f Nitrite in
F oo d s, Part 2 (1982).
[3] F ID D L E R , W„ G A T E S, R .A ., PEN SA BEN E, J.W., PHILIPPS, J.G ., W IERBICKI, E „
J. Agrie. Food Chem. 29 (1 9 8 1 ) 551.

IAEA-SM -271/40P

TH E R O L E OF L A C T O B A C IL L I A N D
O TH E R B A C T E R IA IN R A D U R IZ E D M E A T

W.H. H O L Z A P F E L ,
Department o f Microbiology,
University o f Pretoria,
Pretoria

J.G. N IE M A N D
Iso-Ster (P ty ) Ltd,
Kem pton Park

South Africa

The shelf-life o f vacuum-packaged ground beef can be trebled by a

radurization dose o f 3 kG y and consecutive storage at 4°C. Whilst most typical
meat spoilage bacteria are effectively eliminated by radurization, several factors
seem to favour the survival and growth o f lacto bacilli in vacuum-packaged
radurized meat. Although lacto bacilli constituted < 1% o f the initial microbial
population, this relationship changed to 5.5% directly after radurization, and to
240 POSTER PRESENTATIONS

>90% within 5 days o f refrigerated storage. The dominant lacto bacilli were
classified as L. sake and L. curvatus. These organisms seem to have a relatively
high survival rate after radurization. On average, lactobacilli seem to be slightly
more resistant to radiation than other non-sporeforming bacteria. D 10-values
ranging from 0.30 to 0.88 kGy (average 0.59 k G y) were found for eleven
Lactobacillus isolates. Contrary to expectations, a higher radiation resistance
was found for actively growing (logarithmic) cultures o f L. curvatus, as compared
to stationary cultures.
D 10-values fo r nine Salmonella isolates (identified as S. typhimurium and
S. brandenburg) ranged from 0.35 to 0.55 kGy in nutrient broth, but were lower
in V E broth and higher in meat .1 D 10-values ranging from 0.40 to 0.63 were
found for Brochothrix thermosphacta, whilst pseudomonads appeard to be
extremely sensitive to radiation, with average values o f 0.1 kGy. For
Staphylococcus sciuri isolates a higher radiation resistance (D 10 = 0.64 to
0.71 k G y) was found than for any other meat-associated staphylococci (D i 0 =
0.27 to 0.38 kG y). The latter were represented by S. aureus, S. intermedius and
S. simulans.
It can be concluded that, although lactobacilli survive a radiation dose o f
3 kGy, all potentially harmful bacteria are effectively eliminated in vacuum-
packaged ground beef by radurization.

1 V E = veal extract.
 POSTER PRESENTATIONS 241

IAEA-SM-271/6 IP

D E P U R A T IO N O F B A C T E R IA L L Y C O N T A M IN A T E D
L IV E A N D SHUCKED SO FT SH E LL C LAM S,
Mya arenaria, B Y G A M M A IR R A D IA T IO N

J.C. M A L L E T T
Department o f Biological Sciences,
University o f Lowell,
Lowell, Massachusetts

J.D. K A Y L O R , J.J. L IC C IA R D E L L O
United States Department o f Commerce,
Northeast Fisheries Center,
Gloucester Laboratory,
Gloucester, Massachusetts

United States o f America

Bacterial decontamination o f shellfish from polluted waters by the con­

ventional depuration process is limited by the time constraint required for treat­
ment and the variability among individual specimens to purge themselves. Soft
shell clams are marketed either live, in the shell, or as shucked meats. N o adverse
effect on survival o f clams was observed at treatments below 1 0 0 krad, but
above this dose level a significant increase in mortality occurred (F ig .l). Treat­
ment o f inoculated clam meats with 100 krad, the proposed limit in the United

DOSE (krad)

FIG.l. Cumulative mortality of irradiated Mya arenaria at 6 days post-irradiation. Control

mortality equals 2.6%. (1 rad = 1.00 X 10~2 Gy)
242 POSTER PRESENTATIONS

D O S E (krad)

FIG.2. Survival of various bacteria in homogenized clam as a function of g a m m a irradiation

dose.

States o f America, was calculated to effect a 2 - 3 log reduction in numbers o f

E. coli (D j 0 = 37 krad), S. typhimurium (D 10 = 51 krad) and Staphylococcus
aureus (D 10 = 42 krad) (Fig.2). In countries where higher dose levels are
permitted, a greater degree o f decontamination is feasible since treatment with
doses up to 330 krad did not effect any change in sensory characteristics when
evaluated fried.
 POSTER PRESENTATIONS 243

IAEA-SM-271/39P

IN T E R A C T IO N PH EN O M EN A IN TH E
R A D U R IZ A T IO N OF M E A T

J.G. N IE M A N D
Iso-Ster (P ty ) Ltd,
Kem pton Park

H.J. V A N DER LIN D E

Nuclear Development Corporation
o f South Africa (P ty ) Ltd,
Pretoria

W.H. H O L Z A P F E L
Department o f Microbiology,
University o f Pretoria,
Pretoria

South Africa

The final quality and shelf-life o f radurized meat and meat products are
affected by various intrinsic and extrinsic factors. The initial microbial
population determines the radurization dose as well as the type o f interaction
between radiation survivors. The importance o f oxygen exclusion through
application o f correct packaging materials is highlighted by the fact that
radurized meat was overgrown with fungus within seven days because o f the
elimination o f bacterial competition and availability o f oxygen. Vacuum-
packaging solved this problem. Most meat and meat products developed
detectable off-odours when radurized at ambient temperatures or above. H ow ­
ever, meaningful improvements in the organoleptic properties could be achieved
when radurization was carried out at temperatures o f between 0 and 2°C. Post-
radurization storage temperatures had the greatest single effect on the shelf-life
and quality o f meat and meat products. Combination treatments with raduri­
zation such as lactic acid and nitrogen gas-packaging hold much promise and are
being pursued for commercial application.
244 POSTER PRESENTATIONS

IAEA-SM-271/17P

SENSO RY E V A L U A T IO N A N D SOME Q U A L IT Y
P A R A M E TE R S OF M A IZ E CO M BIN ED -TREATED
W ITH H E A T A N D G A M M A IR R A D IA T IO N

G.T. O D A M TTE N
Department o f Botany,
University o f Ghana,
Legon, Accra

V. A P P IA H
Department o f Biology, Food
and Agriculture,
Ghana A tom ic Energy Commission,
Legon, Accra

Ghana

D.I. L A N G E R A K
International Facility for
Food Irradiation Technology (IF F IT ),
Wageningen, Netherlands

The paper presents preliminary consumer acceptance tests performed on a

popular Ghanaian kenkey made from combined-treàted corn dough and presented
to twenty adult panelists.
Krammer’ s Quick Rank Test showed that there was no significant difference
(P = 0.05) in colour, flavour and taste between the control and combined-treated
maize grains. Starch viscosity measurements o f samples also showed that the
decrease in intrinsic viscosity was not directly related to the combined heat and
radiation treatments.
Heat-treated and combined-treated maize grains yielded more reducing sugars
(as m g -L -1 dextrose) than the unheated controls.
 POSTER PRESENTATIONS 245

IAEA-SM-271/18P

M IC R O B IO LO G IC A L Q U A L IT Y A N D PR O D U C TIO N
OF A F L A T O X IN Bj B Y Aspergillus flavus L IN K N R R L 5906
D U R IN G S TO R A G E O F A R T IF IC IA L L Y IN O C U L A TE D
M A IZ E G R A IN S T R E A T E D B Y A C O M B IN A T IO N
OF H E A T A N D G A M M A R A D IA T IO N

G.T. O D A M TTE N
Department o f Botany,
University o f Ghana,
Legon, Accra

V. A P P IA H
Department o f Biology, Food
and Agriculture,
Ghana A tom ic Energy Commission,
Legon, Accra

Ghana

D.I. L A N G E R A K
International Facility for
Food Irradiation Technology (IF F IT ),
Wageningen, Netherlands

Maize grains artificially inoculated with 1.3 X 106 c.f.u.-g -1 o f spores o f

Aspergillus flavus Link N R R L 5906 were kept in open containers either unheated
(2 0 °C ) or heat-treated (60°C for 30 min) under low (< 4 5 % r.h.) or high
(>85% r.h.)humidity conditions .1 Part o f the grains, in woven polypropylene sacks,
remained unirradiated; the rest was irradiated with 3.5 and 4.0 kGy, respectively,
for 30 minutes. The grain samples were stored at 65% r.h. and 28°C for one
month and then at 80% r.h. for the follow ing three months.
Moist heat treatment (60°C for 30 min, > 85% r.h.) did not increase
(P = 0.05) the initial moisture content o f maize grains (above 13% m .c.) signifi­
cantly but reduced the initial mould and yeast count by 0.9 log cycles and the
total aerobic bacteria count by 0.3 log cycles. A combination o f moist heat
and gamma irradiation with 4.0 kGy, however, lowered the initial mould and
yeast count by 5.1 log cycles and the total aerobic bacteria count by 4.2 log
cycles. Incubation at 65% r.h. and 28°C for one month augmented the killing
effect o f the radiation treatment. A fter three months’ storage at 80% r.h. the

1 c.f.u.-g 1 = colony forming units per gram.

246 POSTER PRESENTATIONS

population o f mould and yeast as well as the total aerobic bacteria o f the combined-
treated grains (60°C, 4.0 k G y) remained nearly the same (i.e. 5.0 and 4.3 log
cycles reduction, respectively). The control o f the moist heat-treated grains,
however, had mould and yeast and total aerobic bacteria counts lowered by 1.5
and 1.3 log cycles, respectively, after three months’ storage at 80% r.h. The grains
did not become rancid.
Triplicate samples showed that only control grains (2 0 L and 20H) and the
grains (2 0 H ) irradiated with 4.0 kGy contained 0.8—4.0 fig/kg o f aflatoxin Bj
after three months’ storage at 80% r.h. and 28°C.

IAEA-SM -271/74P

D E T E R M IN A T IO N O F IR R A D IA T IO N D -VALU ES FO R
Aeromonas hydrophila IN G RO W TH MEDIUM,
B U FFE R A N D FISH

S.A. PALU M BO , R.K. JENKINS, J.J. SHIEH,

R.L. B U C H A N AN , D.W. T H A Y E R
United States Department o f Agriculture,
Agricultural Research Service,
Eastern Regional Research Center,
Philadelphia, Pennsylvania,
United States o f America

To assess the potential o f irradiation processing as a means o f controlling

the presence o f Aeromonas hydrophila in marine products [ 1] three clinical
isolates (K144, BA2 and BW83) and tw o food isolates (F6-10 and B2-10) were
used in these studies. The cultures were irradiated in a caesium-137 source at
doses up to 125 krad. Cultures were irradiated directly at 2 or 22°C in BHI
growth medium, in potassium phosphate buffer (0.1M, pH 7.2), or in ground
blue fish (Table I ).1 The number o f survivors after exposure to various irradiation
doses was determined by plating appropriate dilutions on duplicate plates o f
phenol red starch agar with 10 mg/L ampicillin, and enumerating amylase+
colonies after 24 h incubation at 28°C. Survivor plots (lo g 10 number o f survivors
versus dose) were determined by regression analysis o f the data; correlation co­
efficients > 0.96 were obtained for all strains and variables. Decimal reduction
doses (D values in krad ) 2 were calculated as the reciprocal o f the slope obtained
from the regression analysis.
The D-values observed with the different strains were determined
(Tables I I —IV ). Comparison o f our data with those o f Tarkowski et al. [2]

1 BHI = Brain, heart, infusion.

2 1 rad = 1.00 X 10' 2 Gy.
 POSTER PRESENTATIONS 247

T A B L E I. EFFEC T OF GRO W TH PHASE ON D -VALU ES FO R A. hydrophila

(irradiated in culture broth and plated on nutrient agar)

Strain Stationary phase cells log phase cells

K 144 18.1 18.0

BA2 19.0 19.5
BW83 16.5 18.3
F6-10 17.6 16.9
B2-10 17.8 21.6

T A B L E II. E FFE C T OF P L A T IN G M EDIUM A N D IR R A D IA T IO N MEDIUM

ON D-VALU ES FO R A. hydrophila

Starch ampicillin agar N utrient agar

Strain Growth medium Phosphate buffer Growth medium Phosphate buffer

К 144 16.2 15.5 15.8 14.8

BA2 18.7 18.1 18.8 18.6
BW83 16.8 15.9 15.7 15.6
F6-10 15.7 15.7 15.5 14.0
B2-10 15.5 13.7 15.4 14.9

T A B L E III. E FFE C T OF T E M PE R A TU R E OF IR R A D IA T IO N ON D -VALUES

OF A. hydrophila IN FISH (plated on starch ampicillin agar)

Temperature o f irradiation (°C )

Strain 22 2 —15

K 144 13.7 17.7 26.2

BA2 15.2 19.3 31.4
BW83 14.5 16.1 34.0
F6-10 11.0 14.1 23.3
B2-10 11.3 15.6 22.2
248 POSTER PRESENTATIONS

T A B L E IV . D -VALU ES OF A. hydrophila
IR R A D IA T E D IN G R O U N D BEEF A T 2°C
(plated on starch ampicillin agar)

Strain

K 144 14.0
BA2 14.3
BW83 18.9
F6-10 15.1
B2-10 15.0

indicate that A. hydrophila is slightly more radiation resistant than Yersinia

enterocolitica and Campylobacter jejuni, but not as resistant as Salmonella when
these pathogens were irradiated in raw beef. However, our D-values for
A. hydrophila in fish at 2°C are similar to those reported by Lambert and
Maxey [3 ] for C. jejuni in ground beef and turkey. Overall, the results o f our
study indicate that a dose o f 1 0 0 krad should be efficacious for the elimination
o f the levels o f A. hydrophila encountered in retail fresh foods.

REFERENCES

[ 1] G ID D IN G S, G .G ., F oo d Technol. 38 ( 1984) 61.

[2] TARKOW SKI, J.A ., S T O F F E R , S.C.C., BEU M ER, R .R ., KAM PELM ACHER, E.H.,
Int. J. F o o d Microbiol. 1 (1 9 8 4 ) 13.
[3] LA M BER T, J.D ., M A X EY , R .B ., J . F oo d Sci. 49 (1 9 8 4 ) 665.
 IRRADIATION
FOR FOOD SAFETY

(Session IV)

Chairman

T. RU BIO
Chile
 IAEA-SM-271/80

Invited Paper

IRRADIATION: AN EFFECTIVE MODE

OF PROCESSING FOOD FOR SAFETY
D .A .A . MOSSEL
Department o f the Science o f Food
o f Animal Origin,
Faculty o f Veterinary Medicine,
The University o f Utrecht,
Utrecht, Netherlands

Abstract

IR R A D IA T IO N : AN E F F E C T IV E MODE O F PRO CESSIN G FOOD F O R SA FE T Y .

Foo ds o f animal origin, particularly chicken and pork, continue to transmit febrile
enteritis, including salmonellosis and cam pylobacteriosis, either subsequent to their con­
sumption ( ‘direct transm ission’) or after eating food that was initially wholesome but cross­
contaminated o ff catering equipment, in turn infected by raw food o f animal origin ( ‘indirect
transm ission’). Moreover, precooked frozen shrimps im ported from areas o f production in the
Orient have transmitted shigellosis in the Netherlands. These events result from heavy con­
tamination pressure. In the case o f m eats this originates from intestinal infection o f healthy
animals; as far as shrimps are concerned, infectious pressure stem s from the severely contam i­
nated environment. Markedly improved m easures o f hygiene, including those attaining generally
accepted GMP, are effective in reducing the contam ination rate m arkedly, w ithout completely
eliminating the pathogens concerned though. A ttem pts to identify contam inated consignments
by sampling exam ination were dem onstrated to be unsuccessful, even when linked to certification
by producing countries. The only practicable solution o f this serious health problem has to rely
on terminal processing for safety, as introduced in the twenties in the dairy industry and som e­
what later in the manufacture o f egg products. Gam m a irradiation (radicidation) at a level o f
< 4 kGy was found to be m ost effective for a more than adequate degree o f elimination of
pathogens as judged by Risk Analysis. Radicidation for this purpose did not entail immediate
flora changes or even shifts in the m icrobial community structure secondary to slight temperature
abuse, that presented any health risk. Neither were organisms isolated that could not be identi­
fied with types customarily encountered in fresh or processed food. Consequently, health
authorities and the food industry alike henceforth have means available to protect consumers
against the perennial food-transm itted enteric infectious diseases by the application o f low
am ounts o f ionizing energy. They should not postpone these or similar measures o f inter­
vention unnecessarily because otherwise they risk being blamed by history for being reprehensibly
over-anxious.

PRECEPTS
F o o d - transmitt e d Infections and i n t oxications r emain serious
h e a l t h problems In nearly all parts of the world* Even advanced coun­
tries suffer from such diseases, p a r t i c u l a r l y those spread by food of

251
252 MOSSEL

animal origin [1-4]. Reported Incidents constitute only a m i n o r part

of the really occurring morbidity, even when an advanced P u b l i c H e a l t h
infrastructure prevails [5,6]. The reasons for this h i gh de gree of
underr e p o r t i n g are: (i) only a p p r o x i m a t el y one third of the patients
will consult a d o c t o r at all; (ii) in turn, on ly about one third of
the physicians consulted will ever send a specimen to a b a c t e r i o l o g i ­
cal laboratory; (iii) the incriminated food is only rarely reliably
identified [7]. It is Indeed striking that suffering from febrile
food-transmitt e d g a s t r o enteritis is nowadays c onsidered to be as tri­
v ial and unavo i d a b l e as a spell of common cold, victims not seeming to
b o t h e r calling for medical attention.
T he financial Impact of outbreaks transmitted by foods is consi­
d e r a b l e ^ ^ ] . The primary costs are d irect losses due to decreased
productivity, medical expenses and foods h a ving to be destroyed. In
addition, significant reductions in demand for Incriminated c o m modi­
ties are often observed after an outbreak.
Finally the financial Impact of law suits being made is often dramatic
[9].
Four epide m iological groups of disease m a y be di st inguished [6];
(i) the "big f o u r ”, almost world-wide, including salmonellosis, cam-
p ylobacteriosi s and intoxications due to S t a p h y l o c o c c u s aureus and
Bacillus c e r e u s ; (ii) the "minor culprits": febrile g a s t r o -enteritis
caused by S h i g e l l a , Y e r s i n ia e n t e r o c o l l t l c a . V i b r i o p a r a h a e m o l y t l c u s ,
various entero p a t h o g e n l c and e n t e r o t oxlnogenlc types of Escher i c h i a
c o l l . C l o s t r i d i u m p e r f r l n g e n s . A e r o m o n a s h y d r o p h i l a , E d w a r d s l e l la
t a r d a , the enteric parasites of helminthic and protozoan nature and
the enteric viruses, p a r t i c u l a r l y hepatitis A and the N o r w a l k group
[10]; (iii) the very aggressive, but fortun a te ly less frequently
i nvolved organisms, including C . b o t u l i n u m ; (iv) organisms whose
a etiological rôle in food-transmitted diseases has only recently or
not definitely been established, so that no estimate of their fre­
qu e n c y can be made at present; cf T a b l e I.
I n a p p r o x im at e l y 90% of outbreaks, foods of animal origin are the
aetiological agent [31,2]. The outbreaks usually result from what is
called the 'dual failure' [6]: c o n t a m i n a t i o n of a food, followed by
p r o l i feration of the contaminant to coloni z a t i o n levels, exceeding the
m inimal infectious or m i nimal toxic dose for the most s e n s itive con­
sumer.
 IAEA-SM-271/80 253

Ta b l e I. L e s s c o m m o n patho g e n i c and
t o x l n o g e n l c a gents w h i c h may
be t ransmitted by food

Or g a n i s m References

Aeroraonas h y d r o p h i l a [11-14]

C r y p t o s p o r i d i u m p arvum [15,16]

E d w a r d s i e l l a tarda [17-19]

Es c h e r i c h i a coll. non- [20-22]

in v a s i v e and non-en t e r o -
toxinogenic; serot y p e
0 157:H7

Lancefield group D [23,24]

st r e p t o c o c c i

N o r w a l k virus [25,10]

Ps e u d o m o n a s a e r u g i n o s a [26,27]

"Small round" viruses [28-29]

Vibrio vulnificus [30]

In vlroses and parasitic diseases mere c o n t a m i n a t i o n of food will

trigger the disease, so that only strict measures of food hygience
will result in their control. On the other hand, in food I n t oxications
caused by S . a u r e u s . s p o reformlng bacilli and clostridia, c o n t a m i n a t i o n
Is hard to avoid co m p l e t e l y and conseq u e n t l y p r e v e n t i o n has to rely on
i nhibition of microbial g r owth or arrest of spore germination.
254 MOSSEL

Table I I • I n t e r v e n t i o n Triad of W i lson

1. Safety assu rance of the raw m a t erial by careful a p p l i c a ti on of good

practices»

2. P r o c e s s i n g for s afety to eliminate the pathogens occurring despite

the control measures indicated under 1.

3. Avoiding re c o n t a m i n a t i o n and recolo n i z a t i o n w h i c h would n u llify the

pr o t e c t i o n afforded by the measures Indicated under 1 and 2.

After [6]

As indicated before, the m a i n causes of f o o d - t r ansmitted infec­

tious diseases are by far salmonellosis and campylobac t e r i o s i s »
T h e i r a et io log y has been well established» The enviro n m e nt wherein,
p a r t icularly swine and poultry, are fattened, is s e v erely c o ntaminated
from sources like c o ntaminated feed Ingredients, surface water, soil,
birds and Insects [32]»
The food animals mentioned so become ca rriers of S almonella and C a m ­
p y l o b a c t e r , organisms harml e s s to the animals though causing enteric
disease in man.
Th e r e is no hope for contro l l i n g these diseases unless by I n t e r ­
ven t i o n as emphasized In 1955 by W i l s o n [33]. This Includes a terminal
deconta m i n a t i o n procedure such as heat pa s t e u r i z a t i o n of milk and egg
products [34] without at the least n eglecting the other elements of
longitudinally Integrated processing for safety; cf T a b l e II.
Various procedures h a v e been developed for terminal processing
for s afety of raw meat and poultry, leading to a h i g h degree of elimi­
nation of enteric pathogens. These include surface heat treatments
[35,36], surface d e c o n t a m i n a t i o n with lactic acid [37-39] and irra­
dia t i o n with gamma rays at the ca. 5 k G y level [40-42]. All three pro­
cesses are eff e ctive in the sense that they lead to significant
lethality of the nonsporing pathogens involved. However, heat treat­
ment may change the o r ganoleptic characteristic of red meats and
poultry, and moreover, requires large amounts of energy.
 IAEA-SM-271/80 255

A promising alternative is the appli c a t i o n of surface d e c o n t a m i ­

na t i o n of fresh meat and poultry with lactic acid* This will achieve
c a . 2 log^o reductions of colony forming units of en te ro p at ho g en ic
Enterobac t e r i a c e a e and C a m p y l o b a c t e r jejuni without any i mpairment of
organoleptic attributes [43,38,39].
A most attracti v e d e c o n t a m i n a t i o n method is r a d i c i d a t i o n [44],
defined as a treatment with ionizing radiation at doses up to a p p r o x i ­
m a t e l y 5 kGy adequat e for the elimin a t i o n of nonsporlng pathogenic
micro- o r g a n i s m s in fresh foods [45,40,46-51]. R a d i c i d a t i o n can also
s u c c e ssfully be applied to e.g. f requently d a n g e r o u s l y r e c o n taminated
precooked food of animal origin, such as precooked frozen shrimps Im­
ported from ori en tal produc t i o n areas [52].
R a d i c i d a t i o n as used for these purposes has the follo w i n g a d v a n ­
tages; (i) there Is no Induced toxicity, t e r a t o g e n i c i t y or m u t a g e n i ­
c ity [53]; (ii) the fresh, frozen or dried c h a r acter of the foods is
not jeopardized; (iii) there is no significant loss of organo le pt i c
properties of foods so treated; (iv) this treatment allows d e c o n t a m i ­
na t i o n of foods after packaging, which, in v i ew of the f r e q uency of
c r o s s - c o n t a m i n a t i o n in the food industry [31,6] Is of paramount impor­
tance; (v) due to el i m i n a t i o n of m ostly G r a m n e g ative spoil a g e agents
the keeping quality of radlcidlzed foods at r e f r i g e r at io n temperatures
is markedly increased [43,54,55].

E SSENTIALS OF RADIATION PROCE S S I N G FOR SAFETY

R a d i a t i o n sensi t i v i t y of micro- o r g a n i s m s d i f fers with genera and

e v e n species, all extrinsic conditions (medium, temperature, p0 2 , рНзО
etc.) being equal. G r a m - n e g a t i v e bacteria, including pathogens such as
Salmonella and Shig e l l a are g e n e rally more sensitive than Gram-
positive bacteria: cf T a b l e III. Bacterial spores are m a r k e d l y more
resistant, and Micro c o c c u s r adlodurans is e x c e p t i o n a l l y r e f r a c t o r y to
radiation. Moulds and yeasts are of I n termediate resistance. In prac­
tical terms r a d i cida t i o n In doses b e t w e e n 3 and 6 k G y can be used to
marke d l y reduce non- s p o r e f o r m i n g pathogens such as S a l m o n e l l a , S h i g e l ­
l a , C a m p y l o b a c t e r . Y e r s i n i a , V i b r i o p a r a h a e m o l y t l c u s . E . c o l l and
Staphylococcus aureus in different kinds of fresh or frozen foods [57].
256 MOSSEL

T able III» R a d i a t i o n s ensitivity of some organisms

Organisms M edium T emper a t u r e Dose for 106

inact i v a t i o n
(kGy)

Salm. paratyphi Beef liver 5°C 1.8

Salm. senftenberg Fish meal 7.2
Shig e l l a sonnei Crabmeat 1.6
Shig e l l a dysenteriae Oysters 2.4
Y e r s i n i a ente r ocolltica Ground Beef 0°C 1.2
Yers i n i a ente r ocolitica Ground Beef -30°C 2.3
S t a p h ylococcu s aureus Beef 1.9-3.4
Vi b r i o parahaemolyticus Crabmeat 0 . 5-1,0
Streptococcus faecalis Broth 5.5
A s p e r gillus flavus (spores) Water 2.5
C l . b o t u l l n u m 62 A (spores) Ham 15°C 15.5
(most resistant)
Mi c r o coccus radiodurans Broth <60
Foot and mouth Calf k i dney cells 36
disease virus

D a t a from [56]

The exact dose required in every Instance can only be determined

by the procedure called R i s k Analysis [58], because it is affected by
the initial c o nt a m i n a t i o n rate of the food to be treated. In essence
risk assessme n t Includes estimating the hazard to the consumer of the
final extent of c o n t a m i n a t i o n of a food with various pathogenic agents.
T h i s hazard approa c h e s asymptotically, but does never a c t ually attain
zero. It is rather d e p e n d i n g on a very low survival rate of pathogens
(Nr ) express e d by the formula

N r = N q . A - *- .A where

N0 = initial load of the pathogen in c fu-g- ^;

л “ lethali t y of the process, defined as Nf/N0 ;
 IAEA-SM-271/80 257

Nf = cfu count immediately after processing;

Д = increase or decrease in cfu-g“l resulting from manufacturing
steps, storage, d i st r i b u t i o n and c u l inary prepar a t i o n

N r values have, ult i m a t e l y to be gauged against the m i nimal Infectious

dose of the organis m under study.

It is essential to note that in some Instances survival curves obtained

by irradi at ion are not rectolinear [45]. C o n s e q u e n t l y l e t h ality has to
be expressed in an integrated parameter, i.e. the dose required to
reduce N Q by e.g. six logio cycles w ithin the usual confidence limits [59].
Concern has been expressed repeatedly that r a d icidation of foods
m a y lead to a flora shift in the d i re c t i o n of reducing the foods' o r i ­
ginal colonization resistance. This might entail a risk of the food
becoming dangerously recolonized upon recontaralnation after proces­
sing. Though such hazards have never been advanced In the case of heat
processing of foods, they yet prompted e x t e nsive studies on radici­
dized foods. The de t ailed results of the studies will be presented in
the following section. It m a y be useful to indicate a l ready at this
stage that In these surveys no i ndication w h a t s o e v e r was obtained that
immediate flora changes or population shifts during storage were such
that they markedly decreased resistance against post-process recolonl-
zation as it existed prior to irradiation.
*

RESULTS OF PRACTICAL A SSAYS IN THREE AREAS

Frozen poultry

Pou l t r y and poultry products are very frequ e n tl y identified as the

s ource of food-transmitted disease of microbial aetiology. The main
p athogens involved are S a l m o n e l l a , C a m p y l o b a c t e r and S t a p h ylococcus
aureus [48,60,61]. It has been d e monstrated that p r e -packaging of
poultry, freezing and subsequent I rradiation with low doses of 2-5 kGy
is ef fe ctive In eliminating these pathogens [48,62]. Our own experi­
m e n t s [63] have shown that i rradiation of frozen c h icken with 4 kGy
resulted in 3 log^g cycles reduction of the a e robic m e s o p h i l l c colony
count and over 4 log^g cycles r e d u ction of the p s y c hr o tr op h lc colony
258 MOSSEL

Table IV. Effect of irradiation on the microbial quality of

frozen chicken

Organisms logio c f u •g"■

1

0 kGy 1 kGy 2 kGy 3 kGy 4 kGy

M e s o p h l l l c colony count 6.8 5.8 4.6 4.1 3.6

Psychr o t r o p h i c c olony count 5.8 5.7 4.0 <2.8 <1.8
Enterobact e r l a c e a e 5.5 <2.8 1 .0a 0.4 -0.4
La c t o bacillus 6.0 4.1 4.2 3.1 <2.8
La n c e f i e l d D streptococci 5.1 3.7 3.9 3.2 >2.0
Staph, aureus 4.6 2.2 <-0.5a <-0.5 <-0.5

Data from [63]

count, E n t e r o b a c t e r l a c e a e , L a c tobacillus spp and Staph, aureus counts

(Table IV).
The effect on the raesophilic and psychrotrophic m i c r o f l o r a of frozen
chicken surviving irradiation with 2 and 4 k G y was found to be, as
expected, that the percen t a g e of G r a m - p o s i t i v e cocci Increased whereas
Granr-negatlve rods decreased. In irradiated chicken M i crococcus spp.
and yeasts were the most prevalent organisms amongst the
p s y c h rotrophic flora, with Streptococcus spp. and Mlcroc o c c u s spp.
p r e d o minating in the raesophilic flora; cf T a b l e V. T hese data are in
agreement with the results of Welch and M a x c y [64] w i t h regard to
r a d i ation-res i s t a n t M l c r o c o c c u s spp. also isolated from Irradiated
chicken.
Mul d e r [65] o b s erved that d u ring storage at 7°C of poultry irradiated
at 2.5 k G y total c olony counts increased about 3 log^Q cycles more
r apidly than G r a m - n e g a t i v e counts.

F rozen precooked and peeled shrimps of tropical origin

M a n y oppor t u n i t i e s exist for m i s h a n d l i n g precooked frozen shrimps

[66]. In v i e w of the frequency with which they are consumed without
further heating, pathogens occurring in shrimps are a perpet u a l l y
 IAEA-SM-271/80 259

Table V. Effect of Irradiation on the mesophilic and psychrotrophic

microflora of frozen chicken (In % of total colony count)"1".

Organisms mesoph i l i c psychr o t r o p h i c

0 kGy 2 kGy 4 kGy 0 kGy 2 kGy

Gram- p o s i t i v e cocci
Aerococcue - 10 - - -

Micrococcus 28 39 43 - 83
Staphylococcus 10 - - - -
Streptococcus, Lancefleld D 3 43 50 — —

Gram-positive rods
Corynebacterium 19 3 - 19 3
Lactobacillus 22 - - - —

Gram-negative rods
Acinetobacter 2 - - 8 -

Xanthomonas - - - 4 -

Pseudomonas - - - 46 -
Kluyvera - - - 5 -
Hafnla 10 - - 7 -
Klebsiella - - - 11 -
E. coll 4 - - - -

Yeasts 2 5 7 - 14

+ Limit of significance 2-5%. Data from [63]

imminent public health hazard. R e c ently 59 cases of b a c t erial d y s e n ­

tery caused by S hi g e l l a flexnerl type 2 o c c urred In T h e N e t h e r l a n d s
[3]. The epidemic caused death In 14 patients, all aged over 70. A
shrimp cocktail served at the Christmas d inner was d e m o n s t r a t e d to be
e pi d e m i o l o g l c a l l y related to the outbreak. The i n criminated shrimps
w e r e imported in a peeled frozen c o n d ition from the Far East. Because
the epidemic strain showed the same antibi o t i c resistance and plasmid
260 MOSSEL

Table VI. Effect of Irradiation on the microbial quality of

frozen Malaysian shrimps

Organisms i°gio cf u - g- *

D o s e of radiation
0 kGy 2 kGy 4 kGy 6 kGy

M e s o p h l l i c colony count 6.8 4.8 3.2 <2.8

Psychr o t r o p h l c colony count 6.2 4.2 <2.8 <2.8
Enteroba c t e r i a c e a e 3.2 < -0.5 <-0,5 <-0.5
L a c t obac i l l u s 5.2 <2.8 <2.8 <2.8
La n c e f i e l d D streptococci 4.9 1.0 <-0.5 <-0.5
Staph, aureus 3.5 < -0.5 < -0.5 <-0.5

D a t a from [63]

T a b l e VII. R a d i a t i o n sensi t i v i t y of some strains

o f S h i gella and Salmon e l l a In frozen
precooked, peeled tropical shrimps

Ba c t e r i a Dio (ксУ)

S h i g e l l a dysenterlae 0.22
S h i g e l l a sonnei 0.25
S h i g e l l a boydii 0.26
S h i g e l l a flexneri 2 0.41
S a l m o n e l l a typhimurlum 0.88

Data from [52]

 IAEA-SM-271/80 261

Ta b l e VIII. Immedi a t e m i c r obial flora c h ange (In Z) In frozen

shrimps as a result of irradiation

O r g a nisms mesophilic psych r o t r o p h i c

0 kGy 4 kGy 0 kGy 2 kGy

G r a m - p o s i t i v e cocci
Mic r o c o c c u s 4 84 99 100
S t a p h ylococcus 82 16
Strep tococcus 9

G r a m - p o s i t i v e rods
Corynebacterium 5 1

D a t a from [63]

profile as endemic M a l a y s i a n types, it is most likely that the incri-

min a t e d shrimps had been recontaminated off the s e v e r e l y c o ntaminated
local environment, after previous d e c o n t am in a t i on by cooking.
P o s t - p r o c e s s i n g recont a m i n a t i o n bears a sporadic and most erratic
ch a r a c t e r [6]. Ther e f or e sample e x a m i n a t i o n of c o n s i g n m e n t s of food
u p o n impor tat io n In attempts to separate safe lots from unsafe ones,
is totally unreliable. R a t h e r should shrimp be s y s t e m a t i c a l l y pro­
cessed for safety b efore it reaches the consumer. This can, In prin­
ciple, be achieved by r a d i c i d a t i o n at doses of 4-6 kGy.
W e found that a r a d i ation dose of 4 k G y resulted in 3 log^g
cycles red uction of the aerobic psychr o t r o p h i c and m e s o p h i l i c colony
counts of M a l a y s i a n shrimps [63]. In addition, E n t e r o b a c t e r l a c e a e , L a c ­
t o b a c i l l u s , Lan cef l e l d D s t r eptococci and Staph, aureus could not be
d etected in 1 g aliquots, a fter doses b e tween 2 and 4 k G y had been
applied (Table VI). S u b s e q u e n t l y Inoculated pack studies w i t h 4
strains of Shigella and 1 s t r a i n of S a l m o n e l l a w e r e carried out. As
illustrated by Table VII S h i g e l l a w a s m o r e r a d i a t i o n s e n s itive in fro­
zen shrimps than S a l m o n e l l a ; a dose of 2,5 kGy was found to result in
a lethality of more than 6 log^g cycles of a n y S h i g el l a se rotype [52].
262 MOSSEL

Ta b l e IX. Flora shift (in %) as a result of p o s t - l r r a di a tl o n storage

at 12°C for 84 hours

Organisms mesophilic psychrotrophic

0 kGy 4 kGy 0 kGy 4 kGy

Gram- p o s i t i v e cocci
Micrococcus 9 - 2
Staphylococcu s 14 - -

G r a m - positive rods
Co r y n e b a c t e r i u m 34 - 23
Lact o b a c i l l u s 9 - 6

G r a m - negative rods
Moraxella 25 93

00
sO

00
Pseudomonas - 7 2 12
E n t e r obacterl a c e a e - - 8

Other 9 - 13

Data from [51]

Table VIII shows the immediate effect of i r radiation on the

microbial a s s o c i a t i o n of frozen precooked shrimps o r i g i n a t i n g from
Malaysia. In the initial flora m e s o p h i l l c c o ag ulase negative S t a p h y l o ­
coccus and ps y c hrotrophic M i c r o c o c c u s w e r e predominant; however, after
a radiation treatment up to 4 k G y the m es op h i l l c and p s y c hrotrophic
a s s o c iation c o m p rised m o s t l y M i c r o c o c c u s spp.
Subs e q u e n t l y storage studies w e r e c a rried out at 12 and 21°C
[51]. The dominant spoilage flora develop in g on control shrimps stored
at 12°C consisted m a i n l y of psychr o t r o p h i c and m e s o p h i l i c M o r a x e l l a
spp. and the c o r y n e f o r m group, followed by m e s o p h i l i c coagulase-
negatlve Stap h y l o c o c c u s spp. A f t e r i r r a d i a t i o n at 4 k G y M o r a x e l l a spp.
became the predominant o r g a n i s m w i t h i n p s y c h r o t r o p h i c and m e s o p h i l i c
association (Table I X ) .
 IAEA-SM-271/80 263

Table X. Flo ra shift (In %) as a result of p o s t - i r r a d i a t l o n storage

at 2 1 0C for 36 hours

Organisms mesophilic psychrotrophic

0 kGy 4 kGy 0 kGy 4 kGy

Gr a m - positive cocci
Micrococcus 13 - 5 -
S taphylococcus 2 - 3 -

Gram - p o s i t i v e rods
Coryne b a c t e r i u m 23 4 22 -
Lacto b a c i l l u s 13 - 13 -
Le u c o n o s t o c 4 - - -

Gr a m - negative rods
Moraxella 17 72 30 62
Pseudomonas 4 - 3 2
Enterobac t e r i a c e a e 6 - 3 -
Acin e t o b a c t e r 4 24 18 36

Other 14 - 3 -

D a t a from [51]

The spoilage flora of n o n - i r r a d l a t e d shrimps d e v e l o p i n g at 2 1 °C

was more heterogeneous than the a s s o c i a t i o n at 12°C. It c o n s i s t e d of
psychrotrophic and raesophilic M o r a x e l l a spp., the c o r y n e f o r m group,
Lactobacillus spp., m e s o p h i l i c M l c r o c o c c u s spp. and p s y c hrotrophic
A c l n e tobacter spp. In irradiated shrimps stored at 21°C M o r a x e l l a
spp., followed by A c i n e t o b a c t e r spp. w e r e the most prevalent organisms
amongst the psychrotrophic and m e s o p h i l i c flora (Table X).
Our data corroborat e e a rlier findings of W e l c h and M a x c y [64,67] w h o
also observed a pre d o m i n a n c e of M o r a x e l l a - A c i n e t o b a c t e r spp. and
catalase-positlve cocci in food of a n imal o r i g i n irradiated at radici­
dation doses.
264 MOSSEL

Table XI. Mi c r obial c o m m unity structure of ground black pepper.

Co unts expressed In logjg cfu.g- ^.

aerobic mesoph i l i c c olony count 8.0 C l o s t r i d i u m spp. 2.7

aerobic mesoph i l i c spore count Enterobacterlaceae 4.7
- surviving 1m i n at 80°C 7.7 Coli aerogenes
- surviving 20 m i n at 100°C 6.0 b a c teria 4.4
- surviving 20 m i n at 115°C <1.8 L a n c e f i e l d group D
anaer o b i c mesoph i l i c spore count s t reptococci 4.9
- surviving 1m i n at 80°C 7.5 Y easts <1.8
aerobic thermophilic spore count Moulds 4.6
- surviving 1m i n at 80°C <1.8

D a t a from [70]

These results substantiate the views that low dose (< 4 kGy)
irradiation of shrimps: (1) e f f e c t i v e l y e liminates e n t e r opathogens
frequently oc c u rring in such product; (ii) does not present a poten­
tial hazard resulting from a shift in the m icroflora, even w h e n radi-
cidized shrimps are stored at temperatures up to 21°C.
Concurrently it had been establ i sh e d that radici d a t i o n at < 4 kGy does
not significantly impair the s e n sory a c c e p t a b i l i t y of shrimps.

Spices

Spices reach the trade in severely c o n taminated condition, with

moulds and heat resistant bacterial spores domin a t i n g [68-70]; cf
T a b l e XI. Sometimes spices contain in addition m i c r o - o r g a n i s m s of
h e a l t h signif i c a n c e such as Bacillus c e r e u s , C l o s t r i d i u m p e r f r l n g e n s ,
m ycoto x i n - p r o d u c i n g moulds and S a l m o n e l l a spp.
Black pepper c o ntaminated with Salmonella w e l t e v r ed en was responsible
for several incidents of h uman salmonellosis over a wide area [71]. In
1981/82 Salmo n e l l a orani e n b u r g In black pepper caused an o u t b r e a k in
N o r w a y in which over 120 patie n t s were recorded [72].
 IAEA-SM-271/80 265

Ta b l e XII. Effect of i rradiation on the aerobic mesoph i l i c colony

c ount and aerobic and anaerobic me s o p h i l i c spore counts
of black pepper

Group l°8l0 c f u '8 1

0 kGy 2 kGy 4 kGy 6 kGy 8 kGy 10 kGy

aerobic mesophillc colony count 8.0 6.2 5.2 3.9 2.1 <1 .8
aerobic mesophilic spore count
- surviving 1 min at 8 0 oC 7.7 6.5 4.7 3.0 1.8 <1.8
- surviving 20 min at 100°C 6.0 2.9 0.2
anaerobic mesophillc spore count ' '
- surviving 1 min at 80°C 7.5 6.1 3.1 <1.8 <1.8 <1.8
- surviving 20 min at 100°C 5.9 <2.8 <1.8 <1.8 <1.8 <1.8
Enterobacteriaceae 4.7 2.8 1.7 1.1 <-0.5 -
Lancefleld D streptococci 4.9 1.7 0.4 <-0.5 - -
Moulds 4.6 <1.8 “ — —

Data from [70]

A promising physical d e c o n t a mi na t i o n method for spices is a

"hygienization" treatment with ionizing radiation, w h i c h w a s a l ready
used successfully for m a n y years In practice in T h e N e t h e r l a n d s [73].
In our study with b l ac k pepper [70], one of the most h i g h l y con­
taminated spices, a radiation dose of 6 k G y resulted In 4 log^g cycles
r eduction of the aerobic mesoph i l i c c olony count. The aerobic raesophi-
lic bacterial spore count, surviving a heat treatment of 1 m inute at
80°C and the heat resistant f r a ction of the aerobic raesophilic bac­
terial spores, surv iving a heat treatment of 20 mi nu te s at 100°C, were
reduced by 3, and 6 log^Q cycles, respectively,at a dose of 4 kGy.
Moulds were reduced from 4,1 x 10^ to below 50 c.f.u per gram by a
dose of 4 kGy. Lanc e f l e l d D streptococci and E n t e r o b a c t e r l a c e a e were
reduced by a factor of 1 0 4 to 1 0 5 at a dose of 4 kGy; cf T a b l e XII.
T h e m i c r o bi olo gi c a l q u a l i t y of c u s t o m a r i l y marketed spices can,
hence, be improved by a treatment with ionizing r a d i ation at a level
of 4 to 6 kGy. This also applies to elimin a ti o n of E n t e r o b a c t e r l a c e a e ,
suggesting possibilities for Salmon e l l a - r a d l c l d a t l o n . At the doses
266 MOSSEL

indicated the flavour Integrity of spices is not changed by the pro­

cess [71-75].

M ONITORING THE M I C R O B I A L E F F I C I E N C Y OF R A D I A T I O N

Principles

In assessing the lethality of any technique for processing for

safety it is vital to deter m i n e the real numbers of survivors and not
a fictitious, a r b i t r a r y fraction of their c o lo ny forming units [76].
It has been recognized for a long time that a m a r k e d p roportion of the
vegetative mic r o b i a l cells occurring in foods processed for safety and

FOOD MACERATE
ANO DILUTIONS

3-6 h 22 ~25°C

FACULT. ANAEROBIC ORG. STRICTLY AEROBIC ORG.

overlayering replication

incubation incubation

FIG.J. Solid m e d i u m repair ( S M R ) procedure as applied to damaged, facultatively and strictly

aerobic bacteria.
 IAEA-SM-271/80 267

in those stored under conditions restricting m i c r o b i a l proliferation,

particularly chilling and freezing, c a r r y sublethal lesions.
Sublethally stressed cells preserve their pathog e n e t i c traits. However,
it leads to slower growth, but p a r t i c u l a r l y to incom p e t e n c e to develop
on the c u s t omarily used selective m e d i a that do not inhibit undamaged
populations of the same taxon. F a ilure to a l l o w for this effect can
lead to marked u n d e r e s t i m a t i o n , 1 . e . up to six logxo cycles, of the
numbers of colony forming units present in a sample and c o n s e q u e n t l y
to dramatic o v e r e st i m a t i o n of l e t h a l i t y [76,38] . T h e r e f o r e m o n i t o r i n g
of processing for s afety calls for a d e l i b e r a t e repair process
("resuscitation") of stressed cells, b e fore a t t empts are m a d e to
assess their number of c o l o n y forming units by selec t iv e procedures.
Two different approaches have been elabor a t e d to restore the
natural vitality of damaged populations, v i z . r epair In a suitable
liquid medium [79] and resus c i t a t i o n on a solid m e d i u m [77,79]. Due to
the distribution of severity of d amage over a stressed population,
repair is g e n e rally not a s y nchronized process. Consequently, w h e n
liquid me d i u m repair m e t h o d s are used, g r o w t h of recovered cells occur
in addition to repair, leading to falsely high results. Solid m e d i u m
repair (SMR) is not affected by such o c c u r r e n ce s and therefore the
technique of choice in procedures relying on c o l o n y counting.
Our recommended procedure for this purpose Is presented in
Figure 1. It relies on the use of a catalase e n r iched tryptone soya
agar [38] for recovery of impaired populations.

Recommended simple selective enumer a t i o n techniques

E n t e r o b a c t e r l a c e a e » T h e m e d i u m used is violet red bile glucose

agar, allowing the formation of colonies with purple halos as a result
of diss i m i l a t i o n of glucose by all E n t e r o b a c t e r l a c e a e [80]. The m e d i u m
is previously tested for adequate s e l e c t i v i t y and p r o d u c t i v it y [81]
and then used to ov e r layer the solid repair m e d i u m Incubated for 4-6
hours at laboratory temperature. The temperature of Incuba t i o n of the
o verlayered plates d e p e n d s on the types sought.
T a x o n o m i c grouping of Isolates relies on subcul t u r in g onto M a c C o n k e y
a g a r for the assessment of the mode of a t t a c k on lactose and sub­
sequent stabbing into the three layered G r a m - n e g a t i v e d i a g n o s t i c tubes
268 MOSSEL

[82] allowing d e t e r m in at i o n of the charac t e r i s t i c traits of types of

h ealth or ecological significance.

Staph, a u r e u s . R e s u s c i t a t i o n is as described for E n t e r o b a c t e r l a c e a e .

Su b s e quently the repair plates are overlayered with B a ird-Parker agar,
incubated at 42°C [83] w i t h the usual confir m a t i o n procedures.

Lancef l e l d group D s t r e p t o c o c c i . Solid m e d i u m repair followed by over­

layering by kanaraycin aesculin azlde agar and incuba t i o n at 4 2 °C [84]
has been found to a l l o w quanti t a t i v e recov e r y with a high degree of
s e l e c tivity (over 95% of colonies with b lack halos being L a n c e f i e l d
group D strains) of D streptococci, also of those damaged by freezing
or other adverse conditions.

Spores of the genera Bacillus and C l o s t r i d i u m . The choice of an opti­

mum heat treatment, m i mi c k i n g pasteu r i z a t i o n is essential. This was
found to be 1 m i n exposure to a temperature of 80°C in a d i luent of
pH = 6.9 + 0,1, since this treatment was demons t r a t e d to result in (i)
the virtual e l i m i n a t i o n of the total nonsporing microflora: (ii)
sparing the less thermorésistant spores; and (ill) d i s s i p a t i o n of the
required amount of heat activi t a t l o n for spore g e r m i n a t i on [85].
T h e enumerati o n of c o lony forming units of aerobic and anaerobic
spores can succe s s f u l l y be carried out in poured plates of Schaedler
agar under aerobic and anaerobic c o n d i t i o n s , r e s p e c t i v e l y [86];
C lostridium spp.are enumerated in poured plates of D i f f e r e n t i a l R e i n ­
forced Clostr i d i u m agar in an a n a e robic a t m o sp h er e [87].

RETROSPECT

From the e x p erimental data presented in this paper it is evident

that mar k e d l y improved protec t io n of the public against diseases of
microbial etiolo g y transmitted by foods is w i t h i n reach, reliable eli­
mina t i o n of prevalent e n t e r opathogens by r a d i c id a ti on is attainable,
w h i l e the surviving flora, m a i n l y M o r a x e l l a spp. and c a t a l a s e - p o s i t i v e
cocci, is not of public health signif i c a n c e [47].
 IAEA-SM-271/80 269

This certainly also applies to pathogenic agents not dealt with

e x p e ri mentally in our investigations, such as helminths and protozoa
[42,6,55]. The classical defence lines relying on h i g h -l e ve l hygiene
d uring slaughter and industrial food h a n dling are insufficient to con­
trol in these food-transmitted enteric infections [86].
Consequently, as emphasized by W i l s o n since 1935 [33], a third
line of defence, processing for safety, is required here, as it was in
the dairy and later the egg products i n d ustry [34]. R a d i c i d a t i o n is
one of the effective modes of processing for s a f e t y of raw and. pre­
cooked food of animal origin.
Intervention in food m a n u f a c t u r e , e . g . by r a d i c i d a t i o n , t e n d s to
increase cost. C o n s e q u e n t l y i n d ustry is not l ikely to introduce such
practices unless they are legally enforced, as in p a s t e u r i z a t i o n of
raw mi lk in many countries. On the other h a n d , G o v e r n m e n t s are not
inclined to make processing for s afety compulsory, unless there are
signs of strong support by consumers. Unfort u n a t e l y , the m a j o r i t y of
the consumers consider "a touch of food poisoning" as an inevitable
hazard, like catching a cold and are c o n s e q u e n t l y not pressing hard
for measures of intervention.
Another important c o n s i d e r a t i o n in the a d o p t i o n of proces s i n g for
s afety by radiation Is that of perceived risks related to the process
of irradiation at large and its applic a t i o n s to foods in particular.
Part of these reservations can be refuted by r e f e rring to the w e a l t h
of published information pointing to the a b sence of a n y risk involved
in the c o n s u mption of foods processed by irradi a t i o n at a level not
exceeding 10 kGy [53].
A n other health o b je ction raised against food l rradatlon is that
it does not eliminate viruses. This is no d oubt true, since viruses
s h o w an elevated resistance against radiation [89]. H o w e v e r , a t 5 kGy
at least one decimal reduction of relevant viruses will occur, which
is certainly better than when foods are marketed without any proces­
sing.
Another objecti o n often levelled against food i r radiation is the
security risk of having "a nuclear reactor at every corner of the
street". First and foremost food irradiation is not practised in a
nuclear reactor. Mor e o v e r plants used for this purpose can very well
be limited to a few per c o untry of the size of e.g. the U n i t e d K i n g d o m
and then present of course a security risk that is easy to contain.
270 MOSSEL

So far objections against food irradiation are rational and can

be eliminated by the expert. Much more d i f f icult to control are the
emotional objections in this area. First of all there is the myth that
the effects of food processing per se are detrimental to the consumer's
health. These fears can rather e asily be refuted by reference to the
scientific literature unless holders of such views refer to traits
that cannot be assessed. Fears of this nature are similar to the so-
called 'Post H i r o s h i m a radiophobia'. It is certa i n l y not for the
H e a l t h Scientist to deal with such phenomena. R a t h e r should the
assistance of B e havioural Scientists be requested, whose experience
allows them to deal with phobias per s e . Noneth e l e s s the H e a l t h Scien­
tist can contribute to the ultimate clearing away of such problems,
I.e. by (i) not o b s e s s i v e l y p r e ssing for a p articular mode of proces­
sing for safety; and (11) contin u o u s l y providing reassurance based on
unbiased data from the scientific literature [43].
On e final point has to be made about the a t titude of Govern m e n t
Agencies. The i r prudence with respect to author i z i n g food Irradiation
is certainly laudlble. Nonetheless, they should also take into account
that by not permitting the radicidation of foods, which are frequently
responsible for the transmission of microbial diseases, they prevent
indu s t r y from p rotecting the consumer against fully a v o i d a b l e risks.
Hence, the balancing of m erely theoretical toxicological hazards
against tangible health benefits should be a point of constant concern.
Otherwise, hi s t o r y might blame our g e ne r a t io n of H e a l t h L e g i s l a t o r s
for being repreh e n s l b l y over-anxious.

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J. Clin. Microb i o l 15, (1982) 48-52.

[14] JANDA, J.M., BOTTONE, E.J. SKINNER, C.V., CALCATERRA, D.

Phenot y p i c markers associated w i t h gastro i n t e s t i n a l A e r o monas
h y d r ophlla iso lates from symptomatic children
J. Clin. Microbiol. 17, (1983) 588-591.
272 MOSSEL

[15] NAVIN, T.R., JURANEK, D.D.

Cryptosporldiosis: cllnicol. epidemiologic and parasitologic
review.
Revs, infect. D i s eases 6, (1984) 313-327.

[16] SOAVE, R., MA, P.

Cryptosporidiosis: traveler's diarrhea in two families
Arch, i ntern Med., 145, (1985) 70-72.

[17] MARSH, P.K., GORBACH., S.L.

Invasive entero c o l i t i s caused by Edwar d s l e l l a tarda
G as t r o e n t e r o l o g y 82, (1981) 336-338.

[18] NAGEL, P., SERRIT E L L A A., LAYDEN, T.J.

Edw a r d s l e l l a tarda g a s t r o enteritis associated with a pet turtle
Gas t r o e n t e r o l o g y 82, (1982) 1436-1437.

[19] SECHTER, I., S H M I L O V I T Z , M., ALTMANN, G., S E L I G M A N N , R . , KOETZER,

B., BRAUNSTEIN, I., GERICHTER, C . B ^
E d w a r dsle l l a tarda isolated in Israel b e tween 1961 and 1980
J. Clin. Microbiol. 17, (1983) 669-671.

[20] O'BRIEN, A.D., LIVELY, T.A., CHEN, M.E., ROTHMAN, S.W., FROMAL,
S.B.
Es c h e r i c h i a coll 0157:H7 strains associated with haeraorrhagic
c olitis in the U n i t e d States produce S h i g el l a dysent e r i ae 1 (Shiga)
like cytotoxin.
La n c e t 1 (1983) 702.

[21] RILEY, L.W., REMIS, R.S., HELGERSON, S.D., MC GEE, H.B., WELLS,
J.G., DAVIS, B.R., HEBERT, R.J., OLCOTT, E.S., JOHNSON, L.M.,
HARGRETT, N.T., BLAKE, P.A., COHEN, M.L.
Hem o r r h a g i c colitis a ssociated with a rare E s c h e r i c h i a coll
serotype.
Ne w Engl. J. Med. 308 (1983) 681-685.

[22] MARTIN, T., V A N BURGSTEDEN, R.A., POPICK, D.G.

H e m o r r h a g i c colitis associated with E s c h e r i c h i a coll 0157:H7.
Canad. Med. Assoc. J. 131, (1984) 1329.

[23] SEDOVA, N.N., NEFEDEVA, N.P., SKIRKO, B.K.

Some aspects of the p a t hogenicity of enterococci causing food
poisoning V o p r o s y P i t a n i y a 59, (1981). Food Sci. Technol. Abstr.
14, 25, (1982).

[24] BATISH, V.K., CHANDER, H., RANGANATHAN, B.

C h a r a c t e r i z a t i o n of d e o x y r i b o n u c l e a s e - p o s i t i v e enterococci iso­
lated from milk and m i l k products
J. Food P r o t e c t i o n 45, (1982) 348-352.

[25] GR0HMANN, G.S., MURPHY, A.M., CHRISTOPHER, P.J., AUTY, E.,

GREENBERG, H.B.
N o r w a l k virus g a s t r oenteritis in v olunteers c o n s uming depurated
oysters
Austral. J. Exper. Biol. Med. Sci. 59, (1981) 219-228.
 IAEA-SM-271/80 273

[26] R OKOSZEWSKA, J., SMYKAL, B., BOGDANOWICZ, E.

M a s s outbreak of food poising by goulash conta m i n a t e d with
P s e u d omonas aeruginosa
Rocz. Panstw. Zahl. Hig. 31, (1980) 253-256.

[27] BODEY, G.P., BOLIVAR, R, FAINSTEIN, V., JADEJA, L.

Infect i o n s caused by P s e u d o m o n a s aeruginosa
Rev. Infect. Di s e a s e s 5, (1983) 279-313.

[28] APPLETON, H, PALMER, S.R., GILBERT, R.J.

Foodb o r n e gastr o e n t e r i t i s of unknown aetiology: a virus infec­
tion?
Brit. Med. J. 282, (1981) 1801-1802.

[29] APPLETON, H, BUCKLEY, М., MAWER, S.L.

Virus particles in oysters
Brit. Med. J. 282, (1981) 1974.

[30] JOHNSTON, J.M., ANDES, W . A . , GLASSER, G.

V i b r i o vulnificus - A gastro n o m i c hazard
J. Amer. Med. Assoc. 349, (1983) 1756-1757.

[31] BRYAN, F.L.

H a z a r d analysis critical point approach: epidem i o l o g i c a l
ratio n a l e and applic a t i o n s to food service operations.
J. Environm. He a l t h 44, (1981) 7-14.

[32] EDEL, W, V A N SCHOTHORST, М., KAMPELMACHER, E.H.

E p i d e m i o l o g i c a l studies on S a l m o n e l l a In a c e rtain area
I. The presence of Salmon e l l a in man, pigs, insects, s e a gulls and
in food and effluents
Zentralb. Bakteriol. Parasl t e n k , A b t . I. Orig. A. 235, (1976)
476-484.

[33] WILSON, G.S.

Symposium on food m i c r o b i o l o g y and public health: g e n e r a l c o n c l u ­
sion
J. Appl. Bacteriol. 18, (1955) 629-630.

[34] LEE, J.A.

Recent trends In human salmonellosis in En gland and Wales: the
e pid e m i o l o g y of prevalent serotypes other than S a l m o n e l l a typhl-
m urlum
Journal of Hygi e n e 72, (1974) 185-195.

[35] SMITH, M.G., GRAHAM, A.

D e s t r u c t i o n of E s c h e r i c h i a coll and salmon e l l a e on m u tt on car­
casses by treatment with hot water
M e a t Science 2, (1978) 119-128.

[36] EUSTACE, I.J.

Con t r o l of bacterial contam i n a t i o n of meat d uring processing
Food T e c h n o l o g y in A u s t r a l i a 33, (1981) 28-32.
274 MOSSEL

[37] SNIJDERS, J . M . A . , S C H O E N M A K E R S , M.J.G., GERATS, G.E., DE PIJPER,

F.W.
Dekont a m l n a t i o n schlachtwarmer R i n d e r k S r p e r rale o r ganlschen
S auren
Fleischwi r t s c h a f t 59, (1979) 656-663.

[38] V A N NETTEN, P., V A N DER ZEE, H., MOSSEL, D.A.A.

A note on catalase enhanced r e c overy of acid injured celle of
g r a m negative bacte r i a and Ite c o nsequences for the assessment of
the letha l i t y of L - l a c t i c acid d e c o n t a m i n a t i o n of raw meat sur­
faces
Journal of applied B a c t e r i o l o g y 57, (1984) 169-173.

[39] SNIJDERS, J.M.A., V A N LOGTESTIJN, J.G., MOSSEL, D.A.A., SMULDERS,

F.J.M.
Conditio ns for the use of lactic acid as a decont a m i n a n t in the
meat industry.
Veter. Quart. 7 (1985). In Press.

[40] LEY, F.J., KENNEDY, T.S., KAWASHIMA, K., ROBERTS, D., HOBBS, B.C.
The use of gamma radiation for the e l i m i n a t i o n of Salmon e l l a from
frozen meat
J o u r n a l of H y g i e n e 68, (1970) 293-311.

[41] MOSSEL, D.A.A.

The elim i n a t i o n of enteric bacterial pathogens from food and feed
of animal o rigin by gamma irradi a t i o n with particular reference
to Salmon e l l a radici d a t i o n
Journal of Food Q u a l i t y 1, (1977) 85-104.

[42] KAMPELMACHER, E.H.

I r r a d i a t i o n for control of S a l m o n e l l a and other pathogens in
poultry and fresh meats
Food Technol. 37, (1983) 117-119; 169.

[43] MOSSEL, D.A.A., V A N NETTEN, P.

W h i t h e r protec t i o n of the consumer against entero p a t h o g e n i c b a c ­
teria on fresh meats and p o u ltry by processing for safety
In: Food I r r a d i a t i o n Now. Martlnus N y hoff. The H a g u e and Boston,
(1982) 2-19.

[44] GORESLINE, H.E., INGRAM, M. MACUCH, P., MOCQUOT, G., MOSSEL,

D.A.A., NIVEN, C.F., THATCHER, F.S.
Te n t a t i v e c l a s s i f i c a t i o n of food Irradiation processes with
microbi o l o g i c a l objectives.
Nat u r e 204, ( 1 9 6 4 ) 2 3 7 - 2 3 8 .

[45] DYER, J.K., ANDERSON, A.W., D U T I Y A B O D H I , P.

R a d i a t i o n survival of food pathogens in complex media
Appl. Microb i o l . 14, (1966) 92-97.

[46] EL Z A W A H R Y , Y.A., ROWLEY, D.B.

R a d i a t i o n r esistance and injuring of Y e r s i n i a entero c o l l t l c a
Appl. Environ. M icrobiol. 37, (1979) 50-54.
 IAEA-SM-271/80 275

[47] MAXCY, R.B.

I r r a d i a t i o n of Food for P ublic H e a l t h P r o t e c t i o n
Jou r n a l of Food P r o t e c t i o n 45, (1982) 363-366.

[48] MULDER, R.W.A.W.

Ioni s i n g energy treatment of poultry
Food Te c h n o l o g y in A u s t r a l i a 36, (1984) 418-420.

[49] TARKOWSKI, J.A., STOFFER, S.C.C., BEUMER, R.R., K A M P E L M A C H E R

E.H.
L o w dose gamma i r radiation of raw meat. I. Bacter i o l o g i c a l and
sensory qualit y effects in artifi c i a l l y contam i n a t e d samples
In t e r national J o u r n a l of Food M i c r o b i o l o g y 1, (1984) 12-23.

[50] TARKOWSKI, J . A . , BEUMER, R.R., K A M P ELMACHTER, E.H.

L o w dose irradiation of raw meat. II. Bacter i o l o g i c a l effects on
samples from butcheries
I n t e rnational J o u r n a l of Food M i c r o b i o l o g y 1, (1984) 25-31.

[51] WONGCHINDA, N., P R A C H A S I T T H I S A K D I , Y., STEGEMAN, H., FARKAS, J.,

M O S S E L D.A.A.
R a d i c i d a t i o n of precooked frozen tropical shrimp. A m i c r o b i a l
ecological study. IAEA-SM-271/47P, These P r o c e e d i n g s (1985).

[52] WONGCHINDA, N., STEGEMAN, H., FARKAS, C., MOSSEL, D.A.A.

Eli m i n a t i o n of S h i g e l l a from frozen precooked tropical shrimps
Submitted to Int. J. of Food M i c r obiol (1985).

[53] WHO 1981

Whole s o m e n e s s of irradiated foods
Techn. Rep. No. 659. World H e a l t h Organi z a t i o n , Geneva.

[54] NIEMAND, J.G., V A N DER LINDE, H.J., HOLZAPFEL, W.H.

Shelf-life ext e nsion of minced beef through combined treatments
involving radurization
J. Food Protec t o n 46, (1983) 791-796.

[55] DEMPSTER, J.F.

Radia t i o n P r e s e r v a t i o n of Meat and Meat Products: A R e v i e w
M e a t Science 12, (1985) 61-59.

[56] BRYNJOLFSSON, A.
Food Ir r a d i a t i o n in the U nited States
Proc. of the 26th Meet. E u r opean Meat Res. W o r k e r s , C o l a r a d o
Springs. Paper E-l (1980) p . 172.

[57] INGRAM, М., FARKAS, J.

M i c r o b i o l o g y of foods pasteurized by ionising radiation
Acta Aliment. Acad. Sci. Hung. 6, (1977) 123-185.

[58] MOSSEL, D.A.A., DRION, E.F.

R i s k analysis. Its applic a t i o n to the p r o t e c t i o n of the consumer
against food-transmitted diseases of m i c r o b i a l a e t i ology
Ant o n i e van L e e u w e n h o e k 45, (1979) 321-323.
276 MOSSEL

[59] MOSSEL, D.A.A., DE GROOT, A.P.

Th e use of pasteurizing doses of gamma radiation for the d e struc­
tion of S almonellae and other E n t e r ob ac t e r i a c e a e in some foods of
low water activity.
I n R a d i a t i o n P r e s e r v a t i o n of Foods. P r o c e e d i n g s of the I n t e r ­
national Conference, Boston. Mass. 1964. Publ. 1273, Washin g t o n
D.C.: National A c a d e m y of Science (1965) 233-264.

[60] 00STER0M, J., UYL, Ch. den, BXNFFER, J.R.J., HUISMAN, J.

Epidemi o l o g i c a l investigations on Campyl o b a c t e r jejuni in house­
holds with a primary infection
J. Hyg. 92, (1984) 325-332.

[61] BRYAN, F.L.

Foodborne diseases in the U n i t e d States associated with meat and
poultry
Journal of Food P r o t e c t i o n 43, (1980) 140-150.

[62] LAMBERT, J.D., MAXCY, R.B.

Effect of gamma radiation on Campy lo b a c t e r j e j u n i .
J. Food Sci., 49, (1984) 665-667, 674.

[63] P R A C H A S I T T H I S A K D I , Y., MOSSEL, D.A.A., DE VRIES, J., V A N NETTEN,

P., WILLIAMS, J.L., STEGEMAN, H., FARKAS, J.
L e t h a l i t y and flora shift of the p sy c hrotrophic and raesophilic
b acterial a s s o c i a t i o n of frozen shrimps and chicken after radici­
dation
In: Micro b i a l a s s ociations and interactions in food, (Eds. I.
Kiss, T. Deak, K. Incze).
P u b l i s h i n g H o u s e of the H u n g a r i a n A c a d e m y of Sciences, Budapest,
(1984) 417-728.

[64] WELCH, A.B., MAXCY, R.B.

C h a r a cter i s t i c s of some r a d i a t i o n -resistant hemolytic micrococci
isolated from chicken.
J. Food Sci. 44, (1979) 673-675.

[65] MULDER, R.W.A.W.

Salmonell a r a d i c i d a t i o n of poultry carcasses
Ph. D. Thesis Agric u l t u r a l University, Wageningen, The
Netherlan d s (1982).

[66] BECKERS, H.J., V A N SCHOTHORST, М., V A N SPREEKENS, K.J.A.,

O O S T E R H U I S , J.J.
M icrob i o l o g i c a l q u ality of frozen precooked and peeled shrimp
from South East Asia and from the N o r t h Sea
Zbl. Bakt, Hyg., I Abt. Orig. В. Г72. (1981) 401-410.

[67] WELCH, A.B., MAXCY, R.B.

Cha r a c t e r i z a t i o n of r a d i a tion-resistant vegeta t i v e bacteria in
beef.
Appl. Microbiol. 30, (1975) 242-250.
 IAEA-SM-271/80 277

[68] BAXTER, R., HOLZAPFEL, W.H.

A Microbial in v estigation of Selected Spices, H e r b s and A d d i t i v e s
in South Africa.
J. Food Sci. 47, (1982) 570-573.

[69] SCHWAB, A.H., HARPESTAD, A.D., SWARTZENTRUBER, A., LANIER, J.M.,

WENTZ, B.A., DURAN, A.P., BARNARD, R.J., READ, J.R.
Microb i o l o g i c a l Q u a l i t y of Some S pices and H e r b s in R etail M a rkets
Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 44, (1982) 627-630.

[70] SOEDARMAN, H., STEGEMAN, H., FARKAS, J., MOSSEL, D.A.A.

D e c o n t a m i n a t i o n of b l a c k pepper by gamma r a di ation
In: Microbial associ a t i o n s and interactions (Eds. I. Kiss, T.
Deák, K. Incze).
Pu b l i s h i n g H o u s e of the H u n g a r i a n A c a d e m y of Sciences, Budapest,
(1984) 401-408.

[71] LAIDLEY, R. HANDZEL, S., SEVERS, D., BUTLER, R.

S almonella wel t e v r e d e n o u t b r e a k associ a te d w i t h contam i n a t e d
pepper
Epidemiol. Bull. 18, (1974) 62.

[72] GUSTAFSEN, S., BREEN, 0.

I n v e s t i g a t i o n of an o u t b r e a k of Salmon e ll a o r l e nburg i n f e c t i o n in
N o r w a y caused by c o n taminated black pepper.
Amer. J. Epidemiod., (1984) 806-812.

[73] FARKAS, J.
R a d i a t i o n processing of dry food ingredients
A review. Radiat. Phys. Chem. (1985) I n press.

[74] WEBER, H.
Gewlirzentkelmung. E l n f lüese v o n E l e k t r o n e n und G a m m a s t r a h l e n auf
die Qual l t a t versch ie de n e r Gewiirze
Fleischwirtsch . 63: (1983) 1065-1071.

[75] EISS, M.I.

I r r a d i a t i o n of spices and herbs
Food Te c h n o l o g y in A u s t r a l i a 36, (1984) 362-370.

[76] MOSSEL, D.A.A., V A N N ETTËN

Har m f u l effects of selective media on stressed m i c r o - o r g a n l sm s -
nature and remedies.
I n Revival of I n j u r e d M i c r o b e s 329-369 (Eds. Russell, A.D. and
Andrew, M.H.E.), A c a d e m i c Press, L o n d o n and N e w Y o r k (1984)
329-369.

[77] MOSSEL, D.A.A., RATT0, M.A.

R apid d e t e ctio n of sublet h a l l y impaired cells of E n t e r o b a c ­
terlaceae In dried foods
Appl. Microbiol. 20, (1970) 273-275.
278 MOSSEL

[78] MOSSEL, D.A.A., VELDMAN, A., EELDERINK, I.

Co m p a r i s o n of the effects of liquid m e d i u m repair and the incor­
poration of catatase in McConk e y - t y p e m edia on the recov e r y of
E n t e r oba c t e r l a c e a e s u b l e t h a l l y stressed by freezing
Journal of Applied B a c t e r i o l o g y 49, (1980) 405-419.

[79] SPECK, M.L., RAY. B., READ, R.B.

Repair and e n u m e r a t i o n of Injured coliforms by a plating proce­
dure
Applied M i c r o b i o l o g y 29, (1975) 549-550.

[80] MOSSEL, D.A.A., EELDERINK, I., KOOPMANS, M.T.A.G.F., V A N ROSSEM,

F.
Influenc e of c arbon source, bile salts and incuba t i o n temperature
o n recovery of E n t e r o b a c t e r l a c e a e from foods, using M a c C o n k e y -
type agars
Journal of Food P r o t e c t i o n 42, (1979) 470-475.

[81] MOSSEL, D.A.A., B O N A N T S - V A N LAARHOVEN, T.M.G., L I G T E N B E R G - M E R K U S ,

A . M . Th., WERDLER, M.E.B.
Q u a l i t y a s s u rance of selective culture media for bacteria, m o ulds
and yeasts: A n attempt at s t an d ardization at the international
level
J. Appl. Bacteriol. 54, (1983) 313-327.

[82] MOSSEL, D.A.A., EELDERINK, I., SUTHERLAND, J.P.

Developme n t and use of single, 'polytropic' d i a g n o s t i c tubes for
the approximate taxonomic grouping of b a c teria isolated from
foods, w ater and medicinal preparations
Zentralb l a t t fur B a k teriologie und Parasitenkunde, Abt. I, Orig.
A 238, (1977) 66-79.

[83] VAN DOORNE, H., PAUWELS, H.P., MOSSEL, D.A.A.

Selectiv e i s o l ation and e numeration of low numbers of Staph,
aureus by a procedure that relies on e l e v a t e d - t e m p e r a t u r e
culturin g
Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 44, (1982) 1459-1462.

[84] MOSSEL, D.A.A., BIJKER, P.G.H., EELDERINK, I.

S treptoc o c c i of lancefield groups A, В and D and those of baccal
o r i g i n in foods: their P ublic H e a l t h significance, m o n i t o r i n g and
control
In: F.A. Skinner and L.B. Q u e snel (ed): Streptococci, Academic
Press London, (1978) 315-334.

[85] MOSSEL, D.A.A., SHENNAN, J.L., MEURSING, E.H., SCOT, H.,

P0UW, H.J.
The enum e r a t i o n of "all" spore heaving cells of B a clllaceae In
h e a t - pro c e s s e d foods.
A nt o n i e van L e e u w e n h o e k 39, (1973) 656.

[86] DE WAART, J., POUW, H.

S tudies on the s uitability of blood free media for the e n u m e r a ­
tion of C l o s t r i d i a
Zbl. Bakt. Hyg. I. Abl. Orig. 214, (1970) 551-552.
 IAEA-SM-271/80 279

[87] GIBBS, В.М., HIRSCH, A.

Spore formation by c l o s t r i d i u m species in artifi c i a l m e d i u m
J. Appl. Bact. 19, (1956) 129-141.

[88] GERATS, G.E., SNIJDERS, J.M.A., V A N LOGTESTIJN, J.G.

Slaughter techniques and bacterial c o n t a m i n at i on of pig
carcasses
Pr o c e edings of the 27th E u r o p e a n M e e t i n g of Meat R e s e a r c h
Workers, (1981) 198-200.

[89] SULLIVAN, R., FASSOLITIS, A.C., LARKIN, E.P., READ, R.B., PEELER,
J.T.
Ina c t i v a t i o n of thirty viruses by g a m m a radiation
Applied M i c r o b i o l o g y 22, (1971) 61-65.
 IAEA-SM-271/72

THE INTEREST OF THE PORK INDUSTRY IN THE

UNITED STATES OF AMERICA IN IRRADIATION

C.D. V A N H O U W ELING
National Pork Producers Council,
Washington, D.C.

D. M EISING ER
National Pork Producers Council,
Des Moines, Iowa

United States o f America

Abstract

THE IN T E R E S T O F THE PO RK IN D U ST R Y IN THE U N ITED ST A T E S O F AM ERICA

IN IR RA D IA TIO N .
Trichinosis is a disease caused by a m icroscopic parasite, Trichinella spiralis, which becomes
encysted in the muscle after migrating from the intestine. The migration o f heavy infestations
can result in a painful, debilitating disease. Pork is one o f the sources o f this parasite. The
potential hazard o f trichinosis is a reason some people do not eat pork. V arious attem pts have
been made to quantify how much o f a deterrent trichinosis is to pork consum ption. The pork
producers in the United States o f America are convinced that eliminating this disease would
substantially increase pork consum ption and thereby increase the profitability o f producing
pork. The pork producers in the U SA want to assure American consumers and those in other
countries that American pork is safe. The N ational Pork Producers Council (NPPC) desires to use all
possible m ethods for making pork trichina-safe. One o f the processes they want to have utilized
is irradiation and approval is being sought. This desire is motivated by knowledge that 30 krad
or less exposure to 137Ce has been shown to be effective in inactivating the trichina. Further
encouragement was received by the W H O/FAO/IAEA expert com m ittee’s conclusion relative
to the safety or irradiation at doses o f mrad or less. The F o o d and Drug A dm inistration’s (FD A )
proposal to categorize irradiation at 100 krad and below as safe was also encouraging. A petition
has been subm itted to FD A requesting approval for pork irradiation. Research studies con­
firming the effectiveness o f low level ( 1 5 - 3 0 krad) irradiation and the m icrobial and organo­
leptic changes in irradiated pork will be reported. The results of a consumer survey conducted
by NPPC will also reveal that consumers are concerned about irradiation but less than about
chemicals and pesticides. Other results o f the survey will be reported and discussed. Finally,
the likelihood o f irradiation o f pork being approved in the U SA will be discussed.

Trichinosis is a parasitic disease caused by a m i c r o s c o p i c

nematode Trichinella s p i r a l i s . U J This parasite, which becomes
encysted in the muscle of swine and other carn i v o r o u s animals,
has the ingestion of meat as part of the life cycle (see Fig. 1).
As can be seen from the diagram, the ingestion of infested meat
by a pig or other animal can result in the life cycle being c o m ­
pleted in one animal. It is readily apparent that this cycle can

281
282 VAN HOIWELING and MEISINGER

be completed in man if infested meat is ingested. Completion of

the life cycle in man with the migration of the larva can cause
a debilitating painful disease. The danger of contracting this
disease from eating pork has long been a d e t errent to pork c o n ­
sumption. It is likely that Moslem and Jewish laws prohibiting
the eating of pork were based on illnesses associated with pork
consumption and continue until the present time.

The pork producing industry of the United States of America

(USA) has long suspected that this threat of trichinosis has re­
duced the consumption of pork in the USA.

A pork irradiation feasibility study projected a two per cent

increase in the demand for pork in the short term if trichinosis
elimination resulted in a positive demand shift.!-2 ] If the in­
creased demand occurred, this study projected US$402 million i n ­
creased profit to the pork producers. In the longer term they
projected an increase of pork exports by one-third which would
be equal to one percent of the domestic demand.

The same study emphasized the importance of consumer a c c e p t ­

ance of the irradiation process and the e l imination of trichinosis.
If there were in fact a two per cent reduction in demand for
pork these figures projecting increased profit would be reversed
and could result in an equal loss to pork producers.

This emphasizes the importance of consu m e r awareness of the

benefit from eliminating any threat from trichinosis and a c c epting
irradiation as 'saf e . '

There have been questions raised in the USA relative to c o o k ­

ing of pork in microwave o v e n s . L ^ J These questions arise because
of the unequal temperatures that can occur during m i c rowave cooking
and the possibility of trichina cysts surviving the cooking
process.

Consumer surveys conducted by the National Pork Producers

Council have revealed that the longer cooking pork requires, a
means of reducing the potential of contracting trichinosis, d e ­
tracts from the desirability of pork meat. As m a n y as 80 to 90
per cent of consumers surveyed considered the longer cooking to
be undesirable. Added to this is the fact that the longer c o o k ­
ing at higher temperatures reduces the succulence of the pork meat
and thereby reduces its palatability. This is also confirmed by
the response of 40 to 50 per cent of the consumers surveyed who
felt that pork was drier than other meats after cooking.

Admittedly, the actual impact of trichinosis on pork c o n s u m p ­

tion is difficult to assess because conclusive evidence at this
point is virtually impossible to obtain. These figures do suggest
that the elimination of the threat of this parasite in pork supply
would significantly increase pork consumption and,therefore, the
profitability of pork production.
 IAEA-SM-271/72 283

F IG .l. The trichinosis cycle.

Various estimates have been made in regard to the incidence

of Trichina spiralis infestation in swine raised the the USA.
There is general agreement that perhaps less than one-tenth of
one per cent of the hogs raised are infected by this parasite. H]
Even at this low level there m ay be over 100 000 t richina-infected
hogs slaughtered each year in the USA.

Because of the infestation of various undomesticated animals,

the likelihood of completely eliminating the disease from swine
284 VAN HOUWELING and MEISINGER

seems very remote. With more and more swine in the USA being raised
in what is referred to as 'confinement rearing,' that is, enclosed
in buildings and without contact with 'wild' animals that n o r mally
habitate farm environs, the incidence of trichinosis has decreased.
Also, in recent years, strict regulation of feeding of food-waste
to swine has further reduced the incidence of this parasite in
USA swine.

Fortunately, the reported outbreaks of this disease in human

beings has also decreased.^] This reduction coincided with the
careful regulation of the feeding of food-waste to swine. In more
recent years, the incidence has been reduced to between 100 to
200 reported cases per year. However, because of the potential
threat of this disease, there is still a p e r centage of the p o p u ­
lation who do not eat pork. Unfortunately, as long as some pork
or pork products contain a relatively heavy infestation of t r i ­
china there will continue to be some human trichinosis.

There are recognized methods for reducing the hazard of t r i ­

chinosis by testing swine at slaughter. In Europe, for m a n y years,
there has been a microscopic examination for the cysts in a p o r ­
tion of the tissue, usually from the diaphragm. This procedure
is known as trichinoscopy.L?] This system, admittedly, only d e ­
tects the most heavily infected animals, but seems to have been
almost completely successful in preventing the human disease in
countries where it is used.

In the USA, the United States Department of Agric u l t u r e Food

and Safety Inspection Service has regulations covering the heating,
freezing, or drying of pork products which will render the p a r a ­
site i n a c t i v e . T h e s e are requirements for pork products that
are sold 'ready-to-eat.' Fresh pork in the USA is sold with the
knowledge that it must be heated to a temperature of at least 170°F
or 77°C. This practice has been very e f f ective in controlling
the occurrence of the disease in the USA, as evidenced by the very
few cases that occur as referred to earlier.

In 1982, for the reasons outlined above, the National Pork

Producers Council established a task force to study and recommend
how trichinosis could be further reduced or e l i minated in the USA.
This task force set the goal of having all the retail pork in the
USA safe from trichinosis by 1987.

The task force recognized from the outset that total e l i m i ­

nation of this parasite from swine was not practical. It was
aware that other testing and treatment methods would be required
in addition to the established methods of heating, freezing, and
drying of pork and pork products. Methods used to detect in f e c ­
tion in addition to the trichinoscopy would have to be developed
and utilized. The pooled-digestion m e t hods have been employed
on a trial basis in the USA. A modifi c a t i o n of this pooled-
digestion procedure is the stomacher method, which is used wid e l y
 IAEA-SM-271/72 285

in Denmark. Recently the enzyme-linked imm unosorbant as s a y method

(E S S A Y ),LlCQ has been undergoing stages of testing leading up to
recognition in the USA. The purpose of all these methods and tests
is to identify those animals that are infested with Trichina s p i r ­
a l i s . Food from animals shown to be infected would have to be
treated to inactivate the parasite before the meat was released
for consumption.

One procedure which the NPPC Task Force anticipated utilizing

from the beginning was the irradiation of pork.

Experimental work has been conducted over the years to d e t e r ­

mine the irradiation of pork could render the trichina parasite
s t e r i l e . [11,12] Additional experimental data were developed by
a co-operative research p r o j e c t . ! ^ ] These studies confirmed the
ef f i c acy of gamma radiation at a dose of 15 to 30 krad for the
sterilization of Trichina spiralis in pork. Pigs were heavily
infected and irradiated in another facility located at the Scandia
National Laboratory in Albuquerque, New Mexico.1 The effecti v e n e s s
of the radiaton level was tested by means of a rat bio - a s s a y d e ­
scribed previously by Kotula, et al.Ll^J The results show that
there is a complete inhibition of the trichina devel o p m e n t at an
irradiation of 15 krad. Studies using different cuts of infected
pork show there is no variability in the ra d i o - s e n s i t i v i t y of the
trichina in different muscles. Irradiation is effective r e g a r d ­
less of whether the whole carcass or ground pork are irradiated.
The age of the cyst was shown not to be a variable for r a d i o - s e n ­
sitivity. The data clearly indicate that 30 krad caesium-137 gamma
radiation can be delivered to split market weight hog carcasses
with acceptable uniformity, and that such a dose can provide a
substantial margin of safety for human consumption of even heavily
infected meat.

With the recognition of the World Health Organization in 1981,

that foods irradiated at doses up to 10 KGy or 1 mrad presents
no toxicological h a z a r d , L 15J there was a new enth u s i a s m for irra­
diation of pork. Furthermore, the Food & Drug Admin i s t r a t i o n ' s
published proposal in the Federal Register on 14 February 1984 U w
that food treated at levels ot iuu krad or less were considered
safe for human consumption, appeared to increase the poss i b i l i t y
of securing approval for irradiating pork. The knowledge that
the irradiation of pork for the elimination of the infectiveness
of trichina parasite can be accomplished with an adequate margin
of safety at 30 krad exposure was also reassuring. All of these
factors provide encouragement for the p ossi b i l i t y of the use of
irradiation in the USA for the treatment of pork.

It was recognized that there should be additional data in

regard to the effect of even a low dose of radiation on the palata-
bility of pork. Mattison, et al.,1-1^ investigated the effect

1 1 ra d = 1.00 X 10“ 2 Gy.

286 VAN HOU WE LING and MEISINGER

of 100 krad irradiation on the microflora, sensory characteristics,

and the development of oxidative rancidity of v a c uum-packed pork
loins, after irradiation and during low temperature (4°C) storage
up to 21 days. The conclusions were that irradiation s i gnificantly
reduced the number of mesophiles, the p s y c h o t r o p h s , anaerobic b a c ­
teria and staphylococci with the effect on m e s ophiles and psycho-
trophic supported organisms being the greatest. As the increased
storage progressed up to 21 days, the dif f e r e n c e between the ir­
radiated and non-irradiated pork became greater indicating a p o ­
tential for increased beneficial effect of low doses of irradiation
with longer holding of the product after treatment. The effect
of irradiation on the sensory characteristics was minimal. Taste
panelists could significantly detect d i f f e r e n c e s between irradiated
and non-irradiated pork only during ea r l y storage (2 days) and
no significant differences were observed thereafter up to 14 days
of storage. The irradiated pork had less cooking loss and lower
thiobarbituric acids (TBA) values than non-irra d i a t e d samples.
The differences were not significant nor were the rancidity TBA
levels approached for either treatment.

It is reassuring that these studies have shown that the ir­

radiation of pork at the low levels n e c e s s a r y to inactivate the
trichina parasite does not affect the organ o l e p t i c c h aracteristics
or microbial populations adversely. Because of these data, and
the reaffirming of earlier studies in regard to the e f f ectiveness
of irradiation, the pork industry is anxious to have this i r r a d i a ­
tion procedure recognized and approved.

Since the present requirements of the Food, Drug & Cosmetic

Act require the submission of a food a d d itive petition for the
application of irradiation to f o o d . L ^ J petitions have been sub­
mitted to the Food and Drug Administra t i o n (FDA) for approval.
Irradiation Technology, Inc. has submitted a petition to the FDA
to approve the irradiation of p o r k . [19] The NPPC is also p r e ­
paring a food additive petition seeking this same approval. There
is no information available from FDA about the status of the a p ­
plication submitted.

One of the major obstacles to irradiation in the USA is the

acceptance by consumers of the process. In an effort to determine
what knowledge consumers in the USA had about irradiation and how
they regarded the procedure, the NPPC with the co-operation of
the Department of Energy conducted a survey of c o n s u m e r s Д20 J This
was a nationwide telephone survey of 1000 households. The sample
was carefully stratified and o bjective l y selected according to
the various population characteristics of the various geographic
areas.

One of the questions asked was: How ca r e f u l l y do you read

labels on food? Fig. 2 reflects the response to this question.
The most striking fact is that 16 per cent or almost one-sixth
of the respondents said they never read a label and another 30
 IAEA- SM- 271/72 287

Read occasionally (30%)

per cent said only occasionally. This infers that only 54 per
cent of the people read labels most of the time or all of the time.

Another question asked pertained to their level of concern

about food treatments and effectiveness. Fig. 3 reveals the r e ­
sults of this question. It is apparent from reviewing this graph
that without question the current treatment methods of sprays and
preservatives, the risk of disease, and concern about waste or
spillage are problems that the consumers considered to be a ma j o r
concern to them.

Another question asked was their awareness of the i r r a d i a ­

tion process. It was described as gamma waves, irradiation, i o n i ­
zation, and combined. Fig. 4 shows that ap p r o x i m a t e l y one out
of four respondents were at least aware of one of the terms as
a possible method of sterilization or prese r v i n g foods. Fig. 5
shows the relative concerns when each of the d e s criptions is e v a l ­
uated. It is apparent that the term ionization is of least c o n ­
cern and that the term irradiation was of somewhat more concern
but there is not a great deal of difference.

Fig. 6 is an illustration of their concern about irradiation

when compared with other food treatments. What is perhaps d i s ­
turbing is that almost 40 per cent of the respondents did list
irradiation as a ma j o r concern. It is significant however, to
note that the percentage that list chemical sprays and preserva^
tives is higher than irradiation. When maj o r and min o r concerns
are combined, irradiation is currently c lea r l y of lower concern
than either of the other treatment alternat i v e s tested.
 288 VAN HOUWELING and MEISINGER

No concern Minor concern Major concern

I.. '~'l rzzzi

% o f total sample (N = 1000)
100

90

80

70

60

50

40
Distance from
top o f bar to 30
100% represents
those undecided.
20

10

0
Chem. sprays Disease Preservative Waste
Topic rated

FIG.3. Level of personal concern about current food treatment and effectiveness.

% o f sample aware
40

35

30

25

20

15

10

Gamma waves Irradiation Ionization Combined

Description used

FIG.4. Awareness of ‘irradiation’processing using three different descriptions.

 IAEA-SM-271/72 289

Undecided/ Minor Major

No concern do n't know concern concern

% o f sample I1 1 1 1..................
100

90

80

70

60

50

40

30

20

10

0
Irradiation Gamma waves Ionization Combined

Description used
FIG.S. Initial level of concern for process using three different descriptions.

Chemical
sprays Preservatives Irradiation

ÍI-----] E ZZl H i
% o f total sample (N = 1000)
60

55

50

45

40

35

30

25

20

15

10

0
Major concern Minor concern Undecided No concern
Topic rated

FIG.6. Comparison of personal concern levels. Irradiation versus current methods.

290 VAN HOUWELING and MEISINGER

Medical products (9%) Used abrQad (6%)

FIG. 7. M ost persuasive of eight attributes in favour of the process.

Fig. 7 is an illustration of what respondents felt was the

most persuasive of the attributes that t h e y would consider to be
favouring irradiation. It can be seen from this figure that the
information that there was no radiation in the food and that no
chemicals would be used was most persuasive to 40 per cent of the
respondents. Also a significant per cent were influenced by the
fact that radiation was utilized for food for patients whose im­
mune responses are impaired. It is no t e w o r t h y too that FDA a p ­
proval would also be a significant attribute.

Another attempt to determine what is considered to be the

most persuasive reasons to irradiate food in addition to a t t r i ­
butes already discussed is reflected in Fig. 8. Again the re d u c ­
tion in the use of chemicals and preservatives is a very s i g n i ­
ficant factor, but not as great as the belief it would ease world
hunger.

Finally, Fig. 9 reveals the influence on the respondents both

initially and after the attributes had been presented to dispel
the notion of some disadvantage to the process. It is interesting
to note that the level of concern after all the facts and a t t r i ­
butes had been presented is essential l y the same as after the i n i ­
tial presentation. The only significant change after the a t t r i ­
bute presentation would be a slight increase in the number of
people that hold no concern about the process and a reduction in
the number of people undecided.
 IAEA-SM-271/72 291

Reduce spoilage (6%) Extend shelf |ife (5%)

a "m in o r advantage" fo r the

process. (N = 988)

FIG.8. M o s t persuasive of additional attributes in favour of the process.

Minor Major
No concern Undecided concern concern

»o f total sample (N = 1000)

100

90

80

70

60

50

40

30

20

10

0
Initial A fte r facts
Measurement time

FIG.9. Comparison of consumer concern before and after attribute presentation.

292 VAN HOUWELING and MEISINGER

As you can readily see, there are formidable obstacles to

be overcome if pork is to be irradiated in the USA. For m a n y years,
the effectiveness of irradiation for the sterilizing of parasites
has been known. The obstacle to the use of irradiation has been
the recognition of the process as a safe procedure. It was hoped
more recently that such approvals would be forthcoming with the
WHO/FAO/IAEA expert committee report recognizing the safety of
the process at regulated doses. The FDA publication of a proposal
to recognize low-level irradiation as safe added to this optimism.
Unfortunately, the assurances of these authorities have not o v e r ­
come the hysteria that this food preservative process occasions
among those who claim to represent the consumers in the USA.

The reports of positive actions taken by Canada and the a c ­

ceptance of the process in m a n y other countries of the world does
not seem to be convincing to these vocal opponents of moving p o s i ­
tively in the USA. Therefore, it is doubtful that the irradiation
of pork will be a reality in the USA any time soon. This will
not deter the NPPC in its quest to have the irradiation of pork
be approved and utilized in the USA.

REFERENCES

[1] Villella, J.B., "Life Cycle and Moryphology," Trichinosis

in Man and A n imals, edited by S.E. Gould, C.C. Thomas,
Springfield, II, 1970, pp. 19.

[2] U.S. Department of Energy, Albuquergue, New Mexico Office,

"Trichina-Safe Pork by Gamma Irradiation Processing - A Feasibility
Study," Contract No. DE-AC04-83AL-19411,
August 1983.

[3] Kotula, A.W., Murrell, K.D., Acosta-Stein, L., Lamb, L . , and

Douglas, L., “Destruction of Trichinosis During Cooking,"
Journal of Food Science, 48:30, 1983, pp. 265-278.

[4] Zimmerman, W.J. and Zinter, D.E., "The Prevalence of Trichinosis

in the United States," HSMHA Health Reports, 86:937, 1971.

[5] Schantz, P.M., "Trichinosis in the United States 1947 - 1981,"

Journal of Food Technology, Vol. 31, 1983, pp. 83-86.

[6] Ibid.

[7] Zimmerman, W.J., "Surveillance in Swine and Other Domestic

Animals by Muscle Examination," Trichinella and Trichinosis,
edited by Wm. C. Campbell, Plemum Press, New York, N.Y., 1983,
p p . 515-526.
 IAEA-SM-271/72 293

[8] Code of Federal Regulations, Title 9, Chapter 3, Section 318.10,

"Prescribed Treatment of Pork Products Containing Pork To
Destroy Trichina."

[9] Zimmerman, W.J., Trichinella and Trichinosis, pp. 515-526.

[101 Gamble, H.R., Anderson, W.R., Graham, C.E., Murrell, K.D.,

"Diagnosis of Swine Trichinosis By the Enzyme Immunosorbent
Test Assay (ELISA) Using Animal Escretory-Secretory Antigens,"
Veterinary Parasitology, 1983, pp. 349 - 361.

[11] Gomberg, H.J. and Gould, S.E., "Effect of Irradiation with

Cobalt-60 on Trichina Larvae," Science, 718:75-77.

[12] Gomberg, H.R., Gould, S.E., Nehemias, J.V., and Brownell, L.E.,
"Design of a Pork Irradiation Facility Using Gamma Rays to
Break the Trichinosis Cycle," Chemical Engineers Progress Symposium,
Series 13, 50:89-104.

[13] Brake, R.J., Murrell, K.D., Ray, E.E., Thomas, J.D ,

Muggenberg, B.A., and Sivinski, J.S., "Control of Trichinosis
by Low Dose Irradiation of Pork," Journal of Food Production,
in press.

[141 Kotula, A.W., Murrell, K.D., Acosta-Stein, L . , Lamb, L . , and

Douglas, L., "Trichina spiralis: Effect of High Temperature
on Infectivity of Pork," Experimental Parasitoloqy, 1983,
56:15-19.

[151 Joint FAO/IAEA/WHO Expert Committee Technical Report,

"Wholesomeness of Irradiated Food," Series 659, World Health
Organization, Geneva, Switzerland, 1981.

[16] U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Food and Drug
Administration, "Irradiation in the Production, Processing
and Handling of Food," Proposed Rule, 21 CFR Part 179, Federal
Register, 14 February 1984.

[17] Mattison, M.L., Kraft, A . A . , Olson, P.G., Walker, H.W.,

Rust, R.E., and James, D.B., "Effect of Low Dose Irradiation
of Pork Loins on the Microflora, Sensory Characteristics and
Fat Solubility," in press.

[18] "Irradiation in the Production, Processing, and Handling of

Food," 21 CFR 179, 1983, pp. 353-357.

[19] Radiation Technology, Inc., Filing of Food Additive Petition,

Docket No. 84F-0230, Federal Register, 23 July 1984, pp. 29682.

[201 U.S. Department of Energy, Byproducts Utilization Program

and National Pork Producers Council, "Consumer Reaction to
the Irradiation Concept - A Summary Report," Contract
No. DE-SC04-84AL-24460, March 1984.
LEGISLATION AND ACCEPTANCE
OF IRRADIATED FOOD

(Session V)

Chairman

L. SAINT-LÈBE
France
 IAEA-SM-271/56

THE REGULATORY INVOLVEMENT OF THE

FOOD SAFETY AND INSPECTION SERVICE
IN FOOD IRRADIATION

R.E. EN G EL
Food Safety and Inspection Service,
United States Department
o f Agriculture,
Washington, D.C.,
United States o f America

Abstract

THE R E G U L A T O R Y INV O LV EM ENT O F TH E FOOD SA F E T Y AND INSPECTION

SE R V IC E IN FOOD IR RA D IA TIO N .
As part o f its responsibility for ensuring that meat and poultry products are safe and
wholesome, the F o o d Safety and Inspection Service (F S IS ) is currently considering the
im plications o f food irradiation as a preservative technique for meat and poultry. In the United
States o f Am erica, food irradiation is regulated by the United States F oo d and Drug Adminis­
tration (FD A ), which regards irradiation as a food additive; F S IS is required to act in agree­
ment with FD A guidelines for its use. FD A has recently solicited com m ents on its proposal
o f February 1984, to allow the use o f low levels o f ionizing radiation for preserving food
products and higher levels for the disinfestation o f spices. Although meat and poultry products
are not included in the current proposal, it is possible that applications for these products will
be approved in the future. At low levels, for exam ple, the shelf-life o f fresh meat and poultry
could be extended. In addition, Trichina infestation in fresh pork can be controlled effectively
at 30 krad. At higher levels, meat and poultry products could be sterilized and thus safely
stored for years without refrigeration. If FD A approves the use o f food irradiation for meat
and poultry products, F S IS must be ready to change its regulatory procedures to meet the
demands presented by a newly im plemented technology. F S IS is particularly concerned about
the im pact o f irradiation on regulatory issues such as labelling, nutritional quality, public health,
and plant and equipment design. If irradiation is approved by FD A , F S IS will issue regulations
governing its application in meat and poultry processing establishments. Whether irradiation
officially remains an additive or is redefined as a process, certain generic procedures would have
to be com pleted before the technology could be put in place. In preparing a regulation, F SIS
must meet the requirem ents o f the Administrative Procedure A ct, which opens the process to
consumer comment. Furtherm ore, F S IS would need to train its inspectors to deal with the
new technology. In sum, F S IS would have to address a large com plex o f factors before
irradiation could become a standard application in m eat and poultry production. If timeliness
is im portant, early involvement on the part o f F S IS appears to be essential.

INTRODUCTION

As part of its responsibility for ensuring that meat and

poultry products are safe and wholesome, the Food Safety
arid Inspection Service (FSIS) of the U.S. Department of

297
298 ENGEL

Agriculture (USDA) is currently considering the implications

of food irradiation as a preservative, technique for meat and
poultry. In the U nited States, food irradiation is regulated
by the U.S. Food and D r u g Admini s t r ation (FDA), which by law
regards irradiation as a food additive; FSIS is required to
act in agreement with F D A guidelines for its use. FDA is now
evaluating comments on its February 1984 [1] proposal to
allow the use of low levels of ionizing radiation for pre­
serving food products and h igher levels for the disinfesta­
tion of spices. A l t h o u g h meat and poultry products are not
included in the current proposal, it is possible that
applications for these products w i l l be approved in the
future. If F D A approves the use of food irradiation for
meat and poultry products, FSIS m u s t be ready to change its
regulatory procedures to meet the demands presented by a
newly implemented technology.

Th ere is, of course, nothing new about radiation in itself:

It is a purely natural phenomenon, always potentially
available to man, that h e has learned to harness. The
scientific conception of r adiation as a physical event w i t h ­
i n an atom — statistical, predictable, and measurable — is
now nearly a century old. T he concept and basic technology
of food i r r a diation dates back almost 40 years.

The process incorporates the use of cobalt-60 (60iQO ) or

cesium-137 (137G s > to produce a n energy field that is used to
inactivate unwanted b a c t e r i a w i t h i n the foods being
processed. This technique is used today to sterilize
pharmaceutical products and medical supplies, as well as to
process the food that our astronauts have been consuming for
the last decade. Since 19 59 some 40 irradiated food products
have been approved in over 20 countries; irradiation has
proved especially popular in d e v e l o p i n g countries, where
refrigeration is not w idely available and spoilage is a
s ignificant problem. Commercial irradiation in the United
States, however, is limited to only a few products: potatoes,
wheat and wheat flour, and spices. It has not been
e xtensively pursued because of several factors: the
availability of alternative preservatives and fumigants,
regulatory barriers, questions about its practicality and
cost advantages, and concern over consumer acceptance.

Current Status and Regula t o r y Aspects of Food Irradiation

Significant r adiation studies in the United States began in

the early 1950's, w h e n both irradiation techniques and
p rocessing equipment w e r e developed. T h e U.S. Atomic Energy
C o m m i s s i o n (AEC) and the U.S. Department of the A r m y (DA)
sponsored most of the early studies.
 IAEA-SM-271/56 299

The past 3 decades have shown advances and reversals in the

evolutionary process from the laboratory to industry. There
were two major setbacks in the 1960's w h e n FDA denied a DA
petiti o n for approval of irradiated h a m and revoked approval
of irradiated b a c o n in accordance w i t h the 1958 amendment to
the Federal Food, D r u g and Cosmetic Act (FD&C). Food
irradiation was redefined in the legislation as a food
additive and, thus, is not permitted for h u m a n consumption
until approval is granted by FDA. T he law also requires FDA
approval for packaging materials in contact w i t h the food
during r a diation processing [2].

In 1976 the F o o d and A g r i c u l t u r e Organization, International

A tomic E n e r g y Agency, W o r l d H e a l t h O r g a n ization (FAO/IAEA/
WHO) Joint Expert Comm i t t e e on the W holesomeness of
Irradiated Food (JECFI) evaluated the experimental evidence
for the w h o l e someness of nine foods. The meeting produced
the following results: 1) r e c o gnition of food irradiation as
a process (controverting the 1958 FD&C Act); 2) recognition
of the importance of the radiation-chemistry approach to
wholesomeness evaluation, in tandem w i t h animal feeding and
cytotoxicity studies; 3) unconditional acceptance of
irradiation of wheat and wheat products (15-100 krad for
sprout inhibition), chi c k e n (200-700 krad for refrigerated
life e x tension and p a t h o g e n elimination), papaya (50-100 krad
for prolon g a t i o n of fre s h m arket life by partial elimination
of spoilage organisms); and 4) provisional (pending
unconditional) a c c e p t a n c e of irradiation of onions (2-15 krad
for sprout inhibition), fre s h cod, and redfish (100-200 krad
to reduce numbers of spoilage and pathogenic microorganisms
and to extend refrigerated life at or b e low 3° C), and rice
(10-100 k r a d for insect disinfestation).!

In 1977 the C o d e x A l i m e n t a r i u s Commis s i o n (CAC) issued two

publications for comment: General Standards for Irradiated
Foods and a Code of P r a ctice for the O p e ration of Irradiation
Facilities Used i n the Treatment of F o o d s . The draft reports
embodied the conclusions and recommendations of the 1976
JECFI meeting; they became the R e c o mmended Standard and Code
of Pr a ctice at the 1979 Commi s s i o n session.

In 1979 FDA, whi c h is represented o n both the JECFI and the

CAC, established a n inhouse committee to develop criteria for
evaluating the safety of irradiated foods. Th e criteria,
however, stopped short of a comprehensive evalua t i o n of

* 1 rad = 1.00 x 10“ 2 Gy,

300 ENGEL

existing toxicological data to determine whether any

irradiated food had b e e n demonstrated as safe. The FDA
committee submitted its final report, Recommendations for
Evaluating the Safety of Irradiated F o o d s , in 1980. After
considering projected levels of h u m an exposure, qualitative
and quantitative estimates of u n identified radiolytic
products, and sensitive toxicological tests, the committee
stated the following:

1. Foods irradiated to doses not exceeding 100 krad are

w holesome and safe for hum a n consumption (and require no
safety testing to market).

2. Foods composing n o m o r e than 0.01% of the daily diet

and irradiated to 5000 krad (e.g., spices) are also
considered safe for h u man consumption, w i t h no
toxicological testing required.

3. W h e n foods composing m o r e than 0.01% of the daily

diet are irradiated at doses above 100 krad, short-term
mutagenicity tests m u s t be conducted, plus 90-day
feeding studies w i t h one rodent species and one
nonrodent species. For the animal feeding studies, the
food may be lyophilized (freeze-dried) and incorporated
into the animal diet at the highest concentration that
does not compromise the nutritional requirement of the
test species. Une q u i v o c a l negative responses in the
required test are sufficient to establish the safety of
the irradiated food u n d e r test.

In 1980 meetings, the Joint IAEA/FAO/WHO JECFI committee

reviewed all available toxicological and radiation chemistry
data and evaluated the whol e s o m e n e s s of irradiated foods.
The JECFI concluded that "the irradiation of any food
commodity up to a n overall average dose of 10 k G y or 1 Mrad
presents no toxicological hazard; hence, toxicological
testing of foods so treated is no longer required." Further,
it stated that "1 Mrad introduces no special nutritional or
microbio l o g i c a l problems." It called for further
w h o l e s o m e n e s s studies of the sterilizing dose range of 5
Mrad. In effect, the JECFI put to rest the toxicological
questions regarding food i r r adiation (to the interim overall
average dose limit of 10 kGy), urging that "the technological
and economic feasibility of food irradiation on an industrial
scale should be established" 13].

Based on its report of July 1980 as stated in the M a r c h 27,

1981, issue of the Federal Register, FDA published an
Advanced N o t i c e of Proposed Rulemaking on Food Irradiation
[4]. A n extended comment and evaluation period followed.
 IAEA-SM-271/56 301

The F D A responded to petitions in 1983 and approved the use

of 60,со and I 3 7 c s for applying radiation doses of up to 1
Mrad to reduce or control m i crobial c ontamination of spices,
natural flavorings-f-'and dehydrated seasonings [5]. On
February 14, 1984, FDA published in the Federal R e g i s t e r a
notice of proposed rulemaking for the use of ionizing
radiation to treat food. T he proposed regulations w o uld
permit food to be irradiated to inhibit the growth and
matura t i o n of f r esh fruits and vegetables to disinfect food
of insects at doses not to exceed 100 krad, and to disinfect
spices of micro b es at doses not to exceed 3 Mrad. The
proposed regulation, i n addition, w o u l d require that records
be kept for 1 y e a r past the expected shelf-life of the
product and that these records be available for FDA
inspection. In June 1984, the use of ionizing radiation at
the 1 Mrad level to control insect infestation of spices was
approved.

As of this writing there are six irradiation petitions

pending at FDA, dealing w i t h a variety of irradiation issues
[6]. It appears from all indications that food irradiation
will be approved for use on agricultural food commodities by
mid-su m m e r of this year. FSIS has recognized the potential
benefits of this technology as a way of reducing pathogens on
meat and poultry products and eliminating helminths from
pork.

A possible sign of things to come is the legislation

introduced during the last session of the United States
Congress that w o u l d have reclassified i r radiation as a
process rather than a n additive. The legislation was
endorsed by several agricultural, scientific, and industrial
organizations, including the A m e r i c a n Medical Association.
Althou g h the bill w as not enacted, it has been reintroduced
in this year's C o n g r e ssional session [7j. It w o uld encourage
commercial d e v e lopment and consumer edu c ation programs. The
next several years could show a spiraling upward growth in
this technology.

Applications for M e a t and Poultry

There are numerous possible applications of irradiation in

the produc t i o n of m e a t and poultry. One important intrinsic
advantage of i r r a diation is that the slight temperature
increase during processing has little or no effect on
heat-sensitive qualities of food such as flavor, texture,
odor, and nutritional quality. This fact sharply
distinguishes i r r a diation from other preservation techniques,
such as canning.
302 ENGEL

O ne possible area for the u se of irradiation that has

received considerable research attention is the low-dose
treatment of fresh meats to extend freshness beyond the usual
period. F r e s h meat products constitute the great bulk of
meat consumed in the United States; those products spoil
rapidly, as a result of m i c robiological activity. The most
common preser v a t i o n techniques are the maintenance of cold
storage and processing areas and delaying retail preparation
to minimize the exposure of surface area to aerobic bacteria.
Low-d o s e i r r a diation of fresh meat products wou l d delay
m i crobial spoilage and extend handling life, thereby making
possible a greater flexibility in distribution.

Of considerable interest at the moment is the use of

i r r adiation to control b a c teria that cause food poisoning.
The most significant of these pathogens is S a l m o n e l l a , which
is responsible for many of the cases of food poisoning
reported in the United States. It has been estimated that
for every reported case there are up to 100 not reported,
thus indicating that there may be as many as 2.5 million
cases of salmonellosis in the United States each year [8].
The illness is responsible for approximately 20 deaths
annually. It takes a maj o r financial toll in costs from
medical care and lost productivity and income, estimated to
be as much as $2 b i l l i o n each year [9].

A considerable amount of research has been done on the

i r r a diation of poultry carcasses to control salmonellae. One
major study found that a m e d i u m dose of 250 krad combined
w i t h a handli n g - e n v i r o n m e n t temperature of 1.6°C (34.9°F)
resulted in a product that was essentially free of
salmonellae and that could be kept safely, under refrigera­
tion, for u p to 20 days [10]. This same study reported that
h i gher doses w o u l d allow for a higher handling temperature
but w o u l d result in color changes that could make the product
undesirable. No regulatory action has been proposed yet on
these techniques.

T h e Use of L o w D o s e I r r a d i a t i o n to Control Trichinosis

A n u m b e r of factors have limited both domestic and

international markets for U.S. pork. One of great importance
is trichinosis. T r i c hinosis is caused by a small parasitic
nematode, Tri c h i n e l l a s p i r a l i s , that settles in the muscles
of pigs and many carnivorous animals, including man. People
become infected by eating und e r c o o k ed meat containing the
cysts. Swine are usually infected from eating meat scraps in

2 1 US billion = 109 .
 IAEA-SM-271/56 303

garbage that has not been properly cooked or from eating

wildlife; consequently, the incidence of the disease is
substantially less in areas where hogs are grain-fed in
confined areas compared w i t h those garbage-fed or that roam
in woods or pastures [11]. W h e n ingested, the infected meat
is digested and the t r i china larvae are released into the
intestine w h e r e they rapidly m a t u r e into adults, mate, and
produce large numbers of offspring. The larval offspring
leave the intestine, ent e r the blood stream, and invade the
striated skeletal muscle, w h e r e they migr ate extensively
b efore becoming e n c apsulated w i t h i n a m i croscopic cyst. The
encysted parasites may r e m a i n alive in a dormant state for
the life of the host (the normal course in h u m a n infection),
or until the second genera t i o n trichinous meat is again
ingested by a carnivore [12].

Althou g h the incidence of trichinosis in both humans and

swine has declined d r amatically in recent years, over the
5-year p eriod of 1979-1983 there w as an average of 116 cases
and less than 1 d e a t h per year [13].

Research o n the irr a d i a t i o n of trichina-infected meat has

indicated that the par a s i t i c disease cycle could be
effectively b r o k e n by relatively low levels of radiation.
Dose levels bet w ee n 20 and 30 krad have been found to be
effective in preventing the m a t u r a t i o n of encysted trichinae.
These dosage levels are w e l l b e low the 100 krad limit
expected to be set by FDA. Work currently underway by the
U.S. D e p a r t m e n t of E n e r g y (DOE) and USDA's Agricultural
Research Service (ARS) and their contractors on irradiating
infected mar k e t - w e i g h t split pork carcasses indicates that
doses as low as 8 krad cause sterility in first generation
larvae; a 15 k r a d dose prevents emergence of the encysted
larvae 114].

T h e D O E study further indicates that entire sides of pork may

be irradiated with o u t concern over possible shielding
effects. One must remember, though, that this dose level is
substantially smaller than what is necessary for a complete
kill; the objective is to inhibit reproduction of the
organism in the intestine of the host.

USDA Irra d i a t i o n A ctivities

Th e US D A has conducted studies of food irradiation as a

quarantine treatment for fruits since the 1950's. In August
of 1980, the U.S. D e p a r t m e n t of Defense and the USDA signed a
M e m o r a n d u m of Understanding, whi c h transferred the lead
agency role for the food i r r a diation program from the U.S.
Army N a t i c k R e s e a r c h and Dev e l o p m e n t L a b oratories to the ARS
304 ENGEL

Eas t e r n Regional R e s earch C e n t e r (ERRC) in Philadelphia,

P e n n s y l v a n i a [15]. U S D A indicated that it w o uld concentrate
its research on a long-range program using low levels of
irradiation to prevent m arketing losses and to improve the
safety and quality of fruits, vegetables, and grains as an
alternative to present methods used for food preservation and
insect disinfestation. T h e recent medfly crisis in
Ca l i f o r n i a and the proposed a c tion of the U.S. Environmental
Protec t i o n Ag e n c y (EPA) to restrict the use of ethylene
dibromide as a fumigant have renewed interest in the possible
use of irradiation in q uarantine control of insects. Also of
special interest was the potential of irradiation as an
alternative to the use of nitrite i n preservation of meats,
especially bacon.

T h e U S D A h e l d conferences in 1981 and participated in a

workshop on low-dose r adiation treatment of agricultural
commodities in 1982. USDA scientists are considering the use
of i r r adiation w i t h caution because of the results of
previous studies indicating that the irradiation rates
required for insect quaran t i n e purposes may cause phytotoxic
damage to fruit. A RS is currently conducting research on the
use of radiation for insect disinfestation at three
locations.

T oxicological studies to determine the wholesomeness of

chicken parts sterilized w i t h ionizing radiation, initiated
by the U.S. Army, w e r e continued under the auspices of ARS.
These studies— some of the most exhaustive wholesomeness
studies ever u n d e r t a k e n on any food product— were designed to
provide data on toxicity, carcinogenicity, mutagenicity,
teratogenicity, and a n t i-metabolite formation. Final reports
have been accepted for a number of the wholesomeness studies,
but no conclusions on the w holesomeness of irradiation
sterilized chicken can be made until the information has been
evaluated in its entirety by FDA.

FSIS has n ow initiated a p r o g r a m of active cooperation with

DOE, the U.S. National Bureau of Standards (NBS), ARS, the
industry, and consumer groups to review the regulatory policy
relevant to this technology. T he absence of an approved use
for food i r r adiation is in fact a m ajor impediment to any
r egulatory agency preparing for this newly relevant
technology. O n c e a n approval has b een given, even at the 100
krad level, we can b e g i n to credibly address the major issues
ahead. A processor wis h i n g to employ this technology as part
of the processing ope r a t i o n m u s t submit a petition for its
approval, as outlined in the 1958 Food Additives Amendment to
the FD&C Act. T h e F D A w i l l then approve the intended use of
the additive by issuing a regula t i o n that specifies the
 IAEA-SM-271/56 305

conditions for use. T h e i n f o rmation that must accompany the

applicant p e t ition to F D A before a food additive regulation
is issued includes:

1. Identity of the food additive (radiation source)

2. Proposed conditions of u se (dose, food type, and

process conditions)

3. D a t a for intended effect (mainly microbiological)

4. Methods for determining amount of additive

(Dosimetry)

5. Safety (identity and quantity of radiolytic products

and/or toxicology studies)

6. N u t r itional quality.

Once the guidelines are established, the issues related to

packaging, labeling, rad i a t i o n sources, dose levels,
dosimetry, efficacy, and specific product uses can be
addressed. W i t h this i n f o rmation in hand, FSIS may modify
the M e a t and Poultry Regulations contained in the Code of
Federal Regulations ( C F R ) [17] to approve the use of
irradiation in U S D A inspected plants. Any regulation change
must, of course, be in accord a n c e w i t h the Administrative
Procedure Act.

It is conceivable that changes could result in post mortem

inspection as currently performed. T h e purpose of post
mortem inspection is to remove from human food channels
carcasses and parts that are unf i t for h um a n food because of
adulteration due to disease or abnormalities discernible upon
examination of internal organs and tissues. The Agency's
inspection programs and laboratory analyses could be altered
or modified as well.

In considering how FSIS could approve the use of irradiation

in post m o r t e m inspection, the rules and regulations of other
agencies must be taken into account as w ell as those
governing FSIS. Several examples are:

1. T h e u se of radioisotopes in commercial irradiators

is governed by N R C regulations contained in 10 CFR, part
30, Rules of General App l i c a b i l i t y to Domestic Licensing
of Byproduct M a t e r i a l , and 10 CFR, part 20, Standards
for P r o t e c t i o n Aga i n s t R a d i a t i o n . These regulations
define the basic licensing and radiation safety
306 ENGEL

requirements for the p r o t e c t i o n of both radiation

workers and the public but do not address the quality of
the products irradiated except to ensure that the
products r emain free of radioactive contamination.

2. The basic r a diation safety considerations are the

same for licenses issued by either the NRC or State
G overnment Agencies. In the evaluation of an
app l i c a t i o n for a commercial irradiator, matters such as
source integrity, design of the irradiator safety
systems, training and experience of personnel, and the
radiation safety pro g r a m for operation of the irradiator
must be considered.

3. T he actual design of an irradiator providing a safe

environment for its operating personnel w o u l d be
approved u n der the A m e r i c a n Standards Institute (ANSI)
criteria and the Nuc l e a r Regulatory Commission (NRC)
Licensing Guide. Food irradiation equipment designs are
varied, but all models con t a i n the following: a gamma
ray source (usually 60co); heavy concrete shielding
(about 6 feet thick) and a w a t e r pool, for personnel
protection; a means of transporting food products into
and out of the i r r a diation chamber; and control
electronics.

In current processing sequence in a hog-slaughter facility,

the live hogs are first stunned, exsanguinated, and hung from
an overhead conveyor for easy transferral throughout the
plant. Aft e r being dehaired, gutted, headed, split, and
cleaned, the prepared carcasses are placed in refrigerated
storage for a pproximately 24 hours. The chilled carcasses
are then ready for cutting, handling, and packaging.

A n irradiation facility could be designed to treat the pork

at any of several stages in the processing sequence, such as
after packaging or before dehairing. After passing through
the facility, the pork could be processed in the usual
manner.

Meat and poultry i r r adiation research for dose verification

and product response w i l l also be needed. The purpose of
irradiation is to achieve a desired product response to some
absorbed dose. It is essential to obtain a dose that falls
w i t h i n the acceptable m a x i m u m and minimum dose range for a
parti c u l a r food. As the ionizing effect of the radiation is
additive, the combined dose from both sides must fall wi t h i n
the product's desired m a x i m u m / m i n i m u m ratio. This will
require an approved dosimetry system for following a food
 IAEA-SM-271/56 307

product through the process. T he m a x i m u m-to-minimum absorbed

dose ratio and the dose actually absorbed throughout the
product during e x p osure to a source of gamma radiation will
determine the conveyor speed, conveyor configuration, and
system control sequence. T he dose requirements also
determine whe t h e r the product must be treated individually,
or can be boxed, bagged, or palleted. In addition to control
of the dose profile in the product, control of desired side
reactions can sometimes be achieved by use of temperature
(chilled or frozen), pH, and the p r e sence of various types of
atmospheres, chemical gases, or chemical additives that can
act as gamma sensitizers or protectors [18].

In conclusion, FSIS is preparing to respond to petitions for

the use of i r r a diation in meat and poultry products. Even
after the approval of use by FDA, a p e t ition from the
industry to FSIS requesting the use of irradiation in a USDA-
inspected facility w o u l d have to address, at a minimum,
the following points:

1. E f f icacy— D a t a are required that e s t ablish the

e ffective treatment of carcass sides or cuts and
assure that the nutritional value is not affected

2. Dosage and variations of the dosage that can be

controlled by the system proposed

3. A des c r i p t i o n of the flow-through system proposed

(e.g., w i l l this be an on-line system, whole
carcasses, sides, or cuts?)

4. E n v i r o nmental impact data.

The FSIS would take such information, review it, and, if the
peti t i o n is acceptable, amend the regulations in accordance
w i t h the A d m i n i s t r a t i v e P r ocedure Act [19].

Many of these required steps can be expedited by the close

cooperation of the various government, industrial, and
academic groups.

REFERENCES

[1] Federal Register, 49_ 31 (1984) 5714.

[2] U. S. Code of Federal Regulations, Title 21

Part 179 (1984) 353.
308 ENGEL

[3] GIDDINGS, G.G., WELT, M.A. , R adiation preservation of

Food, Cereal Foods W o rld 27_ 1 (1982) 17.

[4J Federal Register, 46^59 (1981) 18992.

[5J Federal Register, 48 129 (1983) 30613.

1.6] Food Chemical News, Irra d i a t i on Petitions Pending on

D e c ember 31, 1984, 26_ 45 (1985) 13.

[7] MORRISON, S., Congressional R ecord 131 (1985) 160.

18] Centers for Disease C o n t r o l (CDC), Foodborne Disease

Outbreaks: Annual Summary for 1981, Public Health
Service, U.S. Dept of H ealth and Hum a n Services
Altanta, G e o r g i a (1983).

19] ROBERTS, T., Benefit Analysis of Selected Slaughter­

house M e a t Inspec t i o n Practices, Pub. WP-71, Economic
Research Service, U.S. Dept, of Agriculture,
Washington, D.C. (1983).

[10J K a H A N , R.S., ana HOWKER, J.J., Low-dose irradiation of

fresh, non-fr o z e n chicken and other preservation
methods for shelf-life extension and for improving its
public health quality, I A E A SM-221/3Ó. In Food
Prese r v a t i o n by Irradiation, IAEA, Vienna 2^ (1978) 221.

L11] LEIGtiTY, J.C., Regulatory A c t ion to Control Trichinella

s p i r a l i s , Food Technol. Ъ1_ 3 (1983) 95.

[12] REIMANN, H. and BRYAN, F.L., Food Borne Infections and

Intoxications, 2nd ed. Academic Press, N.Y. (1979).

[13] GREEN, J., Priv a t e c ommunication (February 11, 1985),

Centers for Disease Control, Atlanta, Georgia.

[14] S I V INSKI ,J*S., M e a t irrra d i a t ion is here but is it now?

The National Provisioner, N o v e m b e r 12, 1983.

[15] THAYER, D.W. and HARLAN, J.W., Status of the USDA Food
I r r a diation Programs, Food Technol. Ъ1_ 2 (1983) 46.

[16] C H 2 M HILL, Food I r r a diation Technology in the United

States, D O E / U S OA/AIBS Workshop on Low-Dose Irradiation
of Agricu l t u r a l Commodities, Washington, D.C.,
April 19-21, 1982.

[17] U.S. Code of Federal Regulations, Title 9, Chapter III

Food Safety and Inspec t i o n Service (Meat, Poultry) 1984.
 IAEA-SM-271/56 309

[18] C H 2 M H.ILL, Tric h n a e - S a f e Pork by Gamma Irradiation

Processing: A Feasibility Study. U.S. Dept, of
Energy, Albuquerque, N e w Mexico, 1983.

[19] Tit l e 5, U.S.C. Section 551, et s e q .

 IAEA-SM-271/11

ETAT ACTUEL DU DEVELOPPEMENT

DES TRAITEMENTS IONISANTS EN FRANCE

Y. H ENON
Service de radioagronomie,
Département de biologie,
CEA, Centre d’études nucléaires de Cadarache,
Saint-Paul-lez-Durance, France

Abstract-Résumé

TH E P R E SE N T ST A G E O F D EV ELO PM EN T O F IONIZING R AD IATIO N TREA TM EN T

IN FR A N C E.
During the 1970s in France only the Commissariat à l’énergie atom ique (CEA ) continued
to do research in the field o f ionizing-radiation treatm ent o f foodstuffs, with special emphasis
on the radiochem istry o f polysaccharides. The conclusions o f the Jo in t FAO/IAEA/W HO
Expert Committee in 1980 revived interest in this procedure. In 1982 the three com m ittees in
charge o f exam ining the docum entation relating to applications for authorization reacted
favourably to the sum m ary report on the toxicology o f irradiated foodstuffs subm itted by the
CEA. New applications need no longer contain a new toxicological study if the dose is lower
than 10 kGy. This liberalization o f procedure has encouraged industrialists to prepare
application docum entations (five in 1983 and five in 1984) and has made for more expeditious
exam ination thereof. Technically convincing but econom ically diasppointing experim ents have
shown that the two existing radiation sterilization facilities are unsuitable for harvested
agricultural products. It is therefore advisable to set up units which could meet the requirements
o f the food industry. In the Marseilles region it is planned to build a m ultipurpose commercial
facility and a development facility by 1986. Moreover, a firm in western France is reported
soon to be acquiring an electron accelerator for the radicidation o f mechanically jointed and
frozen poultry. Concurrently with these activities a large inform ation campaign has been under­
taken. However, it is too early to offer to the public products for large-scale human consum ption
which have been treated with ionizing radiation.

E T A T A C T U EL DU D EV ELO PPEM EN T D ES TR A ITEM EN TS IO N ISA NTS EN FR A N C E.

Dans les années 70, seul le Commissariat à l’énergie atom ique (C EA ) maintenait encore
en France une activité de recherche dans le domaine du traitem ent ionisant des aliments,
principalement axée sur la radiochimie des polysaccharides. Les conclusions du Comité mixte
OM S-FAO-AIEA d’experts en 1980 ont relancé l’intérêt pour ce procédé. En 1982, les trois
commissions chargées d’instruire les dossiers de demande d’autorisation ont réagi favorablement
à un rapport de synthèse présenté par le CEA sur la toxicologie des aliments irradiés. Toute
nouvelle demande ne doit plus forcém ent com porter d’étude toxicologique nouvelle lorsque
la dose est inférieure à 10 kG y. Cet allègement de procédure a encouragé les industriels à
établir des dossiers (5 en 1983, 5 en 1984) et a permis d’accélérer leur exam en. Des expériences
convaincantes sur le plan technique mais décevantes sur le plan économ ique ont démontré
l’inadaptation des deux installations de radiostérilisation existantes pour des produits agricoles
récoltés. Cette situation rend donc opportune la création d’unités perm ettant de répondre aux
exigences de l’industrie alimentaire. Dans la région de Marseille, il est envisagé de construire

311
312 HENON

pour 1986 une installation commerciale polyvalente et une installation de développement.

Par ailleurs, une société de l’ouest de la France devrait bientôt s’équiper d’un accélérateur
d’électrons pour la radicidation de viandes de volailles séparées mécaniquement et congelées.
Parallèlement à ces actions, un effort im portant d’inform ation a été entrepris mais il semble
encore prématuré de proposer au public des produits de grande consom m ation qui auraient
été ionisés.

En France, comme dans d’ autres pays, ce sont les conclusions du Comité

mixte O M S-FA O -A IEA d’experts réuni en 1980 qui ont relancé l’intérêt pour
le traitement ionisant des aliments. Au début des années 70 en effet, un certain
nombre d’ organismes avaient cessé toute activité dans ce domaine, découragés par
les multiples obstacles qui s’ étaient dressés. Seul le Commissariat à l’ énergie
atomique a poursuivi un programme de recherches sur le sujet et a notamment
participé au Projet international basé à Karlsruhe. Les études ont porté sur la
radiochimie des polysaccharides, avec en particulier l’identification et le dosage
des produits de radiolyse. Il a été démontré qu’ aucun de ces produits ne se forme
en une quantité telle qu’il pourrait être toxique, et que tous sont susceptibles
d’ apparaître au cours d’autres traitements. Par ailleurs, les résultats obtenus avec
plusieurs variétés d’ amidon se sont révélés semblables à ceux obtenus pour
l’amidon de maïs. On a ainsi pu apporter une preuve supplémentaire de la validité
du principe d’ extrapolation d’un produit à d’ autres produits de la même famille.

1. L 'E V O L U T IO N DE L A L E G IS L A T IO N

La première autorisation sollicitée en France concernait la pomme de terre.

Elle a été déposée en 1967, date à laquelle n’existait pas encore de cadre légal
pour le procédé qui était simplement interdit. La première réponse de l’ administra­
tion a donc été d’élaborer un décret, publié en 1970, selon lequel une autorisation
est nécessaire pour chaque type de produit. Le dossier est examiné par trois
commissions: le Conseil supérieur d’hygiène publique de France, l’ Académie
nationale de médecine et la Commission inter-ministérielle des radioéléments
artificiels.
Ce n’ est qu’ après avis favorable de ces différentes instances qu’un arrêté
peut être publié, autorisant officiellem ent la pratique du traitement pour le produit
considéré. Une mention indiquant ce traitement sur les étiquettes est exigée.
Ce n’ est qu’en 1973 que l’ autorisation permettant l’inhibition de germination
de la pomme de terre par rayonnement gamma a été obtenue.
En 1975, après soumission d’un dossier extrêmement complet, ce sont
la radicidation et la radappertisation des aliments pour animaux de laboratoire qui
ont été permises. Puis, en 1977, l’inhibition de la germination par rayonnement
gamma a été autorisée pour l’oignon, l’ail et l’échalote.
 IAEA-SM-271/11 313

Il faut souligner que, pour les aliments destinés à l’ alimentation humaine, ces
autorisations n’ ont été délivrées que pour une durée de cinq ans. Cette mesure,
ajoutée à un contexte technico-économique peu favorable, ne pouvait que rendre
plus réticentes encore les sociétés susceptibles d’ être intéressées par ces applications.
En 1982, une étape importante a été franchie lorsque, s’appuyanr sur les
travaux du Projet international et des différents comités mixtes O M S-FAO -AIEA,
le Commissariat à l’énergie atomique a rédigé un rapport général intitulé
«Traitement ionisant des denrées alimentaires: efficacité et absence de risques
pour l’hom me» (R apportC E A R -5162, 1982). Cette synthèse a en effet été pré­
sentée aux trois commissions compétentes et a reçu leur avis favorable. Objet de
remises à jour régulières, elle constitue une caution en matière de toxicologie. Un
protocole concernant les demandes d’autorisation a été élaboré: il sert de guide
aux sociétés présentant des demandes. Sa caractéristique la plus remarquable est
qu’il n’ exige pas de nouvelles études toxicologiques lorsque la dose employée est
inférieure ou égale à 10 kGy.
Cet allègement de procédure a grandement facilité le dépôt de nouveaux
dossiers, ainsi que leur examen.
En 1983, la débactérisation par rayonnement gamma de 72 épices et aromates
a été autorisée. Cette même année, les dossiers suivants ont été soumis aux
services officiels:
— pasteurisation de la gomme arabique;
— pasteurisation des légumes déshydratés;
— pasteurisation de mélanges de flocons de céréales destinés à être incorporés dans
les produits laitiers;
— radicidation de viandes de volailles séparées mécaniquement et congélées;
— aseptisation d’ emballages alimentaires.
Tous ont déjà été approuvés. Les autorisations sont, quand cela est techno­
logiquement pertinent, délivrées à la fois pour le rayonnement gamma du cobalt 60
et du césium 137 et pour les faisceaux d’électrons accélérés d’une énergie maximale
de 10 MeV.
Les sociétés utilisatrices peuvent ainsi choisir la technologie qui répond
le mieux à leurs besoins et à leurs contraintes.
En 1984, quatre nouveaux dossiers ont été déposés. Ils ont pour objet:
— la pasteurisation du sang, du plasma et du cruor déshydratés;
— la désinsectisation des fruits secs et des légumes secs;
— la radicidation du blanc d’ oeuf liquide, déshydraté ou congelé;
— la pasteurisation des plantes médicinales à infusion.
Comme on le voit, ce sont essentiellement des produits intermédiaires de
l’industrie alimentaire qui font l’ objet de demandes. Le problème de l’ étiquetage
obligatoire se pose en effet de façon moins aiguë. Dans les mois à venir, les
dossiers concerneront les denrées animales pour lesquelles l’ avantage sanitaire
apporté par le traitement ionisant est indiscutable.
314 HENON

Le meilleur exemple semble être la diminution ou l’ élimination du risque

d’ intoxication dû à la présence de bactéries pathogènes dans des aliments tels que
les cuisses de grenouille ou les crustacés.
Par ailleurs, pour tenir compte des acquis scientifiques récents, une révision
du texte de base de la réglementation (le décret du 8 mai 1970) est à l’ étude.
Elle devrait introduire davantage de souplesse, notamment en matière d’ étiquetage,
question qui sera examinée cas par cas. Il a été entre autres proposé d’introduire
après la mention obligatoire une phrase facultative à connotation positive, du
type «qualité microbiologique assurée par traitement ionisant».
Enfin, la possibilité d’ accorder une autorisation générale jusqu’ à la dose de
dix kilograys est à l’ étude.

2. L ’ U T IL IS A T IO N C O M M ERC IA LE DU PROCEDE

Les autorisations accordées de par le monde ne reflètent pas l’utilisation

réelle qui est faite du procédé. Ainsi, un grand nombre de pays permettent
officiellem ent d’inhiber la germination des pommes de terre par ionisation, mais
peu nombreux sont ceux qui emploient effectivem ent cette méthode. La raison
en est sans doute le contexte industriel existant en matière de radiotraitement,
le plus souvent limité à des installations construites pour la stérilisation d’ articles
médico-chirurgicaux.
Il est certain que l’utilisation de telles usines à des fins agroalimentaires
biaise l’évaluation technico-économique et limite les possibilités d’ application
rentables.
C’est ainsi qu’ en France, deux sociétés de service, Conservatome et Sodeteg-
Caric, ont depuis les années 60 développé leurs activités dans le domaine des
plastiques et des produits pharmaceutiques, médicaux et cosmétiques. La
première utilise le cobalt 60, la seconde un accélérateur d’électrons.
Situées à la périphérie de deux grandes villes, Lyon et Paris, elles se trouvent
éloignées des lieux des production. Des coûts de transport doivent donc être
ajoutés aux coûts de traitement, d’ autant plus difficiles à supporter que les pro­
duits ont une valeur faible, comme c’ est le cas des matières premières agricoles
récoltées, en particulier la pomme de terre ou l’ oignon. De plus, dans ces
installations, les caractéristiques des convoyeurs limitent les quantités unitaires
pouvant être traitées, ce qui multiplie les manutentions et accroît les coûts.
Enfin, la dose minimale qui peut être délivrée en fonctionnement commercial
est souvent trop élevée, ce qui écarte les possibilités d’ applications aux faibles
doses.
Il n’est donc pas étonnant que seules quelques centaines de tonnes de
pommes de terre et d’ oignons aient été traités dans notre pays. Si l’ efficacité de
la technique a pu être vérifiée, sa non-rentabilité économique dans les conditions
décrites a également été démontrée.
 IAEA-SM-271/11 315

Le cas de produits alimentaires comme les épices et les légumes déshydratés

est différent. Leur valeur assez élevée rend en effet supportables les surcoûts
qu’entraîne l’ utilisation d’installations mal adaptées. Quelques centaines de
tonnes d’ épices destinées à l’industrie (et non vendues au public) ont ainsi été
traitées en France en 1984. La quantité de produits intermédiaires ionisés croîtra
au fur et à mesure que seront délivrées les autorisations.
Nombreux sont ceux qui semblent maintenant convaincus que le transfert
du procédé vers l’industrie agroalimentaire nécessite une approche nouvelle.
Plusieurs projets ont ainsi pris naissance au cours des derniers mois. Des asso­
ciations se sont créées dans plusieurs régions, afin d’examiner la faisabilité d’un
centre de traitement ionisant polyvalent, répondant en particulier aux contraintes
imposées par les produits alimentaires. Le projet le plus avancé est celui d’une
association dénommée Apional, qui propose de construire, près du port de
Marseille, à la fois une unité gamma industrielle et une unité de recherche-
développement. Conçues par la Société SGN, filiale du CEA, elles devraient
commencer à fonctionner en 1986. La seconde installation régionale sera sans
doute construite ultérieurement dans l’ ouest de la France.
Certaines sociétés peuvent difficilement avoir recours à une installation de
service, soit parce que leurs produits sont trop fragiles, soit parce que les quantités
à traiter sont trop importantes. Le choix peut alors éventuellement se porter
sur des accélérateurs d’électrons, dont la souplesse d’utilisation présente quelques
avantages par rapport aux radioisotopes. Ainsi, une société commercialisant des
viandes de volailles séparées mécaniquement et congelées devrait acquérir cette
année une machine «Cassitron» développée par la société CG R — MeV, filiale du
groupe Thomson. Certaines sociétés s’intéressent également à des petits irradiateurs
gamma qui pourrait être intégrés.

3. L ’ IN F O R M A T IO N

Dans les années 60, on lisait dans des publications françaises et étrangères
que l’heure de l’utilisation commerciale était venue. Vingt ans après, on pourrait
avoir quelque hésitation à oser encore le dire si entre-temps un effort sans pré­
cédent de recherche fondamentale, certes long et coûteux, mais absolument
indispensable, n’ avait été fourni.
Le développement de la technique peut donc avoir lieu dans de bonnes
conditions, car il repose maintenant sur des bases scientifiques solides. Il ne faut
cependant pas se leurrer: le procédé ne sera pas banalisé du jour au lendemain
parce que les instances internationales l’ ont reconnu sans risques toxiques. Il reste
à informer les consommateurs, clairement et objectivement, tant sur les avantages
que sur les limites du traitement. La première étape nous a paru être l’ emploi
d’un mot autre qu’«irradiation» qui égare le public plus qu’il ne l’informe.
Nous avons obtenu sur ce point un certain consensus des administrations et de
316 HENON

l’industrie, mais il n’y a pas unanimité sur le nom de remplacement proposé, «ion i­
sation», quoique la presse le reprenne souvent.
Après plusieurs années d’ explications, de discussions et de réflexion com­
mune avec les scientifiques, les médecins et les nutritionnistes, on peut considérer
que ces milieux sont maintenant assez bien informés et que, apparaissant plus
crédibles que les promoteurs du procédé, ils peuvent constituer un relais auprès
des journalistes, des consommateurs et de leurs associations. Ainsi, le Conseil
supérieur d’hygiène publique de France et l’Académie nationale de médecine
ont-ils récemment publié des textes prenant clairement position en faveur des
traitements ionisants.
La majorité des articles parus dans la grande presse sont bienveillants, comme
le sont ceux qui sont parus dans les magazines des associations de consommateurs.
Dans ces derniers, la non-toxicité du procédé n’est pas remise en cause, mais des
garanties de contrôle sérieux et un étiquetage inform atif sont demandés.

CO N CLU SIO N

En 1930, un nommé Wurst déposait en France un brevet concernant «de la

nourriture de toute sorte, conditionnée en boîtes métalliques scellées et soumise
à l’ action de rayons Rôntgen durs, de haute intensité, pour tuer les bactéries».
Un demi-siècle s’est écoulé depuis. C’ est beaucoup, mais c’ est peu si l’ on considère
que, vers 1800, plus de cinquante ans avant les découvertes de Pasteur, un autre
français nommé Nicolas Appert inventait un procédé de conservation qui porterait
son nom. Aujourd’hui ou demain, en France et ailleurs, l’ionisation trouvera
elle aussi sa place car elle permet d’ o ffrir au consommateur des aliments plus sains
et plus sûrs.
 IAEA-SM-271/27

STATUS OF COMMERCIAL DEVELOPMENT

OF FOOD IRRADIATION IN IRAQ

H. A U D A
Department o f Biochemistry,
Faculty o f Agriculture and Biology,
Nuclear Research Centre,
Baghdad, Iraq

Abstract

ST A T U S O F COM M ERCIAL D EV ELO PM ENT OF FOOD IRR A D IA TIO N IN IRAQ.

A fter having achieved successful results in the application o f atom ic energy in the food
irradiation programme in Iraq, a step forward was taken by the Iraqi Atom ic Energy Commission
(IA EC ) by joining the International F o o d Irradiation Project (IFIP ) in 1975. In view o f the
im portant results in disinfestation and the radiation chemical data on dates, IFIP approved the
inclusion o f w holesomeness testing o f irradiated dates in the work programme for 1976. In
1980 irradiated dates were granted unconditional clearance up to 1 kG y by JE C F I. There is
no form al legislation yet to regulate irradiated food, and the m ajor food legislation in the
country is related to food quality, safety and trade. In the light of the 1980 JE C F I approval
and the available inform ation on the safety o f irradiated food, the authorities at IAEC have
form ed a special com m ittee to elaborate a set o f m odel regulations for the control o f and trade
in irradiated food.

IN TR O D U C TIO N

The present world demand fo r food supplies requires adequate effort to

increase agricultural products as well as to reduce post-harvest losses. Reports
show that developing countries suffer major losses up to 40% o f their agricultural
output. The solution to these problems lies mainly in the production plans o f
governments as well as in the preservation o f the food produced and the reduc­
tion o f spoilage. A large percentage o f the spoiled food results from either insect
infestation or bacterial spoilage, especially in highly perishable commodities
such as fish and fishery products. F or insect disinfestation methyl bromide has
been used. However, its application has not produced results that meet the quarantine
measures o f importing countries and it imposes several limitations such as
residue accumulation and incomplete kill o f some stages o f the insects [1 —3].
Several insect species are known to infest ripe dates in Iraq. A few o f these
insects feed on dates and continue breeding throughout storage fo r several genera­
tions [3, 4]. Conventional methods o f using m ethyl bromide to destroy insects
attacking dates have not m et w ith success because o f the limited effectiveness o f
this fumigant to control date insects at all stages o f development. Consequently,

317
318 AUDA

new methods o f date disinfestation have been sought and gamma radiation has been
used successfully to disinfest stored dry dates [4].
Am ong other important and widely used crops in Iraq for which radiation
was used for sprout inhibition were potatoes and onions [5].
The use o f irradiation to prolong the shelf-life o f fresh dates has also been
investigated on a number o f varieties irradiated at doses from 0.1 to 2.7 kGy. As
comm only found for other fruits, a considerable difference was noted in the
response o f different varieties and different stages o f maturity [ 6 ]. N o significant
difference in the sensory properties o f irradiated and unirradiated dates could be
detected.

ECONOM IC ASPECTS

Iraq is considered one o f the date-growing countries producing annually

approximately 300 000—400 000 tonnes. Dates are one o f the richest sources o f
sugar; important nutrients such as vitamins, proteins, sodium, iron and magnesium
are also present in the fruit. A large quantity o f dates intended for human consump­
tion and fo r industrial processing are exported annually to various countries
throughout the world ; the remainder is consumed locally. Dates constitute a
good source o f raw material and are utilized industrially in the production o f syrup,
liquid sugars, vinegar, ethyl alcohol, protein yeast pastry and animal feeds.
Insect infestation poses a serious problem for the production and marketing o f
dates; a number o f factors such as the lack o f mechanization, inadequate packaging
and storage facilities contribute to an increased hazard o f insect attack during
storage and shipping. Many o f the date-importing countries have set a threshold
limit o f permissible infestation, and in most cases this is a small percentage.
However, even after fumigation large quantities o f stored dates and dates ready for
shipment are infested to a certain degree and therefore do not com ply with the
standards o f the importing country. Thousands o f tonnes are rejected annually
because o f heavy insect infestation and this causes considerable economic loss.
Insects that live on stored dates are the fig moth Ephestia cautella and the
saw-toothed grain beetle Oryzaephilus surinamensis. Th ey have been carefully
studied and the radiation dose required for their disinfestation has been
established [4].
One o f the most important and widely cultivated vegetable crops in Iraq are
onions; potatoes are less cultivated. However, an increasing demand for potatoes
has been recorded in recent years. Potatoes are grown in tw o main seasons, the
spring crop, which is harvested in April/May and the automn crop, which is
harvested in November/December. Onions are usually harvested during April/May
for early varieties and June/July for the late varieties.
A fter harvest large quantities o f both crops are stored in ordinary stores. These
two crops usually suffer great losses during storage due to sprouting, shrinkage and
 IAEA-SM-271/27 319

plant diseases. T o ensure marketing o f good quality potatoes and onions and to
minimize losses, experiments were carried out to determine the minimum dose
required fo r sprout inhibition during storage at ambient and under controlled
temperatures. This was found to range from 0.06—0.09 and 0.05—0.1 kG y for
onions and potatoes, respectively [5]. Commercial-scale experiments have not
been made and need to be technically determined.
It is well established that the economics o f irradiation processing depend
mainly on the amount o f food items or other commodities treated in the same
irradiator. Irradiation is a large-scale process and a long period o f operation is
required to make this process competitive w ith conventional techniques. These
conditions are necessary for the determination o f the economic feasibility o f
radiation techniques on a commercial scale.
In Iraq investigations on food irradiation started with experiments on insect
disinfestation o f dry dates in 1967. Work was started at the Nuclear Research
Institute (N R I) o f the Iraqi A tom ic Energy Commission (IA E C ). This work was
then supported by the International A tom ic Energy Agency (IA E A ) under the
joint programme No.941/RB. In 1970 the IA E C requested the IA E A to send an
expert to assist in planning and programming work on food irradiation with special
reference to important local foodstuffs (grain, rice, dates, fish, etc.) and to assist
in the work already started on the irradiation o f dates [7]. T w o major directions
were carried out in the N R I and were mainly concerned with the irradiation o f
insects infesting dates and the effects o f ionizing radiation on various chemical
constituents o f the date fruits. A small-scale experiment on sprout inhibition o f
potatoes and onions was started at a later date.
In the framework o f this research programme technical assistance was
provided by the IA E A and Dr. K. Vas was assigned for one month’ s planning work
in 1971. As a result o f Dr. Vas’ mission an integrated food irradiation programme
was elaborated. Dr. Vas concluded in his report that utilization o f atomic energy
in food and agriculture is an important proposition from the point o f view o f the
national econom y and public health in Iraq. He also stated that dates, grain,
pulses and tobacco were the most likely candidates for disinfestation by irradiation.
Dr. Vas also reported that the radiation-prolongation o f the market life o f fish and
poultry could be achieved by using doses to kill spoilage-causing microorganisms
and so should be introduced in Iraq [7].
In conclusion the report stated that certain other industrial uses o f atomic
energy could be combined with food irradiation to achieve a constant utilization o f
the radiation emitted by an isotope-type irradiator.
A larger radiation source is necessary to be able to carry out technologically
valid experiments on the basis o f which rough estimates o f the economics o f the
process could be evaluated.
Follow ing Dr. Vas’ recommendations and to continue the IA E A ’s technical
assistance the Iraqi A tom ic Energy Commission agreed to the nomination o f
Dr. J. Farkas for a three month period starting on 1 October 1972. During his
320 AUDA

mission Dr. Farkas worked on the technical feasibility o f date radurization. He also
carried out several experiments on the applicability o f gamma irradiation in date
juice manufacture [ 6 ].

R E G U L A T IO N O F FO O D IR R A D IA T IO N

The food irradiation programme has achieved successful results on food items
such as dates, onions and potatoes and the authorities at the Nuclear Research
Institute decided on further studies on the wholesomeness o f irradiated dates. In
1975 the Iraqi A tom ic Energy Commission authorities signed an agreement to join
the International F ood Irradiation Project (IF IP ) and were represented in both the
Scientific Programme Comm ittee and the Board o f Management.
In view o f the importance o f the results on disinfestation and the radiation
chemical data it was considered that wholesomeness testing o f irradiated dates
should be carried out. In 1976 IF IP approved the inclusion o f animal studies on
irradiated dried dates in its programme. T o complement this animal feeding study
a number o f short-term test procedures such as mutagenic tests, cytogenic analyses
and cellular D N A were used to detect whether dates induced any abnormality as a
result o f irradiation.
Based on all the studies made by the IA E C and IFIP, irradiated dates were
granted unconditional clearance up to 1 kG y by the 1980 Joint FAO/IAEA/WHO
Expert Comm ittee on the Wholesomeness o f Irradiated Food (JECFI).
In the light o f the 1980 approval o f the JECFI and the available information
on the safety o f irradiated food, the process should o ffer the national authorities
the means to adapt the existing legislation, or develop proper legislation in countries
without any form o f legislation on food irradiation.
Although several countries have some form o f legislation which regulates the
marketing and commercialization o f certain irradiated food items, Iraq has at present
no specific legislation on this matter. On the basis o f all available information
on the safety o f irradiated food a total o f 73 approvals (unconditional and
provisional) covering 26 different foods have been issued in 19 countries [ 8 ].
While there is no formal legislation yet in Iraq to regulate irradiated food, act
No. 99 on radiation protection was signed in 1980 to regulate the use o f isotopes and
the importation and storage o f irradiated food in the country. The major food
legislation in this country is related to food quality, safety and trade. As a
consequence o f the JECFI recommendations and the Codex Alimentarius
Commission, the IA E C , in co-operation with the Ministries o f Health, Industry
and Agriculture, has taken the first steps to establish legislation for the control o f
irradiation facilities and irradiated food. The authorities on food irradiation at the
IAEC are aware that the stage has been reached in many countries where they are on
the brink o f the industrial application o f this technique and legislation should, if
possible, not fall behind in this country. As a first step, the authorities have
 IAEA-SM-271/27 321

formed a special committee to elaborate a set o f model regulations for the control
o f and trade in irradiated food. This committee should also provide valuable
guidelines for the government to harmonize the national legislation relating to the
practical application o f food irradiation in accordance with the Codex standard
and the Code o f practice.

CO NCLU SIO NS

( 1) F or better utilization, a multi-purpose pilot irradiation plant should be

considered for the irradiation o f many items in order to keep the price per
tonne o f product treated competitive.
(2 ) A national committee should be established to advise the authorities and to
guide the process through the existing systems toward practical application.
(3 ) Market testing on a local and an international basis should be approved.
(4 ) Consumer acceptance is an important task lying ahead. Inform ing and
educating consumers should be done through education channels, the press
and other organizations.

REFERENCES

[1] V IN CEN T, L .E ., LIN D G R E E N , D .L ., Hydrogen phosphide and ethyl form ate: Fum igation
o f insects infesting dates and other dried fruits, J . Econ. Entom ol. 65 (1 9 7 2 ) 1667.
[2] V A R D E L L , H.H., Methyl bromide: E ffect o f multiple fum igation on residues in flour,
J . Econ. Entom ol. 68 (1 9 7 5 ) 69.
[3] A L -H A K K A K , Z .S., et al., Wholesomeness studies with a full diet o f irradiated dates,
using the insect Ephestia cautella (Walker). I. D isinfestation doses o f gam m a radiation,
Date Palm J. 2 (1 9 8 3 ) 87.
[4] AHMED, M .S.H., Investigations on insect disinfestation o f dried dates by using gam m a
radiation, Date Palm J . 1 (1 981) 107.
[5] AUDA, H., K H A L A F, Z., Studies on sprout inhibition o f potatoes and onions and shelf-
life extension o f dates in Iraq, Radiat. Phys. Chem. 14 (1 9 7 9 ) 775.
[6] F A R K A S , J ., et al., Irradiation o f dates, Acta Aliment. 3 (1 9 7 9 ) 151.
[7] V A S, К ., Perspective o f food irradiation, R eport to the Government of Iraq IAEA
W P/5/660 (1 9 7 1 ) 1 - 2 0 .
[8] VAN K O O IJ, J.G ., Present status o f international and national standardization and regula­
tion o f food irradiation, F oo d Irradiat. Newsl. 7 (1 9 8 3 ) 3.
 IAEA-SM-271/41

THE SOUTH AFRICAN FOOD

IRRADIATION PROGRAMME
R ole o f Government institutions

W.J. DE W ET
Chemistry Department,
Nuclear Development Corporation
o f South Africa (P ty ) Ltd,
Pretoria, South Africa

Abstract

THE SOUTH A FR IC A N FO OD IRRAD IATIO N PROGRAM M E: R O LE O F GO VERN M EN T

IN STITU TIO N S.
The strategy decided upon in the South African responsible Government institutions to
establish food irradiation technology commercially is sketched. A situation has been reached
where three irradiation facilities are processing a large variety o f food products in excess of
200 t/w eek. The future role regarding statutory inputs to further prom ote commercialization
is indicated. Resulting from the approach we are pursuing on a national basis, it is our expressed
opinion that continued international collaboration, involving the support and blessings o f the
relevant international agencies, is essential for successfully paving the way to international
trade in irradiated food.

INTRODUCTION
The enormous potential o f f o o d i r r a d i a t i o n as a
food preservation and sanitation method for
application in t h e S o u t h A f r i c a n c o n t e x t h a s b e e n
a p p r e c i a t e d s i n c e as f a r b a c k a s t h e l a t e f i f t i e s .
From an export poi n t of v iew for e x a m p l e , So uth
A f r i c a , as an i m p o r t a n t f o o d e x p o r t i n g c o u n t r y , is
s i t u a t e d p o o r l y g e o g r a p h i c a l l y , but e x t r e m e l y well
seasonally. Cheaper t r a n s p o r t by sea w i t h o u t t h e
volume/weight limitations t y p i c a l of air f r e i g h t
could e n h a n c e e x p o r t o p p o r t u n i t i e s imme n s e l y . For
wider internal distribution of many perishable
commodities, extended keeping qualities with
associated i m p r o v e d a v e r a g e q u a l i t y c o u l d a l s o be
achieved t h r o u g h r a d i a t i o n t r e a t m e n t . D e s p i t e the
full realisation at t h e t i m e of t h e i m p l i c a t i o n s
for eventual national and international accept a n c e
of food i r r a d i a t i o n t e c h n o l o g y , a r i s i n g f rom the
uncertainties which s u r r o u n d e d the- w h o l e s o m e n e s s
of irradiated food, the relevant South African

323
324 DE WET

s t a t u t o r y i n s t i t u t i o n s n e v e r t h e l e s s e m b a r k e d o n an
exploration programme which only started in
earnest in 1 9 7 2 . I m i g h t a d d t h a t as t i m e w e n t on
we b e c a m e m o r e c o n v i n c e d of t h e u n i q u e a t t r i b u t e s
of this technology and its e v e n t u a l s u c c e s s f u l
future.

Technological Development Programme

The former Atomic Energy B o a r d ( s i n c e 1982 t he

Nuclear Development Corporation of S o u t h A f r i c a
(P t y ) Ltd, a b b r e v i a t e d NUCOR) and our D e p a r t m e n t
of Agriculture tackled a joint technological
programme in 1970. E x c e l l e n t p r o g r e s s has sin ce
been made on a w h o l e v a r i e t y of p r o d u c t s , as c a n
be seen in Table 1 in w h i c h p r e s e n t l y c l e a r e d
products are listed. M o s t of t h e s e are now bein g
processed commercially on a regular basis in
reasonable volumes.

Our experience has b e e n t h a t , f o r v i r t u a l l y all

the cleared products, the t r e a t m e n t s h a d t o be
investigated for specific application
circumstances, w h i c h u n d e r l i n e s t h e i m p o r t a n c e of
national food ir r a d i a t i o n pr o g r a m m e s . Fruits are
the most difficult commodities, with combination
treatments essential in mos t cases. Duri ng the
precommercial phase and even in t h e c o m m e r c i a l
p h a s e n e w p r o b l e m s , t e c h n o l o g i c a l in n a t u r e , a r o s e
with subtropical and other fruits, which
emphasise the importance of a back-up
technological infrastructure to c o u n t e r a c t such
problems promptly. A typical e x a m p l e of s u c h a
problem is the accentuated blackening which
develops on irradiated b a n a n a s if t h e y a r e k e p t
unduly long in ripening rooms or if t h e y a r e
transported and/or stored at sub-optimum
temperatures, whencold injury occurs. (The
interactive requirements are specifically
elaborated on in Dr. v a n d e r L i n d e ' s p r e s e n t a t i o n
( p a p e r I A E A / S M - 2 7 1 / 4 2 ) ).

In contrast to the complexities inherently

associated with many fresh product applications,
d i s i n f e c t i o n studies and o r g a n o l e p t i c a s s e s s m e n t s
are relatively straightforward for dry processed
products.
 IAEA-SM-271/41 325

TABLE 1. UNCONDITIONALLY CLEARED PRODUCTS

IN S O U T H A F R I C A (JANUARY 1985)

Fresh products (cleared 1977 - 1979)

Potatoes ( 1977
Mangoes ( 1978
Papayas ( 1978
Chicken (1978
Onions ( 1978
Garlic (1978
Strawberries ( 1978

Fresh and n o n - d r y p r o c e s s e d p r od u ct s
( c l e a r e d s i n c e 1981)

Avocados Tomatoes
Bananas Brinjals
Fruit juices (frozen) Soya p ic kl e p ro du c ts
Green beans Ginger
Litchi s Vegetable paste
Mango pickles

Dry pro cessed products (cleared since 1981)

Bananas
Almonds
Cheese powder
Yeast powder (sugar-based)
Herbal tea (Rooibos)
Various spices*
Various dehydrated vegetables*

* Involved individual submissions at t i m e s .

Although numerous studies have been done most

s u c c e s s f u l l y o n r e d m e a t a n d r e d - m e a t p r o d u c t s , no
immediate prospects for comme rc ial isa ti on seem
apparent.

The p l a n n i n g and m o n i t o r i n g of th e p r o g r e s s of the

technological programme has t h r o u g h o u t been the
responsibility of the NUCOR subcommittee on
Radiation Applications. Committee members have
included representatives from the food industry,
heads of several of our Agricultural Research
Institutes, . university people from food science
326 DE WET

and agricultural disciplines, a senior official

from the Department of H e a l t h and W e l f a r e , etc.
T h i s f o r u m s e r v e d , a p a r t f r o m its m a i n p u r p o s e , to
ensure that various bodies were kept fully
informed on local as well as international
developments regarding food irradiation.

We a r e e n t e r i n g w h a t c a n be c o n s i d e r e d as a s e c o n d
phase in technological development, i.e. the
utilisation o f i r r a d i a t i o n in c o m b i n e d t r e a t m e n t s
to develop canned product equivalents with
improved organoleptic or natural product
qualities. Such s h e l f - 1 ife-stable products should
obviously have acceptable safety margins,
particularly those involving high-protein
products. A Clostridium botilinum l a b o r a t o r y is
being planned for this purpose. Apart from this a
number of studies on p r o m i s i n g c o m m o d i t i e s are
being jointly investigated with two agricultural
research institutions. These studies involve
products such as dried fruits, melons, table
g r a p e s , ston e fru i t s , etc. C e r t a i n a s p e c t s of food
packaging m a t e r i a l s are also re ce i v i n g attent ion .
Since the st a r t of c o m m e r c i a l i s a t i o n i n t e r e s t i n g
requests for investigation have also been
increasingly forthcoming from the food industry.

The two d i s c i p l i n e s m i c r o b i o l o g y and p o s t - h a r v e s t

pathology f o r m , i n our e x p e r i e n c e , the c o r n e r s t o n e
of a sound technological programme. Basic
investigations on the underlying aspects in
c o m b i n a t i o n t r e a t m e n t s , the i n f l u e n c e of r a d i a t i o n
on ripening enzymes, the accentuated internal
browning experienced when certain fruits are
i r r a d i a t e d , and c e l l - w a l l d a m a g e s t u d i e s are bei ng
continued in close association w i t h e x p e r t s at
several universities. Radiation chemical studies
on the formation of c e r t a i n r a d i o l y t i c p r o d u c t s
are being rounded off.

Pre-commercial Involvements
South Africa's concern regarding t h e f u t u r e of
food irradiation, in common with many other
countries and also the relevant international
agencies, has been that the one outstanding
question regarding the toxicologica1 s a f e t y of
 IAEA-SM-271/41 327

irradiated food be resol v e d . The South A f r i c a n

statutory authorities thus most willingly
authorised the financial and scientific
contributions we h a v e m a d e t o I F I P . I F I P , as a l l
of you know, was s p e c i f i c a l l y u n d e r t a k e n as an
international effort to deal e x p e r t l y with this
one overriding obstacle. The p r o p i t i o u s succ ess
a c h i e v e d b y I F I P in t h i s r e g a r d is k n o w n t o us all
but is, strangely enough, perhaps not fully
accepted by all. However, the o u t c o m e has been
accepted without h e s i t a t i o n by th e S o u t h A f r i c a n
Department of Health and Welfare to the full
extent set by the 1976 and 1980 JECFI
recommendations.

Because of the impetus given by 1976 JECFI

recommendations that food i r r a d i a t i o n s h o u l d be
classified as a p h y s i c a l p r o c e s s r a t h e r t h a n an
additive one and that five products (wheat,
potatoes, chicken, papaya s and s t r a w b e r r i e s ) are
to be considered u n c o n d i t i o n a l l y s a f e f'or h u m a n
c o n s u m p t i o n if i r r a d i a t e d , it w a s d e c i d e d by N U C O R
to build a pil o t i r r a d i a t i o n f a c i l i t y (open pool
facility, 50 kCi cobalt-60) for testing the
technology as w e l l as f o r i r r a d i a t i n g r e a s o n a b l e
amounts of subtropical fruits for simulated
storage and transport and actual transport
behaviour. This was a joint u n d e r t a k i n g with the
Letaba C o - o p e r a t i v e , an a g r i c u l t u r a l c o - o p e r a t i v e
in the subtropical fruit production area of
North-eastern Transvaal. An additional task
undertaken was to o b t a i n t r a d e e x e m p t i o n s for the
first few c o m m o d i t i e s l i s t e d in T a b l e 1 b y m e a n s
of submissions to our D e p a r t m e n t of H e a l t h and
Welfare as r e q u i r e d by the existing food
legislation (Foodstuffs, Cosmetics and
Disinfectants Act, A c t 54 of 1972.) T h i s e n a b l e d
trial marketing s t u d i e s i n v o l v i n g at leas t a few
p r o d u c t s to e n s u r e a r e a s o n a b l y s u f f i c i e n t i mp a ct .
A Co-ordinating Advisory Committee with
representatives from N U C O R and the D e p a r t m e n t of
Agriculture and from Industry, Commerce and
Tourism wasfounded for co-ordination and
planning. Fair amounts of f o u r of t h e a p p r o v e d
products (potatoes, mangoes, papayas and
s t r a w b e r r i e s , 122, 20, 2 0 a n d 7 t o n n e s , r e s p e c t i v e l y )
were marketed under the RADURA emblem from August
328 DE WET

1978 to J u l y 1 9 7 9 in c e r t a i n s u p e r m a r k e t s in t h e
Pretoria and Johannesburg areas. This venture,
publicised as w i d e l y as p o s s i b l e , s u c c e e d e d t o a
large extent, although certain problems were
encountered. Consumer's acceptance, for example,
a m o u n t e d to 90 % or m o r e but p o o r - q u a l i t y p r o d u c t s
which were sometimes offered were associated with
the process, which indicated that for a favourable
introductory a t tem pt , f a c t o r s of t his n a t u r e m u s t
be s p e c i a l l y g u a r d e d a g a i n s t .

Following the trial marketing study a two-day

N a t i o n a l S y m p o s i u m w a s a r r a n g e d in O c t o b e r 1 9 7 9 t o
which Dr. E l i a s , p r o j e c t d i r e c t o r o f I F IP ( 1 9 7 5 -
1981), w a s i n v i t e d as t h e m a i n q u e s t s p e a k e r . This
symposium,which covered all facets of food
irradiation, a t t r a c t e d 160 p e o p l e w h o r e p r e s e n t e d
all the sectors of the food and a g r i c u l t u r a l
spheres a n d a l s o c o n s u m e r o r g a n i s a t i o n s , w h i c h we
f e l t s h o u l d all be i n f o r m e d .

Towards commercialisation

Prompted by the success of the trial m a r k e t i n g

stu dy and p a r t i c u l a r l y the t r e m e n d o u s b r e a k t h r o u g h
contained in the 1980 JECFI r e c o m m e n d a t i o n s , a
strategy for the marketing of i r r a d i a t e d fo o d s
received indepth consideration towards the
beginning of 1981. Bo t h N U C O R and t h e D e p a r t m e n t
of Agriculture were, in v i e w o f t h e i r s t a t u t o r y
m a n d a t e s n o t s t r i c t l y in a p o s i t i o n t o b e d i r e c t l y
involved in the marketing of f o o d s . All a l o n g ,
NUCOR's interest in food irradiation was
associated with its p r o m o t i o n a l r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s
regarding r a d i o i s o t o p e and r a d i a t i o n a p p l i c a t i o n s
in South Africa, whilst the Department of
Agriculture intimated t h a t its i n v o l v e m e n t c o u l d
only go as far as t e c h n i c a l a s p e c t s r e l a t e d t o
marketing. It was thus clear that the private
sector would have to be involved in all t h e
processing and m a r k e t i n g aspects of i r r a d i a t e d
food. Fortunately, two irradiation processing
companies were founded in 1981. One of t h e s e
companies cam e into existence as a r e s u l t of
NUCOR's decision to transfer the gamma
sterilisation of medical items to the private
sector, a p r o c e s s i n g a c t i v i t y i n t r o d u c e d by N U C O R
 IAEA-SM-271/41 329

in 1970 a n d o f f e r e d t o all m a n u f a c t u r e r s o f s u c h
items in South Africa on a service basis. The
company w h i c h t o o k thi s over, I S O - S T E R (Pty) Ltd,
acquired a Canadian facility(JS-8900, maximum
C o b a l t - 6 0 l o a d i n g of 6 M c i ) w h i c h wa s c o m m i s s i o n e d
in August 1981. Apart from presently processing
all the d i s p o s a b l e m e d i c a l i t e m s , t h e c o m p a n y is
a l s o t r e a t i n g a f a i r a m o u n t o f p l a s t i c p r o d u c t s as
well as a growing volume of a n u m b e r of d ry
processed f o o d it ems. The p r e s e n t l o a d i n g of t h i s
facility is more than 600 kCi. Our own J S - 6 5 0 0
facility, previously used for the medical
sterilisation, b e c a m e e n t i r e l y a v a i l a b l e for food
irradiation. An u p g r a d i n g of its c o n v e y e r s y s t e m
td four times its p r e v i o u s t h r o u g h p u t has mad e
this facility very suitable for food irradiation
a n d it is u t i l i s e d o n a s e r v i c e a n d s u b c o n t r a c t i n g
basis apart from being used for large-scale
experimental studies on c e r t a i n f o o d i t e m s . Its
present Cobalt-60 loading is m o r e t h a n 3 0 0 k C i .
The other company f o r m e d , H E P R O (Pty) Ltd, t o o k
over and upgraded the old pool f a c i l i t y at th e
L e t a b a C o - o p e r a t i v e in t h e N o r t h - e a s t e r n T r a n s v a a l
to a b a t c h f a c i l i t y , aJ S - 8 2 0 0 , b y a c q u i r i n g the
necessary components from AECL (RCC). This
facility b e c a m e o p e r a t i v e in 1 9 8 2 a n d i t s p r e s e n t
C o b a l t - 6 0 l o a d i n g is m o r e t h a n 100 k C i .

During the pl a n n i n g stages for e x t e n d e d m a r k e t i n g

some supermarkets were of the opinion, as
expressed during d i s c u s s i o n s a s w e l l as a t j o i n t
formal meetings, that their future participation
should enjoy the necessary statutory protection. A
steering committee for co-ordinating the marketing
of radurised foods, to act as an advisory
committee to the Minister of A g r i c u l t u r e , was
appointed in 198 1 f o r t h i s p u r p o s e . T h e f o l l o w i n g
are represented on this committee: NUCOR, the
Department of Agriculture (Economics and
Marketing), the SA T r a d e I n s t i t u t e , A S S 0 C 0 M , t he
Consumers' Union, the Citrus Exchange, t h e SA
A s s o c i a t i o n for Food S c i e n c e and T e c h n o l o g y , and a
representative of the processors. A senior
official of t h e D e p a r t m e n t of H e a l t h and W e l f a r e
is a l s o i n v o l v e d b u t o n l y in a n o b s e r v e r c a p a c i t y .
T h e c o m m i t t e e , w h i c h is c h a i r e d b y t h e d i r e c t o r o f
P r o d u c t S t a n d a r d s of t h e D e p a r t m e n t of A g r i c u l t u r e
330 DE WET

(Economics and Marketing), has already held

several m e e t i n g s at w h i c h p r o b l e m s r e l a t e d to the
protection of the process, processors a n d all
related parties as well as to marketing
priorities, labelling, publicity, c o d e s of g o o d
manufacturing practice, control measures with
respect to i m p o r t / e x p o r t of i r r a d i a t e d f o o d s etc.
have been discussed and equitable solutions
offered. M o r e r e c e n t l y an E x e c u t i v e C o m m i t t e e h a s
been proposed which could take immediate action.
On t h e s t i l l c o n t e n t i o u s s u b j e c t o f l a b e l l i n g , o u r
situation is t h a t n o l a b e l l i n g a s a r e s u l t o f t h e
t r e a t m e n t is r e q u i r e d . T h e u s e o f t h e R A D U R A l a b e l
a s a s t i c k e r e m b l e m is o p t i o n a l b u t it is c o m m o n l y
used. Outer containers are stamped for batch
identification. Regarding the p r o t e c t i o n issue,
litigation steps are not excluded in claims
d i s p u t i n g t h e b a s i c t e n e t s of r e l e a s e d c l e a r a n c e s .

Valuable d a t a on c o n s u m e r a c c e p t a b i l i t y , e t c h a v e
been obtainedover the past two years of
reasonably active commercial marketing involving
many of the cleared products in Table 1 in
q u a n t i t i e s o f s e v e r a l t h o u s a n d t o n n e s in t o t a l . O u r
experience so far regarding acceptability
substantiates t h e r e s u l t s o b t a i n e d in 1 9 7 9 d u r i n g
trial marketing.

In a few instances, s o m e r e s i s t a n c e w a s a n d is
still being experienced at t i m e s r e g a r d i n g full
a c c e p t a n c e b y s o m e p e o p l e in r e t a i l m a n a g e m e n t a n d
even in institutional control boards, but this
opposing attitude did not prove insurmountable
f o l l o w i n g an e d u c a t i o n / i n f o r m a t i o n - b a s e d a p p r o a c h .

With ge ne r a l a c c e p t a b i l i t y r e a s o n a b l y a s s u r e d and
a c l e a r e r p i c t u r e of real a d v a n t a g e s s e e n a g a i n s t
processing costs p r a c t i c a l l y d e m o n s t r a t e d to the
food industr y, the c o n s u m e r t r a d e and the c o n s u m e r
a s i t u a t i o n is d e v e l o p i n g w h i c h c a l l s f o r f u r t h e r
expansion in commercialisation." A logical next
s t e p w o u l d be t h e i n t r o d u c t i o n of f o o d i r r a d i a t i o n
t e c h n o l o g y in t h e s o u t h o f t h e c o u n t r y , n a m e l y t h e
W e s t e r n C a p e , as a l l t h r e e e x i s t i n g f a c i l i t i e s a r e
in the north. The W e s t e r n C a p e is a n i m p o r t a n t
p r o d u c i n g r e g i o n f o r a v a r i e t y of f o o d it em s w h i c h
could benefit g r e a t l y by r a d i a t i o n t r e a t m e n t and
 IAEA-SM-271/41 331

this was borne out by a t ech no- ec ono mic study

recently conducted for investigating the erection
o f an i r r a d i a t i o n f a c i l i t y in t h e C a p e . H o p e f u l l y ,
p r i v a t e e n t e r p r i s e c o u l d be s u f f i c i e n t l y p e r s u a d e d
to take up this c h alle nge . F o l l o w i n g the Cape,
Natal is likely to be n e x t in l i n e t o r e c e i v e
attention.
The r i g h t t y p e of f a c i l i t y for t h e s e d e v e l o p m e n t s
will be less expensive pallet irradiators to
m i n i m i s e h a n d l i n g , s t o r a g e a n d h o l d - u p , as w e l l as
be suited for multi -p urp ose applications. Design
features are presently being considered for
t h r o u g h p u t s of s e v e r a l thousand t o n nes per annum.

CONCLUSION
If the infrastructure sketched above is
j u d i c i o u s l y c o n t i n u e d o v e r t h e n e x t fe w y e a r s on a
national e x p l o r a t i o n and e x p l o i t a t i o n basis, food
i r r a d i a t i o n t e c h n o l o g y is e x p e c t e d t o d e v e l o p t o a
firm a n d f u t u r e - s e c u r e d p o s i t i o n in S o u t h A f r i c a .
The c o m m e r c i a l a p p l i c a t i o n o f f o o d i r r a d i a t i o n in
South Africa should c o n t r i b u t e to i n t e r n a t i o n a l
acceptance and, partly for this reason, our
e f f o r t s a r e at p r e s e n t e x c l u s i v e l y d i r e c t e d at t h e
national establishment of the technology. The
initiatives taken by the responsible statutory
institutions and also t h e p r i v a t e p r o c e s s o r s in
South Afr ica have c e r t a i n l y not been d i s a p p o i n t i n g
so far. South Africa is a s t r o n g p r o p o n e n t f o r
continued international co-operation, and the
formation of the I n t e r n a t i o n a l C o n s u l t a t i v e G r o u p
on I r r a d i a t e d F o o d s a n n o u n c e d l a s t y e a r is v i e w e d
by us as a n i m p o r t a n t f u r t h e r v e h i c l e t o p a v e t h e
way for wide international acceptance of the
technology from a national u s a g e and an
import/export point of view. If international
t r a d e c o u l d be i n i t i a t e d u n d e r t h e a u s p i c e s of t h e
international a g encies involved, this will g r e a t l y
contribute to the orderly and g u a rde d
e s t a b l i s h m e n t o f i n t e r n a t i o n a l t r a d e in i r r a d i a t e d
products. Without such protective involvement
resistance may gain momentum and destroy the
future of this efficacious food processing
technique which has a potentially wide
application.
DOSIMETRY AND ACCEPTANCE
OF IRRADIATED FOOD

(Poster Session III)

Poster Presentations
IAEA-SM-271/84P

TH E CESIUM-137 A G R IC U L T U R A L
COM M ODITIES IR R A D IA T O R (C A C I)

G. S U B B A R A M A N , H. F A R R A R IV
Rocketdyne Division,
Rockw ell International Corporation,
Canoga Park, California

S.B. A H LS T R O M
CH2M H IL L ,
Albuquerque, New M exico

United States o f America

The objective o f the United States Department o f Energy’s Byproducts U tiliza­

tion Program is to encourage widespread commercial use o f nuclear by-products. A
major beneficial use o f the caesium-137 by-product is fo r the low-dose gamma-
ray treatment o f various food commodities. Th e Cesium Agricultural Commodities
Irradiator (C A C I) is an important step in achieving broad commercial use and
acceptance o f irradiation as a disinfestation method fo r selected fruits, vegetables,
and field crops in the United States o f America. The main purposes o f C A C I are:

1. RESEARC H

— T o evaluate the technical feasibility o f irradiating specific commodities

— T o establish optimal irradiation protocols fo r currently restricted export
commodities, w ith attention to control variables such as conditioning treat­
ments, temperatures, and atmospheres
— T o evaluate irradiation as an alternative to existing methods o f quarantine
treatment, some o f which are under regulatory scrutiny.

2. D E M O N S T R A TIO N

— T o demonstrate the beneficial use o f caesium-137

— T o demonstrate, with food industry involvement, the efficient utilization o f
irradiation for disinfestation and preservation o f certain commodities at near-
commercial throughputs and load sizes.

335
336 POSTER PRESENTATIONS

C A C I will be a panoramic, wet-storage gamma irradiator using ~ 3 MCi o f

caesium-137 contained in ~ 5 5 double-walled stainless steel capsules from the
Waste Encapsulation and Storage Facility (W ESF) at Rockw ell Hanford . 1 The
capsules w ill be contained in two independently operable plaques in one plane,
with flexibility to optimize product dose uniformity.
The CAC I irradiation chamber w ill be capable o f providing total absorbed
doses from ~ 10 G y to ~ 10 kGy at dose rates o f 0.1 to 2 kGy/h. An automated
overhead product carrier system to accommodate near-commercial throughputs in
cartons, and two pallet-sized rotating platforms w ill be provided. Additional
features w ill include control and equipment rooms, separate unirradiated and
irradiated product storage areas, refrigerated areas, and laboratory facilities. CAC I
will have all the essential safety features required by the Nuclear Regulatory
Commission and w ill be designed in accordance with current American National
Standards Institute specifications.

IAEA-SM -271 /5 7P

T R A N S P O R T A B L E CESIUM IR R A D IA T O R (T P C I)
F O R ON-SITE FO O D IR R A D IA T IO N RESEARCH

N. F E R R E L L , R. A N D E R SE N
CH2M H IL L ,
Albuquerque, New Mexico,
United States o f America

The concept o f a portable research irradiator that can be transported from

one research site to another had its birth within the United States Department o f
Energy’s Byproducts U tilization Program. The main thrust o f this programme is
now directed towards the design, construction, and evaluation o f demonstration
irradiators utilizing a caesium-137 gamma source.
The T PC I facility, which is scheduled to be operational in September 1985,
has several unique design features which are discussed in detail in the paper. The
operational characteristics o f this research irradiator w ill allow most users to
transport the facility to the location near the intended research where it may
temporarily become part o f the normal process flow.
The latest information regarding the TPC I utilization plan and operation
scheduling is summarized and procedural steps are outlined fo r researchers interested
in utilizing the facility.

1 1 Ci = 3.70 X 1010Bq.
 POSTER PRESENTATIONS 337

IAEA-SM-271 /82Р

S C IE N TIFIC C O N SID E R A TIO N S F O R TH E USE

O F 10 M eV X -R A D IA T IO N IN FO O D PRO C ESSING *

M.C. LA G U N A S -S O L A R
Crocker Nuclear Laboratory,
University o f California,
Davis, California

S.M. M ATTH EW S, D.R. S LA U G H TE R

Lawrence Livermore National
Laboratory,
Livermore, California

United States o f America

The recommendation o f the Joint FAO/IAEA/W HO Expert Committee in

1980, on the Wholesomeness o f Irradiated Food, limits the radiation sources to
radionuclides ( 60Co and 137Cs) and machine sources generating up to 5 MeV
X-radiation and up to 10 M eV electron beams. This recommendation is generally
being accepted throughout the world. However, there is no scientific basis for
excluding the use o f up to 10 M eV X-radiation converted from a 10 M eV electron
accelerator when, at the same time, the direct use o f 10 M eV electron beams is
permitted. The major factor to be taken into consideration for establishing the present
recommendations is clearly the need to decrease the possibility o f inducing
radioactivity in food via photonuclear reactions. There is no theoretical or experi­
mental evidence suggesting that induced radioactivity with up to 10 M eV electron
beam energy is larger than 0 .0 1 % o f the natural radioactivity content in food.
Furthermore, food itself, its packaging, and to a much lesser extent the material
adjacent to a 10 M eV electron accelerator facility, can act as electron-to-X-ray
converters, generating a broad spectrum o f X-rays (bremsstrahlung radiation) o f
up to 10 MeV. Th e direct electron-beam processing as currently defined will then
be in violation w ith the intent o f establishing the 5 M eV X-ray limit. Bremsstrahlung
production in several typical foods and packaging materials will be calculated in
order to evaluate the potential implications o f increasing the X-radiation limits.

* Supported by the University o f California Nuclear Sciences Fund.

338 POSTER PRESENTATIONS

IAEA-SM-271 /83Р

DOSE R A T IO S IN PA L L E T -S IZ E FO O D PAC K AG E S
A S A F U N C T IO N O F R A D IA T IO N SOURCES*

M.C. L A G U N A S -S O L A R , O.F. C A R V A C H O , L J . H A R R IS
Crocker Nuclear Laboratory,
University o f California,
Davis, California

S.M. M ATTH EW S, D.R. S L A U G H TE R

Lawrence Livermore National
Laboratory,
Livermore, California

United States o f America

The application o f ionizing radiation in the processing o f food depends

largely on economic factors and technical considerations. The ability to process
large food containers, with dose ratios as low as possible, is required in order to
achieve and predict uniform effects, while also complying with regulatory specifica­
tions. Because o f economic restraints it is desirable that this is accomplished while
treating pallet-size food packages. Simple calculations o f the photon flux as a
function o f depth using Lambert-Beer’s law ( I = I 0e~ux) do not include the dose
buildup effect, which is due mostly to Compton-scattered photons (less energy
than the primary radiation) and to a lesser extent to X-rays resulting from photo­
electric interactions, follow ed b y Auger electrons, annihilation radiation from the
pair-production process, and bremsstrahlung from the slowing down o f energetic
electrons. Dose buildup depends on photon energy, physical characteristics o f the
absorber, and the geom etry o f radiation source and food package (absorber). A
comparison o f results obtained by solving a Boltzmann transport equation for
both the primary and secondary radiations in thick food packages, using area
sources o f 137Cs, 60Co, and X- and electron radiation from several different energy
(2 to 10 M eV ) accelerators, is discussed. The results are compared with experi­
mentally determined dose ratios. These results will aid the evaluation o f the
potential o f the different radiation sources currently being considered for the
large-scale radiation processing o f food.

* Supported by the University of California Nuclear Sciences Fund.

 POSTER PRESENTATIONS 339

IAEA-SM-271/31P

PE T IT IO N S A N D C LE A R A N C E S IN IS R A E L -
A N U PD A TE

M. L A P ID O T
Soreq Nuclear Research Center,
Yavne, Israel

The criteria o f the local Ministry o f Health fo r clearance o f irradiated foods

are based on the submission o f material including petitions and clearances in at
least one other country. A petition fo r preventing sprouting in potatoes, submitted
in 1966 on the basis o f the petitions and clearances in the USA, the USSR, and
Canada, enabled the Ministry o f Health to publish regulations in 1967, in which
it was forbidden to irradiate food for commercial purposes unless a particular
item was cleared in a schedule o f the regulations. The first schedule, clearing
potatoes irradiated up to 15 krad, was issued with these regulations. 1 Submission
o f a petition fo r irradiated onions, based on that o f Canada, resulted in clearance
o f onions irradiated up to 10 krad.
A petition fo r irradiated poultry, based on that in the Netherlands and on
the J E C F I recommendations, was submitted in 1981 and clearance for radurization
o f poultry up to 700 krad was issued in 1982.
The Ministry o f Health decided that it would also consider radicidized animal
feed under the regulations issued for irradiated foods. A petition submitted in
1972 resulted in clearance o f poultry feed irradiated up to a dose o f 1.5 Mrad,
using cobalt-60 gamma rays (as in all preceding clearances).
The need for commercial radicidation o f animal feeds under economically
feasible conditions led to the conclusion that electron accelerators must be
employed. A new petition, based on the identical effect o f gamma rays and
electrons as evidenced by the Recommended Standard fo r Food Irradiation, was
submitted in 1983 and was follow ed immediately by a petition fo r irradiation o f
spices and condiments, and for irradiation o f onions, garlic, and shallots, on the
basis o f the strong commercial interest o f the respective industries.
The Ministry o f Health has revised the Food Irradiation Regulations in view
o f the Recommended Standard o f the Codex Alimentarius, and the new Regulations
were published in March 1985. These include schedules for the items cleared
above, as also for spices irradiated up to 1 Mrad, and for onions, garlic, and shallots
up to a dose o f 15 krad.
In view o f additional commercial interest from industry and agricultural
producers, several additional petitions have been prepared to be submitted in

1 1 rad = 1.00 X 1 0 '2 Gy.

340 POSTER PRESENTATIONS

March and in May 1985. These include petitions for the irradiation o f wheat and wheat
products, rice, pulses, dried vegetables and fruits, dry food ingredients, strawberries,
mangoes, citrus fruits, mushrooms, and dates. Clearances are expected in the second
half o f 1985. Additional petitions are being prepared fo r submission at that time.

IAEA-SM -271/1 OP

FR E N C H PR O G R AM M E IN REFERE NCE D O S IM E T R Y
F O R IO N IZ IN G R A D IA T IO N PRO CESSING O F FO O D

D. MOSSE, M. CANCE, J.P. SIMOEN

Laboratoire de métrologie des
rayonnements ionisants,
O ffice des rayonnements ionisants,
Centre d’ études nucléaires de Saclay,
Gif-sur-Yvette, France

As the French primary laboratory and as an official calibration centre

o f the Bureau National de Métrologie (B N M ), the Laboratoire de Métrologie des
Rayonnements Ionisants (L M R I) is in charge o f a quality assurance programme
that aims at ensuring the traceability o f dosimetric measurements in the field o f
gamma and electron radiation processing o f food. This programme comprises
establishment o f standardizing procedures fo r characterizing in dosimetric terms
the instruments o f measurement and the radiation fields o f radiation processing
plants. These procedures will mainly be based on the use o f an electron spin
resonance (E S R ) measurement system o f free radiation-induced radicals in inte­
grated organic detectors such as the amino-acid L-alanine. The system set up at
L M R I is a B R U K E R E R 100 D ESR spectrometer linked to a microcomputer
V IC T O R SI fo r acquisition and in-line treatment o f experimental data. The
dosimetric characteristics o f the system (good equivalence o f the dosimeters to
materials o f interest, large range o f dose and dose rate measurable) and its
technical characteristics (flexibility o f use, size o f dosimeters, stability o f free
radicals) are well adapted to the specific applications under consideration.
 POSTER PRESENTATIONS 341

IAEA-SM-271/38 P

RADURIZED FOODS - A CHALLENGE TO

MARKETING

T .A . DU PLESSIS, J.G. N IE M A N D
Iso-Ster (P ty ) Ltd,
Kem pton Park, South Africa

Few food processing techniques have been subjected to such intense funda­
mental scrutiny as the radiation treatment o f foodstuffs (radurization). It is thus
somewhat disappointing that the commercialization o f this very promising process
has been so slow. Generally this situation is attributed to man’s fear and misunder­
standing o f matters related to nuclear energy and the emotional connotations that
it has in some countries, as well as the initial reluctance o f the Food and Drug
Administration in the United States o f America to recognize radurization as a process
and not as a food additive. However, in retrospect, other equally important factors
can be given fo r the lethargic progress experienced to date.
Most o f the ealier research was directed at potential military applications
with little commercialization in mind. Accordingly, the types o f foodstuffs that
were researched do not easily lend themselves to application in the food industry,
while presenting serious radiation-technological problems. Ironically, the types
o f products that do lend themselves to radurization with little or no radiation-
technological problems were to a large extent ignored. This is clearly demonstrated
by the fact that most o f the initial research was directed towards products such as
raw and processed meats, and fresh fruit and vegetables, while dry and dehydrated
products received little attention. In this respect it appears that collaboration
between researchers and the food industry could have been closer.
As a contract radiation processor, the marketing o f radurization presented a
particular challenge to our company. In developing a marketing strategy consi­
deration had to be given to a number o f factors determining marketing approach.
Amongst the more important o f these factors were: the choice o f foodstuffs
selected had to be restricted to those products compatible with the radiation
sterilization activities o f the company, which excluded the possibility o f processing
fresh and raw products. Lastly, efforts were directed towards the food processing
industries in close proxim ity to our plant which probably brought us to the most
important factor, which was that we were dealing primarily with professionals
in the food industry who appreciated the benefits offered by this new process and,
consequently, we had limited dealings with the actual consumer and his more
emotional attitude. The validity o f this marketing approach is borne out by the
fact that o f the current (January 1985) 55 unconditional clearances granted by
the local health authorities for radurized foodstuffs, a total o f 42 clearances were
342 POSTER PRESENTATIONS

granted fo r products to be radurized by our company. O f this total, 39 products

were cleared in the last six months and it is interesting to note that 77% o f the
foodstuffs currently cleared fo r radurization fall in the category o f dried and
dehydrated products.
We also experienced the cardinal importance o f gaining the support o f the
local regulating authority without whose understanding and support little progress
would have been made while a further important factor which substantially
assisted the marketing o f the process was the founding o f a body known as the
Steering Committee for the Marketing o f Radurized Foods. The members o f
this body are drawn from various research, industrial, consumer and legislative
bodies and this provided the necessary credibility and removed a great deal o f the
apprehension that existed during the earlier days.

IAEA-SM -271/66P

A N A U T O M A T E D SYSTEM F O R M E A S U R IN G TH E
DOSE P R O V ID E D TO IR R A D IA T E D FOOD

T. PR U S IK
Allied Corporation,
Morristown, New Jersey

T. W A L L A C E
University o f Lowell,
Lowell, Massachusetts

United States o f America

This dosimetry system consists o f a label in a bar code format with special
polymers which change colour as a function o f radiation dose. A specially
designed scanner interprets the colour change on the label and provides a direct
reading o f radiation dose and a computerized information system. The dosimetry
labels containing product identification information in standard bar code
symbology and the radiation sensitive polym er printed in a unique bar code
format are applied to the shipping case before irradiation. A special microcomputer
equipped with an optical scanning wand is used to decode the bar code and deter­
mine the dose level from the colour o f the polym er bar codes. The paper describes
results on indicator performance. In particular, results from dose rate, temperature,
humidity, and stability studies are discussed.
 POSTER PRESENTATIONS 343

IAEA-SM-271/67P

F R E E R A D IC A L S F O R M A T IO N A N D D E C A Y
IN IR R A D IA T E D SPICES

J.J. SHIEH, E. W IE R B IC K I
United States Department o f Agriculture,
Agricultural Research Service,
Eastern Regional Research Center,
Philadelphia, Pennsylvania,
United States o f America

IN T R O D U C T IO N

This investigation o f free radicals produced in the continuous radiolysis o f

spices and vegetable seasonings was undertaken for tw o reasons. First, irradiation
processing o f spices and spiced meat products may result in the formation o f long-
lived free radicals. Secondly, such free radicals, irrespective o f their lifetimes, are
among the important precursors o f final radiolytic products. The free radical
intermediates produced by ionizing radiation may be observed using electron spin
resonance techniques.
For this investigation, seeds o f black pepper, sage leaves and onion as an
illustration o f bulbs in the form o f powder or flakes were selected for the
irradiation studies.

METHOD

Sample irradiation. Samples were irradiated at controlled temperatures using

a self-contained caesium-137 radiation source. This source currently has a strength
o f 147 000 C i .1 This radiation source was described previously?
Analytical measurement. Measurements o f radiation-generated free radicals
were made on dry samples in an electron spin resonance spectrometer (Model
E-109B, Varian Associates). The resonator o f the spectrometer was thermo­
statically controlled to measure chemical changes in samples at temperatures
between 77 °K ( — 196°C) and room temperature.

1 1 Ci = 3.70 X 1010 Bq.

2 SHIEH, J .J ., JE N K IN S, R .K ., W IERBICKI, E ., D osim etry and dose distribution in
cesium-137 irradiation unit at the Eastern Regional Research Center, Radiat. Phys. Chem.
(in press).
344 POSTER PRESENTATIONS

FIG.l. E S R spectra of dehydrated onions irradiated with 137Cs g a m m a rays to 30 k G y at

25° С showing the presence of free radicals after irradiation and their decay with storage time.

RESU LTS

Irradiation o f black pepper, sage and dehydrated onions at dosages o f 1, 3,

10 and 30 kGy at 25 °C produced free radicals detectable in the electron spin
resonance spectrometer. The initial singlet-like pattern, which was ascribed to a
carbon-centred radical, diminished gradually in signal intensity without conversion
to another type o f free radical in the various spices. The ESR spectrum o f irradiated
dehydrated onions is characterized by a singlet-like pattern. Although the amount
o f free radicals produced was directly related to the irradiation dose, the free
radicals were not long lived and decayed within 4 to 5 days at 25°C with a half-
life o f 0.45 days (Figs 1 and 2). A fairly small amount o f endogenous stable free
radicals (due to processing or something else) was observed in this investigation.
Irradiation o f sage and black pepper under identical conditions produced free
radicals which decayed rapidly reaching background level within about 10 days
(see Fig.3 and Table I).
 POSTER PRESENTATIONS 345

FIG.2. Effect of storage time on decay of free radicals generated by g a m m a irradiation. The
dehydrated onions were irradiated at 2 5 ° C with 0.5, 1.0, 10 and 30 k G y and then stored.

STORAGE TIME ( UAYS)

FIG.3. Decay of free radicals generated by g a m m a irradiation with storage time. Black pepper
and sage were irradiated at 25°С with 30 k G y and then stored.
346 POSTER PRESENTATIONS

T A B L E I. ESR S IG N A L IN T E N S IT Y O F IR R A D IA T E D SAGE

Storage time (d)

Dose
(kG y) 0 1 2 10 24

1 5.3 3.6 3.3 2.0 2.0

3 31.5 19.0 8.5 4.5 2.9

10 54.5 27.0 22.0 11.5 6.5

30 84.0 28.8 22.0 7.5 6.4

Note: Intensity o f 4.0 in non-irradiated sample was observed.

CO N CLU SIO N

The kinetic information obtained by monitoring the changes in the ESR

signal at 25°C as a function o f time, yielded some useful results. First, the
initial singlet-like pattern in irradiated spices diminished gradually in signal
intensity without conversion to another type o f free radical. Secondly, the free
radicals produced in the samples due to irradiation treatment did not persist but
instead decayed, although a small amount o f stable free radicals was observed in
our samples.
 POSTER PRESENTATIONS 347

IAEA-SM-271 / 109P

E LE C TR O N A N D G A M M A D O S IM E T R Y B Y
G L U T A M IN E LYO LU M IN E S C E N C E

A. M IL L E R
Accelerator Department,
Ris0 National Laboratory,
Ris0, Roskilde, Denmark

Liqing X IE *
Institute o f Lo w Energy
Nuclear Physics,
Beijing Normal University,
Beijing, China

Lyoluminescence ( L L ) o f glutamine is a reasonably precise technique fo r

dosimetry in the range used for food irradiation, namely four decades from
10 to 105 Gy. We have studied some properties o f glutamine L L irradiated with
cobalt-60 photons and 10 M eV electrons, namely:
— effects o f dose rate
— effects o f relative humidity
— effects o f storage time.
These factors are found to influence the response by less than 10%.

* Present address: Accelerator D epartm ent, Ris^ N ational Laboratory, Ris0, R oskilde,
Denmark.
348 POSTER PRESENTATIONS

IAEA-SM-271/13P

TH E S U IT A B IL IT Y O F CHEM OLUM INESCENCE

AS A M EAN S O F ID E N T IF Y IN G R A D IA T IO N
PROCESSED SPICES

D.A.E. E H LE R M A N N , H. DELINCEE,
W. K A LU S , T. G R Ü N E W A LD
Bundesforschungsanstalt fur Ernáhrung,
Karlsruhe, Federal Republic o f Germany

A number o f countries have already cleared radiation processing o f foods

and permit the elimination o f microorganisms from spices. In the Federal Republic
o f Germany the Food Law prohibits radiation processing in general and, until that
law is changed, it is only possible to obtain an exemption in specific cases. For
example, clearance fo r the radiation processing o f spices will be valid only for
certain individual producers and for the spice varieties listed in their clearances.
Obviously, reliable and sufficiently fast methods o f identifying radiation-processed
spices are indispensable in order to enforce the Food Law, to control trade with
radiation-processed spices and their labelling.
There is no lack o f effort to develop such methods, but none has been
proved reliable in practice as yet. Free radicals in dry spices are rather stable
and might be useful as indicators. Earlier studies on electron spin resonance in
dried products failed to reveal any effect unique to radiation processing. In a
chemoluminescent reaction with luminol most dry spices produce a light emission
which appears to be unique to radiation treatment. However, a number o f counter­
effects are already known which extinguish or mask the luminescence.
The chemoluminescence signal is rather weak and very sensitive detectors
with sufficiently low background are needed. The reaction takes place at the sur­
face o f the particles only and the procedure o f mixing the spice with the reagent
determines the amount o f light detected. The effect is proportional to the dose;
the response function is, however, determined by the type o f produce. A know­
ledge o f the kind o f spice and o f the composition o f a mixture is necessary in
order to draw any conclusions on possible radiation treatment. In particular, the
salt content, e.g. in curry, contributes to light emission by the lyoluminescence o f
irradiated salt and simulates a much higher radiation dose to the spice. Whereas
the original publication on the use o f the effect presented a rather low background
for all unirradiated samples, grinding with high stresses on the particles also
produces a luminescence effect which it has not yet been possible to differentiate
from the one produced by irradiation. The method needs further study and
clarification o f its reliability before its use for irradiation identification with spices
can be recommended.
 POSTER PRESENTATIONS 349

IAEA-SM-271/14P

R A D IA T IO N DOSE D IS T R IB U T IO N IN SPICES
R A D IA T IO N PROCESSED IN A V IB R A T IN G C O N V E Y O R
M EASU RED B Y M E A N S O F A NEW
SEM ICO ND U CTO R DO SIM ETER

D.A.E. E H L E R M A N N , M. R U D O LF, T. G R Ü N E W A LD
Bundesforschungsanstalt fur Emahrung,
Karlsruhe, Federal Republic o f Germany

Very few publications are available on dosimetry in the radiation processing

o f free-flowing, bulk materials such as spices. Small dosimeters suspended in the
stream o f the particulate solids seem to o ffer a solution to the dosimetry problem.
Where the clearance fo r radiation-processed spices poses a strict upper radia­
tion dose limit instead o f the statistical approach o f the ‘overall average dose’
concept o f the Codex Alimentarius Commission, reliable determination o f the dose
distribution to the individual particles o f the foods is indispensable. The semi­
conductors discussed are a solution to the problem because they can easily be
recovered from the particulate foods and no special health problems will arise from
their use in foods.
A permanent change in a special time effect o f the switching behaviour o f
semiconductor diodes can be used to measure radiation dose over a.wide range
o f doses and dose rates. A thermal conditioning treatment allows the dosimeter
to be re-used several times. F or the studies reported commercially available diodes
were used. Better suitability fo r application in granular materials may be obtained
by manufacturing diodes that approximate more closely the size and density o f
particulate foods.
The flo w pattern in a vibrating trough conveyor determines the speed at
which the particles pass the irradiation field and the absorbed radiation dose
depends on the residence time in that particular field. Only i f the diodes are
suspended in the stream o f particles in such a way that their velocity distribution
is identical to that o f the food particles, or i f the correlation o f the two velocity
distributions is well determined, will it be possible fo r the radiation dose distribu­
tion in the food product to be directly determined with the diode dosimeter.

B IB L IO G R A P H Y

GRÜNEW ALD, Th., R U D O LF , М., Verwendung von Halbleiterdioden zur D osim etrie bei der
Bestrahlung von Schiittgut, Atomkernenerg. Kem tech. 43 (1 9 8 3 ) 2 8 4 —286.
TILT O N , E.W., BROW ER, J.H ., CO G BU R N , R .R ., Critical evaluation o f an operational bulk-
grain and packaged product irradiator, Int. J . Radiat. Engineering 1 (1 9 7 1 ) 4 9 - 5 9 .
TILT O N , E.W., BROW ER, J.H ., C O G BU R N , R .R ., A m ethod o f dosim etry for a bulk-grain
irradiator, Int. J . Appl. Radiat. Isotopes 22 (1 9 7 1 ) 5 7 7 - 5 8 0 .
 COMMERCIAL DEVELOPMENTS:
IRRADIATION SOURCES AND ASPECTS
OF THE IMPLEMENTATION
OF FOOD IRRADIATION

(Session VI)

Chairman

R.F. M O RR IS
United States o f America
 IAEA-SM-271/24

DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS FOR FOOD IRRADIATORS

IN DEVELOPING COUNTRIES

K. K R IS H N A M U R T H Y , D.R. B O N G IR W A R
Bhabha A tom ic Research Centre,
Trom bay, Bombay, India

Abstract

D ESIG N C O N SID ER A T IO N S FO R FOOD IR R A D IA T O R S IN D EV ELO PING CO U N TR IES.

The process o f radiation preservation o f foods is on the threshold o f actual application.
The research and developm ent efforts, spanning the past three decades, have established the
feasibility o f this m ethodology for post-harvest conservation o f various items o f food for longer
durations. The use o f food irradiation has been considered relevant particularly in developing
countries where the infrastructure for storage and distribution is far from satisfactory. The
purpose o f irradiation differs with each item to be treated and the actual requirements o f the
irradiation facilities need to be precisely worked out. The dose o f irradiation and the anticipated
total throughputs of a com m odity to be treated are also im portant param eters in designing
suitable sources. Recent field storage trials with onions have yielded encouraging results.
Therefore studies were initiated to develop a conceptual model o f an irradiator for the treat­
ment o f onions. The considerations have included (a) m athem atical modelling based on a
com puter program for the optim ization o f irradiation geom etry for line and planar sources, respec­
tively, (b ) system s engineering for the evaluation o f the process param eters, and (c) projections
o f the econom ics o f the process. An operational system for processing approxim ately 3 t/h
o f onions in a portable dem onstration plant has been proposed.

1. IN T R O D U C T IO N

The process o f radiation preservation o f foods is on the threshold o f

commercialization. Research spanning the last three decades, carried out in
many parts o f the world, has categorically established the superiority, safety
and feasibility o f the process fo r treating a variety o f food products. A few
large-scale gamma irradiators have been set up in recent years in countries such as
France, the German Democratic Republic, Italy, Japan, the Netherlands, South
Africa, the U SA, and the USSR, etc., with a view to developing market potential
and consumer appreciation o f this process [ 1]. The safety o f irradiated fo od has
now been internationally accepted and the barriers in international trade are
also being progressively removed as a result o f the recommendation o f the Codex
Alimentarius Commission (C A C ), which has evolved standards fo r irradiated foods
and has recommended a code o f practice fo r the operation o f irradiation facilities
for the treatment o f foods [2]. Thus the international scenario shows promise for
the rapid growth o f the technology.

353
354 KRISHNAMURTHY and BONGIRWAR

Food irradiation, in fact, is o f great relevance to developing countries,

particularly fo r the conservation o f the agricultural produce. Most o f these
countries are in the tropics, where temperature and humidity conditions tend to
accelerate food spoilage and losses. It has been reported that post-harvest losses
o f cereals and legumes in 1976 could have fed almost 170 million people and
predictions are that by 1985 food losses may total 107 million tonnes, worth
US $11.5 X 109 [3 ,4 ].
The processes o f special interest to the developing regions are:

— Sprout inhibition in root crops such as onions, potatoes, garlic, etc.

— Disinfestation o f grain
— Delayed ripening in fruits
— Microbial decontamination o f spices, dried fish, etc.
— Shelf-life extension o f fresh commodities such as fish, vegetables, etc.

The attractiveness o f the process stems from the fact that food preservation
is effectively achieved with alternative energy sources, with commercial energy
supplies being redeployed fo r other end uses. The introduction and growth o f the
technology in these countries, however, depend on a number o f factors. These
include techno-economic evàluation and consumer awareness. The viability o f the
process depends largely on the favourable economics fo r farmers and traders. It
was, therefore, considered necessary to develop suitable demonstration plants for
processing root crops and wheat. The purpose o f irradiation and the doses required
differ with each com m odity. This points to specific design considerations relevant
to the items to be treated.

2. G E N E R A L C O N SID E R A TIO N S

Radiation processing is well recognized as a capital intensive process. Most o f

the developing countries having low techno-economic status find it difficult to accept
the process until totally proven to their own advantage elsewhere. However, the
key to the practical introduction and application o f food irradiation processing
largely depends on the successful development o f cost effective and simple food
irradiator designs to meet local demands.
T w o types o f irradiator systems are generally essential to meet this
requirement:

— Portable or semi-portable units — for practical demonstration o f the process

and fo r market acceptance studies.
- Fixed irradiation facilities — for techno-economic evaluation and commerciali­
zation o f the process. Food irradiator design concepts relevant to developing
countries should, among others, take into account the following considerations:

— L o w capital investment
- Plants o f low to medium throughputs
 IAEA-SM-271/24 355

— L o w marginal cost fo r the processing

— Seasonality o f products processed
— Technological simplicity and labour involvement
— Lo w operational and maintenance cost
— Minimum operator qualification and training
— High safety standards

Evidently some o f these factors are conflicting in their demands and an

optimized approach is therefore very difficult to achieve.

3. CONCEPTS O F LOW-COST IR R A D IA T O R S

A number o f food irradiator concepts have been evolved in the past few years.
These concepts are basically aimed at providing compact and optimal energy
efficient designs for processing products such as onions, potatoes, wheat, etc.
The first consideration in the conceptual design is the source - product irradia­
tion geometry. Optimization o f this parameter, as regards radiation output,
uniformity o f dose absorption in the product and radiation utilization efficiency
is important to attain a purposeful engineering design. There are at least three basic
irradiation geometries which have been extensively investigated fo r developing
low-cost irradiators in countries such as Hungary, India and Japan. They may be
grouped as:

— Cylindrical source geom etry — with products in concentric cylindrical

channels surrounding the source
— Single-line source geom etry — with products in slab geom etry above and
below the source
— Planar—grid source geometry — with products above and below the planar
source — product flowing through the grids.

4. P R E S E R V A T IO N O F O N IO N S - IR R A D IA T O R REQ U IREM EN TS

The irradiation techniques fo r inhibiting sprouting in onions and potatoes

have been well established [5 ,6 ]. Field trials on the storage o f onions have
established beyond doubt the efficacy o f the process for extending storage o f
onions in field conditions [7 ]. The basic technological demands o f developing
countries seem to be different from those in the developed regions [ 8 , 9].
On the basis o f an analysis o f the earlier studies, it was felt that the follow ing
were the major considerations fo r evolving a suitable design fo r an onion irradiator
particularly as a demonstration unit:

(1 ) The unit should be transportable by road and capable o f being located at

various production or trade centres. The unit should also be capable o f being
356 KRISHNAMURTHY and BONGIRWAR

T A B L E I. O N IO N IR R A D IA T O R SPECIFICATIO N S

1. Source size (single unit) 670 mm long X 40 mm dia.

(overall triply encapsulated)
2. Cobalt-60 source strength 20 000 Ci
3. Conveyor size 430 mm wide and 1000 mm long
4. Shielding (lead) 250 mm (minimum)
5. Overall size o f shield 2200 mm X 2200 mm X 2500 mm (height)
6. Weight 20 t
7. Product processed Onions
8. Treatm ent dose 6 kG y (minimum)
9. Overdose ratio 2.25
10. Capacity for processing 3 t/h (at 20 000 Ci loading)
11. Power requirement 1 kW (2 2 0 V single phase) or
Diesel generator
12. Water requirement Nil
13. Space requirement 4 m X 4 m X 4 m (with special flooring)

transported in a knocked down condition such that each piece weighs not
more than five to six tonnes and can safely be assembled for operation.
(2 ) The radiation source design should facilitate the loading and unloading o f the
source on site and permit standard lead containers o f reasonable weight fo r
transportation on village roads.
(3 ) A processing rate o f 2 to 3 t/h would be adequate for demonstration purposes,
with a minimum dose o f 60 G y (6000 rad); the maximum dose not exeeding
150 G y (overdose ratio o f 2.5).
(4 ) The investment should be low with reasonable returns ensured to provide
favourable economics.
(5 ) Power and water requirements should be limited to the absolute minimum.
(6 ) The product should preferably be irradiated in loose form or in bulk in
quantity, i.e. onions from jute bags are poured in the hopper and allowed to
flow by gravity on a conveyor.

A transportable lead-shielded irradiator with a simple source design would

facilitate transport, assembly and installation at any site. The concept
provides fo r m obility fo r locating the irradiator at any site. Also the compact lead-
shielded facilities could be built without additional expenditure on civil structures.
Based on these considerations, a single-line source moving-bed irradiation scheme
was studied. The design features o f the irradiator are briefly summarized in Table I.
 IAEA-SM-271/24 357

DOSE RATE (k ro d /h ) DOSE RATE (k ra d /h )

A В С D E Average
F A B C D E Average
F
A -F A -F
1 17*34 12*05 6-96 A*37 2-95 2-10 7-62 9 917 757 5 09 3-36 2-29 1*61 4-85
2 17-28 12-00 6-92 Д-34 2-93 208 7-59 10 8-60 7-07 4-72 3-11 2-12 1*49 4-52
3 17-09 11*03 6-78 4*23 2-85 2-03 7*47 11 6-18 5-50 4-16 2-96 2-08 1*47 3-73
4 16-72 11-49 6-51 4-04 2-72 1-94 7-24 12 6-13 5-47 4-13 2*93 206 1-46 3-70
5 1600 10-86 6-07 3-75 2-53 1-81 6-84 13 6 0 0 5*34 4-02 2-85 2-00 1*42 3*61
6 9-70 8*07 5-49 3-66 2-50 1-75 5*20 14 5*75 5-11 3-83 2-71 1-90 1*35 3*44
7 9-65 8-02 5*45 3*63 2*47 1*73 5*16 15 5-34 4-73 3-54 2-50 1-76 1*25 3*19
8 9-^0 7*07 5-33 3-53 2-40 1*69 5-05

FIG.l. Typical dose distribution in product from a single source of 3 c m width and 67 c m
length.

5. E V A L U A T IO N O F IR R A D IA T O R M O D EL A N D O P T IM IZ A T IO N STUDIES

The major parameters o f concern in the design optimization have been

(a ) source geom etry, (b ) source/product geometry, (c ) biological shielding which
should result in facilitating maximal utilization o f the radiation. A single-line
source geom etry with source overlap geom etry would enable achieving compact
source/shield design. A computer program based on the ‘ Fudge 4 A ’ Code [10]
developed at Brookhaven National Laboratory was evolved to calculate the dose
distribution due to a linear source in a static system with products o f varying
thickness uniform ly distributed on a bed o f width ‘W ’ and length ‘ L ’ and separated
from the source by a series o f air gaps ‘A ’ . The calculation o f dose distribution in
an infinite product geometry from a finite plane source employed 12 point cause
quadrature integration routine. This subroutine can accommodate factors such as
self-absorption within the source, absorption in the clad and conveyor materials,
finiteness o f the source dimensions, variations in the air gap between the source and
the product, dose buildup in the product material due to multiple collisions, etc.
A network matrix o f 15 dose points was chosen and averaged over the entire bed
o f products (see F ig .l). Dose rates were evaluated on these points again for the
358 K R I S H N A M U R T H Y and B O N G I R W A R

flow o f materiál on the return part o f the conveyor. T w o situations were envisaged
for calculating the overdose ratios. The first situation is one in which product
material that follows an extremely low dose profile in the upper pass continues to
follow the same profile (as a mirror image) on the return flow , thus receiving
the lowest possible dose during irradiation. The overdose ratio resulting from
such an unlikely flow o f products is termed Worst Overdose Ratio (W O R ).
In the second situation the product which follow s one profile in the upper
pass on the conveyor gets a totally reversed profile during the return pass on the
lower conveyor. This is also an extreme situation unlikely to happen and the
overdose ratio resulting from such a flow is termed Best Overdose Ratio (B O R ).
The overdose ratio in a practical situation, however, may lie between these
tw o limiting values (B O R -W O R) and hence for the purpose o f design optimization
the worst overdose ratio was taken as the limiting value set by the specifications.
The optimization o f radiation utilization efficiency was studied, keeping the limiting
overdose ratio (W O R ) to a value o f 2.25 while varying the factors such as air gap,
product thickness, and source size. A typical analysis has been presented in Table II.
Figures 2 and 3 show the relation between the efficiency, product thickness,
air gaps and overdose ratio as computed by the program. The calculations,
however, assume a homogeneous flow o f the product o f reduced density, or
packing density, allowing for the finiteness o f shape and size o f onions.

6. E N G IN E E R IN G DESIGN A N D O P E R A T IO N

The engineering design features o f the irradiator are outlined in Fig.4. The
entire irradiator (excluding the lead container attachment for the source load/
unload operation) occupies an area o f 2.2 m X 2.2 m (4.85 m2) and measures
about 2.5 m in height including the loading port. The unit can be housed in any
existing room o f 4 m X 4 m in area. The estimated weight o f the whole assembly
is about 20 t excluding the source shipping container. The entire shield assembly
is built up o f subunits, each weighing about 1 to 6 tonnes. The shield can be
dismantled and assembled with ease after the source is safely retracted into the
shipping container. The whole assembly could be made ready from knocked down
conditions in about four days at any site. The total assembly is encased in steel
to protect the source unit in the event o f an accident while in use.

7. CO NVEYO R

The conveyor design closely follow s the scheme originally proposed by Kuhl
et al. [ 11 ] for their pilot plant for irradiation o f potatoes. The conveyeor consists o f an
endless belt o f stainless-steel mesh wire wound over tw o drums located on either
side external to the shield and driven by a suitable motor. The conveyor is about
 IAEA-SM-271/24 359

T A B L E II. A T Y P IC A L P R O G R A M O U TPU T - O N IO N IR R A D IA T O R -
P R O D U C T -S O U R C E G E O M E TR Y O P T IM IZ A T IO N STUDIES

Source dimensions Width = 3.0 cm ; Length = 67.0 cm

Conveyor bed dimensions Width = 4 2.0 cm ; Length = 6 0.0 cm
Activity o f the source 201.0 Ci (0.007 PBq)
Product thickness 4.0 cm
Air gap (between source and conveyor) 8.0 cm
Product density 0.70 g/cm 3
Processing volume 20.16 L
Weight o f the product 14.11 kg
Worst m axim um dose rate 6126.0 rad/h (6 1 .2 6 G y /h )
Worst minimum dose rate 3892.1 rad/h (38.92 Gy/h)
Worst overdose ratio 2.27
Best m axim um dose rate 5009.1 rad/h (50.09 Gy/h)
Best minimum dose rate 464 3 .9 rad/h (46.43 Gy/h)
Best overdose ratio 1.08

FO R A MINIMUM DOSE O F: 6000 rad (60.0 Gy)

At the worst efficiency

Activity to process 1 t/h 21 965.8 Ci (0 .8 1 4 PBq)
Speed o f the conveyor 1.42 m/min
At the best efficiency
Activity to process 1 t/h 18 402.1 Ci (0.666 PBq)
Speed o f the conveyor 1.42 m/min
Worst efficiency 5.25%
Worst product throughput 9.15 kg/h (0.007 PBq)
Best efficiency 6.27%
Best product throughput 10.92 kg/h (0.007 Pbq)

430 mm wide moving over a source line o f about 760 mm active length. The belt
speed could be adjusted to regulate the exposure time. The conveyor belt is located
asymmetrically with respect to the source in order to provide uniform irradiation
o f the product.
The product from the upper belt is brought onto the lower belt within the
irradiation chamber with specially designed ‘V ’ shaped guides and ducts. The
source target geom etry was optimized to provide an efficiency o f radiation
utilization o f about 13%.
360 K R I S H N A M U R T H Y and B O N G I R W A R

FIG.2. Optimization parameters. FIG.3. Optimization parameters

(efficiency versus product thickness). (over dose versus product thickness).

8. R A D IA T IO N SOURCE

The radiation source consists o f a single standard composite source unit

(C SU ), the design o f which is shown in Fig.4. The source unit could easily accommo­
date up to 1.48 PBq (40 600 C i) o f cobalt-60. The design o f the irradiator
envisages the use o f the source over a half-life period o f cobalt-60 unless otherwise
warranted by exigencies. Loading and unloading o f the source could be performed
with the help o f a shipping container that can be attached to the irradiator.
Special tools have been designed to perform these operations with ease. Once the
source is loaded the shipping container would be withdrawn after ensuring the
gates o f the source entry ports o f the irradiator were closed and sealed.

9. D R IV E SYSTEM

The drive system for the conveyor is located external to the irradiator with
appropriate controls to enable speed adjustment in the ratio o f 1 : 1 0 , fo r dose
adjustments, necessary during cobalt-60 loading at the start and after decay
with time since the initial loading.

10. O P E R A T IO N

The material to be irradiated is loaded from the top entry provided with a
vibrator feeder. The product gently falls onto the conveyor belt through the
 IAEA-SM-271/24 361

ENTRY OF PRODUCT

CONTROL

■SOURCE

Flow path of product Assembly

( 1-8 Nos denotes flow of product)

FIG.4. Transportable moving-bed onion irradiator.

maze entry and is carried over the source in the forward direction. A ‘V ’ shaped
wiper guides the material through ducts to the lower conveyor moving in the
opposite direction. A fte r irradiation the material is brought out through the ducts
and maze exit and collected in gunny bags or sacks. The flow path o f the product
is depicted as 1—8 in Fig.4. The speed o f the conveyor is initially adjusted with
dosimetric measurements to impart the desired dose to the product. The irradiator
operation then consists o f ‘O N ’ and ‘O F F ’ o f the switches for the conveyor m otor
and routine adjustment o f the belt speed. The general specifications o f the
irradiator are shown in Table I.
362 K R I S H N A M U R T H Y and B O N G I R W A R

z
3
о

Ï
о

A = Processing rate
Rs100/ t
В =Processing rate
Rs 8 0 /1
PBP= Pay back period2years

FIG.5. E c onomic analysis FIG.6. Economic analysis

(cumulative net cash flow). (cumulative cash flow discounted.

11. ECONOMICS

The analysis o f economics [ 12] is based on the actual size o f the demonstration
plant fabricated to study the mechanical feasibility o f the process. The analysis
shown in Figs 5 and 6 indicates that with a capital investment o f about Rs. 1.0
million the major share o f which goes to the cost appreciating material (lead)
the pay-back period could be tw o to five years when irradiation charges are
considered at Rs. 100/t or Rs. 80/t (US $1 = Rs. 10.0).

A CKN O W LED G EM EN TS

Thanks are due to Shri T.S. Murthy, Head, Radiation Technology Division,
and Dr. G.B. Nadkami, Head, В & F t Division, for their support and suggestions.

REFERENCES

[ 1] LO A H ARA N U, P., Benefits o f radiation processing to food industries in developing

countries, Radiat. Phys. Chem. 22 1, 2 (1 9 8 3 ) 225.
[2] Codex Alim entarius Commission, FAO/WHO Jo in t Office, CX2/7-2 C L 1983/16-FA April,
1983, Proposed Revised Regulations for the Control o f Food Irradiation.
[3] F oo d Development No. 1984.
[4] O U W ERKERK, T., Proc. Int. Sym p. on the Application and Technology o f Ionising
Radiation, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia, 12 —17 March, 1982.
 IAEA-SM-271 /24 363

[5] SR E E N IV A SA N , A., et al., “ Nuclear m ethods o f reducing food losses” , Peaceful Uses
o f Atom ic Energy (Proc. 4th Int. Conf. Geneva, 1971), V ol.12, UN, New York and
IAEA , Vienna (1 9 7 2 ), 265.
[6 ] N A D KA RN I, G.B., Nuclear Energy for Food Preservation, J. Ind. Trade (1 9 6 7 ) 4 2 - 4 5 .
[7] THOM AS, P., “ Prospects and problem s o f commercial irradiation o f onions and potatoes
in India” , F oo d Irradiation for Developing Countries in Asia and the Pacific (FA O /IA E A
Seminar Tokyo, 1981), IAEA-TECDOC-271, IAEA , Vienna (1 9 8 2 ) 137.
[8 ] K A R N IK , K .S., Radiation Preservation o f Onions and Potatoes in India — A M acrostudy,
D epartm ent o f A tom ic Energy, Bom bay, 1969, unpublished.
[9] JO G L E K A R , P.N.. Microstudy o f Nasik District for Onion Irradiation, D AE, Bom bay,
1970, unpublished.
[10] G A LA N T E R , L., KRISH N A M U RTH Y, K., Fudge 4A - A Com puter Programme for
G am m a Dose Rate Distribution from Rectanglular Sources, Brookhaven National
Laboratory Rep. B N L-50126 (T -503) (Aug. 1968).
[11] KU H L, O .A., et al., Portable pilot plant for irradiating potatoes, Nucleonics 13 11
(1 9 5 5 ) 1 2 8 -1 2 9 .
[12] K RISH N A M U R TH Y, K ., et al., “ Techno-economic studies on transportable moving bed
onion irradiator” , Indian Food Industry 3 (1984).
 IAEA-SM-271/44

THE MULTI-PURPOSE FOOD

IRRADIATION PLANT IN THAILAND

C. B A N D ITS IN G , V. P R IN K S U L K A , S. P IA D A N G ,
M. S U T A N TA W O N G , K. N O O C H APR A M O O L,
Y. P R A C H A S IT IS A K D I
Biological Science Division,
O ffice o f Atom ic Energy for Peace,
Bangkok, Thailand

Abstract

TH E M ULTI-PURPOSE FOOD IRR A D IA T IO N PLA N T IN TH AILAND .

Because o f the effect o f the hot climate speeding the ripening o f fruits and sprouting o f
vegetables, and because o f spoilage microorganisms, pathogenic microorganism s, and insect
infestation, agricultural product losses in Thailand are approxim ately 30%. To solve these
problem s, the Government o f Thailand is strongly interested in setting up a multi-purpose
agricultural pilot-plant dem onstration facility for govemment-industry-consumer benefit in
the dom estic and export m arkets for agricultural products. The pilot plant will be operated
by sta ff o f the Office o f A tom ic Energy for Peace, an institution which has held responsibility
for research and developm ent work in food irradiation since 1963. F oo d irradiation services
will be provided to the public for irradiation o f four selected food item s, first for 6200
operating hours. These are frozen shrimps, frozen chicken, onions, and potatoes for 10 000,
3000, 5000 and 5000 tonnes per year, respectively. The rest o f the service will be given to other
commodities. The revenue from the facilities will be approxim ately 38 million bahts. The
fixed cost o f this investment will be 81 million bahts and annual operating costs and expenses
25.9 4 million bahts. The cost estim ates for land and developm ent, building, shielding, and cold
room , 60Co source transport and installation, source pass and related mechanisms, and design
are 10, 15, 28, 27 and 1 million bahts, respectively. The internal rate of return is 34%. In
addition, the cost-benefit ratio is 1.78 at an interest rate o f 12% and 1.49 at an interest rate
of 18%.

1. IN T R O D U C T IO N

Thailand is an agricultural state. Agricultural product losses in this tropical

country resulting from the hot climate speeding ripening o f fruits and sprouting
o f vegetables, spoilage microorganisms, pathogenic microorganisms, and insect
infestation are approximately 30%.
Both onions and potatoes have a short shelf-life and so cannot be stored long
enough for out-of-season domestic consumption. Thailand is faced with great
problems o f exporting fruits because o f their short shelf-life and insect infestation.
Both seafood and poultry play an important role in the econom y o f the nation.

365
366 B A N D I T S I N G et al.

To solve the above-mentioned problems, the Government o f Thailand is

strongly interested in setting up a multi-purpose agricultural pilot-plant demonstra­
tion facility for the benefit o f industry and consumer in the domestic and export
markets for Thai agricultural products. A primary function o f this facility is to
serve as a market development tool for improving the general economic growth
o f the country. Most o f the economic growth w ill come through increased exports,
either through the ability to export currently embargoed items or by extending
the marketing life to open up currently marginal markets. The capacity o f this
facility shall be sufficient fo r a full-scale market impact on a regional basis for fresh
produce, and on a large-test scale fo r export produce. Processing will cover
conveyor adaptation fo r adjunct material handling facilities for diverse agricultural
products. These will include known market items such as onions, potatoes and
rice, and will explore new export markets fo r tropical fruits, flowers, fish, shrimp,
chicken and other products.
The O ffice o f A tom ic Energy for Peace (O A E P ) is the only institution in
Thailand with responsibility for research and development o f food irradiation for
the purposes o f extending shelf-life o f food, insect disinfestation, radicidation, and
sprout inhibition since 1963. Many publications have been produced and there
is a pool o f well-trained scientists available fo r work on the commercialization
o f food irradiation.
The multi-purpose agricultural pilot-plant demonstration facility in this
project will be operated by the staff o f OAEP. Food irradiation services w ill be
provided to the public for irradiation o f four selected food items, first for
6200 operating hours. These are frozen shrimps, frozen chickens, onions, and
potatoes fo r 10 000, 3000, 5000 and 5000 t per year, respectively. The rest o f the
service will be given to other commodities. The revenue from the facilities will
be approximately 38 million bahts compared with the fixed investment cost o f
81 million bahts and annual operating costs and expenses o f 25.94 million bahts.
The cost estimates for land and development, building, shielding and cold room,
60Co source transport and installation, source pass and related mechanisms, and
design are 10, 15, 28, 27 and 1 million bahts, respectively. Financial analysis
on the above assumptions suggests that the project w ill be economically viable.
It will also obtain an adequate return on the capital invested. The internal rate
o f return is 34%. In addition, the cost-benefit ratio is 1.78 at an interest rate o f
12% and 1.49 at an interest rate o f 18%.
Details o f the multi-purpose food irradiation plant are as follows:

— Plant capacity: 500 kCi cobalt-60 multi-purpose irradiator.

Throughput: 2.23 t/h at 3 kG y and 25% efficiency;
26.70 t/h at 0.1 kG y and 10% efficiency.
— Plant location: Bang Pli, Samutprakan.

The reasons fo r selecting Bang Pli, Samutprakan, as location for the projected
food irradiation plant are the following:
 IAEA-SM-271/44 367

Bang Pli is adjacent to the areas where shrimp, chicken and fish that would
benefit from radiation treatment are produced.
Bang Pli is an industrialized area adjacent to Bangkok, the centre o f a trans­
port system fo r agricultural products which could efficiently service a food
irradiation plant.

2. FOOD ITEM S O F P O T E N T IA L IN T E R E S T FO R R A D IA T IO N
PROCESSING

Surveys conducted in 19.83 showed that shrimp, chicken, onions and potatoes
are food items that have potential for either export or local consumption and
would benefit from radiation treatment. Pre-feasibility studies for each o f these
food items show the follow ing results.

2.1. Shrimp

The frozen shrimp industry o f Thailand has grown in recent years and shrimp
now represents an important export item. In 1982 Thailand exported 22 909 t
o f shrimp fo r 2764 million bahts to Japan, the USA, andHongKong. So far, the
market for frozen shrimp has expanded with increased production.
Rejection o f exported frozen shrimp was due to bacterial contamination and
the decomposition o f the products. The operating cost per kg o f frozen shrimp
irradiated at 3 kG y for elimination o f Salmonella and reduction o f total bacterial
count was calculated to be 1 .8 8 bahts and the service fee w ill be charged at
2.50 bahts per kg. The addition o f production cost o f 2.50 bahts per kg or 2%
com m odity cost is still low and economically viable.

2.2. Chicken

The poultry industry plays an important role in the economy o f the nation.
It serves as a main source o f protein and provides foreign exchange earnings.
Poultry production is increasing every year. The value o f exported frozen chicken
increased from 1187 million bahts in 1981 to 1309 million bahts in 1982.
It must be emphasized that the quality o f exported frozen chicken does not
always meet the high bacteriological standards or specifications set up by most
o f the importing countries. This will lead to rejection and result in economic
losses. T o improve and maintain the quality o f the product and to minimize losses
due to spoilage, an efficient hygiene and quality control system is needed.
Irradiation o f frozen and chilled chicken at 3 kG y would be sufficient to
improve its public health quality and to extend its shelf-life. The service fee to be
charged o f 2 bahts per kg is still much less than the rejection value o f 4 bahts per kg,
thus making the irradiation process economically feasible.
368 B AND I T S I N G et al.

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2.3. Onions

Onions are one o f the economically important vegetables o f Thailand. The

annual production and consumption are approximately 50 000 and 30 000 t,
respectively. However, about 50% o f the harvest was discarded during storage
because o f rotting and sprouting. Over-production during the season decreases
the price to only 0.89 baht/kg (March 1980), in contrast to the high price o f the
remaining small amount o f conventional cold stored short shelf-life onions out o f
season (September) and imported onions (O ctober), i.e. 10 and 18 bahts/kg,
respectively (see Table I). The retail price o f this product in most o f the markets
in Bangkok was 45 bahts/kg in November 1983.
Although the annual onion production is higher than the consumption by
20 000 t, Thailand still imports onions fo r local consumption during the scarce
season from September to November (see Table II ) and in many years from July
to December. The amount imported from July to December in 1981 was
4 710 046 kg at a cost o f 55 918 741 bahts (see Table III). So far, conventional
cold storage is able to extend the shelf-life o f onions by only 2—3 months.
Research on shelf-life extension o f onions by radiation was conducted in
the USA, Canada, Japan, the USSR, India, Israel, Thailand, and many other
countries. Sprout inhibition o f onions by gamma irradiation conducted at the
O ffice o f A tom ic Energy for Peace (O A E P ) demonstrated that onions irradiated at
3 0 -1 2 0 Gy showed a negligible percentage o f sprouting after 6 months’ storage
at 12°C. In addition, no significant difference was found regarding weight losses
between irradiated and non-irradiated onions under the same conditions. On the
recommendation o f OAEP, the Ministry o f Public Health gave clearance to
irradiated onions in 1973. By using a Gammabeam 650 irradiator, an onion
radiation service was made available in 1974 on request for approximately 700 t.
The service charge was 0.25 baht/kg (20 bahts = 1 US $). Since then, many
undertakings have requested this service. This means that they can make profit
on irradiated onions or, in other words, it is economically feasible. The costs or
expenses and profit o f 6 months’ storage at 10°C o f irradiated onions are shown
in Table IV. The costs o f irradiated onions, freshly harvested and cured onions
from farms, transport, labour, packaging (w ooden crate with a capacity o f
30—40 kg), irradiation service, 10°C cool storage fo r six months, and interest, is
7228.44 bahts/t. A fter six months’ storage, it is estimated that the income o f
selling the 60% irradiated onions remaining after rotting losses is 9000.00 bahts.
Therefore the profit is 1771.56 bahts/t or 1.77 bahts/kg. I f the price o f onions
from farms is 1 baht instead o f 2 bahts/kg and the market price is 2 0 bahts
instead o f 15 bahts/kg the profit would be 7.77 bahts instead o f 1.77 bahts/kg.
Therefore, it can be concluded that onion irradiation is economically feasible.
If a multi-purpose commercial food irradiation plant were set up in Thailand, it
would certainly demonstrate govemment-industry-consumer benefits in bringing
this technology into the domestic and export markets fo r Thai agricultural products.
370 BANDITSING et al.

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IAEA-SM-271/44

Note: Data obtained from the Office of Agricultural Economics. Quantity: kg; value: bahts.
371
372 BANDITSING et al.

T A B L E IV. COST O R EXPENSE A N D P R O F IT O F IR R A D IA T E D O NIO NS

A F T E R SIX M O NTH S’ STO RAG E

Expense and income Am ount Total Remarks

(bah ts/t) (b ah ts/t)

Freshly harvested onions Average price (com m ercial

from farm 2 000.00 2 000.00 inform ation) is 1 baht/kg

Transport
- Farm to Chiangmai 100.00 2 100.00
— Chiangmai to Bangkok 333.00 2 433.00
Labour 10.00 2 443.00
Packaging 500.00 2 943.00 Wooden crate with a
capacity o f 40 kg
Non-irradiated onion cost 2 943.00
Irradiation service charge 750.00 3 693.00 0.75 bahts/kg
10°C cool storage for Approxim ately
6 months 3 000.00 6 693.00 0.50 bah ts/kg per month

Interest for 6 months 535.44 7 228.44 Annual interest rate 16%

Cost o f irradiated onions
after 6 months’ storage 7 053 .0 0 7 228.44
Price o f onions
after 6 months’ storage 15 000.00 Price o f onions (com m ercial
inform ation) out o f season
is 20 bahts/kg

Income 9 000.00 A pproxim ately 60% o f

irradiated onions are
marketable

Profit 1 771.36 A pproxim ately

1.77 bahts/kg

As far as onions are concerned, this country would cut imports by 56 million bahts
per annum and increase exports by extending the market life to open up current
marginal markets.

2.4. Potatoes

Potatoes are also considered one o f the commercially important agricultural

products in Thailand. The annual production from 1974 to 1982 was 7000 to
14 000 t. Although there are tw o growing seasons a year, the problem o f potato
shelf-life extension fo r domestic out-of-season consumption still remains due to
 IAEA-SM-271/44 373

T A B L E V. G R O W IN G SEASON O F PO TA TO E S IN TH E N O R T H O F T H A IL A N D

May Ju n e Ju ly Aug. Sep. Oct. Nov. Dec. Jan . Feb. Mar. Apr.

growing
<------------------
season
harvesting
season

growing
season
on the mountain
harvesting
season

sprouting and rotting (see Table V ). Cold storage at 10° С extends the market
life by only 2—3 months.
The application o f radiation to extend the shelf-life o f potatoes and many
other agricultural products led the Thai Government to consider a multi-purpose
agricultural pilot-plant demonstration facility for govemment-industry-consumer
benefit. Research on potato sprout inhibition by radiation at O AEP showed that
irradiating potatoes at 120 G y stored at 10°C extended their shelf-life by more
than 6 months.
The cost or expense and benefit o f irradiated potatoes is shown in Table VI.
The expenses fo r 4 months’ storage o f irradiated potatoes, freshly harvested
potatoes, transport, labour, packaging (w ooden crate with a capacity o f 30—40 kg),
irradiation service, 10°C cold storage, and the interest for this investment is
5996.63 bahts/t. A fter 4 months’ storage, approximately 70% o f irradiated
potatoes are marketable, bringing the income to 8400 bahts/t or 8.40 bahts/kg.
The profit o f irradiated potatoes after 4 months’ storage at 10°C is 2403.37 bahts/t
or 2.40 bahts/kg. Therefore commercialization o f this agricultural product is feasible.

3. P R E L IM IN A R Y ECONOMIC F E A S IB IL IT Y S TU D Y O F A FOOD
IR R A D IA T IO N P L A N T

A preliminary economic feasibility analysis is based on the follow ing factors:

(1 ) The plant w ill require a 500 kCi 60Co source.

(2 ) The plant w ill irradiate only frozen shrimps, frozen chickens, onions, and
potatoes fo r 15 years with a utilization factor o f 6200 h per year. Initial
374 BANDITSING et al.

T A B L E VI. COST O R EXPENSE A N D P R O F IT O F IR R A D IA T E D PO TATO E S

Expense and income Am ount Total Remarks

(bah ts/t) (bah ts/t)

Freshly harvested potatoes

from farm 2 000.00 2 000.00 Commercial inform ation
Transport
- Farm to Chiangmai 100.00 2 100.00
- Chiangmai to Bangkok 333.00 2 433.00
Labour 10.00 2 443.00
Packaging 500.00 2 943.00 Wooden crate with a
capacity o f 3 5 - 4 0 kg
Non-irradiated p otato cost 2 943.00
Irradiation service charge 750.00 3 693.00 0.75 baht/kg
10°C cool storage 2 000.00 5 693.00 A pproxim ately
for 4 months 0.50 baht/kg per month
Interest for 4 months 303.63 5 996.63 A nnual interest rate 16%
Cost o f irradiated potatoes
after 4 months’ storage 5 996.63
Price o f potatoes
after 4 m onths’ storage 12 000.00 Commercial inform ation
Income 8 400.00 70% o f irradiated potatoes
are marketable
Profit 2 403.37 Approxim ately
2.40 bahts/kg

volumes fo r frozen shrimps, frozen chickens, onions, and potatoes w ill be

10 000, 3000, 5000 and 5000. t, respectively, which is equivalent to 34,
5, 8 and 21% o f the total production in 1987 (Table V II). The total produc­
tion o f each food item is projected to increase in the follow ing years and the
estimated total production is shown in Table V III.
(3 ) The revenue to be derived from the operation o f the project is in the form o f
service fees: 2.50 bahts/kg for frozen shrimps (2% o f com m odity cost);
2.00 bahts/kg fo r frozen chickens (4% o f com m odity cost); and 0.75 baht/kg
fo r onions and potatoes, which is equivalent to 25% o f the com m odity cost
at harvest.
 IAEA-SM-271/44 375

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376 BANDITSING et al.

T A B L E V III. E STIM ATE D PRO D U C TIO N PRO JECTIO N OF

A G R IC U L T U R A L PRODUCTS

Year Frozen shrimp Frozen chicken Onion Potato

1978 15 378 9 286 40 432 4 071

1979 18 625 14 158 43 656 4 071
1980 17 935 18 503 46 880 6 300
1981 18 760 26 768 50 104 8 857
1982 22 909 32 962 48 910 13 630
1983 23 280 38 324 53 017 14 557
1984 24 800 44 320 55 358 16 947
1985 26 319 50 316 57 698 19 337
1986 27 839 56 312 60 038 21 728
1987 29 359 62 308 62 379 24 118
1988 30 879 68 305 64 720 26 509
1989 32 399 74 301 67 060 28 899
1990 33 919 80 297 69 400 31 289
1991 35 439 86 293 71 741 33 680
1992 36 957 92 289 74 081 36 070
1993 38 477 98 286 76 422 38 461

Frozen shrimp Y = 1 519.70 x - 2 990 284.60, r = 0.8872

Frozen chicken Y = 5 996.20 x - 11 852 140.60, r = 0.9933
Onion Y = 2 340.40 x - 4 587 995.60, r = 0.9355
Potato Y = 2 390.40 x - 4 725 606.20, г = 0.9426

(4 ) The project wül cost 81 million bahts.

Capital cost (1 US $ = 23 bahts) million bahts
— Land and development 10.00
— Building and shielding 11.64
— 60Co source, transportation and installation 28.00
— Source pass mechanism, hoist, conveyor 26.49
system, control console, safety interlock
system, survey meters, dosimetry, spare
parts, electronics and others
— Cold room and machine 3.33
— Cars 0.54
— Design 1.00

Total 81.00
 IAEA-SM-271/44 377

(5 ) Annual operating costs and expenses amount to 25.94 million bahts.

Annual operating costs and expenses million bahts
— Salaries o f employees and administration 1.75
— Reloading o f radioisotope (12.5% o f price) 3.50
— Utilities 1.03
— Maintenance & components 1.05
— O ffice expenses 0.75
— Insurance 0.70
— Research & development 0.50
— Others 0.75
— Return on investment (18% IR R , 15 years) 15.91

Total 25.94

3.1. Financial analysis

Financial analysis showed that an irradiation project based on the above

assumptions will be economically viable and will produce an adequate return
from the capital invested. The internal rate o f return is high ( IR R = 34%). The
cost-benefit ratio is 1.78 at an interest rate o f 12% and 1.49 at an interest rate
o f 18%. The total capital is projected to be recovered in the 7th year.
 IAEA-SM-271/49

EVALUACION ECONOMICA DEL PROCESO DE

IRRADIACION PARA UNA PLANTA MULTIPROPOSITO

V J . M A R T IN , A . M O N T A L B A N , S. CU RBELO
Centro de Investigaciones Nucleares,
Universidad de la República O. del Uruguay,
Montevideo, Uruguay

Abstract-Resumen

ECONOMIC EV A LU A TIO N O F TH E IR RA D IA TIO N PR O C ESS FO R A M U LTIPURPO SE

PLA N T.
On the basis o f a technico-economic study o f a m ultipurpose irradiation facility o f
130 kCi o f 60C o, it was calculated from fixed costs (U S $312 05 0 ) and variable costs
(U S $266 950), these figures stem m ing from a total initial investment (U S $1 476 570) for
20 000 t o f product (po tatoes and onions) and an irradiation capacity o f 10 t/h, that the cost
o f production would be U S $ 0 .0 3 2 /k g o f processed product. The results are applied to an
econom ic analysis o f a private firm , with two options for com m ercial operation, by applying
the breakeven point and the rate o f recovery o f the invested capital.

EV A LU A CIO N ECONOMICA D EL PRO CESO DE IRRAD IACIO N PA RA UNA PLA N TA

M U LTIPROPOSITO.
Basándose en estudios tecnológicos y económ icos para una planta de irradiación multi-
propósito de 130 kCi de 60C o, se calcula un costo de dóls. 0 ,032/k g de producto procesado a
partir de los costos fijos (dóls. 312 05 0 ) y los costos variables (dóls. 266 950), los cuales se
originan en la inversión total inicial (dóls. 1 476 570) para 20 000 t de producto (papas y
cebollas) y una capacidad de irradiación de 10 t/h. L o s resultados son aplicados a la realización
del análisis económ ico de una empresa privada con dos opciones comerciales de operación,
mediante la aplicación del punto de equilibrio y de la velocidad de recuperación del capital
invertido.

IN TR O D U C C IO N

En las condiciones de Uruguay, como en la mayoría de los países en vías de

desarrollo, los programas de irradiación son factibles sólo si se piensa en una planta
de irradiación multipropósito.
En 1970 comienzan a efectuarse estudios de factibilidad técnico-económicos
con la finalidad de instalar en el país una planta de irradiación. Con la colaboración
de la Comisión Nacional de Energía Atóm ica (C N E A ) de Argentina, en el período
1972—1974 se realizan estudios tecnológicos. El 3 1/V II/ 1974 se autoriza la
comercialización y consumo de papa irradiada con rayos gamma de 60Co y se
investiga la aceptabilidad del tratamiento de radiopreservación por el público
consumidor.

379
380 MARTIN et al.

PRODUCCION NO
PRODUCCION ESPECIALIZADA ESPECIALIZADA

IN TE R M E D IA R IO PRODUCTOR COMISIONISTA

IN TE R M E D IA R IO DE PLAZA V E N T A DIRECTA

ABASTE CEDOR
MINOFUSTA MINC RISTA
DEL IN TERIOR

M INORISTA

CONSUMO FINAL

FIG.l. Canales de comercialización de la papa para consumo.

Las investigaciones en el área de irradiación se realizan en el Centro de Investiga­

ciones Nucleares (C IN ) de la Universidad de la República O. del Uruguay, y las
mismas comprenden: papas, cebollas, ajos, citrus, productos del chacinado envasados
al vacío, pescado, material médico descartable y turba como soporte en la produc­
ción de inoculantes para leguminosas, complementándose con estudios económicos
para la operación de una planta de irradiación.

PA PA S Y CE B O LLAS

La papa es el principal cultivo hortícola con una superficie de 23 000 ha y una

producción promedio anual de 1 2 0 0 0 0 t, mientras que la cebolla ocupa el quinto
lugar en importancia, con una superficie cultivada de 2 0 0 0 ha y una producción
de 17 000 t.
 IAEA-SM-271/49 381

FIG.2. Canales de comercialización de la cebolla.

Cada habitante consume por año 38,6 kg de papas y 6 kg de cebollas, con lo

que el volumen anual consumido alcanza las cifras de 90 000 t de papas y 15 000 t
de cebollas.
Para ambos productos, la variabilidad de rendimientos debida a la acción de
factores climáticos, el costo y la inadecuada infraestructura existente de conserva­
ción son las causas de altos porcentajes de pérdidas y de las dificultades de abasteci­
miento a la población en el período de escasez, que en general se extiende de agosto
a octubre. En la necesidad de cubrir el consumo interno en estos meses, en los
últimos 14 años Uruguay ha tenido que realizar importaciones de papa por un valor
de dóls. 8 832 000 y de cebolla por dóls. 2 408 000.

C O M E R C IA L IZ A C IO N Y E V O LU C IO N A N U A L D E L PRECIO

El flujo de producto desde el agricultor hasta el consumidor final sigue diferentes

canales de comercialización con la participación de uno o varios intermediarios.
Antes de su venta a intermediarios y envío a la zona de comercialización,
los productos son clasificados por su tamaño y calidad. Las papas
son envasadas en sacos de 50 kg y las cebollas en cajones de 30 kg, realizándose el
transporte generalmente por camión (Figs. 1,2 ).
El estudio de la evolución anual del precio permite distinguir que en los meses
de enero a abril se registran los mayores ingresos del producto al mercado, lo cual
coincide con un menor precio de venta, según se observa en los Cuadros I y II.
La relación de precios entre el período de escasez y los meses de mayor
producción es de 1,99 para papas y de 2,75 para cebollas (Cuadros III y IV ).
382 MARTIN et al.

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со со со О On 00 On о о *-н .-н о
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I. PAPAS. VARIACION

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CUADRO

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 IAEA-SM-271/49 383

o m о см Ш VO см vo Tf со vn VO

1983
o со Tt 00 os 00 с-* 00 Tf со Os r-
<4 сол Tfr^ Os °v о СОл
o ' o ' о" о о о о о" o ' G о" o ' о"

<4 Ti* Tfr Tf 00 о Ш 40 m CM Os Os Tf

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vo m со см CM Os TÍ­
1981

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DE PRECIOS (en dóls. por kg)

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ANUAL

VO см 40 со vn о Ш 00 о о 00
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os ол о о ол о ол ож (N о л ол
II. CEBOLLAS. VARIACION

о о" о" О*4 о *4 о о " o ' a o " o " о" o'

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"я
3
§
Septiem bre

Noviembre
CUÀDRO

Diciembre
Octubre
Febrero

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384 MARTIN et al.

C U A D R O III. PA PA S . R E L A C IO N DE PRECIOS E N TR E MESES DE

V E N T A (B ) Y MESES DE COSECHA (A )
( ( A ) y (B ) expresados en nuevos pesos uruguayos (N $ ))

Año Meses de Meses de Relación Im portaciones

cosecha (A) venta (B ) B/A (toneladas)

1970 0,020 0,030 1,5 13,359

1971 0,010 0,030 3,0 5,269
1972 0,040 0,070 1,8 3,127
1973 0,055 0,143 2,6 25,000
1974 0,145 0,347 2,4 13,900
1975 0,425 0,490 1,2 1,200
1976 0,435 0,417 1.0 -
1977 0,385 0,743 1,9 1,975
1978 0,980 1,150 1,2 -
1979 1,180 2,247 1,9 8,080
1980 0,980 3,287 3,4 3,151
1981 2,195 3,813 1,7 -
1982 2,525 4,150 1,6 -
1983 7,185 18,627 2,6 1,200

Promedio 1,99

En 1976 se obtuvo la mayor producción de papas con 166 000 t, lo cual

coincide con la menor relación de precios ( 1 , 0 ) entre los meses de escasez y los de
cosecha; en 1980 se obtiene la mayor producción de cebollas con 27 000 t, y la
relación de precios de 3,57 indica que ésta es independiente del volumen producido,
debido a la imposibilidad de conservar el producto después del mes de julio.
Las cebollas conservadas en frigorífico no presentan problemas hasta octubre,
en tanto que las que conserva el productor o acopiador en galpones pierden todo su
valor comercial hacia fines de julio, cuando el producto llega al precio
promedio anual.
Teniendo en cuenta que el país posee la capacidad para aumentar la producción,
puede considerarse que la importación es debida a la falta de un m étodo eficiente
de conservación.
 IAEA-SM-271/49 385

C U A D R O IV. CEBO LLAS. R E L A C IO N DE PRECIOS E N TR E LOS MESES

DE V E N T A (B ) Y MESES DE COSECHA (A )
( ( A ) y (B ) expresados en nuevos pesos uruguayos (N $ ))

Año Meses de Meses de Relación Im portaciones

cosecha (A ) venta (B) B/A (toneladas)

1970 0,04 0,10 2,71 —

1971 0,01 0,02 2,00 -

1972 0,12 0,26 2,17 -
1973 0,12 0,51 4,21 -
1974 0,26 0,40 1,55 -
1975 0,15 0,31 2,10 -
1976 0,53 2,50 4,76 481,3
1977 0,50 1,24 2,48 159,7
1978 2,46 4,96 2,02 3 549,0
1979 2,32 2,79 1,20 2 211,0
1980 1.19 4.23 3,57 1 270,0
1981 2,45 4,53 1,85 3 702,0
1982 2,73 4,34 1,59 4 820,0
1983 5,63 35,15 6,35 37,0

Promedio 2,75

PE R D ID A S DE PESO

De acuerdo con los estudios tecnológicos realizados en Uruguay y con la

fluctuación anual del precio que determina los períodos de irradiación y comerciali­
zación (Figs. 3, 4), consideramos las pérdidas totales durante el almacenaje en un
20% para las papas (F ig.5) y un 30% para las cebollas (Cuadro V ).

ESTUDIOS DE IN V E R S IO N Y COSTOS DE IR R A D IA C IO N

La capacidad de la planta de irradiación es determinada por la producción

total y la dosis requerida.. En nuestro caso se fijó la producción en 14 000 t de
papas y 6000 t de cebollas y la dosis de irradiación en 80 Gy.
386 MARTIN et al.

FIG.3. Papas. Fluctuación anual del precio.

% COMERC IALIZAC IO N

FIG.4. Cebollas. Fluctuación anual del precio.

 IAEA-SM-271/49 387

FIG.5. Papas. Pérdidas totales acumuladas.

Para la irradiación de 20 000 t de producto, con una capacidad de irradiación

de 10 t/h, la inversión total de capital viene dada por la suma de los importes
correspondientes a la unidad de irradiación de 130 kCi de capacidad inicial, a los
locales de prealmacenamiento y almacenamiento y a miscelánea (Cuadro V I).
Los costos específicos del proceso por kg de producto (Cuadro V II ) son
calculados a partir de los costos fijos y los costos variables, según la inversión total
realizada y los volúmenes de papas y cebollas a ser procesados. Se determina que,
para 20 000 toneladas de producto, el costo de irradiación por kg es de dóls. 0,032.

E V A L U A C IO N E S ECONOM ICAS Y BE NEFICIO DE U N A P L A N T A DE

IR R A D IA C IO N DE A L IM E N T O S

Para que una planta de.irradiación opere con éxito como empresa privada, los
beneficios no pueden estar solamente basados en un aumento de la calidad del
producto y en una disminución de las pérdidas post-cosecha. El beneficio
económico de la empresa, que justifique la gran inversión inicial, es la llave para el
desarrollo comercial del proceso.
388 MARTIN et al.

C U A D R O V. CEBO LLAS. PESO R E M A N E N T E EXPRESAD O COMO

PRO C ENTAJE D E L PESO IN IC IA L

DIA 0 Gy H.M. 50 Gy 100 Gy 150 Gy

0 100,0 100,0 100,0 100,0 100,0

30 99,1 98,4 99,1 98,6 89,0

60 88.7 97,9 98,7 88,4 83,9

90 98,3 97,3 93,2 83,0 78,6

120 56,9 91,2 82,3 72,3 58,3

125 32,0 85,6 71,8 71,4 58,0

130 13,5 85,1 66,3 66,7 52,8
145 - 84,2 60,8 66,0 52,2
160 - 70,6 55,5 61,3 47,5
175 - 61,2 45,6 61,1 42,5

Nota: Las pérdidas totales incluyen las fisiológicas y por putrefacción.

La decisión de invertir de un empresario se basará en evaluaciones económicas

que incluyan, entre otras, el punto de equilibrio entre los costos totales (C T ) y los
ingresos totales ( I T ) o en la velocidad de retorno del capital invertido (V R C ).

PU N TO DE E Q U IL IB R IO (PE )

El costo total anual es expresado por la ecuación:

CT = C V T + C F T

donde:
CT son los costos totales;
CVT son los costos variables/kg por kg procesados;
CFT son los costos fijos totales.

La ecuación del ingreso total ( I T ) para el volumen de producto procesado es:

IT = precio/kg por kg procesados

El punto de equilibrio (Fig. 6 ) está dado por la igualdad de las dos ecuaciones:

C T = IT
 IAEA-SM-271/49 389

C U A D R O V I. ES TIM AC IO N DE IN V E R S IO N DE C A P IT A L 2

Irradiación y pre-almacenamiento Dóls.

1. Equipos (irradiador) 147 600

2. C ostos de instalación 18 000
3. Fuente de cobalto (130 0 0 0 Ci) 66 300
4. G astos de transporte para la fuente 13 000
5. Recinto (hormigón a dóls. 175/m 3) 72 000
6. L aboratorio, oficina, servicios (4 0 0 m2 a dóls. 250/m 2) 120 000
7. Area de descarga, corredores y pre-almacenamiento
(2 7 0 0 m 2 a dóls. 46/m 2) 124 200

Subtotal 561 100

Almacenamiento

8. Galpones de alm acenamiento (8 2 0 0 m 2 a dóls. 46/m 2) 377 200

9. Cajones jaula (1,2 X 0,8 X 1,0 m ) 400 000

Subtotal 777 200

Miscelánea

10. Carretillas elevadoras (2) 30 000

11. Carros hidráulicos (3) 1 200
12. Cintas transportadoras para selección (3) 8 800
13. Balanza 2 000
14. Equipo de laboratorio y oficina 3 000
15. Terreno 25 000
16. Proyecto y dirección de obras civiles 15 000
17. Im previstos (calculado com o el 10% sobre todos los rubros,
excepto 7., 8 . y 9.) 53 270

Subtotal 138 270

390 MARTIN et al.

C U A D R O V I (cont.)

Totales Dóls.

Irradiación y pre-almacenamiento 561 100

Alm acenamiento 777 200
Miscelánea 138 270

Total dóls. 1 476 570

a Calculado para la irradiación de 20 000 t de producto (papas y cebollas). Capacidad

de irradiación: 10 t/h.

V E LO C ID A D DE R E T O R N O D EL C A P IT A L (V R C )

La velocidad de retorno del capital invertido es definida como el tiempo

necesario para recuperar la inversión inicial ( I I ) a partir del beneficio obtenido.

II
B/kP
VRC = - l —
VAP

donde:
V R C es la velocidad de retorno del capital
II es la inversión inicial
B/kP es el beneficio por kg procesado
VAP es el volumen anual procesado

OPCIONES ECO NO M ICAS DE U N A EM PRESA P R IV A D A

Una planta de irradiación de alimentos que opere como empresa privada

tiene tres opciones comerciales:

A) Compra de papas y cebollas en los meses de cosecha, tratamiento de irradia­

ción, almacenamiento y venta del producto en los meses de escasez.
B) Venta del servicio de irradiación.
C) Combinación de las dos opciones anteriores.
 IAEA-SM-271/49 391

C U A D R O V II. SELECCION, IR R A D IA C IO N , A L M A C E N A M IE N T O Y
SELECCION F IN A L

Costos fijos Dóls.

Am ortización del capital

A) E quipos (calculado sobre 10 años, rubros 1., 2., 3. y 4.) 24 490
B) Edificios (calculado sobre 20 años, rubros 5., 6 . y 7.) 15 810
C) Miscelánea (calculado sobre 10 años, rubros 10. a 18.) 13 830
D) Galpones de alm acenamiento (calculado sobre 10 años) 37 720
E) Cajones jau la (calculado sobre 20 años) 40 000
Intereses ( 12% sobre todos los rubros) 177 200
Im puestos y seguros 3 000

Subtotal costos fijos 312 050

C ostos variables

Reem plazo de cobalto (12% de la carga inicial) 7 950

Mano de obra 190 000
Com bustible y m antenim iento de carretillas elevadoras 50 000
Luz, agua, teléfono 5 000
Materiales diversos 2 000
Mantenimiento de la planta y galpones 10 000
Materiales de laboratorio y dosim etría 2 000

Subtotal costos variables 266 950

Subtotal costos 579 000
Imprevistos (10% sobre subtotal costos) 57 900

Total dóls. 636 900

N ota: Para 20 000 toneladas de producto, él costo es de dóls. 0,032/kg.

E V A L U A C IO N DE L A S OPCIONES ECONOM ICAS

En nuestro caso analizamos las opciones A ) y B) mediante la aplicación del

punto de equilibrio y la velocidad de retorno del capital invertido, para un volumen
de 2 0 0 0 0 toneladas de producto procesado.
 MARTIN et al.

dóls.

Costo fijo 312 050 dóls

OPCION A
Ingreso total 4 835 600 dóls
Costo total 4 035 000 dóls
Beneficio 800 600 dóls
Punto de equilibrio 5 609 t

OPCION В
Ingreso total 1 800 000 dóls
Costo total 636 900 dóls
Beneficio 1 163 100 dóls
Punto de equilibrio 4 071 t

FIG.6. Evaluación económica - Punto de equilibrio.

 IAEA-SM-271/49 393

C U A D R O V III. E V A L U A C IO N ECO NO M ICA DE U N A P L A N T A DE

IR R A D IA C IO N O PE R A N D O COMO EM PRESA P R IV A D A (O PC IO N A ))

Papas Cebollas Total

1. Com pra de producto (t) 14 000 6 000 20 000

2. Com pra (dóls./t) 162 198

3. Total de com pra (dóls.) 2 268 000 1 188 000 3 456 000
4. C ostos variables (dóls.) 266 950
5. Costos fijos (dóls.) 312 050
6. Costo total (3. + 4. + 5.) (dóls.) 4 035 000

7. Pérdidas totales (%) 20 30

8. Venta (t) 11 200 4 200 15 400

9. Venta (dóls./t) 260 1 923 600

10. Ingreso total (dóls.) 2 912 000 1 923 600 4 835 600

11. Beneficio (1 0 ,—6 .) (dóls.) 800 600

OPCION A ) C O M PR A Y V E N T A D E L PRO D U C TO

El precio de compra de las 14 000 toneladas de papas y 6000 t de cebollas fue

establecido como el promedio de los meses de cosecha para el período 1973—1983,
en tanto que el precio de venta corresponde al promedio de los meses de
comercialización para el mismo período (Cuadros I y II).
A dóls. 162/1 de papa y dóls. 198/t de cebolla, la inversión total asciende a la
suma de dóls. 4 035 000 (Cuadro V III y Fig. 6 , opción A ) ) .
Los ingresos totales calculados para la venta de 11 200 t de papas a dóls. 260/t
y 4 2 0 0 1de cebollas a dóls. 458/t, son de dóls. 4 835 600. Por lo tanto, el beneficio
obtenido en esta opción es de dóls. 800 600 y se alcanza el punto de equilibrio
al procesar 5609 t de producto (Fig. 6 , opción A )).
En este caso, el beneficio por tonelada de producto procesado es de dóls. 40,03 ;
fijando un volumen anual de 2 0 0 0 0 toneladas y una inversión inicial de dóls.
1 476 570, la velocidad de recuperación del capital es de 1,84 años.
394 MARTIN et al.
 IAEA-SM-271/49 395

OPCION В) V E N T A D EL SERV IC IO DE IR R A D IA C IO N

Considerando que el proceso de conservación por irradiación debe ser

competitivo con el de conservación por frío y que el costo de este último, desde la
cosecha hasta el período de comercialización, es de dóls. 0 ,1 1 /kg, se fija el precio
de venta del servicio de irradiación en dóls. 0,09/kg.
En la Fig. 6 , opción B), se observa que los beneficios obtenidos al procesar
20 000 toneladas son de dóls. 1 163 100 y se alcanza el punto de equilibrio en
4071 toneladas.
El beneficio por toneladas de producto procesado es de dóls. 58,155; fijando
un volumen anual de 20 000 toneladas y una inversión inicial de dóls. 1 476 570,
la velocidad de recuperación del capital será de 1,27 años.
La realización de estas evaluaciones económicas muestra que, para una
empresa privada, la opción B) presenta características más atractivas que la
Opción A ) (Cuadro IX ).

B IB L IO G R A F IA

BA RA LD I, D., Feasibility Study for the Installation o f a F oo d Irradiation Plant in Uruguay,

Project U R U /5/06, classified Rep. to the IA EA , Vienna (1 9 7 5 ).
B R Y N JO L F SS O N , A ., “ F actors influencing econom ic evaluation o f irradiation processing”
Factors Influencing the Econom ical Application o f F oo d Irradiation (Proc. Panel Vienna, 1971),
IA EA , Vienna (1 9 7 3 ) 13.

COHEN, Y ., Econom ic Feasibility of the Use o f Large R adiation Sources for the Preservation
o f Potatoes and Onions, Israel A tom ic Energy Com m ission, Special Rep. Morech ( 1967).
M ERINO, F .G ., M A RTIN , V .J., M O N TA LBAN , A ., Estudios Económ icos sobre una Planta de
Irradiación de Papas, Cebollas y A jos Operando Com o Em presa Privada, Comisión Nacional de
Energía A tóm ica, M ontevideo (1976).
ORTIZ, P., M ERINO, М., M ARTIN, V .J., F A L L E R , B., Irradiación de Papas, Pruebas Tecno­
lógicas a Escala Piloto, CNEA-Uruguay, CNEA-Argentina (1974).
SU D A R SA N , P., “ Prospects o f onion irradiation in India” , Requirem ents for the Irradiation
o f F o o d on a Com m ercial Scale (Proc. Panel Vienna, 1974), IA EA , Vienna (1 9 7 5 ) 89.
V A L COB, М., del, CRU Z C A ST IL L O , F ., de la “ The effect o f technological parameters on the
econom ic design o f food-irradiation units” Factors Influencing the Econom ical Application of
F o o d Irradiation (Proc. Panel Vienna, 1971), IA EA , Vienna (1 9 7 3 ) 37.
 IAEA-SM-271/54

ELECTRONS VERSUS GAMMA RAYS -

ALTERNATIVE SOURCES FOR IRRADIATION
PROCESSES

M.R. C L E L A N D , G.M. P A G E A U
Iotech, Inc.,
Englewood, Colorado,
United States o f America

Abstract

ELE C T R O N S V E R SU S GAMMA R A Y S - A L T E R N A T IV E SO U R C ES FO R IRR A D IA TIO N

PR O C ESSES.
Energetic electrons and gam m a rays are used for a variety o f commercial irradiation
processes such as the m odification o f polym eric materials, the sterilization o f m edical devices,
the preservation o f foods and the treatm ent o f municipal and industrial wastes. The chemical
and biological effects o f these radiations are similar, but the differences in their physical
characteristics and econom ics may favour one over the other for a particular application.
Electron accelerators with energies under 5 MeV producing intense, high-power beam s are
mainly used for curing coatings and thin plastic and rubber products, while gamm-ray sources
emitting diffuse radiation with substantially greater penetration are used predom inantly for
m edical products and som e agricultural com m odities. The increasing demand for large gamma-
ray sources and the currently limited supplies are now stimulating the development o f electron
accelerators o f 5 to 15 MeV with more penetration that can provide an alternative to gamma
sources for the treatm ent o f packages and bulk materials. High-power bremsstrahlung (X-ray)
generators can also be considered for applications requiring still greater penetration. Where
either electrons or photons can provide satisfactory dose distributions within the products, the
productivity o f accelerators and gam m a sources can be com pared on the basis o f available power
and utilization efficiency. F o r exam ple, a 10 MeV, 20 kW machine would be equivalent to
2 MCi o f 60 Co, assuming 50% and 35% pow er utilization, respectively. The price o f such an
accelerator might be com parable to that o f a 60Co source, while at twice this power level, the accelerator
would be substantially less expensive than 60Co. Operating and maintenance costs for a 40 kW
machine would also be less than the cost o f gam m a source replenishm ent in a 4 MCi facility.
High-power accelerators are also justifiable for smaller facilities since their higher capital cost can
be com pensated for by a reduction in operating cost due to a shorter work schedule.

1. INTRODUCTION

Radiation processing with energetic electrons or photons

can produce beneficial effects in лапу materials and commercial
products. On the molecular level similar results can be obtained
with either type of radiation since photons transfer their
energies to secondary electrons within the absorbing materials.
Both forms of energy can be obtained from electrical
equipment, which can be designed to produce either external

397
398 CLELAND and PAGEAU

electron beams or bremsstrahlung (X-rays), as well as from

radioactive substances, which emit both beta and gamma rays.

Practical and economic considerations have favored the use

of low-energy electron accelerators for applications requiring
intense radiation with limited range, for example, the
■odification of plastic and elastomeric materials, whereas
gamma-ray sources have been preferred for the sterilization of
•edical devices and for food preservation, where diffuse,
p enetrating radiation is needed.

The c omplementary nature of these technologies is destined

to become more competitive in the future as more powerful
high-energy machines are developed in response to increasing
demand for the treatment of packaged and bulk materials [1,21.
The information in this paper may be useful in determining which
modality, e l ectrons or gammas, will be more appropriate for a
particular application.

2. POWER REQUIREMENTS

Commercial treatment processes need a substantial power

output from the radiation source to provide the energy absorbed
by the irradiated materials as well as that which is lost to the
surroundings. The power requirement increases with the dose and
the mase thruput rate according to the following formula:

P = (D/f) (M/T)/3600

where P is the emitted power in kilowatts, D is the absorbed

dose in kilograys, M is the mass of the treated material in
kilograms, T is the exposure time in hours and f is the power
utilization factor. This formula follows directly from the
definition of the dose unit, i.e., one kGy equals one kW-s/kg or
1/3600 kW-h/kg.

For example, consider a typical gamma-ray facility

sterilizing disposable medical devices in shipping cartons. The
dose is assumed to be 25 kGy, the annual thruput rate one
■illion cubic feet (28 300 cubic meters) with an average
s pecific gravity of 0.2. With a continuous operation (8000 h/a)
the mass thruput rate would be 707 kg/h. The power utilization
factor would be between 0.25 and 0.35, depending on the
c onfiguration of the source and product conveyor. Therefore:

P = (25/0.35)(707/3600)

P = 14 kW (minimum)
 IAEA-SM-271/54 399

Since the emission rate of Co-60 capsules is about 14 kW

per MCi, this result is c onsistent with the common rule that a
million cubic feet per year requires a megacurie of cobalt.

H i g h-energy electron beams can be utilized somewhat more

efficiently than isotropically emitted gamma rays and a power
utilization factor of 0.50 is a c o nservative estimate for thie
application €33. Therefore, the equivalent electron beam power
requirement would be about:

P = 14(0.35/0.50)

P = 10 kW

A Co-60 loading of 2 MCi is not uncommon today and some

facilities already have 4 MCi. In order to be competitive,
electron a c celerators need corresponding productivities, i.e.,
from 20 to 40 kW of electron beam power, with sufficient energy
to penetrate packaged products, a not u n reasonable expectation.

3. ENERGY REQUIREMENTS

One of the attractive c h a racteristics of gamma radiation is

its penetration in dense materials. The dose distribution in
homogeneous absorbers tends to diminish exponentially with
increasing depth. In water or moist foods the dose is reduced to
50 X of the surface value at a depth of about 9 cm C4].

Unit density objects of twice this thickness can be treated

from o p p osite sides with good dose uniformity. For example, with
18 cm, the front, middle and back doses from the first exposure
would be 100, 50 and 25 X respectively. The sum of the doses
after the second exposure would be 125, 100 and 125 % as shown
in Fig. 1, so that the maximum/minimum dose ratio would be 1.25.
With 36 cm the max/min dose ratio would increase to about 2.1.

The depth dose d i s tribution from electron irradiation is

substantially different, the dose tending to increase in the
middle of the treated object and to diminish steeply toward the
back side. With 10 MeV electrons in water, the maximum dose
would be 135 * of the front surface dose at a depth of about
2.5 cm. The dose would fall to 50 * of the surface dose at about
4.2 cm and would be down to 10 % at 4.9 cm, the maximum range of
the electrons [5,6].

Two-sided treatment can be used to double the allowable

thickness to about 8.5 cm of unit density material at 10 MeV.
The dose d i stribution would then be 100 X at both sides and also
400 CLELAND and PAGEAU

DEPTH (cm)

F IG .l. Two-sided depth dose distribution; cobalt-60 gamma rays in water.

FIG .2. Two-sided depth dose distribution ; 10 MeV electrons in water.

in the center but with two maxima of 135 * located 2.5 cm from
either aide as shown in Fig. 2. The max/nin dose ratio would be
1.35, slightly higher than with gamma rays.

In the energy range from 5 to 15 MeV, the energy

requirement for two-sided irradiation is proportional to the
product t h ickness and can be estimated with the following
formula :

E = 1.2 tp

where E is the electron energy in MeV, t is the thickness in

c e n t imeters and p is the product density in grams/cubic
centimeter. The coefficient 1.2 has been deduced from
 IAEA-SM-271/54 401

single-sided data C7]. The maximum thicknesses would be about

4.5 cm at 5 MeV, 8.5 cn at 10 MeV and 13 cm at 15 MeV,
substantially less than the gamma-ray capability.

With low-density m a terials such as packages of medical

devices, the allowable thickness is inversely proportional to
the density, i.e. using 10 MeV electrons, the actual package
thickness could be over 40 cm at a density of 0.2 g/cm3 and
over 80 cm at a density of 0.1 g /сщЗ.

Higher electron energies can readily be produced with

microwave linear accelerators but may not be acceptable because
of the induction of radioactive isotopes in the treated
materials. In order to avoid this risk, the FACi/IAEA/WHO joint
expert committee on the wholesomeness of irradiated food has
recommended that electron energies should not exceed 10 MeV for
food treatment processes [8]. However, even at 15 MeV the level
of induced r adioactivity in meat is only about 0.01 % of the
natural background activity £33. Electron energies above 10 MeV
are still acceptable for other applications.

Bremsstrahlung (X-rays) generated by intercepting the

electron beam with a dense metallic target can be used to
irradiate objects that are too thick for electron treatment. The
FAO/IAEA/WHO committee has recommended a 5 MeV limit for this
procedure because energetic photons are more likely to induce
radioactivity than electrons [8].

At this energy level, a broad bremsstrahlung spectrum has

nearly the same penetrating quality as the gamma-rays from Co-60
and photon power outputs equivalent to 4 MCi of Co-60 are
technically feasible, but the cost of utilizing this technique
full time would be greater due to its high power requirement
[10]. Nevertheless, the use of X-rays as an adjunct to electrons
in a d u al-purpose facility is an attractive concept [11,12].

4. COST ANALYSES

The capital cost of a gamma source increases linearly with

its power output whereas the cost of an electron accelerator is
determined primarily by its energy level and only secondarily by
its power rating. These differences favor gamma sources for
amall f acilities requiring less than 1 MCi of C0-60 but make
accelerators attractive for treatment plants needing higher
thruput capacities.

The operating schedule of a gamma facility is also

different from that of an accelerator plant because the gamma
402 CLELAND and PAGEAU

TABLE I

COMPARATIVE COST ANALYSES - STERILIZATION OF MEDICAL DEVICES

T hruput capacity - 1 million cubic feet per year

CAPITAL COSTS (S) COPALT-60 40 kW LINAC

Facility (Table IV) 3 000 000 2 500 000

Radiation Source 1 0 00 000 2 500 000

Total Investment 4 ООО 000 5 ООО 000

OPERATING COSTS (S) C0BALT-60 40 kW LINAC

Debt Service 580 000 720 000

O v erheads 200 000 200 000
Operating Time (h) (8 000) (2 000)
Source Maintenance 150 000 80 000
Labor (2 for 4 shifts) 200 000 (4 for 1 shift) 100 000

Total Annual Costs 1 130 000 1 100 000

Cost per cubic foot $1.13 SI. 10

TABLE II

COMPARATIVE COST ANALYSES - STERILIZATION OF MEDICAL DEVICE:

Thruput capacity - 2 million cubic feet per year

CAPITAL COSTS (S) C O B A L T -60 40 kW LINAC

Facility (Table IV) 3 000 000 2 500 000

Radiation Source 2 ООО 000 2 500 000

Total Investment 5 ООО 000 5 ООО 000

OPERATING COSTS (S) C O B A L T -60 40 kW LINAC

Debt Service 720 000 720 000

Overheads 200 000 200 000
O p erating Time (h) (8 000) (4 000)
Source Maintenance 270 000 160 000
Labor <3 for 4 shifts) 300 0 00 (4 for 2 shifts) 200 000

Total Annual Costs 1 490 ООО 1 280 000

Cost per cubic foot SO. 75 30.64

 IAEA-SM-271/54 403

TABLE III

COMPARATIVE COST ANALYSES - S TERILIZATION OF MEDICAL DEVICES

Thruput capacity - 4 Million cubic feet per year

CAPITAL COSTS (S) C0BALT-60 40 kW LINAC

Facility (Table IV) 3 000 000 2 500 000

Radiation Source 4 000 000 2 500 000

Total Investment 7 000 000 5 000 000

O P E RA T I N G COSTS (S) C 0BALT-60 40 kW LINAC

Debt Service 1 010 000 720 000

Overheads 200 000 200 000
Operating Tine (h) (8 000) (8 000)
Source Maintenance 520 000 320 000
Labor (4 for 4 shifts) 400 000 (4 for 4 shifts) 400 000

Total Annual Costs 2 130 000 1 640 000

Cost per cubic foot SO. 53 SO.41

source is always on while the machine is running only when

needed for production. Consequently, the labor cost in a gamma
facility is higher because of the necessity of operating around
the clock at all times to avoid wasting the radiant energy.

Capital and o p erating cost estimates are listed in Tables

I. II and III for a large gamma s terilization facility running
continuously at three capacity levels requiring 1, 2 and 4 MCi
of C0-60, respectively. C o m p arative cost estimates are also
given for a 40 kW, 10 MeV accelerator plant producing the same
annual thruputs, but operating at its maximum capacity for 2000,
4000 and 8000 hours per year, respectively. Breakdowns of the
facility cost e s timates are given in Table IV.

The assumed product thruput capacities are consistent with

the e s timates given above in Section 2, i.e. an annual thruput
of 1 million cubic feet of 0.2 density products at a dose of
25 kGy requiring 1 MCi of C0-60 applied continuously for 8000 hours
or 40 kW of electron beam power for 2000 hours.
%

Some other a s s u mptions are that the cost of the Co-60 is

Sl.OO/Ci delivered to the site while the inclusive cost of the
linac is 52 500.000. The capital investments for both the
404 CLELAND and PAGEAU

TABLE IV

CO M P ARATIVE COST ANALYSES - STERILIZATION OF MEDICAL DEVICES

Thruput capacity - 4 million cubic feet per year

FACILITY COSTS (S) C0BALT-60 40 KW LINAC

Building (15 000 sq.ft) 600 000 600 000

Radiation Shield 600 000 400 000
Irradiation Equipment 1 200 000 800 000
HVAC* and Utilities 100 000 150 000
Engineering 6. Fees 300 000 400 000
Land & Permitting 200 000 150 000

Total Facility Cost 3 000 000 2 500 000

•HVAC = Heating, Ventillating and Air Conditioning

facility and the radiation sources are amortized over 15 years

at 12 X interest.

The source replenishment rate is 12.3 % per year plue

$25 000 for transportation and loading, while the operating cost
of the linac is S15/hour for electricity (200 kW @ S0.075/kW-h)
plus S25/hour for replacement of parte and maintenance.

Overheads include taxes, insurance, facility maintenance,

utilities, administrative and management costs. Labor costs
assume 4 employees per fully-loaded work shift accounting for
2000 hours of operation at an annual cost of S100 000 per shift,
including fringe benefits and lost time.

The bottom lines in Tables I, II and III show that the

annual operating cost of an accelerator plant would be
c omparable to that of a gamma facility at the 1 MCi level and
would become progressively less expensive as the thruput
capacity increases.

In Table I, the lower capital cost of the gamma facility 1з

balanced by its higher operating costs, notably the source
r eplenishment and the labor. In Table II, the capital costs are
the same but the source replenishment and labor costs for the
gamma facility are still higher than for the accelerator.

In Table III, the cost of the Co-60 source is substantially

higher than the accelerator and the source replenishment is
still higher than the electricity and maintenance for the
accelerator, although the labor costs in the two cases are the
same.
 IAEA-SM-271/54 405

The economy of scale is evident since the cost per cubic

foot of product d e creases as the thruput capacity increases with
either type of radiation source.

5. CONCLUSION

The s terilization of medical devices has been used here as

a basis of comparing electron and gamma-ray capabilities because
it is an established industrial process with well-defined
parameters. However, these c o n s iderations of power, energy and
cost can also be applied to other radiation applications
including food preservation.

The power ratings of the largest existing gamma-ray

facilities are relatively modest and can readily be matched and
surpassed by modern accelerator techniques. The energy limits
imposed to avoid the induction of r adioactivity provide adequate
penetration for low-density products like medical supplies and
thinner objects like packaged foods.

Gamma-ray sources will continue to be attractive for small

facilities and for the treatment of bulky objects such as pork
and beef c arcasses or large boxes of fruits and vegetables where
their superior penetration is required.

The use of high-energy a c celerators wherever they are

effective may alleviate the increasing demand for the limited
supplies of g a mma-ray sources, thereby assuring their
availability for more essential applications.

REFERENCES

C1J C L E L A N D . M . R . , Applications of Linear Accelerators in

Industry (Proc. 1984 Lin. Accel. Conf.) GSI Darmstadt, FRG.
C2] S I V I N S K I ,J . S . ,S L O A N , D . P . , The Role of Linear Accelerators
in Industry, (Proc. 1984 Accel. Conf.) NTSU, Denton, TX.
C3] BECKER,R.C., B L Y , J . H . , CLELAND.M.R., F A R R E L L , J . P . ,
Accelerator R e quirements for Electron Beam Processing,
Radiat. Phys. Che*. Vol. 14 (1979) 353.
C4] GALANTER,L., Tabulated Dose Distribution Data - Rectangular
C o balt-60 S ource Plaques, BNL 50318, Rectangular Cesium-137
S ource Plaques, BNL 50320, Brookhaven Nat. Lab. (1971).
C5] TABATA.T., RINSUKE,I., An Algorithm for Energy Deposition
by Fast Electrons, Nucl. Sci. & Eng., Vol. 53 (1974) 226.
C63 S V E N D S E N , E . B . , R a diation S terilization by Accelerators and
the Process Control, (Proc. EUCOMED Conf) Copenhagen (1984)
406 CLELAND and PAGEAU

C7] Complete Radiotherapy Systems, Equipment Brochure,

CGR-MeV, Buc, France.
£03 W holesomeness of Irradiated Food, Tech. Report Series 659,
WHO Geneva (1981).
C93 BECKER,R.L., Absence of Induced Radioactivity in Irradiated
Foods, "Recent Advances in Food Irradiation”, Elsevier
Biomedical Press (1983).
CIO] McKEOWN.J., S H E R M A N , N.K . , Linac Based Irradiators,
(Proc. 5th Int. Mtg. on Rad. Proc.) San Diego (1984).
[113 F A R R E L L , J . P . . S E L T Z E R , S . M . , Bremsstrahlung Generators for
R a diation Processing, Rad. Phys. Chem. Vol. 22, (1983) 469.
C123 S A D A T , T . ,A U C Q U T U R I E R , J . , A New Radiation Source:
The CASSITRON, CGR-MeV, Buc, France (1984).
 IAEA-SM-271/63

ECONOMIES OF SCALE IN SINGLE-PURPOSE

FOOD IRRADIATORS

R.M. M O RR ISO N
Economic Research Service,
United States Department
o f Agriculture,
Washington, D.C.,
United States o f America

Abstract

ECONOM IES O F SC A LE IN SIN G LE-PU RPO SE FOOD IR R A D IA T O R S.

The paper presents estim ates o f the investment requirements and econom ies o f scale for
five cobalt-60 irradiators, each treating a different food product. Irradiation costs were estimated
for treating papayas, strawberries, pork carcasses, young chicken, and fish fillets in four
facilities o f different sizes. The costs presented are based on a specific set o f assum ptions
and input prices. All five facilities exhibit declining unit costs over the 6 million to 500 million
pounds per year throughput range analysed. These econom ies o f scale are very pronounced
at smaller sizes, which means that individual agricultural firms with small volum es will not be
able to achieve the lower unit costs possible with high throughputs. However, scale economies
for the foods exam ined in this analysis becom e less im portant at annual volum es greater than
50 or 100 million pounds. The m ost im portant sources o f production econom ies are labour,
buildings and shielding, and machinery. T o tal average unit costs decline between 45 and 80%
over the size ranges analysed for the five irradiators.

Introduction

Food irradiation technology is capital intensive. Building

a eomtnercial scale irradiator requires a large investment in
special shielded structures, conveyor machinery, and source
material. Analysts have asserted that because of this high
investment, large quantities of food must be treated to achieve
reasonable average unit costs [1].

An examination of plant economies of scale can be used to

evaluate this assertion. The term economies of scale refers to
the relationship between total average costs per unit of output
(unit costs) and the size of the plant. Economies of scale
exist if unit costs fall as size increases. If economies of
Scale exist, large irradiators would be able to treat foods at
a lower unit cost than smaller ones. Operators of small ir­
radiators would be at a distinct cost disadvantage if the scale
economies are substantial. This would discourage an industry

407
408 MORRISON

of small volume, widely-scattered agricultural firms from using

the technology.

A question of interest to potential users of irradiation

technology, then, is how important is the size of an irradiator
and its corresponding throughput to the average cost of the
treatment. Can only the very largest irradiators realize
reasonable unit costs? Are their costs substantially lower than
those of smaller plants? A related question is how severe are
the cost penalties for running an irradiator at less than
capacity.

This paper presents results of research conducted by the

U.S. Department of Agriculture's Economic Research Service on
e conomies of scale in irradiators treating a single food for a
specific purpose. The purpose of this research was to identify
the key cost components in building and operating a commercial
size cobalt-60 irradiator and to illustrate how unit costs vary
with size of operation and capacity utilization.

Five foods— papayas, pork, fish, strawberries and chicken—

were analyzed. The selected radiation dose levels were below
the 1 000 krad (10 kGy) level incorporated in the Codex Ali-
m e ntarius Commission's proposed international standard for
irradiated foods [2]. Irradiators treating papayas, fish, and
strawberries were assumed to be free standing facilities.
Pork and chicken irradiators were assumed to be physically
integrated into existing slaughtering plants. Costs were es­
timated for four irradiator sizes for each of the five foods.
The resulting analytical scenarios demonstrate how the radiation
dose, the amount of product throughput, and seasonal versus
year round operation affect unit costs.

Applications and Throughputs

Costs were calculated for the following applicationsJ/ and

corresponding doses:

о Disinfesting Hawaiian papayas to satisfy quarantine

requirements for shipment to the continental United States
(26 krads or 0.26 kGy).

о Inactivating T r i c h i n e l l a s p i r a l i s , the parasite responsible

for the disease trichinosis, in pork (30 krads or 0.3 kGy).

J / Selection of these applications was based on a review of the

scientific literature. Applications were also chosen to
illustrate radiation's diverse uses on a variety of foods.
 IAEA-SM-271/63 409

о Extending the shelf-life of fish fillets by several days,

thereby expanding the geographic market for fresh fish (175 krads
or 1.75 k G y ) .

о Decreasing storage decay of strawberries and extending

shelf-life by several days (200 krads or 2 kGy).

о Reducing the numbers of common food poisoning m i cro­

organisms, such as Salmonella and C a m p y l o b a c t e r , in fresh young
chicken (250 krads or 2.5 kGy).

Throughput capacities were based on actual production

condit i o n s in appropriate geographic locations in the United
States, such as a major fishing port o f the California region
with the greatest concentration of strawberry production.
These m a x i m u m throughputs were then successively halved to
approximate annual volumes of existing agricultural plants.
Table 1 lists the plant sizes analyzed for each commodity.
Yearly throughputs for the pork and chicken irradiators reflect
processing capacities of large and m e dium sized U.S.
slaughtering plants.

The processing schedules used in this analysis were de­

signed to cause minimal disruption of existing processing and
m arketing schedules. Although each model irradiator was
operated 24 hours a day, fish fillets, papayas, young chicken
and pork were irradiated five days per week rather than a
possible seven days to coincide with the shipping and
processing schedules currently used in those industries. For
the integrated chicken and pork irradiators, the shorter
irradiation week means that no additional cold storage capacity
is required to hold carcasses for weekend irradiation. An
integrated arrangement also allows certain personnel already
employed by the slaughtering plant to handle some of the duties
associated w i t h the irradiator. Strawberries were irradiated
seven days per week, but only four months of the year. Treat­
ment of seasonal agricultural products is more likely to follow
this schedule.

Metho d o l o g y and Major Assumptions

Irradiator design and operation are very specific to the

particular commodity, its reaction and tolerance to radiation,
national occupational safety requirements, and many other
variables. However, development o f cost relationships by
plant size requires specific assumptions about input prices and
operating p rocedures to provide the standardization needed to
make interplant cost comparisons. Capital and operating costs
were estimated for the model irradiators based on information
410 MORRISON

Table 1. Summary of Investment and Annual Costs for Selected

Cobalt-60 Irradiators a/

Commo d i t y and Annual Initial An n u a l i z e d Annual Annual

Th r o u g h p u t In Invest m e n t ^ / Fixed V a r iable Total
M i l l i o n s of Pounds Coe tsS j Cost si!/ Cost

$1000 0 0 0 $1000 $1000 $1000

Fish Fillets SJ
6 1.0 309 203 512
12 1.1 336 208 544
24 1.4 401 224 625
A8 1.9 515 248 763

Papayas SJ
12 1.0 301 204 505
24 1.2 329 216 545
48 1.5 389 302 691
96 2.4 547 428 975

S t r a w b e r r i e s */
25 2.0 514 162 676
50 3.4 835 222 1057
100 5.7 1388 296 1684
200 10.4 2518 489 3007

Y o u n g Chi c k e n U
52 2.0 510 305 815
104 3.3 847 421. 1268
208 6.0 1527 601 2128
416 11.2 2839 1006 3845

P ork U
66.5 .9 237 197 434
133 1.1 290 207 497
266 1.6 398 285 683
532 2.5 619 328 947

e j Costs tn this table are expressed In U.S. dollars and based on a spécifie
set of assumptions and Input prices listed In Appendix A.
bj Investment items Include: cobalt-60, biological shielding and other building
8pace, Irradiator machinery and auxiliary systems, product handling e<)ulpAent,
refrigerated warehouse space, design and engineering, land, and wetftlng
capital.
cj Includes the annualized costs for Investment items and annual costs for
cobalt-60 replenishment, fixed maintenance, Insurance and taxée, and salaried
personnel.
dj Includes wages of shift supervisors/plant operators and product handlers,
supplies, utilities, and variable maintenance.
ej Free standing facility; see text for dose level. The strawberry Irradiators
operate 7 days a week for 4 months per year, Instead of 5 days year round
as do the other Irradiators (see footnote b of table 3).
f_/ Integrated facility; see text for dose level. Split pork carcasses are
assumed to move through the Irradiator suspended from a monorail track.
Therefore, machinery and product handling costs are different than for the
other foods.
 IAEA-SM-271/63 411

from builders and operators of commercial irradiation

facilities. Reliance on their judgement and experiences was
essential because of the lack of single purpose food irradiators
from which to collect empirical data. The costs presented here
are meant to provide the reader with an idea of the magnitude
of irradiation treatment costs and how these generalized
costs might vary with plant size.

The major assumptions underlying the estimated unit costs

are identified below.

1) Irradiators d o not operate continuously. Downtime must

be allowed for maintenance and source loading. In this analysis,
irradiators were assumed to be processing food products for 21
hours of a 24-hour processing day.

2) Net utilization efficiency o f the cobalt-60 was assumed

to be 25 percent for all irradiators. Net utilization effi­
ciency is the percent of emitted energy absorbed in the product.
It is one of the parameters determining how much cobalt-60 is
needed. Under actual conditions, this efficiency depends on
the design of the irradiator which must consider the product's
density and dose uniformity needs.

3) Several major cost components— biological shielding, ir­

radiator machinery, and labor and machinery for product
h andl i n g — w e r e estimated at common throughput levels across
commodities (see Appendix A). These general costs were assigned
to irradiators of similar size. Land requirements were assumed
to be three acres for all sizes of free standing irradiators.
Costs for c o balt-60 loadings and refrigerated storage are
estimated for each throughput.

4) For ease of computation, yearly replenishment of the de­

cayed portion of c obalt-60 is assumed and treated as a yearly
expense. Operators of irradiators with small loadings are more
likely to purchase enough cob a l t - 6 0 to allow several years of
maxim u m operation rather than incur the high transportation
charges of annual replenishment. Therefore, costs may be
slightly overstated for small papaya and fish irradiators.

5) Palletized boxes of product were assumed to be restacked

in an arrangement compatible with the irradiator design.
Because of r elatively high labor costs in the United States,
depalletizing and repalletizing machines that reduce human labor
were used for the three largest size irradiators (see Appendix
C ) . Product handling is an important cost component in
radiation processing. The combination of machine and laborers
affects both the fixed capital costs and variable labor costs.
The appropriate combination depends on the relative efficiencies
412 MORRISON

and costs of these two substitutes. The combination chosen for

each of the five irradiators results in minimum handling costs
at capacity levels.

In addition to labor rates, land and construction costs

vary regionally within the United States and around the world.
If the relative prices of production inputs differ dramatically
from those used here, an irradiator operator is likely to select
a different combination of inputs to achieve least cost output.
This would affect the scale economies. The wage rates and
values selected for the production inputs are presented in
Appendix A.

The costs of building and operating an irradiator are

divided into fixed and variable costs. Together they constitute
the total cost of operation for a given level of output. Fixed
costs remain unchanged as output is altered. For example, once
the biological shielding and machinery are built to accommodate
a particular level of throughput, the cost of using these inputs
will not change if output is reduced. In contrast, the cost of
inputs such as utilities and hourly labor do vary with the use
of the irradiator and the corresponding output. Table 2 shows
the division between fixed and variable costs for irradiating
Hawaiian papayas. Hourly labor, supplies, utilities, and
mai n t e n a n c e that depends on how much the facility is used
are considered variable cost items.

Fixed and variable costs were expressed on an annual basis

so that total costs could be divided by annual output to derive
unit costs. Recurring expenses like utilities, salaries,
and c obalt-60 replenishment were already expressed on a yearly
basis. A capital recovery factor was used to estimate the
levelized annual cost of the biological shielding, buildings,
machinery, and the initial cobalt-60. This factor computes the
amount needed to recover the original investment (purchase
price), plus the opportunity cost of the money spent to buy the
asset, over its useful life. The formula is defined in Appendix
A. Crucial variables in the capital recovery formula are the
interest rate, or opportunity cost of money, and the assumed
useful life of the asset. In this analysis, the interest rate
used was 11.75 percent, the prime rate in the United States in
December 1984. The useful lives for the capital assets were
assumed to be 25 years for buildings and biological shielding,
10 years for machinery, and 15 years for the initial cobalt-60
loading. The annual fixed and variable costs for each size
irradiator at 100 percent capacity are listed in Table 1.

Resulting Economies of Scale

Economies of scale are reflected in the shape of a plant's

long-run average cost curve. The steeper the curve, the greater
 IAEA-SM-271/63 413

the economies of scale. The long-run cost curve shows the-

minim u m average cost of producing each output level when all
inputs are variable and a firm is free to choose any plant
size. One method that economists use to approximate the long-
run cost curve is to examine a series of short-run cost curves
for individual plant sizes and select minimum unit costs for
each output level.

Short-run cost curves for each size irradiator were

estimated by computing costs at 25» 50, 75, and 100 percent of
capacity. Capacity is defined as the maximum throughput level
for which the plant was designed. Variable costs were estimated
for each level of capacity utilization. Fixed costs are in­
dependent of what portion of capacity is used and remain c o n ­
stant as throughput drops.

Table 3 lists irradiation treatment costs per pound based

on the specific set of assumptions and input prices used in this
analysis. Costs are for irradiators operated at design capacity.
Unit costs for the applications and volumes analyzed range from
8.5 to 0.2 cents per pound. All five irradiators exhibit
economies of scale, as demonstrated by their decreasing unit
costs as size is doubled. This means that, considering only
the treatment cost, larger irradiators would be able to treat
products at a lower unit cost than small irradiators. However,
in all cases the scale economies become less pronounced as
size increases. Potential scale economies become less
important at annual volumes greater than 50 or 100 million
pounds. For example, the unit costs for the two largest
strawberry irradiators operating at full capacity differed
by only 0.2 cents per pound.

Economies of scale result from production inputs expanding

less than proportionally with volume. To determine the source
of the economies, o ne examines how the major components change
with size. Cobalt-60, building and shielding, machinery, and
labor accounted for 80 to 85 percent o f unit costs in these
scenarios. For a c o balt-60 irradiator, the most important
sources of production economies are labor, buildings and
shielding, and machinery.

Certain employees— plant manager, quality control person,

maintenance and clerical personnel, and shift supervisors— are
needed regardless of the volume moving through the irradiator.
Spreading their salaries over larger outputs, lowers average
fixed labor costs. When salaried employees are a major cost
item, such as in the fish irradiators which span a smaller
size range, large economies occur. Buildings, shielding, and
machi n e r y costs are likely to follow the general construction
relationship where productive capacity increases faster than
 414 MORRISON

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416 MORRISON

Table 3. Irradiation Unit Costs

Commo d i t y and Annual

T h r o u g h p u t in Dose I r r a d i a t i o n Unit Costs a/
Millions of Pounds kGy cents per pound

Fish fillets 1.75

6 8.5
12 4.5
24 2.6
48 1.6

Papayas 0 . 26

12 4.2
24 2.3
48 1.4
96 1.0

Strawberries'3 2.0

25 2.7
50 2.1
100 1.7
200 1.5

Y o u n g Chi c k e n 2.5

52 1.6
104 1.2
208 1.0
416 0.9

Pork 0.3

66.5 0.7
133 0.4
266 0.3
532 0.2

a/ Unit costs are based on a specific set of assumptions and input

prices listed in Appendix A.

b/ For strawberry irradiators, employees other than the plant manager,

are hired for 4 months of the year. Radiation safety officer, shift
supervisors, and plant operators receive 302 bonus to compensate for
part time employment. Plant manager is hired for the full year to
maintain the irradiator during the non-usc season.
 IAEA-SM-271/63 417

cost [3 ]. This relationship also contributes to the existence

of larger scale economies for small volume irradiators.

Although c o balt-60 is an important cost item (especially

for irradiators treating large volumes of food at higher d o s e s ) ,
it is not a major source of production economies because cobalt
needs are directly related to hourly throughput. Only minor
economies could be realized through cob a lt-60 suppliers offering
volume discounts. Therefore, as cobalt-60 becomes a larger
portion of total costs, less scale economies are possible. The
flatter unit costs for the chicken and strawberry irradiators
illustrate this.

The short-run cost curves demonstrate the importance of

selecting the appropriate size irradiator. Processors can
suffer stiff production cost penalties if too large a plant is
run at less than capacity, rather than operating a smaller
plant at its ideal throughput. A large irradiator treating
small volumes of products has less output over which to
spread its high fixed costs. The short-run cost curves for
strawberry irradiators, shown in figure 1, illustrate the point
clearly. If 50 million pounds of strawberries were treated in
a facility designed for that annual volume, the unit cost
would be close to 2 cents per pound. A plant built to handle
double that volume would incur a unit cost of 3 cents per pound.
If the largest strawberry irradiator, designed to irradiate 200
million pounds annually, only processed 50 million pounds per
year it would be running at 25 percent of capacity. Unit costs
would be above 5 cents per pound— two and a half times larger
than the small facility.

Seasonality of production which results in unused capacity

and higher unit cos t s may be the typical situation if irradiation
is used for treatment of fruits and vegetables. Production of
these commodities is very seasonal. Even those commodities
that are grown year round like papaya have definite seasonal
harvest patterns. To accommodate the seasonal high volumes,
food irradiators would have excess capacity during off periods.
Locating an irradiator in agricultural production areas with
sequential harvest times for different irradiation-compatible
commodities or irradiating non-agricultural items during off
seasons would lessen this problem. Animal products are subject
to less seasonal fluctuations, but cyclical swings over time
could adversely affect use of irradiator capacity.

One of the assumptions underlying the unit costs for

fish fillets, papayas, pork, and young chicken is that the
irradiator runs just five days per week to coincide with the
filleting, packing, and slaughtering schedule. For large plants
418 MORRISON

Strawberries
Unit c o st (c e n ts, per poun d)
10 .... Short run curve
0 Long run curve
8
:© Design capacities
\\ H z 25 million pounds
6 \\ \ © - 50 million pounds
-\ \ V + =100 million pounds
q • % *»,
A= 200 million pounds
4 ■ w \ \
4, **
2 ,, ................

0 I — 1- 1 1. . . . . . . 1 1 1 t

0 25 50 75 100 125 150 175 200

Million p o u n d s per y ear

F IG .l. Irradiation unit costs for free standing facility ; 4 months' operation per year, 24 hours
per day, 7 days per week; 200 krad (2 kGy) dose.

with sizable cobalt-60 investments, this schedule may be too

costly. Spreading the same volume out over seven days instead
of five would reduce the hourly throughput and the corre­
sponding cobalt-60 loading. Variable costs, especially labor,
would rise unless the lower hourly throughput levels reduced
product handling costs enough to compensate for weekend labor
costs. In the case of the chicken irradiators with large
c obalt-60 loadings, switching to a seven day schedule drops
unit costs for the same volumes by an average of 18 percent.
As pointed out earlier, this extended treatment schedule could
disrupt processing and shipping schedules or require extra cold
storage space. This would reduce potential cost savings from
extending the irradiation schedule.

Conclusions and Other Considerations

This paper presented estimates of average unit costs for

four sizes of c o balt-60 irradiators treating five different
food products. The estimated costs are based on a specific set
of assumptions and input prices. Irradiation technology demon­
strates economies of scale with unit costs declining as the
irradiator's size increases. These economies of scale are
very pronounced for small irradiators, which means that indi­
vidual agricultural firms with small volumes will not be able
to achieve the lower unit costs possible with high throughputs.
However, potential scale economies for the commodities included
in this analysis g e nerally become less important at annual
volumes greater than 50 or 100 million pounds.
 IAEA-SM-271/63 419

The unit costs reported in this paper are for the radiation
treatment alone. For free standing facilities that combine
throughputs from several producers, the costs of shipping the
commodity to the irradiator are an added cost. As free standing
irradiators increase in size, they will have to draw on larger
geographic areas for their throughput. The transportation
costs of getting the commodities to the larger irradiator may
outweigh any gains in plant scale economies. This may bring
a small irradiator's complete costs more closely in line with a
large irradiator.

An analysis of the economies of scale for a particular

irradiation treatment is only the first step in a complete
assessment of its economic feasibility. Many other factors in
addition to the appropriate size plant need to be considered.
Transportation costs and disruptions to current marketing pro­
cedures must be included. Determination must be made of whether
the food product can accomodate the radiation treatment, not
technically, but from a market p e r spective— is there a point in
the production and marketing chain with sufficient volume for
an irradiator; is the wholesale or retail value high enough to
bear the additional cost of radiation processing; will consumers
accept irradiation of the product; and other similar issues.
Finally, prospective users of radiation processing must deter­
mine whether irradiation offers benefits that are equal to, or
preferably greater than, the costs.

REFERENCES

[1] LAPIDOT, М., "Introducing irradiated agricultural products

on a large scale— a test study in a developing country,"
Factors Influencing the Economical Application of Food
Irradiation (Panel Proc. Series, Vienna, 1971), IAEA,
V ienna (1973), 67.

[2] Codex Alimentarius Commission,' Codex General Standard for

Irradiated F o o d s , CAC/Vol. XV, ed. 1, Codex Stan 106-1983,
Issued by the Secretariat of the Joint FAO/WHO Food
Standards Programme, (1984), 1.

[3] McGEE, J . S . , "Efficiency and economies of size," Industrial

Concentration: The New Learning, (GOLDSCHMID, H.J., MANN, H.M.
V/ESTON, J.F., Eds) Little, Brown and Co., Boston (1974) 58.
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428 MORRISON

B I B LIOGRAPHY TO APPENDICES

Bloomster, et. al., Potential Value of CS-137 Capsules. Battelle Pacific

Northwest Laboratory. Draft Final Report, September 1984.

Deitch, Jerome, Jack W. Osburn, Jr. and Harry W. Ketchum. Cost-Benefits

Analysis: Potential Radiation Sterilized Military Subsistence Items.
BDC-788-09-71-002; U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of Domestic
Commerce, March 1972.

Dodge Construction Systems Costs 1984. McGraw-Hill Cost Information

Systems, Princeton, N.J., 1983.

Hudson, William. President of the International Association of Refrigerated

Warehouses, personal communication with author on December 7, 19 84.

Jarrett, Robert D. Sr. "Isotope (Gamma) Radiation Sources," Preservation

of Food by Ionizing Radiation, Vol. I, ed. Edward S. Josephson and Martin S.
Peterson. Boca Raton, Florida: CRC Press, Inc., 19 83, pp. 137-163.

Means Square Foot Costs 1984. Robert Snow Means Company, Inc., Kingston,
MA, 19 84.

Mongelli, Robert C. Marketing Fresh Tomatoes: Systems and Costs. Marketing

Research Report No. 1137, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research
Service, February 1984.
 IAEA-SM-271/60

COMMERCIAL FEASIBILITY OF IRRADIATING

SEAFOOD IN THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA

J.D. K A Y L O R * , J.W. S L A V IN * * , R J . LE A R S O N *

* National Marine Fisheries Service,

Gloucester Laboratory,
Gloucester, Massachusetts

* * Joseph W. Slavin and Associate,

Annandale, Virginia

United States o f America

Abstract

COM M ERCIAL F E A S IB IL IT Y O F IR R A D IA T IN G SEA FO O D IN TH E U N ITED ST A T E S

O F AM ERICA.
The N ational Marine Fisheries Service, Gloucester L aboratory, Gloucester, M assachusetts,
has carried out commercial feasibility studies o f irradiated seafoods. These include irradiation
o f seafoods on a large scale at different dose levels when measured at the point o f minimum
absorbed dose, and shipment by com m on carriers under prevailing conditions o f transportation
to distant m arkets, and maintaining a highly desirable degree o f freshness. The econom ics o f
this semi-commercial irradiator was extrapolated to a full-scale commercial irradiator, and a
discussion o f certain qualities o f management skills is presented. The pending F o o d and Drug
Adm inistration approval o f protein food s as it relates to the econom ic feasibility o f irradiating
seafoods for shelf-life extension is discussed.

INTRODUCTION

The first investigations into irradiation of seafoods were con­

ducted at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) ijin^er contract
to the Atomic Energy Commission (AEC) in the early I960's. ’ The con­
tracts revealed that radiation preservation of marine products appeared
to be feasible. As a result, the AEC funded a national program on low-
dose irradiation preservation of seafoods at several universities by
installing small (30 kilocuries) research irradiators.1 The AEC funded
a large cobalt-60 irradiator at the Gloucester Technological Laboratory
of the present National Marine Fisheries Service. This irradiator was
designed to be a development rather than research irradiator. The dif­
ference between the Marine Products Development Irradiator (MPDI) and
the above small research irradiators is one of size and purpose. The
MPDI was designed to be of semicommercial size capable of irradiating
2000 pounds of product per hour at a dose of 200 000 rads.3 The research
irradiators could only irradiate about 375 pounds at the same dose.

1 1 C Í-3.70X 1010Bq.
1 1 rad= 1.00 X 10‘
5Gy.

429
430 KAYLOR et al.

DESCRIPTION AND PURPOSE OF THE MPDI

The MPDI is a one story rectangular building of almost 4000 square

feet which is divided into three principal areas. They are a refrig­
erated storage room capable of holding 12 tons of product at 33°F
(1°C), a product conveying system, and the irradiation cell. Supporting
features are a health physics laboratory, a dosimetry laboratory, an
office and general storage and work areas.

The irradiator had an initial loading of 235 000 curies of

cobalt-60. The active area of the source plaque is about 1 foot by
4 feet and consists of 6 sub-units. Its rated source utilization is
about 21% using target overlap for greatest efficiency. Its original
design was one ton of fish per hour at 200 000 rads with a maximum to
minimum dose ratio of 1.3. This dose ratio is achieved by the irradia­
tor design which is characteristic of a two-direction, multi-position,
multi-pass, stop-dwell irradiator.

The purpose of the MPDI was to determine if it was commercially

feasible to irradiate fresh seafoods on a large commercial scale and
ship them by common carrier under regular conditions of transportation
to distant destinations and still retain a high degree of freshness.
A second purpose was that of determining the cost of irradiating sea­
foods.

No business man would invest time and money in such a new food
process as food irradiation unless he had solid assurance that the new
process would be commercially feasible. A business man might be mildly
interested to learn that irradiation of seafoods can significantly
extend their shelf-life under laboratory-controlled conditions. That
same business man, however, would be impressed to learn that fresh sea­
foods irradiated in commercial quantities at low-dose levels and shipped
under truly commercial conditions do show an increase in shelf-life that
is commercially significant. In essence, the business man must be con­
vinced that the favorable results obtained in the laboratory can also
be duplicated on a commercial scale before he invests his money.

COMMERCIAL FEASIBILITY STUDIES

In order to determine the commercial feasibility of irradiation

preservation of seafoods, we conducted three studies. They were of such
nature that if the first had resulted in failure, we would not have under­
taken the second, and if the second had resulted in failure, we would not
have undertaken the third.

We reasoned that we should determine whether a suitable amount of

fish of high freshness level was available. We conducted a survey of
the Boston fishing fleet during winter, summer and autumn so as to show
any temperature differences of the principal seasons of the year with
spring and autumn being considered similar. We developed criteria for
subjective measurements at the boat level. Objective measurements of fish
temperature were obtained by a carefully calibrated electronic thermometer.

All data were fed into a computer that was programmed to give
correlations among the expert subjective measurements and the tempera­
ture measurements. The computer showed that subjective examinations
of fish had significant to highly significant correlations at the
1-percent level of probability. The complete data derived from over
 IAEA-SM-271/60 431

4 500 individual samples of fish showed that over 78 percent of the fish
were fresh enough to fully justify the use of irradiation.

Once we were certain that an ample supply of fresh fish of high

quality was assured to justify the irradiation preservation treatment,
we reasoned that the whole irradiation preservation concept could fail
if conditions of commercial transportation of fresh seafoods were in­
adequate. We wanted to know the temperature of fresh fillets from pro­
cessor or point of origin to distant destination. Shipments were made
at all seasons of the year so as to reflect the possible effect of
ambient temperature. The destinations included the states of New York,
Florida, Ohio, Maryland, Texas, and Washington. The amounts shipped and
recorded for temperature recording varied from as little as 100 pounds
to as high as 4 500 pounds.

The survey was conducted in 1965 and 1966 and it showed that all the
common commercial methods of transporting fresh fish fillets by licensed
interstate carriers ensure fillet temperatures of 40°F (4.44X1 or lower.
This temperature is low enough to permit shipment of irradiated fresh
fillets in good condition to the most distant parts of the continental
United States.

Having satisfied ourselves that there was an ample supply of high

quality fish and that the existing commercial interstate carriers imposed
no limiting factor for shipment of irradiated fresh fillets, we turned
our attention to an extremely critical phase of our three pronged approach.
This third phase concerned what we termed "commercial benefit study."
We wanted to know what commercial benefits industry people could find
with this new method of food preservation. In order to get answers to
this question we interviewed high-level managers of the eight largest
chain supermarkets in the nation.

We explained the purpose of irradiation and gave a brief explanation

of how it was achieved and we offered to give them (no cost to them)
adequate samples of both control and irradiated fish fillets. All the
fillets were sent to their head testing laboratories for evaluation (not
for sale to the public). At the conclusion of the tests, a spokesman
for each of the eight supermarkets was to give us a report. Each of
the eight stated that they could and would sell irradiated fresh sea­
foods in areas where fresh seafoods were not then sold.
Here is how various elements of the food distribution
chain viewed the irradiation preservation of seafoods. Producers
who were familiar with our work felt that irradiation processing
would help to smooth out the lows and highs of availability of fresh
fish supplies and would ensure a steadier market. Retailers asserted
that using irradiated seafoods would allow holding of the fillets
after the peak demand day in the week had passed rather than having
to mark down the price or discard the fish due to possible incipient
spoilage. The retailers also claimed that the process would enable
them to offer fresh fish throughout the week to a degree greater than
was then possible. Some in the chains claimed that some savings
could be passed along to consumers. Others stated that the advantage
to all segments was the expansion of sales of fresh seafoods to areas
not available at that time.

These studies were carried out in the mid-sixties and we are now
in the mid-eighties and things may have changed in that interval. A
review convinces us that there has been no great disadvantageous change.
432 KAYLO R et al.

First, with respect to the percentage of freshness level there has been
an improvement because of a concerted government-industry collaborative
effort to promote the availability of fish of very high freshness level
It has been remarkably effective especially at the supermarket level
where the greatest amounts of fish can be sold.^

With respect to desirable temperature of the fillets during distri

bution by common carrier at the present time, the availability and
use of more efficient insulation in the trucks insures an even better
degree of temperature maintenance. Added to this is a decided improve­
ment in the efficiency and economy of the mechanical refrigerating
equipment of the trucks.

The commercial benefits as envisioned by industry members remain

much the same now as they did two decades ago. The one point on which
there is some apprehension is the dwindling supply of fish. Stocks of
several desirable species of fish are not as abundant as they were
twenty years ago. As a consequence, if the lessening trend continues,
competition between fresh high quality fillets and high quality irradia
ted fillets would most likely result in defeat of irradiated fillets
because of the added cost.

U. S. POTENTIAL MARKET FOR IRRADIATED SEAFOOD

In 1983, consumption of seafood in the United States reached a

total of 3.0 billion pounds of which 1.86 billion pounds or 62 percent
was marketed as fresh and frozen.3 Consumption of fresh seafood
is estimated to be about 26 percent of total consumption for
fresh or frozen or about 484 million pounds annually and the
demand for fresh seafoods is still increasing.

A prime market for irradiated seafood would be for groundfish

(demersal) fillets and steaks. These products are in high demand
and producers would realize benefits from irradiation in extending
product shelf-life, stabilizing price fluctuations and expanding
markets. The total U. S. supply of fresh and frozen fillets and
steaks amounted to 378 million pounds in 1983 of which 298 million
pounds or 79 percent were imported. In recent years, there has been
a steady increase in the demand for fresh seafood which character­
istically commands a higher price than does frozen seafood. The
National Marine Fisheries Service reported that in 1983 retail prices
of fresh cod, flounder, and haddock fillets were practically always
higher than frozen fillets of the same species.

With suitable consumer acceptance, the potential impact of

irradiation might be to expand the market for fresh seafood by p e r ­
mitting wider use of imported seafood in the fresh rather than frozen
form. At present, most of the domestically produced fillets are mar­
keted as fresh while almost all of the imports are in the frozen form.
In recent years, there has been a definite increase in imports of
fresh fillets trucked or flown from Canada, Iceland, and Norway and,
with successful application of irradiation we would expect this to
increase. We are practical enough to realize how dependent we are on
imports of this nature and we are of the opinion that we could come
to a mutually satisfactory modus vivendi. This is based upon the
premise that strict good manufacturing processes would apply mutually.

3 1 U S billion = 109.
 IAEA-SM-271/60 433

The principal market for fresh and frozen seafood in the United
States is in institutional outlets, notably restaurants and fast
food chains. Successful use of irradiation might permit wider use
of fresh products for these huge markets. One case in point is that
of shrimp— a high value product— which is in great demand in this
country. In 1983, the total U. S. supply of shrimp was 577 million
pounds of which almost all is marketed as frozen. More than 70 percent
of the shrimp consumed annually is sold through institutional outlets.

Irradiation could be used at low doses of 150 000 to 200 000

rads to extend shelf-life of packaged fresh shrimp, thus permitting
marketing of greater quantities of fresh shrimp and, at higher doses,
to ensure elimination of Salmonella and other pathogens from imported
frozen shrimp. Other potential applications include the use of irradia­
tion in production of minced fish in specialty type products such as
surirai to reduce if necessary bacterial loads and possibly in depura­
tion of molluscan shellfish as an approved procedure to permit harvest­
ing from certain producing areas.

ECONOMICS

Twenty years ago, rough estimates were made to obtain the approxi­
mate per pound cost of irradiating fillets. At that time cobalt-60
was running anywhere from 33 to 50 cents per curie whereas now the cost
is about a dollar. Throughput was calculated at 12.5 million pounds per
year taking into account allowance for depreciation of capital investment
over a ten-year period, labor, fixed, and variable costs.®

We arrived at a cost of 1.9 cents per pound compared with 1.5

cents by Hitt^ using an irradiator of different design. During the
intervening years to the present we estimate that our original cost
would be tripled today or at least 5.7 cents per pound. For a more
detailed treatment of estimated costs today we recommend study of the
recent publication by Dr. Giddings.

IRRADIATOR MANAGEMENT

In the last twenty years we have irradiated not only many foods but
also such things as live insects that required extremely low doses of as
little as 300 rads. Other jobs ran as high as 500 megarads for special
electrical cables for nuclear reactors and the bombarding of precious
gem stones in the hope of producing unusual color changes.

From a management standpoint, the one common denominator that

applies to all irradiation jobs regardless of the magnitude of absorbed
dose is the achievement of the required dose and the proper recording
of all pertinent data relative to each irradiation job.

This requirement necessarily leads to the question of just what

information should be recorded. It has been our experience that good
quality control features should be absolutely paramount. For example,
irradiation of seafoods requires the pre-irradiation temperature of the
product to be at or as close to 33°F (1°C) as possible and as close to that
during the entire irradiation treatment. Provision should also be made
for continuous temperature recording during the whole operation until
final shipment from the irradiator. Needless to add, the design of the
plant should be such that there is no possibility of со-mingling un­
irradiated with irradiated material.
434 KAYLOR et al.

Generally, we require complete identification of the applicant,

address, date, description of the product to be irradiated, code marks
or other distinguishing characters, container size, total amount (weight
or number of units), dose requested, dose received, dosimetry system
used, phantom description (if any), irradiation time at start and fin­
ish, and number and position of the source plaques. In the event of
accidental product delay or malfunction of the conveying system, split
second timing of retraction of cobalt source must be accounted for so
that its eventual return to irradiation position must agree with the
original requested dose.

FOOD AND DRUG ADMINISTRATION

We are pleased that the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) has
taken positive action in respect to the use of ionizing radiation for
fruits and vegetables, disinfestation of food of insects, and to dis­
infest spices of microbes. We are of the opinion that one of the greatest
uses of ionizing radiation will be for meats, poultry and seafood. Some of
these products will require a minimum effective dose that will exceed
the present FDA limit of 100 kilorads. An example is the three species
of fish (cod, ocean perch (redfish) and flounder) that were irradiated
by the MPDI for animal feeding tests that were evaluated by the Joint
FAO/IAEA/WHO Expert Committee on Wholesomeness of Irradiated Food
(JECFI) .

We conducted these irradiations for four years at a dose level of

175 kilorads at the point of minimum absorbed dose. The maximum dose
was always over 200 kilorads. The final report of the JECFI was favora­
ble for all foods irradiated at less than one megarad. We trust that
FDA will soon make its announcement concerning food irradiation dose
levels between the present 100 kilorad level and the one megarad level
accepted by the international JECFI.

REFERENCES

[1] PROCTOR, B. E., GOLDBLITH, S. A., NICKERSON, J. T. R. and

FARKAS, D. S., Evaluation of the technical economic and
practical feasibility of radiation preservation of fish.AEC
Contract Number AT(30-l)-2329. 1960.

[2] NICKERSON, J. T. R., GOLDBLITH, S. A., MILLER, S. A.,

LICCIARDELLO, J. J., and KAREL, М., Outline of projects to
determine the feasibility of radiation preservation of marine
products,AEC Contract Number AT(30-l)-2329 Task X 1961.

[3] KAYLOR, J. D., and MURPHY, E. J., Commercial feasibility of

irradiating haddock and cod fillets -1. Quality of haddock
as landed at Boston, Massachusetts. Fishery Industrial
Research Vol. 6, No. 3 (1970) 139.

[4] KAYLOR, J. D., and MURPHY, E. J., Commercial feasibility of

irradiating haddock and cod fillets -2. Temperature patterns
during shipments of fresh fillets by truck and by rail. Fishery
Industrial Research Vol. 6, No. 3 (1970) 147.

[5] RONSIVALLI, L. J., GORGA, C., KAYLOR, J. D., and CARVER, J. H.,
A concept for assuring the quality of seafoods to consumers.
Marine Fisheries Review. 1978. 1.
 IAEA-SM-271/60 435

[6] KAYLOR, J. D . , and SLAVIN, J. W . , Irradiation - Big advance in

seafood preservation. Fishing News International Vol. 4 No. 2
1965.

[7] HITT, J. C . , The unit cost of food irradiation. Sixth Annual

AEC Food Irradiation Contractors Meeting C o n f . 661017 1966.

[8] GIDDINGS, G. G . , Radiation processing of fishery products.

Food Technology Vol. 38 No. 4 1984.
 IAEA-SM-271/15

COMMERCIAL RISKS AND BENEFITS

OF INVESTMENTS IN FOOD IRRADIATION
ON AN INDUSTRIAL SCALE
L. W IESNER
BGS Beta-Gamma-Service,
Dr. Wiesner GmbH & Co.,
Wiehl-Bomig, Federal Republic o f Germany

Abstract

COM M ERCIAL R ISK S AND B E N E F IT S O F IN V ESTM EN TS IN FOOD IRRAD IATIO N

ON AN IN D U ST R IA L SCA LE.
Econom ic aspects and prerequisites o f im portance for the com mercialization o f the
radiation processing o f food products are discussed. V arious factors imply that the capital
requirements for a com plete commercial food irradiation plant and the selling price o f the
radiation treatm ent have to be considerably higher than is suggested in many publications.
This holds especially for food irradiation facilities conceived for only one type of food, as
it will generally not be possible to make use o f the econom y o f scale in such cases. Investment
in such dedicated irradiation facilities has to be classified as a high risk venture for various
reasons which are described in some detail. The most im portant risk factor for investments
in food irradiation facilities is large changes in demand for irradiation capacity within rather
short periods which are com pletely unpredictable because they are caused by natural phenomena
such as weather. As the rational investor looks for a high potential return from high risk
ventures to offset the potential loss, the selling price for the radiation processing o f food
products is further increased. T o overcome this drawback the establishm ent o f irradiation
centres for a large number o f food s and possibly other products is recom m ended. Such a
■strategy, for which the BG S centre is cited as an exam ple, reduces at the same time
the risk for the rational investor as well as the selling price. Finally, the role o f the Jo in t
Division o f FA O and IAEA in implementing such a strategy especially in developing countries
is stressed.

1. PRE SE NT S T A R T IN G -P O IN T F O R TH E C O M M E R C IA L IZ A T IO N
OF FO O D IR R A D IA T IO N

A fter 30 years o f extensive research and testing, the time for a breakthrough
in food irradiation on an industrial scale has come. The way for the breakthrough,
which sometimes appeared to be only a remote possibility during the 1970s,
was mainly paved

— by the research results o f the International Project in the Field o f Food

Irradiation on the wholesom.eness o f irradiated food,
- by the conclusion o f the Joint FAO/IAEA/W HO Expert Committee on the
Wholesomeness o f Irradiated Food in 1980 that foods so treated up to an
overall average dose o f 10 kG y present no toxicological hazard,

437
438 WIESNER

— by the Joint FAO/WHO Codex Alimentarius Commission adopting in 1983

the Codex General Standard for Irradiated F ood and the Recommended
International Code o f Practice fo r the Operation o f Radiation Facilities
for the Treatment o f Food.

As it is now established that proper food processing by ionizing radiation

does not have any hazardous side-effects, development efforts have shifted to
realizing the technological process for a wide variety o f food items in order to
make the highly desirable beneficial effects o f radiation processing available
in practice. These are, in particular :

— the increase in safety o f food supplies by the destruction o f food-borne

pathogens,
— the enlargement o f food supplies by killing pests and delaying deterioration
processes,
— the reduction o f the dependence on specific effects o f chemical substances
against which living organisms can develop resistance,
— the energy saving from utilizing the high susceptibility o f the vital functions
o f living organic matter to radiation damage.

In spite o f these benefits, a lot o f advocacy work will be necessary before

radiation processing o f foods is readily accepted by governments, consumers
and investors. Governmental acceptance by abolishing obsolete general
prohibitions on trade with irradiated foods and giving clearances for the sale o f
foods processed with ionizing radiation according to acknowledged standards is
obviously the primary prerequisite for commercialization.
However, governmental acceptance alone is almost worthless so long as
there is no relatively broad acceptance o f irradiated foods by consumers. It is
doubtful whether a relatively broad consumer acceptance o f irradiated
foods exists in many countries or can be achieved within a reasonable time by
public information campaigns. Consumer behaviour may eventually change
drastically when governments adopt a positive attitude towards food irradiation
and justify such an attitude with the conclusions o f the Joint FAO/IAEA/WHO
Expert Committee and the large benefits o f food irradiation.
This consumer reluctance may well be the result o f governmental prohibition
o f trade in irradiated foods set up despite the lack o f evidence o f hazardous
side-effects o f the process. Many consumers will have seen the prohibition
itself as evidence o f such side-effects. It is also uncertain whether, after proper
information, many consumers continue to have those reactions to the word
“ irradiation” that are assumed in many discussions, especially regarding the
labelling o f irradiated foods.
A fter governmental sanction and consumer acceptance, demonstrated by
market tests and opinion polls, the commercialization o f irradiated foods requires
the willingness o f people to invest quite a lot o f money in this field. The factors
that influence and even reduce the readiness to invest in the commercialization
 IAEA-SM-271/15 439

o f irradiated foods and the strategy to overcome the reluctance o f investors by

reducing the commercial risks are the main themes o f this paper.

2. PR O D U C TIO N COST A N D S E L L IN G PRICE IN TH E R A D IA T IO N

PROCESSING O F FOODS

In countless publications the economic feasibility o f radiation processing

has been discussed fo r numerous food items and different local situations in
terms o f estimated treatment costs and accruing advantages such as the
reduction o f storage losses. Probably there is no single publication that does
not come to the conclusion, after such an evaluation o f the economic feasibility,
that the application o f fo od irradiation would be highly profitable.
Unfortunately, such statements are usually based on the direct processing
costs alone and even these are very often estimated without consideration o f
important cost factors in a commercial operation. For example, the appreciable
investment in land for the erection o f the irradiation facility and adjacent
warehouses is frequently not taken into consideration. Payments have to be
made long before any production starts. Thus considerable interest accrues
on this expenditure during the construction time and has to be added to the
total capital requirement. In some countries taxes have to be paid during the
investment period.
The total construction not only comprises the irradiation facility, ware­
houses and the laboratory, but also space and installations fo r heating plant
and electricity distribution, for social rooms, administration and auxiliary
services, i f the whole plant is not an integral part o f a larger industrial complex
with already existing infrastructure.
Apart from the continuous loss o f irradiation capacity by the decay o f
radioactive material in the case o f gamma-irradiation facilities, one w ill be
able to use at best only 80-9 0 % o f the theoretically available irradiation
capacity on account o f fluctuations in the delivery o f the foods to be irradiated
and the necessity to reduce delays in the irradiation o f very often perishable
foods to a minimum. Investment for an irradiation capacity higher than that
needed on an average is the inevitable consequence.
Thus the capital requirements for a complete commercial food irradiation
plant will be in most cases considerably higher than suggested in many publications.
Usually the irradiation facility proper will contribute substantially less than 50%
o f the total necessary investment. The profitability o f many applications o f
food irradiation will be heavily reduced by the higher amortization and interest
figures associated with higher capital expenditures, at least for the application
anticipated.
Moreover, a critical examination o f the profitability o f a business cannot
be based solely on the direct processing costs because there is no commercial
440 WIESNER

operation without considerable overheads fo r administration, taxes and sales

activities, to name only a few o f the indirect cost factors. In the field o f food
irradiation substantial public information activity will be needed for quite some
time. The expenditure on this will further increase the percentage o f the
overheads that has to be added to the direct processing costs for the calculation
o f the minimum selling price o f the radiation treatment for a given food item.
In many instances this minimum selling price will already be double or even
triple the treatment costs one finds in publications on the economic feasibility
o f food irradiation.

3. EC O N O M Y O F SCALE IN FOOD IR R A D IA T IO N

For potential investors in the erection o f a food irradiation facility, one

has to demonstrate, however, that selling prices considerably above the break­
even minimum can easily be maintained in the market for the advantages
irradiated foods offer. Especially when interest rates are high it is difficult
to find investors fo r a business that does not look very profitable. Why should
anybody invest in a business with all its risks for a return on investment that
is not considerably higher than, fo r example, the 10 % or more annual interest
offered fo r bonds with nearly no risk at all?
Unfortunately, investment in a food irradiation facility has to be classified
as a high risk venture for a number o f reasons. The basic problem which food
irradiation shares with all other applications o f radiation processing is the
unusually small ratio o f turnover to invested capital which in general is by far
the most important cost factor. This means that a large portion o f the total
costs is fixed and cannot be adjusted to the actual volume o f products which
have to be irradiated. A n y appreciable deviation o f the throughput from its
anticipated value consequently has a great effect on the profitability o f the business.
Moreover, the investment in an irradiation facility does not change very
much with the irradiation capacity installed. In the field o f food irradiation
this is even true for rather high 60Co prices as the doses are relatively low.
This is illustrated by Fig. 1 in which the increase in the total investment with
the annual throughput o f food products requiring an average minimum dose
o f 2—3 kGy is shown, assuming an efficiency o f 20—30% in the utilization
o f the 7 -radiation and a 60Co price o f US $1.20/Ci, including the costs for
shipment and installation o f the sources. The actual throughputs which can
be achieved will be about 25% lower than the theoretical ones shown in Fig.l
in most cases because o f the decay o f 60Co in the course o f a year and o f
fluctuations in demand for the irradiation capacity.
Thus a food irradiation plant that allows the throughput o f 75 000 t/a
according to the foregoing model assumptions requires only twice the invest­
ment for a plant with 25% o f that throughput. The difference in investment
 IAEA-SM-271/15 441

Theoretical throughput (103 t/a)

F IG .l. Relative increase o f investment costs with the 60Co source strength required for a
fixed theoretical throughput; 1.0 corresponds to the investment in the complete irradiation
plant without sources.

costs between plants w ith actual throughputs o f 2 0 0 0 0 and 10 0 0 0 t /а will be

barely more than 2 0 % because the cost o f industrial irradiation plants, without
the radiation sources, are over a very wide range nearly independent o f the
intended throughput.
In many applications the difference in the investment costs between plants
with different throughputs will be even smaller than in the above-mentioned
example because the relatively high average density o f food products allows
facilities with an efficiency o f more than 30% utilization o f the 7 -radiation.
Consequently, less radioactive material is needed for a given throughput.
The cost o f the radiation treatment per weight unit o f product depends
therefore very much on the size o f the throughput o f the plant. As also the
running costs, with the exception o f the expenditure fo r the replenishment
o f the 60Co sources, usually increase noticeably less than proportionally to the
throughput, the dependence o f the treatment cost per weight unit o f product
on the throughput is still further increased. The result are well-known curves
presented in Fig.2 fo r the treatment o f food products with an average minimum
dose o f 2—3 kGy.
442 WIESNER

Actual throughput ( 103 t /а) r

0 12.5 50 100 150 200 250
Used irradiation capacity (103kG y t/a )

FIG .2. Dependence o f the relative cost o f a radiation treatment on the actual throughput
o f a product requiring a dose o f 2.5 kGy and on the irradiation capacity.

As the relative cost o f 1.0 in a facility using an irradiation capacity o f

12 500 kG y t/а already corresponds to a selling price o f the order o f 40 US$/kGy-t,
which increases very rapidly as the irradiation capacity decreases, applications
justifying only such small capacities will hardly be economically viable, even
if the irradiation dose required is very small. This is the reason fo r the lack o f
interest in potato irradiation from industry, already authorized in many
countries, as long as pressure is not exerted by governments to use the radiation
technique instead o f chemicals for sprout inhibition. In most areas it is not
possible to obtain the 1 0 0 0 0 0 t o f potatoes necessary fo r operating a plant
with an irradiation capacity that can o ffer an attractive selling price for sprout
inhibition.
This causes another aspect o f plants dedicated to the irradiation o f certain
food products. V ery often it will not be possible to make use o f the economy
o f scale, as illustrated in Fig.2, because the amount o f food products to be
irradiated in any one geographical area does not justify the installation o f large
irradiation capacities. Moreover, the disadvantages o f transport over larger
distances to an irradiation facility w ill frequently outweigh the advantages o f
the radiation treatment, especially fo r perishable foods.
 IAEA-SM-271/15 443

Thus the capacity o f a food irradiation plant, and with it the selling price
o f the treatment, has to be determined in accordance with the anticipated
demand at a given location. Unfortunately, this demand is even much less
predictable in the food irradiation field than in other industrial areas because
the variations from year to year are highly irregular and do not follow general
trends in the national and international economy.

4. C O M M E R C IA L RISKS O F IN V E S T M E N T IN FOOD IR R A D IA T IO N
F A C IL IT IE S

Especially fo r most vegetable food products, large variations in the crop

from one harvest to the next resulting from the weather conditions have to be
taken into account. Deviations from an average yield o f the order o f 20—30%
occur quite frequently in quite limited areas. Sometimes crops can be almost
completely lost through unfavourable weather conditions. The most recent
example is the destruction o f citrus and other crops in large areas o f the
Mediterranean and the south-east United States as a result o f the unusual frosts
in January 1985. A couple o f years ago not only was the coffee crop destroyed
in Brazil, but also the plants themselves suffered so much from the frosts that
it was several years before crops returned to the normal level. In other regions
o f the earth periods o f drought may have similar consequences.
But even i f the yield o f a harvest falls only somewhat short o f the expected
average value, this small difference can translate into a much larger difference
in the irradiation capacity required. The extension o f shelf-life may be o f
interest fo r a considerably smaller portion o f the already reduced harvest. Local
prices o f such a food product may increase to such a level that there is no
incentive to export part o f the crop. I f irradiation is used mainly fo r the extension
o f the shelf-life o f the exported quantities, the use o f the installed irradiation
capacity could fall to a very low level.
For food products o f animal origin such unpredictable large changes from
harvest to harvest are less widespread and likely. But even here a bad year may
yield less than half the produce o f a good year. The fish industry on the west
coast o f South America, particularly in Peru, has experienced such drops in the
catch quite often when the intricate natural balance depending on the cold
Humboldt current (Peru coastal current) is upset by strong north winds,
bringing in warm water from the equator which then covers the cold water.
Similar but less dramatic variations within rather short periods are seen in the
catch in certain areas o f the North Atlantic. Overfishing may be another reason
fo r a sudden drop in the catch fo r a longer period until the fish shoals have
recovered.
Political developments may also change the profitability o f food irradiation
plants. In the second half o f the 1960s the Federal German fish industry became
444 WIESNER

very interested in irradiation for the extension o f shelf-life. A petition fo r the

irradiation o f fish was presented on 28 December 1971 to the responsible
Federal German authorities. In 1974, shortly before an authorization for the
irradiation o f limited quantities o f fish fo r human consumption was issued,
the fish industry dropped the whole irradiation project. The extension o f their
territorial waters by some countries excluded Federal German fishermen from
a large part o f their traditional areas completely or allowed them to catch
only small quantities. The whole catch o f the Federal German boats decreased
drastically, and fo r the remainder from far more distant fishing grounds deep­
freezing was the method o f choice fo r extending the shelf-life. This develop­
ment became apparent just before investment in the hardware for the irradiation
o f fish started.
Similar situations can spring up in countries interested in the irradiation
o f tropical and subtropical fruits fo r export to western Europe. The irradiation
may permit delivery o f higher quality products and may at the same time appear
very profitable because losses during transport are substantially reduced.
Nevertheless, other countries may lose a large part o f the market in western
Europe when Spain and Portugal join the Common Market with its trade barriers
for the protection o f producers in Member States o f the community.
Many more examples o f the special risks associated with investment in a
food irradiation facility can be given:

— Epidemic animal diseases can eliminate the demand for the irradiation o f
meat and meat products in a certain area for some time.
— Pork irradiation for the control o f Trichinella spiralis, as planned in the USA,
may rapidly become superfluous when the same measures are taken that
have practically eradicated trichinosis in Central Europe.
— Cultivation o f new varieties o f plants, grown under less favourable climatic
conditions, may convert countries which import products from such plants
to self-suppliers. Genetic engineering techniques may in the near future be
able to accelerate the introduction o f such new varieties o f plants
considerably.
— Introduction o f new packaging, storage, transport and distribution techniques
and procedures can substantially reduce the need for irradiation treatment
at a given location and/or fo r a certain type o f food products. In
developing countries a new railway line or highway connecting a harbour or
a production area with consumption centres, can diminish the transport
time to such an extent that one can more or less do without an extension
o f the shelf-life by irradiation.
— Changes in consumer preferences, perhaps caused by the advent o f new
products, may cause within a couple years a strong recession in the sales
o f an irradiated food product. A change for the worse in the income o f
 IAEA-SM-271/15 445

a majority o f the consumers may have the same effect, at least for products
other than the basic staple foods needed for nutrition.

Rational investors would probably also take into account the possibility
that opposition to food irradiation may arise again at some time, even i f there
has already been rather widespread acceptance. As the market is a very
unforgiving place, a few bad lots o f irradiated food, giving rise to frightening
headlines in the media, may rapidly destroy confidence o f the consumers and
thereby jeopardize the food irradiation business. This risk aspect has to be
considered very seriously when people from outside the responsible expert
circles, now promoting the large-scale introduction o f food irradiation, become
heavily involved in the field and take over the process. The incentive to
save money and to make money may pave the way occasionally to practices
that lead to bad results.
Being conscious o f all these types o f risks, rational investors would look
fo r a high potential return on their money to offset the potential loss in
financing fo od irradiation facilities. In most industries five or six years are the
upper time limit for the return o f the money invested that is still accepted for a
positive investment decision. Many industrial sectors set shorter time limits when
considering the balance between the risks and benefits o f an investment.
In view o f the risks associated with the financing o f a food irradiation
facility, times for the complete return o f the investment exceeding three full
years o f normal operation under the anticipated conditions will hardly be
acceptable. Such a condition further increases the relative importance o f the
invested capital in all commercial deliberations and requires correspondingly
larger benefits from the irradiation o f a food product.
I f the expenditures for the irradiation process and its benefits, for example
the reduction o f losses due to the extension o f shelf-life, accrue in the same
company, the profitability o f an investment can be assessed rather easily on a
sufficiently secure basis. But in most cases it will be necessary to sell the
benefits produced in one company by irradiating food to somebody else.
As the requisite selling price will be much higher in commercial reality
than is anticipated in most publications on the economic feasibility o f
radiation processing o f foods, the additional question arises as to what extent
customers, apart from the other aspects o f acceptance, will be prepared to pay
the price fo r fo od irradiation. It is general experience that especially industrial
customers are reluctant to pay more fo r a product o f higher quality as long as
they feel they can continue to do good business with what they marketed in the
past. Obviously thorough market research must be done before any investment
is made in a fo od irradiation facility in order to be reasonably sure that a
sufficiently large sector o f the market will accept the necessary price o f the
radiation processing.
446 WIESNER

5. PO SSIBILITIES A N D S TR A TE G IE S F O R R ED U C ING T H E IN V E S TM E N T
RISKS A N D TH E S E L L IN G PRICE O F R A D IA T IO N PROCESSING

Summing up the foregoing discussion, one can conclude that only very few
applications o f food irradiation will become commercially feasible in certain
parts o f the world and that direct or indirect action o f governments in favour o f
radiation processing o f foods will be an important prerequisite in many cases
fo r the introduction o f food irradiation.
The legal requirement o f assurance, for example, that only salmonella-free
chickens are sold would make their irradiation almost a necessity and the question
o f the acceptance o f the price fo r the radiation processing by the market would
lose its validity. In addition, investment in facilities fo r chicken irradiation is
relativély attractive because most o f the above-mentioned risks especially
associated with fo od irradiation are not relevant to this application. As rather
large irradiation capacities would be needed for chicken in many places, a rather
low selling price is compatible with an adequate return on investment in this case.
Investment incentives by governments fo r reducing the risks o f private
financing o f food irradiation facilities are another possibility, especially in cases
where increasing food supplies by killing pests and delaying deterioration processes
is a national objective.
In countries with largely centrally planned economies the government itself
may be the investor in food irradiation facilities. However, very often this does
not im ply that it is much easier there to promote a decision for the erection o f
a food irradiation facility than in countries where private investors have to be
found. Governments are usually confronted with a much larger number o f
proposals for new investments that appear profitable for the national economy
than they can finance. Thus they are forced to do much the same evaluation o f
the profitability o f an investment proposal as a private investor. Only the
relative importance o f criteria in the process o f taking a decision may be different
for governments and fo r private investors. On the other hand, the decision
process is generally considerably protracted in government bureaucracies.
In any type o f economy, however, the extent and the pace o f the com­
mercialization o f food irradiation processes will largely depend on the strategy
followed. The preceding discussion suggests a simple strategy which reduces
the investment risks and the cost o f the radiation treatment at the same time.
Projects fo r food irradiation will usually be less viable or not successful at all
i f they aim at the radiation processing o f only one type o f food product.
Reductions in the expected demand for irradiation capacity fo r this type o f
food product fo r one or more o f the reasons described above, which are beyond
the control o f even the best marketing and sales management, can rapidly make
the whole enterprise an irreparable failure.
The more types o f food products treated in an irradiation facility, the
smaller the risk o f a failure because the probability decreases that the demand
 IAEA-SM-271/15 447

for irradiation capacity is reduced for all or the majority o f the processed
products at the same time. I f the product spectrum is large enough, it will
frequently happen that a smaller demand for one type o f food product is more
or less compensated for by an unexpected larger demand fo r another type.
Thus the growth o f the product spectrum reduces the risks drastically.
A facility processing a larger number o f different food products will have
to be equipped with a higher irradiation capacity than most plants planned
for only one type o f product. Thus the strategy o f irradiating as many types
o f food products as possible in one facility offers the advantage o f the econom y
o f scale, as illustrated in Fig. 2, in addition to the lower return on the invested
capital, which becomes acceptable for an option with a considerably lower risk.
Finally, the much lower selling price for the radiation processing o f foods
facilitates the commercial acceptance in the market, which again reduces the
risk fo r the investor.

6. BGS EXPERIENCE IN R A D IA T IO N PROCESSING F O R A L A R G E

PRO D U C T SPECTRUM

We have successfully applied this strategy o f providing possibilities for the

irradiation o f a large product spectrum in our irradiation service. As there is
at present no licence fo r the large-scale commercial irradiation o f foods in the
Federal Republic o f Germany, the activities o f Beta-Gamma-Service (BG S) are
exclusively in other areas o f radiation processing.
Though the risks typical for food irradiation do not apply to these other
areas, there are other factors which make investment in radiation processing a
high risk venture if the strategy chosen is not good. Many possibilities fo r the
industrial application o f the radiation cross-linking o f polymers and its com­
petitiveness with other techniques, fo r example, have not yet been thoroughly
investigated. Uncertainties regarding the potential role o f radiation cross-linked
polymers among the large number o f other material options cannot be removed
in advance. The chances that radiation sterilization can compete with gas
sterilization on a purely commercial basis largely depend on unpredictable
action o f the national governments regarding safety issues and environmental
protection measures when ethylene oxide is used for sterilization.
Special risk factors existed fo r every area o f radiation processing scrutinized
during the planning phase fo r the establishment o f BGS. But the overall risk
o f this venture became sufficiently small when we decided to provide from the
very beginning irradiation services fo r an extrem ely wide spectrum o f products,
though this meant a considerable increase in the total investment compared
with a less ambitious start.
Tw o electron accelerators with limited multi-purpose functions have been
in operation since May 1983 and January 1984, respectively; a versatile
448 WIESNER

7 -irradiation facility will be commissioned in the second quarter o f 1986 and a

fourth facility is in the planning stage for completion by the end o f 1987.
Nevertheless, we are already providing irradiation services for seven different
product areas. The sterilization o f medical supplies, laboratory equipment,
packaging materials and other requisites is just one o f these seven product areas.
Most o f them comprise products used in many different industrial sectors and
fo r quite different purposes.
Within this large product spectrum we experienced both disappointments
and surprises during the preparatory phase fo r the establishment o f BGS. In
one case we were pretty sure o f very rapidly achieving a large sales volume
because o f the widespread use o f this application o f radiation processing
in the United States o f America. When, however, our irradiation facilities
came into operation, the corresponding industrial branch in the Federal
Republic o f Germany had largely solved the technical problem with support from
the chemical industry in a different way. Consequently, only a small fraction
o f the anticipated volume remained for irradiation processing.
On the other hand, applications developed for the solution o f technical
problems that we had not considered as being o f interest fo r radiation processing.
A favourable selling price fo r the irradiation capacity, thanks to the econom y o f
scale, makes radiation processing economically feasible for quite ordinary
requisites o f daily use. N ew developments such as the catalytic purification o f
exhaust gases from combustion engines require more heatproof materials in cars,
which can be produced by radiation cross-linking.
As soon as the irradiation o f food products is licensed BGS will o ffer its
services in this field. In the existing facilities this will have to be limited, however,
to certain types o f food products. It is not difficult to conceive that both
customers and authorities will be reluctant to allow the sterilization o f medical
supplies in the same facility in which, fo r example, chicken are irradiated to
render them pathogen-free.

7. PRE REQ U ISITE S F O R TH E IM P L E M E N T A T IO N O F M ULTI-PURPO SE

FOOD IR R A D IA T IO N CENTRES

In view o f such limitations regarding the irradiation o f food and non-food

products in the same facility, it will in most cases be essential for the imple­
mentation o f the strategy described above that the radiation processing o f
more than just one or a few fo od products is licensed. The past practice
o f item-by-item licensing has certainly hindered the large-scale commercial
use o f such food irradiation licences. While the non-use o f existing licences in
some countries has often been considered as evidence o f the lack o f a need for
food irradiation, the unjustifiable risk for investors must be taken as decisive
when the whole venture has to be based on just one or a few products.
 IAEA-SM-271/15 449

The conclusion o f the Joint FAO/IAEA/W HO Expert Committee on the

Wholesomeness o f Irradiated Food and the Standards fo r Irradiated Food,
adopted by the FAO/WHO Codex Alimentarius Commission, have fortunately
opened the door to general licensing for the vast majority o f food products
fo r which irradiation may be beneficial in the civilian sector. This meets the
requirements for the commercial realization and the natural desire o f consumers
to receive the benefits o f fo od irradiation at a reasonably low price.
The obvious advantages o f food irradiation centres fo r the processing o f a
variety o f foods and possibly other products are faced with one disadvantage:
Their planning requires much more preparatory studies and investigation, a lot
o f teamwork between experts o f different disciplines, and careful examination
and comparison o f the relative merits o f special plant designs fo r the product
spectrum envisaged. Developing countries, fo r which in general the com­
mercialization o f fo od irradiation is much more important and urgent than for
most industrialized nations, may often have greater difficulty in bringing
together the expert manpower and the resources for the establishment o f food
irradiation centres than fo r facilities dedicated to the irradiation o f one type
o f product.
Therefore large tasks and obligations arise in the large-scale commercialization
o f food irradiation particularly for the Joint Division o f F A O and IA E A which
already in the past has been a strong, reliable, unperturbed defender and
promoter o f food irradiation. Thus it has contributed substantially to the
progress now enabling us to talk seriously about the prospects and the strategies
fo r the application o f this processing technique fo r fo od products.
 IAEA-SM-271/51

AN INDUSTRIAL VIEW OF
COMMERCIAL FOOD IRRADIATION

G.G. GIDDING S
ISOM EDIX Inc.,
Whippany, New Jersey,
United States o f America

Abstract

AN IN D U ST R IA L VIEW O F COM M ERCIAL FOOD IRR A D IA TIO N .

As regulatory im pedim ents to food irradiation are resolved and public acceptance increases,
broad industrial-scale food irradiation is approaching commercial reality in the Americas,
follow ing the lead o f other regions. The focus o f attention is now shifting from these obstacles
towards corporate strategic planning and tactical positioning, including pragm atic business
considerations. F o r radiation processing firms previously involved primarily with the sterilization
o f medical devices, health care or similar products, food irradiation calls for m odifications in
thinking, planning and action to deal properly with a unique and specialized product category
and to minimize associated risks to the com pany, as well as to the future o f food irradiation
itself, which is approaching, or is perhaps already in the most risky stage o f its evolution. F o r
established food processing/packaging firm s, and even more so fo r growers/harvesters, shippers,
and distributors o f raw agricultural and fishery com m odities, the challenge is to becom e familiar
with and com fortable with what is for them a new technology, to evaluate rationally its
potential utility, often in com parison with com peting alternatives, and to reach sound decisions
as to whether or not to adopt the technology, and if so, in what manner. Individuals, organi­
zations and firms that are now, or intend to become involved in industrial food irradiation
should make every effort at this critical juncture to assure that public and private sector
ventures are solidly based on sound pre-investment screening and feasibility studies in order
to minimize the risk o f ill-advised, misguided placement o f food irradiation facilities.

As this clean, safe, wholesome, non-residue/effluent-

generating physical process proceeds to take its
permanent place among the more established food
processing-treatment-preservation methods, as it
already has been and is assuming an increasing share
of the health care and non-food industrial and con­
sumer product sanitization/sterilization market, this
process as applied to foods and their raw materials
and ingredients is at perhaps the most vulnerable
stage of its decades-long evolution. At this critical
crossroads, successful worldwide industrialization
can to a considerable extent be assured by, on the
one hand, earning the acceptance, and perhaps in time,
even the enthusiastic endorsement of the process, and
foods so processed, by a still largely unaware, or at

451
452 GIDDINGS

best vaguely aware general public. A striking illus­

tration of the general lack of awareness among the
U.S. consuming public, for example, occurred in
January of this year on a nationally televised news
program of a major U.S. network, during which the
moderator, a worldly and well-informed veteran
national and international newsman, on introducing
a segment on food irradiation, admitted to not having
previously been aware of the subject, and had dif­
ficulty pronouncing "irradiated". We who are so
close to, and intimately familiar with,food irradia­
tion should continually remind ourselves that most
people are so far vaguely aware of its existence, if
at all, and circumstances under which people do gain
awareness can be critical to successful industrial­
ization.

Assurance of successful worldwide industrialization

of food irradiation can, on the other hand, also to a
large extent depend upon parties concerned taking all
possible steps to avoid the execution of misguided,
ill-advised ventures by overzealous entrepreneurs and
others whose desire to get into the business and ride
a perceived 'wave1, or, whose desire to impact posi­
tively upon the world food situation, or for whatever
reason, supersedes the application of sound feasi­
bility evaluation and prudent business practices in
the private sector, or, sound economic planning and
development practices in the public sector as the
case may be, when it comes to food irradiation ven­
tures or projects. Increasingly, my firm is being
contacted and approached by individuals and organiza­
tions within the USA , and especially abroad, for
proposals to install a food irradiation facility be­
fore they've begun to do the kind of rigorous, com­
prehensive feasibility or pre-capital investment
study that such ventures should require. Our typical
response is to offer to participate in an appropriate
prefeasibility screening study, to be followed by a
thorough feasibility study if warranted, prior to
their making any capital investment.

While living in South America for several years,

working in the agricultural-fisheries-food process­
ing sector, this writer observed a number of cases of
perfectly good technologies sitting idle and gather­
ing 1rust-and-dust-' because they were transferred to
inappropriate environments for the wrong reasons by
overzealous vendors and underinformed recipients. A
 IAEA-SM-271/51 453

further problem that would arise with misplaced

radioisotope plants that are idle, or that are
operating at well below capacity, is that precious
cobalt-60 (or cesium-137) would be decaying away
while processing little or nothing, in addition to
any 'ru s t - a n d -dust' accumulation. Such misplacement
and misuse of valuable isotope, above all, we as an
industry can ill-afford. This writer has also
experienced the special satisfaction that comes with
the transfer of an appropriate technology to an
environment in which it truly makes a major contri­
bution in filling a real need. .Let us resolve that
all future food irradiation plants end up in this
category. It is not only in developing countries
that we are already perceiving possibly misguided,
ill-advised food irradiation ventures beginning to
take shape. Evidence of same is also appearing here
in North America, for example, where this technology
is only now beginning to become industrialized for
food processing, having long-since been industrial­
ized for non-food processing.

How does one guard against an ill-advised project/

investment of the magnitude of from, say, one to a
few million U.S. dollars. Always a good starting
point is to ask the question - what do I want to
know and be reassured about a given project before
investing my own funds heavily into it? Such a
question should lead to what is variously referred
to as a reconnaissance survey, opportunity screening
evaluation, and the like, which, if positive, is
typically followed by a pre-feasibility study and/or
a rigorous technico-economic-market-financial-etc.-
feasibility study in the pre-implementation phase
before capital is invested. A good guide for con­
ducting same in the context of public sector-funded
projects as, for example, in centrally planned
economies is the "Manual for the Preparation of
Industrial Feasibility Studies" (United Nations
Industrial Development Organization, Vienna, U.N.
Publication Sales No. E.78.II.B.5, 1978). For
ventures that would be private sector-funded, the
rigor of preparing a detailed business plan and test­
ing its "bankability" by marketing it to raise capi­
tal is usually a good test of the soundness of the
venture, though no absolute guarantee of its ultimate
success. The competence and credibility of those
wishing to implement a proposed venture is often the
best single criteria by which to judge the soundness
of a proposed industrial venture, especially if the
454 GIDDINGS

principals have already developed a record of estab­

lishing similar successful ventures. In the absence
of pursuing one or another of the foregoing prein­
vestment evaluations and analyses, the adage "caveat
emptor" prevails, all too often to the ultimate dis­
may of those concerned. Let all who are dedicated
to the successful industrialization of food irradia­
tion guard against any such eventualities. The Joint
FAO/IAEA Division of Isotope and Radiation Applica­
tions of Atomic Energy for Food and Agricultural
Development can play a major role in this regard
through promoting and sponsoring more of the project
pre-investment feasibility-type studies, as needéd in
developing countries especially, just as it has so
admirably done with national and regional research
and development programs. Industrialized country
assistance agencies such as the U.S. Agency for
International Development and Overseas Private
Investment Corporation, and the Canadian Inter­
national Development Agency, can and are doing like­
wise, in part by providing support for feasibility
studies and implementation by radiation processing
firms and their local counterparts.

Whereas the Committee on Food Labeling of the

WHO/FAO Codex Alimentarius of the U.N. World Food
Standards Program is scheduled to convene at Ottawa
immediately following the conclusion of this Inter­
national Symposium to, among other matters, try to
resolve the question of the prepackaged irradiated
foods labeling standard, the remainder of this
paper addresses, and presents one concerned indivi­
dual's perspective on this most controvers.ial of all
issues connected with industrial food irradiation.
The labeling matter could bear heavily on at least the
near-term food irradiation industrialization potential
in North America and elsewhere. While the labeling
matter appears to have been positively resolved in at
least one or two countries (the Netherlands and the
Republic of South Africa) with the use of the "symbol"
as something of a quality seal and marketing aid; to
label or not to label, and if so, under what conditions
and in what manner has become the most controversial
and debated aspect of promulgating irradiated food
regulations in the USA and Canada, and no doubt else­
where; and, in reaching a consensus on the "Irradiated
Foods" Section 5.2 of the Recommended International
General Standard for the Labeling of Prepackaged Foods
among the Codex Committee on Food Labeling delegations.
 IAEA-SM-271/51 455

The issue was not resolved at the 17th session of this

Committee in October, 1983< at Ottawa, largely because
several delegations needed to await the results of
internal reviews of the subject then underway within
their respective countries in order to be able to take
a formal position. In the interim, at the conclusion
of the October, 1983 deliberations, Section 5.2.1 was
left to read "a food which has been treated with ion­
izing radiation/energy shall include on the label the
statement ’treated by ionizing energy'" in the context
of the labeling of prepackaged, 'first generation'
irradiated foods (i.e., the entire prepackaged food
being what is so treated as opposed to containing
previously irradiated components such as ingredients).

The labeling issue is perhaps most problematic in the

USA at the present time as the new U.S. irradiated
foods regulation nears finalization, and U.S. actions
on such matters have tended to influence similar
actions by other nations, as well as the Codex
Ali m e n t a r i u s . Therefore, in attempting to put the
entire issue into sharper focus, the U.S. irradiated
foods labeling history is employed here as a case
study for analysis. Following the 1958 enactment, by
the Congress, of the Food Additives Ammendment to the
U.S. Food Law — the "Food" section of the Food, Drug,
(Device) and Cosmetic Act of 1938, which classified
"sources of radiation" as food additives — radiation
sterilization of bacon, radiation disinfestation of
wheat and wheat flour and radiation inhibition of
potato sprouting were approved in 1963-64 by the U.S.
Food and Drug Administration (FDA, which is empowered
to implement the Act through the promulgation and
enforcement of regulations). The U.S. Food Law or
Statute (the Act) addresses the 'whys-and-wherefores'
of labeling as well as other legal or statutory
aspects; however, in approving those first few afore­
mentioned food applications of ionizing radiation,
the FDA did not at first include a labeling require­
ment, evidently in recognition of the fact that there
is no clear statutory imperative to do so in the Act.
The FDA was actively considering imposing a retail as
well as a wholesale level irradiated food labeling
requirement during that period; however, evidently for
n o n l e g a l , consumer-driven reasons according to testi­
mony for the record of Robert S. Roe, Director of the
then FDA Bureau of Scientific Standards and Evaluation
before thé Joint Congressional Committee on Atomic
Energy-Subcommittee on Research, Development and
456 GIDDINGS

Radiation during June, 1965 Hearings on food

irradiation.

Upon indicating that he felt irradiated food labeling

to be a necessary thing that was under consideration,
Mr. Roe was asked by a Congressman what effect he felt
labeling requirements might have on the acceptability
of irradiated food products, to which he replied -
"I don't know. We don't want to devise a label that
will simply result as a scare. It was our view, how­
ever, that labeling should be informative. We have
had requests from consumer groups for more informative
labeling in many items and we are sympathetic to that".
This was taking place during a period in which there
was considerable public clamor for labeling of chemical
food additives, perservatives and ingredients. That
Mr. Roe made no reference to the Act in that portion
of his testimony having to do with labeling, referring
only to "requests from consumer groups", indicates that
the consideration of labeling after the fact of the
1963-64 approvals was solely 'consumer driven'. The
first formal pronouncement of an irradiated foods
labeling requirement was in connection with the addi­
tional approval of electron beam radiation disinfes­
tation of wheat and wheat flour in 1966 ("Labeling
requirements for food treated by radiation: Low-dose
electron beam radiation", FDA, Federal Register
3 M 1 3 4 ): 9491, 1966). Radiation disinfestation of
wheat and flour with cobalt-60 and cesium-137 gamma
radiation was approved in 1963 and 1964,respectively,
without any labeling requirement, as were the bacon
sterilization approvals of 1963 (cobalt-60 in February;
5 MeV electron beam in A u g u s t ) , of 1964 (X-ray in July;
cesium-137 in No v e m b e r ) , and 1965 (10 MeV electron
b e a m ) , and, the potato sprout inhibition approvals of
1964 (cobalt-60 in July; cesium-137 in October) and
1965 when the maximum permitted dose was raised from
10 to 15 kilorads (U.S. Dept, of Commerce, 1966), ten
approvals in all.l Thus it was not until the eleventh
successive food irradiation approval was published in
the Federal Register in 1966 that a labeling require­
ment was included.

The following year, in a March 2, 1967 Federal Register

publication, these standing irradiated food regulations
were revised to include the following required labeling

1 1 ra d = 1 .0 0 к 10“ 2 Gy.
 IAEA-SM-271/51 457

statements: "Processed/treated by ionizing/gamma/

electron/X-radiation" on retail packages, and together
with the additional phrase "do not irradiate again" on
wholesale packages and on invoices or bills-of-lading
of bulk shipments. Although this step was, again,
evidently solely in response to a perceived general­
ized 'consumer' desire for greater food labeling, in
the 1966 and 1967 Federal Register publications a
legal or statutory authority was offered; namely, that
part of the "Food Additives" section of the Act having
to do with specifying conditions under which (clearly
chemical) food additives may be used "to insure safe
u s e " , including "any directions or other labeling or
packaging requirements for such additive deemed neces­
sary to assure the safety of such u s e .... The Secretary
may at any time, upon his own initiative, propose the
issuance of a regulation prescribing, with respect to
any use of a food additive, the conditions under which
such additive may be safely used, and the reasons
therefor". (Federal Food,Drug and Cosmetic Act as
Ammended, Chapter IV-"Food", Section 409 с & d ) . This
rationale remains in the current, existing U.S. reg­
ulation today (Title 21-Code of Federal Regulations-
Chapter I, Subchapter В - "Food for Human Consumption",
Part 179 "Irradiation in the Production, Processing
and Handling of Food") for those approvals remaining
in effect following the 1968 radiation sterilized bacon
cancellation; namely wheat and flour disinfestation
and potato sprout inhibition ("H u m a n " is underlined
here to call attention to the fact that although this
Subchapter refers explicitly to "food for human con­
sumption", the FDA applies Part 179 provisions to
pet and laboratory animal foods and feeds as w e l l ) .

However, as Dr. Edward L. Korwek, attorney with the

Wash., D.C.,Law Offices of Keller and Heckman correct­
ly points out in examining legal aspects of food
irradiation, with particular emphasis on the labeling
question; while a case might have been made, under the
operative "to assure safe use" rationale, for wholesale
level labeling (and even that is no longer the case in
light of present day knowledge about radiolytic pr o­
ducts) , "It is difficult in light of present knowledge,
however, to understand the rationale under Section 409
for labeling at the retail l e v e l ......" (Korwek, 1983).
Clearly, one needs to assure the safe use of the actual
"food additive" in this context according to the
Statutory definition; namely the "source of radiation" .
In fact, in that section of Part 179 of the regulations
458 GIDDINGS

having to do with "Sources of radiation used for

inspection of food, for inspection of packaged food,
and for controlling food processing" (i.e., 179.21,
which covers in-line, under 1000 rad irradiation for
quality control purposes) labeling of the sources as
to directions for installation and operation, etc., is
specified "To assure safe use of these radiation sources"
But elsewhere under Part 179 pertaining to radiation
processed/treated foods, it is the foods themselves
that must be labeled "to assure safe use". That this
never was a valid legal rationale for especially
retail level labeling of irradiated foods themselves
(in contrast to industrial use of chemical additives,
for which assurance of safe use can be pertinent) is
evidenced by the FDA position stated in 1982 as fol­
lows: "the fact that the source of radiation is
legally a food additive is irrelevant to the issue of
labeling. The fact that declaration of irradiation
is presently required, results from a determination
made during the 1960's that such material facts should
be reve a l ed. The agency is reevaluating this issue."
(Takeguchi, 1983). This appears consistent with the
perception of a 'consumer-driven' need for irradiated
food retail labeling as indicated in Mr. Roe's mid-
1965 Congressional testimony.

The question then becomes, is this need to reveal

"material facts" rationale solely a 'consumer driven'
one, as inferred in the above quote (i.e., "...should
be revealed"), or, was it being advanced in 1982-83
as a legal or statutory requisite (in which case the
operative word would be "...shall be revealed")? In
his comment letter to the FDA following its Notice of
Proposed Rulemaking publication in the February 14,
1984 Federal Register, attorney Korwek makes the point
that although "Sections 403 (2) (1) and 201 (n) of the
Act governing misbranding provide the statutory stan­
dards for requiring special labeling (and) under these
sections a food is misbranded if it is false or m i s ­
leading in any particular or if, among other things,
it fails to reveal material facts with respect to the
consequences that might result from use of the food,
under these sections, it is difficult to conceive of
a treated food being misbranded for lack of labeling
of the method of processing, especially since there
would not necessarily be any misrepresentation of
identity, ingredients, quality or freshness." (Korwek,
1984) . In the same vein, in his 1983 publication,
Korwek argues that "there seems to be no precedent
 IAEA-SM-271/51 459

that would support these readings of Sections 403 and

201 ....there is no cognizable right per se under the
Act for consumers to know how foods are processed."

The Notice of Proposed Rulemaking (NPRM) that the FDA

published in the February 14, 1984 Federal Register
agrees in the main with the lack of a need for retail
level labeling, for retail level labeling is completely
omitted from the proposed new Part 179, which retains
only the wholesale level labeling provision, and only
for irradiated foods, ingredients, etc. "which is
shipped to a food manufacturer or processor for fur­
ther processing, labeling or packing..." Though no
rationale is stated for retaining the wholesale level
labeling requirement in this context, it seems appar­
ent that it is intended for purposes of inventory
control and avoidance of unnecessary reirradiation.
In the lengthy preamble to the proposed new irradiated
foods regulation, it is stated under "Labeling" that
"The agency now believes that there is no need for a
special label on irradiated foods because this proposal
would limit the conditions of use of irradiation to
those that have already been shown to be safe" (i.e.,
there is no "safety" or "safe use" basis for labeling).
In the context of "Misbranding" it states that "The
issue is whether the label of a food would mislead
consumers if processing information were not set forth
on the label. Material information may not be omitted
simply because it concerns the type of processing to
which a food is subjected if the effect is to mislead.
The agency has concluded that the information about
radiation processing is not material in this sense and
therefore need not be provided on the label of retail
f o o d s ."

If, then, the justification given for a retail labeling

requirement in the existing regulation, "to assure safe
use" is irrelevant, and if such information as identi­
fication of the process/treatment used is "not material"
and, therefore, its absence is not misleading and,
therefore, not misbranding, is there any legal grounds
for arguing in favor of retail level labeling in the
U.S. context? One seems to be hinted at in the February
14, 1984 Notice of Proposed Rulemaking "Labeling" dis­
cussion by such statements as "There is information
that indicates that irradiation causes some alteration
of the characteristics of some foods in ways that could
be important to consumers.... there might be changes in
organoleptic properties (taste, color, smell, texture)
460 GIDDINGS

that could make the processed food more or less desir­

able to individual consumers. The available informa­
tion about changes in foods that could be irradiated
under this proposed regulation is limited, and FDA is
not persuaded that special labeling is necessary. More­
over, processors will have a strong incentive to insure
that changes in organoleptic properties are kept to an
absolute minimum because consumers, upon purchase, could
easily determine inferior quality and would shun the
product in the future". Well, 1so-far-so-good' in that
effects on eating quality (which, if any, are milder
with radiation processing/treatment than with comparable
processes and treatments) appears to be acknowledged
as a marketability aspect and not the safety or
efficacy aspects that the Food and Drug Administration
is mandated by the Congress to concern itself with.
If a specific application (for example, radiation
pasteurization of fluid milk which was dismissed as
nonviable for organoleptic change reasons by food
irradiation technologists decades ago) results in
objectionable eating quality changes of such a magni­
tude as to render the application practically ineffec­
tive, then it will not be done, or not for long if
attempted, for marketability reasons. This is, there­
fore, no legal basis for calling for retail level
labeling of all irradiated foods under the "misleading"
definition of "misbranding". Further, since the stated
proposition about organoleptic changes is in a real
sense itself inaccurate and misleading, it is not an
'ethical' basis either.

Further on in the Notice of Proposed Rulemaking

"Labeling" discussion four questions regarding label­
ing are posed for comments, which provided the sub­
stance of a "Dear Consumer" polling letter, dated
February 28, 1984, which was sent out to individuals
and groups across the country from the Office of the
FDA Associate Commissioner for Consumer Affairs.
The real question that is posed, and upon which inser­
tion of a retail level labeling requirement could be
decided with the aid of a stilted 'ballot', can be
restated as follows: Would consumers be more misled
by the presence of a labeling statement such as
"treated with ionizing radiation" or "processed with
ionizing energy" intended to warn or alert the consumer
as to possible objectionable changes in organoleptic
properties, but which could be misinterpreted as a
warning or alert as to a possible health or safety
risk, or would the consumer be more misled by the
 IAEA-SM-271/51 461

absence of any such statement, and thus no warning or

alert as to possible undersirable organoleptic
change(s) that might "be important to the individual
consumer? " Attorney Korwek (1984) discusses the lack
of a legal basis for this regulatory approach to
deciding the retail level labeling issue, for changes
in organoleptic properties are not even implied under
the "misbranded food" provisions of the Act. This
"organoleptic changes" proposition is technically
groundless as well for, again, this writer can con-
ceive of no viable or efficacious food irradiation
application which, properly done under well estab­
lished procedures (i.e., good manufacturing/irradiation
practices, which are not regulated through labeling),
would give rise to organoleptic changes such as to
warrant a label warning or alert. On the contrary,
one of the attractive features of this process/
treatment is that it causes so little change, if any,
in foods compared with alternative or competing
processes/treatments. One could cite any number of
examples of this point.

Although the Notice of Proposed Rulemaking did not

include any retail labeling requirement, some four
months before it was published in the February 14,
1984 Federal Register, and around the time of the last
Codex Food Labeling Committee meeting, the October 17,
1983 issue of Food Chemical News (p.2, published w eek­
ly by Food Chemical News, Inc., Washington DC) stated
that "The FDA has decided that labeling of (irradiated)
retail food products should be included to make con­
sumers aware that the food has been processed by
a method they may find objectionable. The label state­
ment 'treated with ionizing radiation' is expected to
be required to appear prominently on the retail labels
of irradiated food, under the proposed regulation,
which is expected to be published soon. The agency is
expected to issue a press release when the proposal
appears in the Federal Register, and to recommend
that industry embark on a public education campaign
to dispel consumer fears of the p r o c e s s ." The concern
at the moment is that the U.S. industry could yet
become burdened with what would appear to be a rather
arbitrary imposition of a nebulous and easily misinter­
preted retail labeling statement, and the international
community as well, before "public education campaigns
to dispel consumer fears of the process" have had a
chance to proceed, and to likely render the retail
462 GIDDINGS

labeling question moot. In fact, such a retail label­

ing statement is virtually meaningless in the absence
of the kind of public awareness-consumer education
efforts that would likely render one unnecessary; one
that is by itself open to misinterpretation on the one
hand and noninformative in the true sense of what the
consumer needs to and should know on the other. The
often expressed appeal "the consumers right/need to
know and make a choice", typically grounded in misunder­
standing, confusion and fear of and about the process
is really a call for information that will lead to
understanding and acceptance of the process as applied
to foods, that a nebulous and misleading labeling
statement cannot provide. No one associated with the
process would deny the consumers need to come to know
about and understand the process, including the facts
that it is safer and more effective than traditional
chemical treatments, milder towards nutrient content
(e.g., vitamins) and eating quality attributes
("organoleptic properties") than certain comparable
processes and treatments, and probably more economical
as well in certain instances, and, capable of poten­
tially improving the general public health through the
eradication of pathogens and parasites that cause
food-borne illnesses and intoxications from foods as
well as feeds. This is much different than the "con­
sumers right/need to know" merely the fact of the use
of the process through a potentially misleading, nebu­
lous labeling statement (i.e., "processed/treated with
ionizing radiation/ energy").

There is a typically overlooked side to this matter

where the legal or statutory 'rights' proposition
could apply without a very strained interpretation of
the Act, and where a convincing ethical rights argument
can most certainly be made; namely, producer or indus­
try 'rights'. From the legal standpoint, there may be
legal precedent for not allowing a regulatory require­
ment for a nebulous, potentially misleading labeling
burden, that in and of itself would serve no truly
useful purpose, to be imposed on industry. If there
is no legal precedent for not doing so, then this case
could offer an excellent candidate for setting such a
precedent. The November 15, 1982 issue of Food
Chemical News quotes Dr. Sanford Miller, Director of
the FDA Center for Food Safety and Applied Nutrition
as predicting significant changes in food labeling
during the "next five years" (i.e., 1983-87), stating
that "There will be changes in the way the label is
 IAEA-SM-271/51 463

laid out and what FDA insists is on it. Labels are

enormously cluttered now, and much of the information
is of no value to the consumer". Yet the poorly
informed 1person-in-the-street1 (or 'in-the-supermarket',
as in recent U.S. television news segments), when asked,
mistakenly regards the label as the medium through which
to become informed and educated about food irradiation,
or warned so as to avoid some nonexistent perceived
risk. The better informed and well-intended but nega­
tively biased 'consumer interests advocate', and, the
self-serving antagonist appeal or clamor for a retail
labeling statement because of lingering concerns about
safety despite authoritative assurances in the first
instance (i.e., for risk avoidance purposes), and/or
to further confound and impede the regulation and
industrialization in the latter instance. The latter
go to almost any lengths to have the public believe
that there are all kinds of as yet unresolved safety
questions, and even credible evidence of health risk
when the opposite is the case. The preposterous sug­
gestion was recently made that retail level labeling
is needed because "if the foods are labeled, it will
be possible in the future to conduct epidemiologic
studies, based upon personal interviews, of the pos­
sible harmful effects of stable radiolytic products
in the labeled foods. Irradiated products should be
labeled in large type (16 point capitals or larger)
in a color which contrasts clearly with the background
color. Optimal labeling would simply specify
'IRRADIATED'. All retailers of food, both grocery
stores and restaurants, should be required to display
a similar legend on or adjacent to the product which
has been irradiated" (Food Chemical News, 10/22/84,
p. 16, quoting from a comment letter by a U. of
California pr o fessor). Even if retail labeling could
make possible such an out-of-the-question epidemiolo­
gical study, which it cannot, a main conclusion of a
massive quantitative study of radiolytic and thermo-
lytic products in several radiation and heat steril­
ized meat and poultry items, that "there are no
unique radiolytic products" even at doses nearly one
hundred times what the FDA is proposing to permit
(Radiolysis Products in Radiation Sterilized Bacon,
Beef, Chicken, Ham and Pork, Final Report, Dr. Charles
Merritt, Jr., Principal Investigator, Science and
Advanced Technology Laboratory, U.S., Army Natick
Research & Development Laboratories) renders the
proposition groundless.
464 GIDDINGS

Earlier this year, a radical fringe network in the

USA initiated an attempt to sieze upon the irradiated
food retail labeling 'issue' to call attention to it­
self and attract funds. Calling itself the "Coalition
to Stop Food Irradiation", (CSFI), the San Francisco-
based upstart puts out perhaps the most bizarre and
'zany' misinformation yet on the subject, stating in
an advertisement in the February-March issue of MOTHER
JONES magazine - "CSFI proposed local labeling legis­
lation, and sample labels for both irradiated "food"
and nonirradiated foods....Our collective activities
to stop the irradiation of food will benefit all of
us....Your support will help us launch the Coalition
to Stop Food Irradiation". Is this confusion, fear
and caprice-punctuated atmosphere surrounding the
irradiated foods labeling matter justification for
imposing some nebulous, misleading retail label state­
ment that is contrary to the statutes, reason and
common sense, upon the private sector, which hopefully
still has some 'rights' too. Or is it, as attorney
Korwek also emphasized, symptomatic of the fact that
the kind of public awareness-consumer education effort
now being gotten underway by the recently formed,
Washington, DC-based "Coalition for Food Irradiation",
which is composed of a cross section of established,
reputable and responsible food and allied industry
trade organizations and firms, (and hopefully even­
tually responsible consumer interest organizations)
has not yet had time to take effect and offset the
false and misleading information that the public has
been exposed to, especially during the past year? If
reason and common sense, as well as regulatory fair­
ness and even-handedness are to prevail, it seems to
this writer that in the USA at least, since the cur­
rent proposed regulation excludes any conceivable
packaged food with the possible exception of retail
spice and seasoning packs, the government must not
rush into an ill-advised requirement for a retail
level label statement for all of the wrong reasons.
Rather the proposed regulation should be finalized as
it is, without a retail level label requirement for
the- correct reasons. In this manner, public awareness-
-consumer education efforts can proceed and accomplish
their intended tasks, the public dialog can continue,
and by the time prepackaged irradiated food applica­
tions are up for approval m the USA , the retail
level labeling 'issue' may well have turned around to
the point that it has faded away as a nonissue, and
factual voluntary promotional retail labeling may have
 IAEA-SM-271/S 1 465

become of interest to industry, as recent professional

consumer attitude studies and surveys in North America
are tending to indicate. The alternative is to take
the line of least resistance and to capitulate to
temporary confusion, fear and caprice.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

KORWEK, DR. E.L. 1983. Legal Considerations Concern­

ing Food Irradiation. Food Technology 37 (2): 38-42
and, 19 84. Comment letter to the FDA on the pro­
posed Rule, dated May 9, 1984.

ROE, ROBERT S. 1965. Testimony before the Subcommittee

on Research, Development and Radiation of the
Joint Committee on Atomic Energy of the 89th
Congress. In Radiation Processing of Foods, Pro­
ceedings of the Hearings, U.S. Govt. Printing
Office, Wash. D.C., 1965.

TAKEGUCHI, DR. C.A. 1982. Regulatory Aspects of Food

Irradiation. Food Technology 37_(2 ) :44-45 , 19 8 2 .

U.S. DEPT. OF COMMERCE, BUSINESS AND DEFENSE SERVICES

ADMIN., JULY, 1966. Status of Irradiated Food
Petitions to U.S. Food and Drug Admin, and U.S.
Dept, of Agriculture; Approved, Pending Approval
and Planned Submissions for Approval. U.S.
Dept, of Commerce, 1966.

U.S. DEPT. OF COMMERCE BUSINESS AND DEFENSE SERVICES

ADMIN., APRIL, 1968 . Status' of Petitions for
Irradiated Foods and Packaging Materials. U.S.
Dept, of Commerce, 1968.
 COMMERCIAL DEVELOPMENTS:
PROGRAMMING AND FINANCING

(Session VII)

Chairman

H. G LU B RE C H T
Federal Republic o f Germany
 IAEA-SM-271/70

IRRADIATION OF DRIED FRUITS AND NUTS

R.K. SW ITZER
CH2M H IL L ,
Albuquerque, New Mexico,
United States o f America

Abstract

IR R A D IA TIO N O F D RIED F R U IT S AND N U TS.

The United States Department o f Energy’s Byproducts Utilization Program seeks to
develop beneficial uses for nuclear w aste materials. One potential application is the irradiation
o f dried fruits and nuts using caesium-137 for insect disinfestation. Irradiation is being
investigated as an alternative to the current practice o f fum igation, principally with methyl
bromide. A programme developed by the United States Department o f Agriculture (U SD A ),
the United States Departm ent o f Energy (D O E), and CH2M Hill Consulting Engineers to
determine the feasibility o f this application is described. Elem ents o f the feasibility study
include efficacy, organoleptics, engineering/econom ics, and consumer acceptance.

INTRODUCTION

This r e s earch p r o g r a m is supported through the U.S.

Department of E nergy B y p r o d u c t s U t i l i z a tion Program. The
U.S. Department of Energy, as part of its mili t a r y production
activities, h as generated substantial amounts of radioactive
byproduct materials. Because some of these materials decay
with emission of a u s e f u l gamma ray and have a relatively long
half-life, some b y p r o d u c t s have pote n t i a l value as a radiation
source.

The goal of D O E's Bypro d u c t s U t i l i zation P r ogram (BUP) is

to identify w a y s in w h i c h these radioactive byproducts can be
used b e n e f i c i a l l y and encourage the commercial development and
application of technology that m a kes u se of these isotopes.
The four elements of the p r o g r a m used to promote this technology
are :
о i d e n t i f i c a t i o n of pot e n t i a l applications

о dete r m i n a t i o n of u s e r requirements

о systems analysis

о technology transfer.
Research has shown irradiation to be effective as a
quarantine or d i s i n f e s t a t i o n treatment to rid a commodity of

469
470 SWITZER

pests and as a p r e s e r v a t i o n technique to retard or eliminate

m i crobial food spoilage. The objective of this research
p r o g r a m is to determine the feasibility of irradiating dried
fruits and nuts for insect disinfestation.

For a project to be feasible, it must pass five tests.

The test of technical feasibility is passed if the proposed
project is physic a l l y capable of performing its intended func­
tion. The project is economically feasible if the benefits
r esulting from it exceed the costs and there is no cheaper
m e t h o d of a ccomplishing similar results. The test of financial
feasibility is p assed if sufficient funds can be raised to pay
for project c o n struction and o p erating costs. The project is
politically feasible if the required regulatory approvals can
be secured. Finally, the test of social feasibility is passed
if the p o tential users (consumers) respond favorably to the
product. These tests of feasibility are interrelated in many
ways, but each must be passed individually if a project is to
be successful.

In the first phase of this project, primary consideration

has b e e n g i ven to the technical and economic feasibility of
irradiating dried fruits and nuts for insect disinfestation.
C onsideration w i l l be giv e n to the financial, political, and
social feasibility in the second phase of the project.

THE D R IED FRUIT AND NUT INDUSTRY

This study is concerned w i t h the production of almonds,

raisins, prunes, and w a l n u t s in the State of California.
C alifo r n i a represents m o s t of the U nited States production of
these commodities, w h i c h are representative of the physical
and chemical proper t i e s of m o s t nuts and dried fruits.

Pr o d u c ti o n estimates for these commodities are shown in

Table I. Greater than 1 m i l l i o n tons are produced each year
with p e a k - s ea s o n deliveries approaching 24 000 tons per day.

D r i e d fruits and nuts are commonly infested by several

insect species. Therefore, these commodities are fumigated
after harvest once or several times to control these insects.
The insects b e i n g considered in this study include the codling
m o t h (Cydia p o m o n e l l a ) , nav e l o r a n g eworm (Amyelois transitella) ,
Indianmeal m o t h (P l o d i a i n t e r p u n c t e lla) , and one species of
dried fruit beetle. Table II shows w h i c h of the four commod­
ities are infested by these insects.

The current meth o d s for insect disinfestation used by the

dried fruit and nut industry p r imarily involve fumigation w i t h
either m e t h y l bro m i d e or phostoxin. Table III shows that methyl
 IAEA-SM-271/70 471

T A B L E I. TREE-NU TS A N D D R Y F R U IT
PR O D U C TIO N ESTIM ATES

Com m odity Annual total Tons/day

production at peak
(tons)

Alm onds 350 000 8 000

Raisins 300 000 8 000
Prunes 150 000 4 000
Walnuts 225 000 4 000

TO TA L 1 025 000 24 000

Peaks => Septem ber through November.

T A B L E II. IN F E S T A T IO N O F STO RED COM M ODITIES

Insect Alm onds Raisins Prunes Walnuts

Codling moth X

Navel orange worm X x

Indian meal moth X X X X

Dried fruit beetle X x

bromide and p h o s t o x i n are used r e gularly in processing almonds

and raisins. Prunes, on the other hand, are treated only with
m ethyl bromide as a c o mmon practice, but could be treated w i t h
phos t o x i n if necessary. Wal n u t s are treated w i t h methyl
bromide as a standard practice and could be treated with
phos t o x i n if sufficient treatment time is available. (Phost'oxin
treatment is too slow to meet the early market for walnuts.)
Table III also indicates that a m a x i m u m of three methyl bromide
treatments is allowed for almonds and walnuts to ensure that
bromide r e siduals are low enough to meet export requirements.

The current fumigation practices have existing or may

have future limitations w i t h their continued use. Methyl
bromide requires h i g h doses and a long exposure time for some
pests; it poses a h a zard to h u m a n h e alth in that death may
result from p u lmonary edema w h e n exposed; and there is a great
472 SWITZER

T A B L E III. C U R R E N T T R E A T M E N T METHODS

Com m odity Methyl bromide Phostoxin

Almonds xa X

Raisins X X

Prunes X Okay
Walnuts
Early Market Xa -

Other Xa Okay

a Max. three treatm ents with methyl bromide for export.

deal of controversy w i t h i n the scientific community regarding

its carcinogenicity. In addition, the use of methyl bromide
may be restricted or even phased out. Several government
sources have indicated that m e t h y l bromide is probably, at
best, a s h o r t - t e r m alternative and the Environmental P r o ­
tection Agency is carefully reevaluating its future. Phostoxin
requires a long exposure time; the dose and concentration are
difficult to control; it is h i ghly toxic although there is no
evidence of carcinogenicity; and it is expensive.

The pote n t i a l b a n of m e t h y l bromide and other fumigants

provides a significant incentive for the dried fruit and nut
industry to seek alternative d i s i nfestation methods. In the
event that m e t h y l bromide is not banned, the industry is also
interested in w a y s to reduce the levels of residual bromide in
the final product. For these reasons, the industry is evalu­
ating irradiation technology as one of the alternative treat­
ments .

The b e n efits of irradiation processing to the dried fruit

and nut industry are that it provides instantaneous treatment;
it provides effective treatment; there is no "residual"; there
is no kno w n insect resistance to the process; and there is a
h i s t o r y of safe o p eration of irradiation processing facilities.

P R O G R A M DESIGN

There are several elements that define the overall research

program. These include efficacy, o r g a n o l e p t i c s , engineering,
economics, and consumer acceptance.

The efficacy w o r k is bei n g conducted because irradiation

technology is a commodity-specific and insect-specific process.
 IAEA-SM-271/70 473 .

This work is being conducted by the U.S. Department of Agricul­

ture Agricultural Research Service in Fresno, California, and
Yakima, Washington. Efficacy at doses of 0, 150, 300, 600,
and 900 Gy (0, 15, 30, 60, 90 krad) is being determined using
artificially and naturally infested commodities. The questions
of interest include the doses required to kill the insects
immediately, those required to stop insect feeding, and those
required to prevent growth and reproduction of insects.

The organoleptic evaluations are being conducted by the

Department of Food Science at Oregon State University,
Corvallis, Oregon. There is a possibility that irradiation
could initiate free-radical reactions and that oxidation,
especially oxidation of lipids, could produce off-flavors and
odors. Taste panel testing is being conducted on the commod­
ities with level of irradiation treatment and length of storage
as variables. For each length of storage, the panel is given
a "labeled" control, a "blind" control, and samples treated at
the four levels of radiation. The panel members are asked to
rate the unidentified treated samples versus the "labeled"
control and indicate any difference in the samples as well as
preferences.

The engineering and economic components of this study are

intimately interrelated. The objective is to evaluate several
scenarios that are practical, realistic, and acceptable to the
industry. For this study, it is assumed that fumigants have
been banned and that irradiation can be used in combination
with other nonirradiation alternatives such as heat, refrig­
eration, and modified atmospheres. The factors being consi­
dered are the supply structure; domestic and export markets;
potential engineering concepts for irradiators; trade-offs
between facility costs and transportation costs; potential
numbers, sizes, and locations of irradiators; supplementary
demand for irradiation facilities by industries other than
dried fruits and nuts; estimates of costs and benefits of im­
plementing this technology; and á comparison of this cost/
benefit with alternative disinfestation treatments. This work
is being conducted by the U.S. Department of Agriculture Econo­
mic Research Service, Riverside, California, with the support
of CH2M HILL Consulting Engineers, Albuquerque, New Mexico.

Activities in efficacy, organoleptics, engineering and

economics have been ongoing for approximately one year. A
significant factor in achieving the objectives in these areas
has been the support, guidance, and active participation of
industry leaders in this program since its inception. In
planning this program, it was decided not to initiate consumer
acceptance studies until after the results in these other areas
indicated the likely success of implementing the technology.
474 SWITZER

SUMMARY

The purpose of this discussion has been to outline the

problem facing the dried fruit and nut industry and to describe
the approach developed by the USDA and DOE to evaluate irradia­
tion as one solution. The results of work-to-date are prelim­
inary and will be reported in the literature by the principal
investigator of each activity when the work is completg.

The irradiation initiatives being pursued by the BUP

underscore DOE's view that byproducts may indeed be produc­
tively utilized in industry. However, the potential can only
be realized if clear technical, economic, or social advantages
exist in the absence of insurmountable disadvantages for
industry to adopt this technology on a widespread scale.
DOE's Byproducts Utilization Program hopes to develop some of
these advantages for using irradiation technology and to over­
come some of the barriers that currently exist.
 IAEA-SM-271/87

RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT OF FOOD

IRRADIATION IN SHANGHAI, CHINA

Zhicheng X U
Shanghai Institute o f
Nuclear Research,
Academia Sinica,
Shanghai, China

Presented by Yin Dai

Abstract

R E SE A R C H AND D EV ELO PM EN T O F FOOD IRRA D IA TIO N IN SHANGHAI, CHINA.

Research and developm ent o f food irradiation in Shanghai have been listed as key
projects by the Academ ia Sinica and the Shanghai Com m ission o f Science and Technology.
The Shanghai Irradiation Center (SIC ), run by the Shanghai Institute o f N uclear Research (SIN R ),
is scheduled to be operational by the end o f 1985. A large number o f preliminary studies in
connection with this project are in progress. This project contains 25 research subjects. Ten
institutes and corporations have been co-operating in this research. Research into food irradia­
tion has included designing a com m ercial irradiation facility to suit various purposes, the
technology o f food irradiation (fruits and vegetables), studies o f the w holesomeness o f irradiated
food, dose and dosim etry, and the mechanism o f food irradiation, etc. The centre will have a
5 X 10s C i cobalt-60 source; the initial loading will be a 2 X 10s Ci cobalt-60 source. The centre
is mainly concerned with pilot-scale developm ent and production and scientific research into
food irradiation processing of fresh fruits and vegetables, together with the irradiation
sterilization of medicine and m edical supplies, the radiation m odification o f macrom olecular
m aterials, etc. The irradiation facility is designed to have a productivity o f 20 t/h (potatoes),
a radiation utilization ratio o f 18.6% and a dose uniform ity of 1.6. A fter the establishm ent of
the Shanghai Irradiation Center, its form al processing ability will be 35 000 t/а o f vegetables
(p otatoes, onions, garlic, etc.) or 2 0 0 0 —3000 t/а o f fruits.

Food irradiation processing plays an important role in the peaceful uses o f

atomic energy. Research into food irradiation has been conducted for over three
decades and the efficacy o f a number o f applications is well established, including
the inhibition o f the growth and maturation o f fresh fruits and vegetables, microbial
disinfection o f spices and dry condiments, pathogen decontamination o f frozen
food o f animal origin, control o f insect infestation o f food, and reduction o f the
number o f microorganisms that spoil food. A bove all, two major advances in food
irradiation were achieved in 1980, when the Joint FAO/IAEA/W HO Expert
Committee on the Wholesomeness o f Irradiated Food (JE C FI) recommended the
acceptability o f food irradiated up to an overall average dose o f 10 kGy, and in
1983, when the Codex Alimentarius Commission adopted the C odex’s General
Standard for Irradiated Foods. These achievements have greatly promoted the
commercialization o f irradiated foods fo r human consumption. Therefore,

475
476 XU

techniques o f food irradiation are developing rapidly and have wide application
at present.
Research and development o f food irradiation in Shanghai have been listed
as key projects by the Academia Sinica and the Shanghai Commission o f Science
and Technology. The Shanghai Irradiation Center (S IC ), run by the Shanghai
Institute o f Nuclear Research, Academia Sinica (S IN R A R ), is scheduled to be
operational by the end o f 1985. An economic gain is expected to be achieved. A
large number o f preliminary studies in connection with this project are in progress.
This project comprises research into 25 subjects. Ten institutes and corporations
co-operated in this research.
Research and development work in food irradiation in Shanghai includes the
following:

(1 ) Design o f a commercial irradiation facility for various purposes. This project

includes studies o f the technological design o f a commercial irradiator, the
physical design o f a 7 -irradiator, research into transmission system design and
facility design o f the irradiation source, microprocessing computer application,
and the study o f dose distribution throughout the product, etc.
(2 ) Technological research into the irradiation o f fruits and vegetables. The
key point o f the research will be low-dose irradiation o f various fresh fruits
and vegetables, such as apples, strawberries, cauliflower, carrots, green peppers,
winter bamboo shoots, red bayberries, etc. The aim is to minimize post­
harvest losses, to control significant agricultural pests, to eliminate parasites and
pathogens from food, to extend the shelf-life o f fruits and vegetables, and to
reduce microbial infections in dry vegetables (spices) and nuts. Optimal
technological and irradiation processing conditions, and pilot-scale research
on potato, onion, garlic, etc. have been performed.
(3 ) Studies o f the wholesomeness o f irradiated food. T o clarify the wholesome­
ness o f irradiated foods, nutrients, microorganisms, trace elements, and
toxicology, etc., have been studied.
(4 ) Dose and dosimetry research. New methods for the determination o f the
dose absorbed by the food itself and dosimetry, and dose standardization
have been studied .
(5 ) Research into the mechanism o f food irradiation. This includes studies o f
radiation-induced intermediate and final chemical products and studies into
the mechanism o f plant physiology.

The Academia Sinica and the Shanghai Commission o f Science and Technology
have decided to build a radiation centre with a 5 X 105 Ci cobalt-60 source in
Shanghai. The centre is mainly concerned with pilot-scale production and develop­
mental research into the irradiation o f fresh fruits and vegetables, together with the
irradiation sterilization o f medicine and medical supplies, the radiation modifica­
tion o f macromolecular materials, etc.
 IAEA-SM-2.71/87 477

The design and construction o f the irradiation centre was undertaken by the
Shanghai Institute o f Nuclear Research, Academia Sinica.
The features o f the centre are as follows:

( 1) The centre is multi-purpose, but will chiefly be used fo r food irradiation

preservation o f vegetables and fruits. The initial loading will be 2.0 X 10s Ci;
the target design can be reached later.
(2 ) Double source plaques and five passes have been adopted, so that it is
advantageous to raise the utilization efficiency o f the source and to simplify
the mechanical structure. We are still considering the geometry o f the irradia­
tion field, and replacement and supplement o f the 60Co source.
(3 ) A hanging chain conveyer with an accumulative loading style has been adopted
fo r the transmission o f the irradiation product. The overall technological
arrangement is so designed that personnel and freight ducts are separated. The
speed o f the transmission chain ranges from 0 .2 to 10 m/min.
(4 ) T o ensure safety and reliability, standard electrical equipment and instruments
have been adopted in the control and monitoring systems. A t the same time
we are still considering how to apply a microprocessor to the irradiation
facility so that a higher level o f automation can be achieved.
(5 ) The radiation source is stored in a water well. The design o f the labyrinth has
been improved. The ozone concentration in the radiation room should not
exceed 0.3 mg/m3.
(6 ) Semi-mechanized equipment has been adopted for loading and unloading.
(7 ) The expected targets o f the irradiation facility are as follows:

Productivity 20 t/h (potatoes)

Radiation utilization ratio 18.6%
Dose uniformity 1.6

A fter the establishment o f the Shanghai Irradiation Center, its formal

processing ability will attain 35 0 0 0 t /a o f vegetables (potatoes, onions, garlic, etc.)
or 2000—3000 t/а o f fruits.
Recently irradiation technology has been applied in the preservation o f apples,
strawberries and fresh and dry vegetables. Some results o f these studies are
as follows. The best irradiation dose to apples has been determined, and within
this range, the storage period o f irradiated apples can be extended to about
9 months. Irradiation inhibits the growth and maturation o f apples, without
significantly changing their hardness, water content, flavour, smell and appearance,
The nutrients, including vitamins C, and B2, amino acids and saccharides, etc.,
are not affected by irradiation. Furthermore, irradiating potatoes, onions, garlic,
logan, red bayberries, oranges, cauliflower, carrots, green peppers and winter
bamboo shoots has shown to prevent sprouting, decay, etc. Most o f the research
achieved the anticipated results. Animal feeding tests have shown no carcinogenic
mutations or other harmful effects from irradiated diets.
 IAEA-SM-271/34

APPLICABILITY OF FOOD IRRADIATION TECHNIQUES

TO FOOD PRESERVATION IN DEVELOPING COUNTRIES

A.O. O L O R U N D A
Department o f Food Technology,
Faculty o f Technology,
University o f Ibadan,
Ibadan, Nigeria

Abstract

A PPLIC A BILITY O F FO OD IR RA D IA TIO N TECH N IQ U ES TO FOOD PR ESER V A TIO N

IN D EV ELO PIN G CO U N TRIES.
Collaborative studies with the International Facility for Food Irradiation Technology,
Wageningen, Netherlands, have dem onstrated that gam m a radiation could be effective in:
(1 ) Reduction o f m icrobial contam ination o f Nigerian ground red pepper with a dose o f not
more than 5 kG y; (2 ) Sprout inhibition and extension o f shelf-life o f Nigerian onion cultivar
Sok oto pink with a dose o f 0.05 kG y; and (3 ) Prevention o f mould during high humidity
storage o f Nigerian cow peas (Ife Brown), with a dose o f 4 kG y. Moving from this technical
feasibility stage to the stage leading to com m ercialization may, however, pose some problem s
in Nigeria in view of the prevailing production and marketing patterns o f these com m odities.
Hypothetical fram ew orks within which these problem s could be overcome have been proposed
and their possible im plications for the current m ethods o f processing, storage and distribution
o f these com m odities in Nigeria and other developing countries with similar problem s are
discussed.

The bulk o f the staple food, namely roots and tubers, fruits and vegetables,
cereals and pulses, in many developing countries is produced by small-scale peasant
farmers.
Production o f these foods is seasonal and produce must be stored to meet
requirements during the off-season. However, because o f the prevailing climatic
conditions in most developing countries within the humid tropics, together with
the high incidence o f pests and diseases, post-harvest losses experienced between
the farm gate and the consumer’ s table are very high [ 1 ] and could assume consider­
able economic and social importance in these countries. Several reports [1 —8]
put these losses at anything ranging from 1 0 to 80%, depending on the comm odity,
the location, and the time these losses were estimated. It is, however, interesting
to note that most developing countries have now recognized that one o f the major
problems that needs attention in their drive towards self-sufficiency in fo od supply
is not necessarily increased fo od production but rather ensuring that what is
produced is conserved both in qualitative and quantitative terms. Scientific
endeavour including the use o f food irradiation techniques to reduce post-harvest

479
480 OLORUNDA

T A B L E I. F A R M E R P O P U L A T IO N A N D A R A B L E L A N D IN N IG E R IA

Population Farmer Arable Arable land

Location density population land per farmer
per km 2 (1 980) (million) (Mha) (ha)

1. Anambra 401 0.608 0.723 1.189

2. Bauchi 233 0.660 1.350 2.045
3. Bendel 164 0.618 1.798 2.909
4. Benue 230 0.699 1.446 2.069
5. Borno 429 0.755 0.839 1.111
6 . Cross River 340 0.961 1.346 1.401
7. Gongola 194 0.420 1.029 2.450
8. Imo 960 1.323 0.657 0.497
9. Kaduna 158 1.084 3.266 3.013
10. Kano 363 1.528 2.004 1.312
11. Kwara 58 0.424 3.455 8.149
12. Lagos 843 0.292 0.166 0.568
13. Niger 280 0.768 1.306 1.701
14. Ogun 178 0.384 1.024 2.667
15. Ondo 317 0.722 1.167 1.616
16. Oyo 495 1.378 1.325 0.962
17. Plateau 110 0.362 1.566 4.326
18. Rivers 231 0.409 0.844 2.064
19. Sokoto 111 0.362 1.551 4.285

Source: Ref. [12].

food losses is now recognized in many o f these countries and some o f them includ­
ing Nigeria have already established the technical feasibility fo r extending the
shelf-life o f most o f their staple foods through the application o f science and
technology [1, 6 —8 , 9—11]. Moving from this technical feasibility stage to the
stage that would lead to commercialization may, however, pose some problems
in view o f the production and post-harvest systems in these countries.

A N A L Y S IS O F TH E S IT U A T IO N : PR O D U C TIO N A N D PO ST-H ARVEST

H A N D L IN G P A T T E R N IN N IG E R IA

The estimated farmer population per arable land, size o f farm holding, and
the output o f modern versus rural holdings in Nigeria have been reported [12],
 IAEA-SM-271/34 481

T A B L E II. E S TIM ATE D SIZE O F F A R M H O LD IN G S IN N IG E R IA ( 1975/76)

Area o f farm Average size Size o f farm

holdings o f farm as percentage o f
Com m odities (Mha) per farmer average arable land
(ha) available per farmer

1. Maize 0.971 0.072 1.31

2. Millet 5.478 0.407 7.39
3. Sorghum 5.721 0.426 7.73
4. Rice 0.261 0.019 0.34
5. Cassava 0.331 0.025 0.45
6 . Potatoes 0.040 0.002 0.04
7. Yam s 0.776 0.058 1.05
8. Cocoyam s 0.113 0.008 0.15
-9. Plantains 0.302 0.022 0.40
10. Groundnuts 1.472 0 .110 2.00
11. Cowpeas 3.035 0.226 4.11
12. Soyabeans 0.005 ++ ++
13. Benniseed 0.043 0.003 0.05
14. Melonseed 0.236 0.018 0.33
IS . V egetables 0.263 0.020 0.36
16. Tom atoes 0.023 0.001 0.02
17. Fruits 0.013 0.005 0.09

Source: R ef.[12],
Note: + + = negligible or insignificant.

see Tables I —III. From these tables it can be seen that production o f most o f
the staple food in Nigeria is in the hands o f small-scale farmers with small holdings
and as a result their production level is generally low. Because o f this low level
o f production, improved systems o f food conservation have not proved to be
economically feasible, just as the absence o f adequate systems o f conservation
has not effectively stimulated production.
The machinery o f food distribution comprises three distinct systems, which
are summarized in Fig. 1. Storage losses resulting from physical, physiological
and pathological factors are high in the post-harvest distribution system [3, 6 , 8 ].
Theoretically, storage can be undertaken at three points in the distribution
system: (i) at the farm gate, (ii) at the wholesale, and (iii) at the retail level.
In practice, it is at the second and third stages that storage is undertaken in any
482 OLORUNDA

T A B L E III. O U TPU T O F M O D ER N A N D R U R A L F A R M H O LD ING S

IN N IG E R IA

Total Output o f Output of Residual output

farm modern modern o f rural holdings
Crop output holdingsa holdings as as percentage of
(M t) (k t) percentage o f total outputb
total output

1. Maize 0.528 3.90 0.74 99.26

2. Millet 5.554 1.70 0.03 99.97
3. Sorghum 4.738 2.20 0.05 99.95
4. Rice 0.525 7.20 1.37 98.63
5. Cassava 3.582 20.70 0.57 99.43
6. Yam s 7.160 5.20 0.07 99.93
7. Cocoyam s 0.480 0.50 0.10 99.90
8. Groundnuts 1.948 1.80 0.09 99.91
9. Cowpeas 1.099 0.20 0.02 99.80

Source: FO S, Report o f National Census o f Agriculture 1974/75, Lagos, Nigeria (Mar. 1978).
a Modern holdings are defined as large-scale mechanized farms.
b Rural holdings are defined as small-scale peasant farm s usually less than 10 hectares in size.

significant amount and any innovation that could improve storage may have to
focus on these stages. Existing marketing channels (F ig .2) are basically efficient
in terms o f the physical and financial resources available. One feature o f these
traditional marketing channels, however, is the relatively large number o f market
intermediaries located at strategic points, their number being a function o f the
distance and degree o f isolation from the production area. As shown in Fig.2,
the normal pattern is for producers to offer their small surpluses to traders in the
first assembly or village market. These traders or individuals then move the
accumulated produce along the channel often to secondary or tertiary assembly
markets until they reach the central wholesale markets in the cities. With the
emphasis now being placed on food production in Nigeria, together with the
increased allocation o f inputs into food production, concern is now being expressed
as to whether the traditional marketing channels will be able to cope with the
increasing supplies from the farmgate without any infrastructural or institutional
improvements. The above analysis would be true for most o f the staple foods that
pass through the marketing system.
 IAEA-SM-271/34 483

1. FARM GATE CONSUMER

2. FARM GATE -W H O LESALER • CONSUMER

R ETA ILE R

-CONSUMER

3. FARM GATE -CORPORATION CONSUMER

■ W HOLESALER

R E TA ILE R

-CONSUMER

F IG .l. Schematic representation o f the food distribution machinery.

FARM
GATE

PRIMARY
ASSEMBLY
M A R K ET
OR
V IL L A G E
M AR K ET

SECONDARY
ASSEMBLY
M A R K ET

TE R T IA R Y
ASSEMBLY
M AR K ET

C ENTR AL
WHOLESALE
M A R K ET

FIG.2. Schematic representation o f the traditional marketing channels.

484 OLORUNDA

A P P L IC A T IO N O F FOOD IR R A D IA T IO N T R E A T M E N T TO EXTEN D TH E
S H ELF-LIFE O F FOOD IN N IG E R IA

In the light o f the above analysis o f a typical post-harvest system, attempts

should now be made to incorporate a food irradiation treatment/storage facility
into the second stage (i.e. the wholesale level) o f the theoretical distribution
system. A n y adjustments that might be necessary in the institutional setting
would then be examined and discussed.
The staple foods envisaged are yams, onions, cowpeas and a dehydrated
vegetable (ground red pepper). The technical feasibility o f using food-irradiation
techniques to extend the shelf-life o f these staples has already been established
under Nigerian conditions [ 6 , 9, 10]. However, because o f the low unit value o f
these commodities together with the prevailing farming and marketing systems
in the country, it could be argued that the system may not be able to pay its way.
In addition, there are also the technical and organizational constraints.
One practical approach might be to introduce an irradiation treatment facility
into the second stage o f the distribution system (i.e. at either the primary,
secondary or tertiary assembly markets), see Fig.3. These facilities should,
however, be located in the main areas o f production o f the commodities. This
innovation should fit very well into the existing framework. On the other hand,
one could encourage co-operative storage, which would involve an organization
where the commodities yams, onions, cowpeas and dry red pepper are brought
by producers to collection centres where they could be further treated or pro­
cessed, sorted, graded and packaged before irradiation prior to storage or
distribution through the existing network. An organization similar to the Potato
Marketing Board in the United Kingdom or the British Columbia Tree Fruits
in Canada might also be appropriate.
For this system to work on a commercial scale, further irradiation trials
would still have to be carried out on the commodities on a reasonably large
scale. These studies should, among other things, establish the optimum conditions
to irradiate the produce, the best package/produce combination, and the best way
to present irradiated produce fo r sale under Nigerian conditions. Consumers and
people involved in the production, marketing and industrial processing o f these
commodities should be brought into the picture right from the onset and their
opinion should be considered before coming out with any recommendations.
From these trials useful information such as the optimum plant operating capacity
and time, the optimum conditions to irradiate produce, the most efficient
containers that would minimize handling, irradiation and transportation costs in
addition to fulfilling their protective function, and the most efficient way to
present the irradiated fo od under Nigerian conditions would be established.
Finally, consumers, producers and all those involved in the post-harvest
system should be made aware o f the fact that ionizing irradiation is a relatively
cheap and very safe option for extending shelf-life.
 IAEA-SM-271/34 485

FIG.3. Proposed flow diagram for radiation treatment o f commodities prior to storage and
distribution.

CO N CLU SIO N

In conclusion, the Government should initiate policies that would lead to

improvement in the post-harvest marketing system o f the major staple foods.
They should include the following:

(1 ) Price efficiency inducing policies designed to increase the responsiveness o f

the marketing system to consumer direction by improving market informa­
tion and establishing consumer grades and standards.
(2 ) Structural policies designed to m odify the behaviour o f the middlemen so as
to improve market performance through the establishment o f co-operatives.
(3 ) System analysis o f specific marketing procedures in order to determine cost
and returns and economies o f scale.
(4 ) Infrastructural policies necessary fo r the development o f capital-intensive
(roads, silos, irradiation facilities, warehouses, processing equipment, etc.),
capital-extensive (post-harvest market extension services, agricultural research,
etc.), and institutional (subsidies, tax dispensation, etc.) infrastructures.
These policies are necessary if we are to improve the efficiency o f our
486 OLORUNDA

post-harvest marketing systems since they reflect the environment in which

they operate. Thus with improved storage facilities, improved market
knowledge and other ingredients o f economic development many o f the
post-harvest marketing problems in Nigeria and many other developing
countries would be solved.

REFERENCES

[ 1] Anon., Postharvest fo o d losses in developing countries, Natl Acad. Sci., Washington,

D.C. (1978).
[ 2] AWORH, O.C., O LO RU ND A, A.O., AKHUEM ONKHAN, I., E ffect o f post-harvest handling
on the quality attribute o f tom atoes in the Nigerian Marketing System , J . F oo d Chem. 10
(1 9 8 3 )2 2 5 .
[3] AWORH, O.C., O LO RU N D A, A.O., “ Towards reducing post-harvest losses o f perishable
fruits and vegetables in Nigeria” , Proc. N atl Conf. on Agriculture, Port-Harcourt, Nigeria,
1981 (in press).
[4] C O U R SE Y , D.G., BOOTH, R.H., The post-harvest phytopathology o f perishable tropical
produce, Rev. Plant Path. 51 (1 9 7 2 ) 751.
[5] O LO RU N D A, A.O., “ Storage and processing o f som e Nigerian root crops” , in Small-Scale
Processing and Storage o f Tropical R oot Crops (P LU C K N ETT, D .L., Ed.), West View
Press, Boulder, CO, Trop. Agrie. Series No. 1 (1 9 7 7 ) 90.
[ 6 ] O LO RU N D A, A.O., ABOABA, F.O ., “ Food preservation by ionizing radiation in Nigeria.
Present and future status” , F oo d Preservation by Irradiation (Proc. Sym p. Wageningen,
1977), Vol. 1, IAEA , Vienna (1 9 7 8 ) 53.
[7] O LO RUNDA, A.O., M acGREG O R, R.D ., K IT SE N , J.A ., “ Improving the market availability
of tropical root crops through improved storage and processing” , Proc. Niger. Inst. Food
Sci. Technol., Vol. 1 (1 9 7 7 ) 103.
[8] O LO RU N D A, A.O., AWORH, O.C., A quantitative assessment o f post-harvest losses o f
perishable vegetables in the Nigerian marketing system , Niger. J . Sci. 17 (1985).
[9] A D ESU Y I, S.A., M ACKENZIE, J.A ., “ The inhibition o f sprouting in stored yam s,
Dioscorea rotundata poir, by gam m a radiation and chem icals” , Radiation and Preservation
o f F oo ds (Proc. Symp. Bom bay, 1972), IAEA , Vienna (1 9 7 3 ) 127.
[10] F A R K A S, J., O LO RU N D A, A.O., A N D R A SSY , H., Preliminary Small-Scale Feasibility
Studies on Irradiation o f Som e Nigerian Food Stuffs, International Facility for Food
Irradiation Technology Research Rep. No. 30 (1982).
[11] O LO RU N D A, A.O., E ffect o f ethylene absorbent on the storage life o f plantain packed
in polyethylene bags, Niger. J . Sci. 19 10 (1 9 7 6 ) Nos 1 & 2.
[12] O LA YID E, S.O., “ Characteristics, problem s and significance o f small farm ers” , in
Nigerian Small Farm ers, Centre for Agricultural and Rural Development, University of
Ibadan (1980).
 IAEA-SM-271/68

GUIDELINES FOR ASSESSING

FOOD IRRADIATION TECHNOLOGY

N. F E R R E L L , J.S. S IV IN S K I

CH2M H IL L ,
Albuquerque, New Mexico,
United States o f America

Abstract

G U ID E LIN ES FO R A SSE SSIN G FOOD IRRA D IA T IO N TECH N O LO GY.

Irradiation is currently being considered throughout the world as a possible solution to
varied problem s. How does one proceed with conducting a form al assessment o f the technology
to determine if it can technically and econom ically meet a specific need? Num erous criteria
are suggested in the literature for assessing the technology. However, many o f these item s are
difficult to apply to particular situations. Furtherm ore, a comprehensive technical approach
may be too consuming in both time and money. The basic guidelines and procedures presented
in the paper are useful for early determ ination o f project feasibility. Irradiation should be
considered as part o f a system — not as a stand-alone, isolated process. Consideration must
be given to preceding and follow ing processes and events. Com parisons between alternatives
m ust be made on a system-wide basis to ensure uniform ity and accuracy o f conclusions. How­
ever, only a few key factors have a m ajor im pact on project feasibility. By concentrating on
these factors, and staging the tim e at which they are considered, a reliable decision to proceed
or not can be m ade at a minimum investment.

There is a universal need for new and better ways of produc­

ing and distributing food of higher quality for expanding
populations. Some major concerns include:

о Control of infestation of crops by pests

о Quality preservation during transportation and
storage from farm to market
о Developing new and better distribution methods
о Extending shelf-life of commodities to reduce the
huge loss of spoilage
о Alternatives to processes under regulatory
scrutiny
о Alternatives to high-energy consumption storage
and preservation processes such as cold storage
and frozen foods
о Better methods of disease and parasitic control in
food processing.

There is a growing worldwide interest in irradiation of food

stuffs as a possible solution to many of these concerns.

487
488 F E R R E L L and SIVINSKI

The introduction of irradiation into a given food processing

system is a complex task. The success of irradiation as an
integral part of a food processing system is dependent upon
the cooperation and coordinated efforts of several facets of
the system. Most important of these facets of the process
system are the technical, product concerns, regulatory,
social, consumer, industry, and financial. Each of these
concerns have individual requirements which must be satisfied
before the irradiation project can be an economic success.
The process of analysis of the controlling or major concerns
of an intended project to identify and address the require­
ments of each is usually called a detailed feasibility study.
These studies can become cumbersome, expensive, and of long
duration, often taxing the physical and financial resources
of the promoters of the project.

The three major areas of project concern that are usually

addressed in a feasibility study are the techno-economic,
socio-economic, and commercial feasibility. These studies
are tailored to the individual needs of each project, but
there are some questions which are common to most feasibil­
ity efforts. These are listed below.

TECHNO-ECONOMIC F E A S I B I L I T Y

1. Does existing technology have proven solutions to

project problems?

2. Can the existing research data which has been compiled

in other applications of this technology be applied to
the local area and commodities?

3. Is irradiation still the best solution to the project

needs when compared to other existing technologies?

A. What are the total benefits to be derived from this

technology, and what are its limitations and con­
straints?

5. What is the real economic value for the benefits and/or

enhancement of the quality of the irradiated commodity
and how does this compare to the estimated capital and
operating costs of the facility over the expected life
of the project? Investments and costs should include
the time value or life-cycle cost analysis.

SO CIO -ECO N O M IC F E A S I B I L I T Y

1. What is the present attitude of the local legal

community and regulatory agencies toward the introduc­
tion of irradiation into the food process system?
 IAEA-SM-271/68 489

2. Does the intended project exhibit a high degree of

social soundness? This m ay include the effects of the
project on the local w o r k force. Is the intended
project compatible w i t h the social customs and
practices of the population in the area?

3. What is the anticipated degree of public acceptance of

an irradiation facility near the intended site, and
w i l l pub l i c i t y be positive or negative to the
project?

4. A re there serious environmental concerns and impacts to

the environment and/or the economy of the region
because of the project?

COMMERCIAL F E A S I B I L I T Y

1. Can the irradiation process be integrated into the

present commercial structure of the local food industry
and become a component of the existing process system?

2. What will be the mar k e t a b i l i t y and consumer acceptance

of the irradiated commodities?

3. W i l l this process increase the unit cost of the co m m o d ­

ity to the consumer, or w i l l increased shelf-life
and/or opening of n e w markets for the commodity offset
the increased costs, if any?

A. What will be the effects of the irradiation process on

the pre- and post-harvest process activities?

о commodity turnaround time;

о increased h a n dling and transportation to deliver
the commodity to a central irradiation facility;
о if commodity is seasonal in nature, how will the
peak produ c t i o n be handled, and are there "fill
in" commodities for the off season?
о other process s y stem effects such as cold storage
and p a ckaging changes;
о assess the impacts to existing markets and the
p rocessing of related commodities due to increased
shelf-life and/or increased market potential.

5. Can a moneta r i l y favorable value added-to-process vo l ­

ume ratio be achieved and maint a i n e d within the estab­
lished process and d i stribution system for the
commodity to be processed?

6. Is the affected food industry a firm supporter for the

irradiation proce s s i n g of this commodity?
490 FE R R E L L and SIVINSKI

7. What is the present attitude of market area public

health agencies toward food irradiation and what
imposed regulations, such as labeling, could be antic­
ipated in the future?

Many of the developing countries, as well as local or

private interests do not have the resources to initiate a
complete feasibility study as outlined above without the
help of other interests. There are a few key factors that
m a y be examined as indicators of feasibility in the early
stages of project development. Accurate analysis of these
factors can form the basis for a reliable decision to
proceed or not to proceed w i t h a detailed feasibility study
with a m i n i m u m investment. Successful completion of this
preliminary feasibility analysis w i l l also stimulate the
interest of p o tential partners or investors who then can
share the b urden of a complete feasibility study.

Some of the facets of irradiation technology that can be

considered as key indicators of project feasibility are
listed below:

1. Technical E l e m e n t s :

о High capital cost favors a larger, centrally

located facility; this could result in addi­
tional cost to the process of some
commodities for such items as transportation
refrigeration and storage, commodity turn­
around time, increased handling, and special
packaging.

о Is there sufficient valid data on the effect

of irradiation on the physical properties of
commodities und e r consideration?

о Does the local industry have valid data on

combination processes for commodities being
considered?

о C ompatibility or incompatibility.of the food

irradiator facility to other potential
a pplications in the area.

2. Social Elements

о Public awareness and attitude toward irradia

tion as a process.
 IAEA-SM-271/68 491

о Local customs and traditions which could be

at v a r iance w i t h the proposed project act i v ­
ities.

о Anticipated positive or negative media

publicity.

о Labor a v a i l a b i l i t y and economic and social

impact on the local area.

о Present attitude of government and regulatory

a gencies toward food irradiation.

Commercial Elements

о Seasonality of commodities and harvest

p roduction peaks as related to effective use
of the facility.

о Is there an accep t e d national standard and

accepted pract i c e for commissioning and
p rocess v a l i d a t i o n for food irradiation?

о Has the Cod e x and code of practice for food

irradiation b e e n adopted in this state or
area, and is it adequate for industry use?

о The status of m a r k e t a b i l i t y and consumer

acceptance of irradiated foods in the market
area.

о Is there an accepted policy on labeling

requirements for irradiated foods?

о The history of food irradiation technology in

the local industry as reflected by industry
confidence.

о Has commercial scale v i ability of the process

been clearly established for the commodities
being considered?

о Is there sufficient interest and resources to

support a detailed feasibility study and,if
necessary, a d emonstration facility?

Economic and Financial Elements

о O b t a i n "ballpark" estimates of capital cost

from existing facilities in that area similar in
basic concept.
492 F E R R E L L and SIVINSKI

о What ultimate financial resources are

available to be applied to the project if it
were found to be feasible and desirable?

The success of food irradiation processing where the facili­

ty is properly sized and located is inseparably connected to
the eyes and percep t i o n of the marketplace, the consumer,
and the financial institutions. The technology is in place.
Therefore, it is imperative that each ne w venture into food
irradiation be successful in its application which will
build confidence in the industry, the marketplace, the
consumer, and, finally, the financial institutions.

Proper execution of p r e l iminary feasibility analysis and

complete feasibility studies w i l l help to ensure that new
ventures w i l l be successful.
 IAEA-SM-271/62

CARIBBEAN AREA FOOD IRRADIATION

FEASIBILITY STUDY

R.F. M O R R IS
O ffice o f Agriculture,
Agency fo r International
Development,
The United States
Department o f State,
Washington, D.C.,
United States o f America

Abstract

C A RIB BE A N A R E A FOOD IR R A D IA TIO N F E A S IB IL IT Y STUD Y.

The U S Agency for International Development funded the Caribbean Area F oo d
Irradiation Feasibility Study (C A FI) through the U S N ational F o o d Processors Association
and with the collaboration o f the U S Departm ent o f Energy. This study focused on the
econom ic, technical, financial, political and social feasibility o f transferring food irradiation
technology to the Caribbean area. The study focuses on three areas including the benefits
to small farmers and nations interested in the export o f crops, including non-traditional tropical
com m odities. The Feasibility Study Team conducted field work in Guatem ala, Haiti, and
Trinidad. The benefits o f irradiation technology have been shown to have an im pact particularly
on the small farm er who is more capable o f producing non-traditional crops intended for
international export marketing. In Haiti, the anthropologists working on the CA FI study found
that 74 000 individuals will be directly affected by the ban on the postharvest fum igant ethylene
dibromide. Irradiation technology can not only provide the quarantine security needed to
allow crops requiring quarantine treatm ent to move into international trade, but it can prom ote
international co-operation in technology transfer. Training and safety issues related to the
transfer, operation, and disposal o f nuclear m aterials must be considered and point out the need
for adequate regional co-operative programmes. Research and training programmes will be needed
to augment the im plem entation o f food irradiation processing by the private sector. Irradiation
firms planning facilities in developing countries may need to provide crop production inform ation,
international marketing intelligence, and other assistance needed to integrate an irradiator into
the overall postharvest food system.

The Agency for International Development has primary responsibility for the
United States Government programme o f international development assistance. As
such, we at A ID have been concerned about the impact that the US ban on ethylene
dibromide (E D B ) may have on developing countries. It appears that in the
Caribbean and Central American region, also called the Caribbean Basin, many
countries with U SA ID assistance have developed or are developing strong export
marketing projects and also non-traditional crop production projects. Because

493
494 MORRIS

the intent o f President Reagan’s Caribbean Basin Initiative is to promote trade in

this region and exports to US markets, we have recently initiated research to
evaluate alternative quarantine treatment to EDB, including chemical, hot water
dips, and cold storage. In another effort, our O ffice o f Agriculture has funded the
Caribbean Area F ood Irradiation, jor C A F I, Feasibility Study. The C A F I study is
being implemented through a grant to the National Food Processors Association
and includes the collaboration o f the Department o f Energy.
The C A F I study is intended to assess the technical, economic, political, social,
and financial feasibility o f transferring food irradiation technology to the Caribbean
area.
The team has been working under the guidance o f Dr. Mussman, the
keynote speaker, from the National Food Processors Association and under the
leadership o f J. Sivinski, an internationally known fo od irradiation specialist. The
team also includes D. Jackson, a trade and agribusiness specialist; G. Cavin, an
entomologist; J. Knapp, an economist and financial analyst; K. Priester, an
anthropologist/sociologist; S. O ’ Rourke, an anthropologist stationed in Haiti,
and J. Ingersoll, as senior anthropologist.
We are currently anticipating receipt o f the first draft by the end o f
March. A t that point we plan to distribute copies for review and comment. It is
anticipated that the final C A F I Feasibility Study Report will be ready fo r distri­
bution by September 1985.
I would like to highlight a few o f the points which have been relayed to me
by the C A F I Feasibility Study Team.
Early in the discussions about strategy fo r this Feasibility Study there was
general agreement that the technical feasibility o f food irradiation has been
adequately demonstrated.
This conclusion is based on the long history o f laboratory studies and global
pilot-scale demonstrations in over 30 countries. When I say long history, I mean
over eighty years. The first US pa ten tlk n ow o f i s # 788480 issued to a M r. H. Lieber
on 25 April 1905. Early research and development efforts in the U SA can there­
fore be documented to the turn o f the century. The team therefore felt that,
because o f the long international R&D efforts, the technical feasibility has been
over demonstrated. Why then has food irradiation not been universally accepted?
Is it lacking feasibility in another area?
The C A F I team in their final report will address the economic and
financial feasibility, but I wish to emphasize a major focus: — the
people issues: acceptability, safety, social benefit, etc. I f irradiation
technology is not perceived by our fellow humans as being acceptable and feasible
for them, we scientists will have failed. Indeed, I personally believe that one o f the
major reasons we are not discussing the widespread acceptance today, but are still
trying to get the technology out o f the laboratory, has been due to our inability
to communicate and demonstrate the benefits o f this technology to people. What
role w ill this A ID funded C A F I Feasibility Study play?
 IAEA-SM-271/62 495

The C A F I team has been spending good brain power and social and anthro­
pological expertise on the examination o f the human impact o f the transfer o f
irradiation technology to the Caribbean. With three sociology or anthropology
experts participating in this effort, we hope to clearly focus on the human impact.
The follow ing are some o f their early findings.
First, within the Caribbean, agriculture’ s share o f Gross Domestic Product
represents from 8—40 per cent, while in the U S A it is only 3 per cent
o f GDP. Agricultural activities are very important to the Caribbean region.
Second, agricultural exports from the Caribbean countries, particularly Haiti
and Belize, are a major provider o f foreign exchange earning and a principal source
o f employment.
The team has also noted the importance o f the postharvest system in relation
to production agriculture. Marketing costs normally exceed production costs, so
improvements in the postharvest system can not only save the value o f agricultural
production input costs, but can dramatically increase the economic efficiency as well.
The costs for marketing melons and cantaloupes from Central America are almost
twice their production costs.
Irradiation used for quarantine treatment could help maintain existing levels
and kinds o f exports which had required EDB fumigation to enter US markets.
N ew production areas being planted to crops requiring quarantine treatment could
also benefit i f irradiation technology were transferred to the region.
Also o f note is the possibility for irradiation to play a major role in non-
traditional crop exports, not only to meet quarantine requirements but also to
prolong shelf-life. Many o f the tropical crops have a very short marketing shelf-life.
I f irradiation can extend the life only a few days, this could have significant impact
on expanding the market range, and fo r a few crops could open opportunities for
marketing these perishables in Europe.
There are many crops which grow well in the Caribbean, but which have not
seen great export market activity. Tomatoes, avocados, eggplant, bell peppers,
and chili peppers exhibit p hytotoxic damage i f treated with EDB replacement
chemicals such as methyl bromide. Because these crops require quarantine
treatment to enter the U SA and often other markets but do not tolerate fumi­
gation with m ethyl bromide, they could dramatically and quickly enter inter­
national marketing i f irradiation processing is accepted by US (o r other) regulatory
agencies and i f irradiators were available. These and many other non-traditional
crops can tolerate the low doses required for quarantine security, and may also
benefit from market shelf-life prolongation by irradiation.
The C A F I team is spending considerable effort in evaluating the social impact
o f the transfer o f food irradiation technology to the Caribbean. The traditional
view that small farmers in Central America and the Caribbean are conservative
and resistant to change is not supported in Guatemala, at least. Subsistence and
small farmers there have shown their willingness to take advantage o f perceived
opportunities to boost income. In the highlands o f Guatemala, farmers do not
want to move to the lowlands where malaria is present. They also do not want to
496 MORRIS

disrupt their families. Their desire to adopt non-traditional crops that can bring
added income is real, as evidenced by the increases in non-traditional crop production
and export. Irradiation could give them expanded market opportunities fo r these
non-traditional crops.
I f farmers perceive a secure market at a price which would at least cover costs,
they are eager to shift production to new crops. The C A F I team reports that
small farmers have a competitve advantage over large farmers in the production
o f non-traditional labour-intensive export crops. A small farming family can
contribute cost-saving labour while larger farmers must depend on hired labour.
Also, the time and attention needed to ensure export quality o f agricultural
commodities is more easily attained by the small farmer.
Although it seems that small farmers are willing to produce more o f the
non-traditional crops, this trend is limited by the necessity o f the very small
farmers to meet subsistence requirements. Farmers will produce non-traditional
crops only after food needs fo r the family have been met.
The land available to each farm family therefore limits capacity to fulfil
subsistence requirements and the secondary potential to produce export crops
which may benefit from irradiation. Therefore, the smallest and'poorest o f farmers
will be the least able to benefit from expanded market capabilities made possible
by fo od irradiation.
Then who would benefit? Because small commercial farmers have been more
able than larger farmers to compete in production o f labour-intensive crops, they
are likely to be the major beneficiaries o f commercial food irradiation. Small
farmers with access to irrigation could benefit even more. The landless labourers
who are available to help produce expanded export production through em ploy­
ment opportunities and secondary economic growth will also benefit.
What is the C A F I team saying about the impacts o f irradiation technology
transfer to the Caribbean?
(1 ) Can maintain present export production, even with the EDB ban;
(2 ) Could expand export potential particularly for novel non-traditional crops;
(3 ) Particularly help small farmers;
(4 ) Reduce hazards to applicators, handlers, and consumers from toxic chemicals
which have been used for quarantine treatment. However, the potential
safety hazards o f radiation injury to workers in the irradiation facility cannot
be ignored or minimized. Irradiation must be carefully controlled at a
central facility and safety measures and appropriate training must be provided
to minimize the possibility o f accidents involving the use, transport and
replenishment o f nuclear materials;
(5 ) Can prom ote quality improvement o f produce by chanelling it through a
central irradiation facility. Control o f grades and standards at a central
facility can prom ote international market acceptance. The increased shelf-life
potential may also prom ote added economic incentive and the image o f
superior quality o f irradiated produce.
 IAEA-SM-271/62 497

(6) Can expand domestic marketing area. For example, with marine fish
irradiation, the interior domestic markets may for the first time have fresh
fish available.
The team is still working on many other aspects o f the C A F I study including
a model horticultural produce irradiator design. The team has supplied one
important calculation o f particular interest. It appears that 7000 t o f produce
per year is needed to justify the construction o f an irradiator facility. Because the
costs o f treatment are directly related to the tonnage processed, these data are
important. Small Caribbean islands may not have sufficient production to justify
irradiator construction, but for areas where the combination o f crops can
approximate 2 0 t o f throughput per day, it is likely that capital costs can be
amortized in a reasonable amount o f time.
Dr. D.T. Luckey’s:exciting ideas:about radiation hormesis and the potential for
stimulating increased production may o ffer tremendous new opportunities to
more fully utilize irradiation facilities by treating seeds and other plant and
animal material at very low doses. Because seed planting time and the harvest
occur at different seasons, this may help balance and more fully utilize irradiation
trained personnel i f appropriate seed irradiation equipment were available.
Because it seems that an irradiator has the greatest potential to help small
farmers who produce non-traditional crops for export, the management behind
an irradiator must truly serve the needs o f the small farmers. This suggests that the
facility, and its organization and management, must be integrated well into the
production and postharvest system.
This means that appropriate non-traditional crop production guidance,
marketing intelligence, co-operative formation expertise, grades and standards
development assistance, agricultural credit, adequate transportation facilities,
packaging containers and systems, etc., must be readily available.
In other words, the irradiator cannot be isolated — it must fit within the
existing production and postharvest system. Those who are really going to
successfully transfer irradiation technology are those who will be willing to
succeed over the long haul. I f the management o f irradiator firms does its
homework and integrates its irradiation operation into a two-way information
flow to and from the producers, these firms can succeed. Private sector firms
interested in the international opportunities food irradiation technology offers
will be well advised to consider providing marketing and production information help
to the individual producers or co-operatives, perhaps even radiation stimulated seeds.
In the USA, where a sophisticated agricultural marketing chain is accustomed
to highly specialized service industries, an irradiator service need only be marketed
well. In a developing country, for a service irradiator to survive, it may need to
work directly with farmers and co-operatives. It may also have to ensure fair
access to irradiation facilities since this access may imply the only access to markets.
Before closing, I want to mention a few interesting observations made by
the C A F I team while in Haiti. Although Haiti’ s major export crop is coffee,
mangoes are the second most important earner o f foreign exchange.
498 MORRIS

The anthropologists working with the C A F I team have discovered that there
are 74 000 Haitians directly involved in mango export. This includes 72 000
peasant producers, 1 0 0 0 intermediaries, and 1 0 0 0 managers and employees o f mango
export firms. I f one assumes that the average number o f persons per household is
5, then 360 000 or roughly 6 % o f Haiti’s 5 .5 million population could be affected
if alternative quarantine treatments are not in place by the 1st o f September 1985,
when a zero EDB residue tolerance for mangoes goes into effect.
The C A F I team has also been looking into the responsibility that the transfer
o f this nuclear technology will entail. The team has identified a need fo r a
Caribbean regional research and training facility. People must be trained to safely
operate facilities and research programmes.
Many o f the tropical crops which might someday benefit most from irradiation
have never been tested. The US Department o f Agriculture has stated that quarantine
treatment protocols are required for each com m odity to ensure quarantine security.
Treatment protocols must therefore be developed fo r each individual crop.
Many fruits benefit most i f irradiated close to the point o f harvest. It seems
logical then that the best place, ultimately, for an irradiator is within the tropical
Caribbean, close to an adequate supply o f produce. The most feasible location
will need to be identified and agreed upon by the countries interested in pur­
suing this technology.
I wish to close with tw o quotes, one from perhaps the most important inter­
national treaty in existence and the other from the most famous scientist who made
the treaty a necessity.
The first quote is from the Treaty on the Non-Proliferation o f Nuclear
Weapons which was proclaimed by the United States President and entered into
force fifteen years ago, on 5 March 1970. The quote is from Article IV , Paragraph 2:

“A ll the Parties to the Treaty undertake to facilitate, and have the right
to participate in, the fullest possible exchange o f equipment, materials and
scientific and technological information for the peaceful uses o f nuclear
energy. Parties to the Treaty in a position to do so shall also cooperate
in contributing alone or together with other States or international organi­
zations to the further development o f the applications o f nuclear energy for
peaceful purposes, with due consideration for the needs o f the developing
areas o f the w orld.”
The second quote is a statement made by Albert Einstein in 1945:

“ Since I do not foresee that atomic energy is to be a great boon fo r a long time,
I have to say that for the present it is a menace. Perhaps it is well that it
should be. It may intimidate the human race into bringing order into its
international affairs, which, without the pressure o f fear, it would not do.”

The Feasibility study has shown that Carribean entrepreneurs are ready for the
transfer o f food irradiation technology. The choice o f using this technology for
the benefit o f human kind is ours.
 IAEA-SM-271/85

NEW CONSIDERATIONS FOR RADIATION-

TECHNOLOGY TRANSFER PROGRAMMES
FOR DEVELOPING COUNTRIES*

M.C. LA G U N A S -S O L A R
Radioisotope Program,
Crocker Nuclear Laboratory,
University o f California,
Davis, California,
United States o f America

Abstract

NEW CO N SID ERA TIO N S FO R R ADI ATION-TECHNO LOGY T R A N SF E R PROGRAM M ES

FO R D EV ELO PIN G CO U N TRIES.
F or more than three decades o f research on food irradiation, radionuclides ( 137Cs, but
(m ostly 60Co) have been the type o f radiation sources em ployed in the m ajority o f efforts
world wide. This is currently continuing as a trend in the planning o f new large-scale commercial
facilities for processing food. At the same time, machine sources o f ionizing radiation are
generally being ignored, although it appears that newly developed electron beam accelerators
o f sufficient beam power and reliability of operation can offer many technical and econom ic
advantages over the use o f radionuclide sources. Many developing countries m otivated by
potential econom ic gains, or by the need to overcome new trade restrictions, are moving rather
fast to incorporate radiation processing facilities. Therefore, an analysis and a comparison o f
the different radiation sources currently available, and the new machine (accelerator) sources
being developed and tested seems appropriate and timely.

I. INTRODUCTION

Despite the efforts of many international organizations, local

governments, research institutions, and the commercial sector,
losses of the world's food supply still reaches one-quarter to
one-third of the total food production. Losses occur to different
extents in all of the different phases of the overall food chain.
The relative extent of harvesting; post-harvesting; distribution;
storage; processing; market display; and consumer-handling losses
varies widely due to technical, operational, and environmental
factors. In many regions, but particularly in developing countries
located in tropical zones, these losses are further compounded by
the lack of technical resources and facilities for effective food
preservation. Known methods (i.e. temperature and environmental
controls; drying; freezing; canning; fermentation; etc.) are
either not available or are insufficient in capacity.

* Supported by the University o f California Nuclear Sciences Fund.

499
500 LAGUNAS-SOLAR

In 1975, during the Seventh Special Session of the United

Nations General Assembly, the need for a concerted effort to
reduce post-harvest food losses in developing countries was given
a high priority. However, and despite many initiatives by
international agencies, many countries are still producing food
below their needs and suffering from large shortages. Insufficient
food production, when coupled with the lack of proper facilities
for preservation, and some political and/or economical factors,
almost invariably results in hunger and social unrest.
It is generally accepted todav that food irradiation can help
minimize some of these losses if the technology is established, as
expected, in the developed countries, and if it is timely and
appropriately transfered to all of the different regions of the
world. The general response of the scientific, regulatory, and
food-industry communities to the 1981 WHO/FAO/IAEA "Wholesomeness
of Irradiated Food" report (1), has been to accelerate the
regulatory process in order to promote the worldwide use of
radiation in food processing. As a result, many engineering,
technical, operational, and economical factors regarding a large-
scale operation are being analyzed. In most developing countries,
food production and exports are significant national and economic
resources. Hierefore, the choice, transfer, and implementation
of a new technology is an essential and determining factor in the
nation's progress.
As with many other technical developments, the transfer of
new techniques to developing countries is a time-consuming
process. For the most part is generally carried out by private-
industry counterparts, although in the majority of cases an
important role is played by the developing country's government
agencies by sanctioning, commissioning, and licensing the process
and its facilities.
Hie introduction and/or marketing of food-irradiation
facilities has already started very aggressively in many developing
countries. However, as a result of almost three decades of
research on food irradiation, and on its scientific/technological
base using radionuclide sources (Cs-137, but mostly Co-60), these
typeiof sources are strongly considered as the radiation source
of choice for most planned facilities. Today, many facilities under
construction or in the planning stages, are being designed to house
radionuclide sources, primarily Co-60. This is despite the fact
that the international regulations based upon the WHO/FAO/IAEA
report, also include machine (accelerator) sources (1), and that
both the availability and the cost of the future Co-60 production
are being questioned (2). On the contrary, and in particular in
the case of most developing countries, the diffusion of the
necessary information on the performance and status of current
accelerators is far from reaching the level of knowledge and
familiarity achieved with the use of radionuclide sources. Hiis
is despite the fact that in the last two decades, and due to the
 IAEA-SM-271/85 501

applications in medical therapy; solid-state physics; several

industrial processes; and defense programs; accelerator technology
has evolved considerably and at a greater rate than most believe.
For many years, the day-to-day operational reliability for
accelerators with adequate beam energy and power, was thought as
a serious drawback for machine sources. However, the advances in
solid-state electronics; the development and operation of low-
gradient accelerator modules with high-frequency magnetic switches,
have resulted in accelerator systems which seen to offer many
advantages for establishing large-scale, portable, multi-purpose
radiation-processing facilities (3,4).
The present work will then evaluate the different advantages
and disadvantages of technology-transfer programs based upon the
different radiation sources; and suggest a criteria with which to
ascertain the requirements, potential value, and current interest
of technology-transfer efforts.

II. RADIATION SOURCES TOR DEVELOPING COUNTRIES

A. General Observations
The choice of radiation sources for developing countries
must compare the economics of installation; day-to-day cost of
operation and maintenance; food processing costs; impact on
consumer prices; and also the potential for other applications.
The latter can be a factor to rationalize operational costs. In
addition, and due to the needs to satisfy the peak demands of
various food products likely from distant production locations,
the potential for source portability becomes an important
feature with great influence in the overall economic assesment.
The characteristics, availability, and the present status of
radionuclides and accelerator (machine) sources have been
recently reviewed (2). A comparative economic cost analysis for
pest control for raisins, using chemical and irradiation methods
was also recently reported (5). The latter report demonstrated
that irradiation could be quite cost competitive with several
other treatments (i.e. temperature and environmental controls;
chemical fumigation), and that electron-beam accelerator
facilities can provide even less costly alternatives than
radionuclide sources.
In order to facilitate further analysis of the different
alternatives as radiation sources, the equivalency of radiation
processing capabilities for radionuclides and electron-beam
accelerator sources is given in figure 1.
Both Cs-137 (30.17 a) and Co-60 (5.27 a) have been used in
more than 50 countries as sources for food irradiation research,
502 LAGUNAS-SOLAR

1------------------- j
1 COBALT - 60 1 1 CAESIUM - 137 1
i i 1t t1
1 1 MCi 1 1 6.9 MCi 1
1I 1 ii Ii
1 PHOTON USE= 30% 1 1 PHOTON USE= 20% 1

I----------------------------------------------------
I F O O D P R O C E S S I N G C A P A C I T Y
I
I ( 1 . 7 Mrad METRIC TON / DAY)
I ( 400 METRIC TON / DAY AT 100 krad)
I----------------------------------------------------

I 9 kW X-RADIATION I

1 1

1 5-MeV ELECTRON DEAM I 1 10-MeV ELECTRON BEAM I

1 ACCELERATOR | 1 ACCELERATOR I
I 1 1 1
1 112-kVJ (8% USE) 1 1 60-kW (15% USE) 1

F IG .l. Radiation sources food processing equivalency. 1 Ci = 3.70 X 10 10 Bq.

1 rad = 1.00 X 10~2 Gy.

applications in cancer radiotherapy (mostly Co-60), and as

sources for industrial applications. There is considerable
worldwide experience in the handling and operation of these
facilities, particularly in those developing countries which
participated in feasibility, testing, and demonstration projects
under the auspices of the Atoms for Peace, IAEA, or other R&D
programs. This experience, however, was obtained with relatively
low-level sources (0.2 to 0.5 MCi) and mainly through academic/
government programs under the general direction of the countries's
Atomic or Nuclear Energy Agencies. However, because of the amounts
of food involved in a commercial size operation, larger sources
would be needed at centralized locations. In certain regions of
the world, it is also conceivable that smaller sources may be
necessary for dealing with specific local needs.
The non-food radiation-processing industry, has recently
experienced a vigorous growth in numerous developed countries.
These countries have already incorporated low-energy, low-power
electron-beam accelerators for the processing of wood products;
for cross-linking of plastics; for the treatment of plastic
coated wires; and other applications (6-10). An infrastructure
for the support and expansion of this industry is also being
established. The private sector in many developing countries is
also investigating this new process which requires almost an
identical infrastructure to radiation processing of food.
 IAEA-SM-271/85 503

В. On the Use of Radionuclide Sources

Although the operation of radionuclide sources throughout
the world has been conducted safely and efficiently, there are
several drawbacks that make then less attractive alternatives, in
particular for developing countries:
1) Present and Future Supply
The current world supply of both Cs-137 and Co-60 is
insufficient to support food irradiation processing as is expected
to expand worldwide. The US government is the only producer of
Cs-137 and at present has about 77 MCi in inventory (11). The
current Co-60 production level (from a single company) is about
20-25 MCi per year, and is assigned to resupply irradiation
facilities (mostly non-food) on a worldwide basis. However, it has
been announced that the availability of Co-60 may be increased to
60-70 MCi/year (11).
2) Expected Demand
According to fig. 1, a 1.0 MCi Co-60 source used at 30%
efficiency can process in a 24-h operational day, 400 metric tons
of food per day, at a nominal 100 krad (1 kGy) dose. Also, 6.9 MCi
of Cs-137 would be needed for the same output/dose level per day.
If the product's intended technical effect requires higher doses,
the amount of food treated per day would decrease accordingly. The
expected future Co-60 availability would only represent a net
increase of about 35-40 MCi, because part of the production is
already committed to resupply current sources (estimated as 22- to
25-MCi per year) and part (about 12%) must be committed to resupply
the new facilities. This would represent 35 to 40 new 1.0 MCi Co-60
sources for the entire world demand, with a capability to process
only 14 000 to 16 000 metric tons of food per day at a nominal
100 krad (1 kGy) dose. Because both developed and developing
countries are expected to implement radiation processing of food
in the near future, the processing capacity on a daily basis is
estimated as several million metric tons per day. Clearly the
future prospects for adequate radionuclide source supply can
provide only a anall fraction of the estimated needs.
3) Future Cost
Developing countries are typically troubled with fluctuating
(normally decreasing) currency values, a trend that in most cases
is expected to continue. Therefore, a major economic concern in the
planning of a facility with radionuclide sources is the long-term
commitment to a mandatory Co-60 resupply program. It is also to be
expected that an increased availability of Co-60 (and the assumed
increased demand) will also result in a considerably higher price
than tl^e current US $ 1.00/Ci. An increase of many-fold in Co-60
prices would greatly deteriorate the economic value of radionuclide
source installations in developing countries.
504 LAGUNAS-SOLAR

From this standpoint, it appears that Cs-137 with a 30.17 a

half-life, and a much reduced cost of US $ 0.10/Ci, could alleviate
this problem. However, the world supply of Cs-137 is even more
restricted (77 Ci, see above). Even if the US goverment would
expand a reprocessing and encapsulation program for Cs-137 (a
fission product from the operation of nuclear reactors) so as to
increase its availability many-fold, a Cs-137 radiation source has
other limitations (due to its low-energy 662 keV photons) making
its use only applicable to thin foods. Even if its use is
justifiable in certain developed countries for specific applications
(i.e. Sludge Irradiation, Pork Irradiator Facility, etc.), its use
in developing countries is questionable.
4) Potential Applications
Even under the best of ciurcumstances, facilities housing
radionuclide sources will provide few oportunities for flexible
or variable applications. Processing of food can be performed
for any of the intended low-, medium, and high-dose applications
as defined in the WHO/FAO/IAEA report (1). However, product
selection and handling will have to be done in such a way as to
assure that the product-package geometries would provide adequate
dose ratios allowing the necessary control of the product's
response. On the other hand, sterilization of many products
(specially medical supplies) can be performed with few concerns
for dose ratios.

C. Accelerator Sources for Radiation Processing of Food

Electron-beam accelerators have been used in research for

several decades. Converting electron beams to X radiation
(Bremsstrahlung radiation) allows these accelerators to be used
in processing large, dense targets. A water-cooled metallic
plate is used to convert the electron beam energy into X-rays
and heat. The process is relatively inefficient (8% at 5 MeV),
but the conversion increases with electron beam energy (15% at
10 MeV). Therefore, photons created in this form can provide
a more penetrating radiation allowing the processing of larger
food packages with acceptable (in most cases better) dose
distributions in the package (2).
According to fig. 1, 9 kW of X-radiation are equivalent
to 1.0 MCi of Co-60 or 6.9 MCi of Cs-137. This power can be
obtained from either a 5-MeV (112-kW, 8%), or a 10 MeV(60-kW,
15%) electron-beam accelerator. The types of current and future
accelerators vtfiich can provide a fraction or all of the needed
power are given in table I.

A well-established non-food radiation-processing industry

already exists in developed countries. As mentioned earlier,
many developing countries are considering the radiation
processing of plastics (crosslinking; polymerization; grafting;
 IAEA-SM-271/85 505

T A B L E I. PRESE N T A N D F U T U R E E L E C T R O N B E A M A C C E L E R A T O R S
F O R RADIATION PROCESSING O F F O O D

Accelerator Beam Enery Beam Power Beam Type Basis of Operation

(MeV) (kW)
Linear 1 to 50 0.3 to 20 Pulsed CWa High Voltage,
RF wave
Dynamitron 4.5 (max.) up to 150 Direct Cockroft-Walton
Current technology
Resonant 4.0 (max.) up to 40 Direct High-voltáge,ins.
Transformer Current core transformer
Van der Graff 3 (air) low Direct Moving-belt
10 (press.) Current discharge
RF Linac 10 500 kW Pulsed CW Conceptual Design
Induction 10 Megawatts Pulsed CW Testing at LINLb

a CW = continuous wave.
k University o f California Lawrence Livermore N ational Laboratory.

cable and wire coatings), rubber products (coating; shrinking;

crosslinking), as well as applications in medical-product
sterilization, as new areas of technology.

In general, the design, operation, and maintenance of

radiation-processing facilities using an accelerator source are
more favorable because electrically-driven accelerators are more
compatible with existing food processing facilities. Even though
a more technically capable staff is needed, once the capability
exists, the system is capable of providing other resources in the
treatment of a variety of targets (non-food). This versatility
is a major factor for developing countries.
Because of the amounts of food involved, the variations of
production levels (reaching peak levels over short periods); the
geographical separation of major agricultural centers; and the
lack of good transportation systems; most developing countries
will need to maximize the use of radiation processing facilities
simply for economic reasons. Therefore, a major feature of
accelerator sources is the construction of portable systems capable
of high throughput. This is possible with accelerators in
contrast to the need to move multi-Curie radionuclide sources.
The design features for such a portable system are shown in
figures 2 and 3;.
506 LAGUNAS-SOLAR

FIG.2. General view o f a radiation processing facility for food, operating with a portable
accelerator.

Hie potential operation of electron beam accelerators in

developing countries offers also many unique advantages over the
operation of radionuclide sources. These are:
1) Radiation Energy Spectrum
A 5-MeV (as presently being proposed) photon spectrum
provides higher average energy than Co-60 or Cs-137. This allows
processing larger-size packages to within the same dose ratios
with no increased labor. In addition, variable beam energies are
available to treat a wider range of density foods. The average
beam energy can also be increased by "hardening" the photon
spectrum with the use of thin metal shields which will stop the
lower energy photons.
2) Beam Directionality
The X-radiation has a forward direction allowing for a more
efficient utilization of the available beam power. At the same
time it reduces some of the need for massive all-direction
shielding as is required with radionuclide sources.
3) Beam Steering Capabilities
The photon field can be scanned, and focused or defocused,
by using electromagnets. This tuning allows a better use of photon
power by the proper adjustments to the size of the food packages.
 IAEA-SM-271/85 507

FIG.3. Close-up view o f a radiation processing facility for food. Facility operates based upon
two portable 5-MeV electron beam accelerators mounted on a 40 ft truck. Soil and concrete
are used as radiation shield.

4) Beam On/Off Capabilities

Radiation safety and environmental concerns in the use of
high-energy ionizing radiation are much reduced due to this
capability. System maintenance and repair can also be
conducted rather easily once the source has been turned off.

III. CONCLUSIONS
The implementation of radiation processing of food in
developing countries should be made with a strong consideration to
many potential short- and long-term impacts. Selecting the type
of radiation source is an important decision with many potential
economic and technical risks. Radionuclide sources seem less
desirable to developing countries due to economic (initial and
resupply costs; future price uncertainty; single major supplier)
and technical (lower energies, limited useful power, higher dose
ratios in large packages) reasons. On the other hand, the
accelerator industry is likely to be a very competitive domain of
508 LAGUNAS-SOLAR

multiple ventures in the private sector. Accelerators with

versatility of operation (food and non-food processing) and
portability, reduce installation costs, and on/off operation can
provide systems which can greatly enhance the use of radiation in
different areas of technology. These systems can satisfy many of
government/private sector needs and help support many beneficial
efforts for the countries's progress.
The international agencies must play a much needed role in
helping this decision by prompt and up-to-date diffusion of
information, and by suggesting, supporting, and helping the many
different phases of any technology-transfer effort. The right
technology in the hand of developing countries can always be a
factor in closing the gap between nations.

R E F E R E N C E S

(1) "Wholesomeness of Irradiated Food". Report of the Joint

FAO/IAEA/tyHO Expert Committee. Technical Report Series 659,
WHO, Geneva, 1981.
(2) Lagunas-Solar, M.C., and Matthews S.M. "Radionuclide and
Accelerator Sources for Food Irradiation". Proc. Fifth Int.
Meeting on Radiation Processing, San Diego, California, 1984.
(3) Birx, D.L, Cook, E.G., Hawkins, S.A., Newton, M.A., Poor,
S.E., Reginato, L.L., Schmidt, J. A., and Smith, M.W. "The
Use of Induction Linacs with Non-Linear Magnetic Drive as
High Average Power Accelerators". Proc. 8th. Conf. On
Applications of Accelerators in Research and Industry, North
Texas State University, Denton, Texas, 1984.
(4) Lagunas-Solar, M.C. "Induction Linear Accelerators for Food
Processing with Ionizing Radiation". Proc. 8th. Conf. On
Applications of Accelerators in Research and Industry.
North Texas State University, Denton, Texas, 1984.
(5) Lagunas-Solar, M.C., and Matthews, S.M. "Comparative Economic
Factors on the Use of Radioisotope or Electrical Sources for
Food Processing with Ionizing Radiation". Proc. Fifth Int.
Meeting on Radiation Processing, San Diego, California, 1984.
(6) Ramier, W.J. Radiat. Phys. Chem., 9 (1977) 69.
(7) Leiss, J.E. "Induction Linear Accelerators and Their
Applications". IEEE Trans. Nucl. Science, NS-26 3 (1979) 3870.
(8) Farrell, J.P. et al., Radiat. Phys. Chem., 22 3-5 (1983) 469.
(9) McKeawn, J., Radiat. Phys. Chem., 22 3-5 (1983) 419.
(10) Machi, S., Radiat. Phys. Chem., (Special Issue), 24 1 (1984).
(11) Council on Radiation Applications (The Atomic Industrial
Forum), Bulletin, January 1985.
 IAEA-SM-271/114

SIGNIFICANT MILESTONES OF PROGRESS TO DATE

IN FOOD IRRADIATION AND IDENTIFICATION
OF AREAS OF FUTURE ADVANCES

W.M. U R B A IN
Michigan State University,
East Lansing, Michigan,
United States o f America

Abstract

SIG N IFIC A N T M ILE STO N ES O F PR O G R E SS TO D A TE IN FOOD IRRA D IA TIO N AND

ID EN TIFICA TIO N OF A R E A S O F FU T U R E AD V AN CES.
A review o f the progress in food irradiation as marked by significant accomplishments
since the 1940s is presented and the current status noted. Future needs and probable develop­
ments are identified. Suggestions for particular activities are given.

The first international symposium on food irradiation sponsored by the

International Atom ic Energy Agency and the Food and Agriculture Organization
was held in Karlsruhe, Federal Republic o f Germany, in 1966. To hold an
international symposium at that time, there had to be substantial on-going
activity in food irradiation. That this was so is clearly established from the fact
that 69 papers from 17 nations were presented and 209 persons attended this
first symposium.
Today, 19 years later, we are meeting again. Not only is there continued
activity in food irradiation, but we are seeing the attainment o f the goal o f many
years o f effort — commercial irradiation o f foods. To have kept that activity
going through the past decades has required a conviction that the effort is worth
while, that food irradiation is a useful process and that it will take its place in our
food supply system. T o have arrived where we are today must mean that
accomplishments o f significance have been secured — milestones along the
path o f progress.
As we look at the future o f food irradiation, it is worth while to recall some
o f these milestones, and, with this background, to attempt to foresee what is
ahead and what we need to do in the future. This fifth international symposium
seems to be a good occasion for undertaking this task.

509
510 URBAIN

M ILESTO NES O F PROGRESS TO D A T E IN FOOD IR R A D IA T IO N

A n y attempt to identify certain past events as especially significant is not

without hazard to the individual who does this. I o ffer only my views, but hope
that some, at least, w ill be found acceptable. I have had the good fortune to
have been present for many o f the activities since the beginning o f serious interest
in food irradiation and to have known personally many o f the participants. Hope­
fully, this experience may be helpful in my attempt to identify milestones o f
progress.
There are some genuine and generally recognized milestones that I believe
we do not need to discuss to any great extent at present for the reason that they
are so basic as to be obvious. I am referring to the discoveries before 1900 o f
X-rays and radioactivity ; that is, to the discovery o f ionizing radiation itself.
I would also omit discussion o f a number o f observations made in the early
decades o f the twentieth century. They are noteworthy, but they did not
accomplish anything o f significance in the development o f food irradiation.
These were the observations on the lethal action o f ionizing radiation on the
various forms o f life, including the microbial contaminants o f foods, as reported
by a number o f investigators. Such knowledge was not much more than a
curiosity o f science without practical meaning in the preservation o f foods by
radiation, for one very important reason: there was no way to obtain the
ionizing radiation in the quantity needed and at supportable costs for the
commercial treatment o f foods.
In my listing o f milestones I identify as the first one the development o f
radiation sources that provide what is needed for commercial food irradiation.
In the 1940s tw o types o f sources were developed. These are the machine
sources, mainly particle accelerators, and the man-made radionuclides such as
60Co. With these new sources, theoretically unlimited quantities o f ionizing
radiation are available and the costs are in accord with commercial usage.
This availability o f radiation stimulated and launched the serious investiga­
tion o f its use for the treatment o f foods. As best I can determine, the first work
in this new era was done in 1943 by the late Professor Bernard E. Proctor o f the
Massachusetts Institute o f Technology in the United States o f America. He
demonstrated the preservation o f hamburger meat by X-rays. It probably was no
accident that this experiment was performed at M IT, since it was there that the
electron accelerator named after him was invented by Professor Robert van de
Graaff. The X-rays used by Proctor were obtained with a van de Graaf accelerator.
This first experiment o f Proctor was the beginning o f the period o f sustained
development o f food irradiation that has continued through all the years since
1943 until today, and I believe deserves identification as a milestone o f progress.
I believe that this first milestone rightfully should be shared with another
early investigator, who also was active in the 1940s. Arno Brasch developed
another accelerator, the Capacitron. He did this in the U SA after some earlier
 IAEA-SM-271/114 511

work in Europe. Working with US industry he expanded the knowledge o f food

irradiation, and was the first to report the value o f irradiation at subfreezing
temperatures in limiting indirect action o f radiation.
These very early activities resulted in the establishment o f tw o separate
programmes o f research and development by the United States government, one
by the A tom ic Energy Commission (A E C ) and one by the Arm y. The AEC was
interested in peaceful uses o f atomic energy and saw in food irradiation an
excellent opportunity for utilizing gamma radiation from radionuclides such as
60Co and 137Cs. The A rm y’ s interest centred on a problem it had. The experience
o f tw o wars, World Wars I and II, with thermally sterilized combat rations
indicated that these products had unsatisfactory sensory characteristics. The
Arm y programme was directed toward the development o f radiation-sterilized
counterparts which would have improved troop acceptance.
These tw o US government programmes have to be regarded as important
milestones o f progress. The AEC programme was concerned with low-dose
applications and explored diverse product areas such as marine and fresh-water
animal foods, fresh meats and poultry, fruits and vegetables, with objectives
including radurization, insect disinfestation and delay o f ripening and senescence.
The Arm y programme, aimed at the high-dose process o f radappertization,
attacked a number o f problems including the sterilization dose requirement,
the radiation-induced off-flavour in meats and other foods, wholesomeness
evaluation, and technological aspects such as product development, packaging, etc.
Important contributions to basic aspects o f food irradiation were made by both
the AEC and A rm y programmes, especially in m icrobiology and radiation chemistry.
These two programmes contributed much to our understanding o f food irradiation.
Interest in food irradiation developed in other countries, too. A tabulation
made in 1968 showed that 76 countries had such programmes. Am ong the
countries that participated in this early work were the United Kingdom, the
Union o f Soviet Socialist Republics, Canada, France, Belgium, the Netherlands,
Denmark, Hungary, Italy, the Federal Republic o f Germany, Israel, Greece,
India, the Philippines, Pakistan, South Korea, Thailand, Japan, Argentina and
Chile.
Other programmes and group activities came into being in these early
years that had a very large impact on the progress in food irradiation. What
became the joint F A O / IA E A programme started in 1963 under the leadership
o f Dr. Harry Goresline. The Commission o f the European Communities and the
Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development sponsored research and
assisted in information transfer. The countries in Europe with centrally planned
economies formed a programme under the Council for Mutual Economic Assistance.
In 1970 approximately 25 nations established the International Project in the Field
o f Food Irradiation. It is my view that this spread o f interest in food irradiation
and the investigational work it generated, essentially on a worldwide basis,
constitutes another milestone o f progress.
512 URBAIN

Still another milestone came into being as a result o f the research carried out
on almost every food. This milestone is the recognition that food irradiation is a
broadly applicable process. Irradiation proved to be yet another means for treating
foods - for solving many problems, for innovation, with unique aspects to
challenge the imagination — a process that in some manner can benefit almost
every food.
Fruits can be preserved, freed o f insects, their ripening delayed and senescence
inhibited. Similar benefits occur with vegetables. Cereal grains and legumes can
be freed o f insects. Meats and poultry can be radappertized to match thermal
sterilization, but with superior results. Radurization extends the shelf-life o f
fresh meats. Meat parasites can be inactivated. Results with seafood parallel
those with meats. Animal feeds can be freed o f Salmonellae. The list o f potential
uses in treating foods with radiation seems endless. The accomplishments o f the
research o f the past four decades proving the broad applicability o f irradiation in
treating foods surely is another milestone o f progress.
Right from the beginning one area o f great effort was directed toward pro­
viding an answer to the question: Are irradiated foods safe to eat? Unlike other
food processes whose origin is in the past, irradiation has had to prove that it is
safe before it can be used. This is a requirement o f the scientifically sophisticated
era we are in today. Additionally, and unfortunately, emphasis on the need for
p ro o f o f safety is the result o f association o f food irradiation with radiation,
which has become something to be feared in our times.
Since the changes irradiation produced in foods were not understood in the
early years, the question regarding the safety o f irradiated foods was difficult to
answer. Under these circumstances the only available approach fo r evaluating
safety was to feed irradiated foods to test animals and to observe their performance.
This technique was an adaptation o f one used to evaluate the safety o f chemical
food additives but there is a major problem in applying it to irradiated foods.
Unlike a chemical food additive, the test material itself is the irradiated food and
this imposes a limitation on how much can be fed to the test animal. There is no
way to magnify its action by feeding large quantities as is done with food additives.
Despite this problem, many animal feeding studies on irradiated foods were
conducted. Important is the finding that, when properly carried out, none o f these
studies revealed any health hazards associated with the consumption o f irradiated
foods. Nonetheless, additional testing was required by regulatory government
agencies, in particular the US Food and Drug Administration.
As time went on, although the required testing remained basically animal
feeding, it became more and more complex, requiring a great deal o f effort, time
and money. One very severe requirement was that each and every food that was
to be irradiated had to be tested separately under the specific conditions it was to
be irradiated. This requirement added enormously to the burden o f the evaluation
o f safety.
This situation became a morass. Progress was held up for more than ten
years. Some nations terminated their programmes. One important effect was
 IAEA-SM-271/114 513

that the food industry refused to invest development money in a process that
they were not certain they would ever be permitted to use.
I am sure that we would be bogged down still today, and perhaps food
irradiation would even be a lost cause were it not for another development that
appeared at a crucial time.
One problem with radappertized meats is the development o f a characteristic
off-flavour. This problem spurred studies to determine what substances are
produced in irradiated foods in order to account for the undesired flavour.
Unfortunately in the early years no analytical technique was available that was
able to provide the information needed on the radiolytic products in meats.
The breakthrough came with the availability o f gas chromatography and
associated techniques which were developed about this time and which proved
to have the sensitivity and discrimination needed to identify the volatile radio­
lytic products formed in meats at magnitudes o f the order o f parts per million.
The first paper on work o f this kind, o f which I am aware, was reported in the
first IA E A /F A O International Symposium on Food Irradiation in 1966 by
Dr. Charles Merritt, Jr., o f the US A rm y Natick Laboratories. Strangely, informa­
tion useful in identifying the cause o f the off-flavour in meats was not provided by
this work, although it did reveal what substances are formed by radiation. The
real value o f this work is that it opened up the approach o f using radiation
chemistry in evaluating the toxicological safety o f irradiated foods.
In this period radiation chemistry had been developing as a separate discipline,
but it had not been concerned very much with food irradiation. In the years
succeeding Merritt’ s initial work there developed a good understanding o f the
radiation chemistry o f foods. This understanding has provided clear evidence
that, from a toxicological point o f view, irradiated foods contain no substance
as a result o f irradiation that constitutes a consumer health hazard. Certainly
the evidence o f radiation chemistry combined with all the information derived
from animal testing leads to such a conclusion.
This is a very important milestone. In fact, if there is such a thing as a
keystone among milestones, this is it. In passing it we emerged from the morass
o f the early and midyears o f frustration and dilemma. It has brought us into the
period where we are seeing the issuance o f regulatory approvals for the commercial
use o f food irradiation.
In the attainment o f this milestone recognition must be given to contributions
o f many individuals and organizations. Am ong the organizations we can identify
the International Project in the Field o f Food Irradiation, which from its inception
in 1971 until 1981 carried out a programme to evaluate the safety o f irradiated
foods. Major factors in the total activity were also the IA E A , F A O and WHO.
The culmination o f these efforts was the declaration by the Joint FAO/IAEA/WHO
Expert Comm ittee that:
“ . . . the irradiation o f any food com m odity up to an overall average dose
o f 10 kGy presents no toxicological hazard: hence, toxicological testing
o f food so treated is no longer required.”
514 URBAIN

The result o f our passing this milestone is that we are at the stage o f beginning
commercialization o f food irradiation. It is already underway in some countries,
notably Japan, South Africa, the Netherlands, Belgium, the Union o f Soviet
Socialist Republics and the United States o f America. As regulatory approvals
increase in number and scope we can anticipate increased commercial use o f food
irradiation as it takes its place among the standard food processes and is put to use
where it applies.
In looking back to the beginnings o f the serious interest in food irradiation
we see a record o f advances for about 40 years. The goal o f this effort — com­
mercial use on a broad basis — is at hand.
Y e t we know that work remains to be done. Can we foresee our needs? Can
we plan now for future activities?
My belief is that these questions should be answered affirmatively. I realize
that anyone who attempts to foresee the future does so at considerable risk. Y et
I believe that there is value in attempting to seek guidance from past events to
help us with future activities. For that reason, for what they may be worth, I
o ffer a few ideas on future activities that I believe will prove important.

M A X IM U M DOSE

The Joint FAO/IAEA/WHO Expert Committee stated that all foods irradiated
with doses up to 10 kG y present no toxicological hazard. Except for spices and
dried vegetable seasonings, national regulatory agencies so far have limited doses
to below 10 kGy, in conform ity with the statement o f the FAO/IAEA/WHO
expert committee. Y et for some uses o f food irradiation doses greater than 10 kGy
are needed. I suggest that a part o f our future activities needs to be concerned with
the obtaining o f approvals for doses greater than 10 kGy, perhaps up to 50 kGy.
We need not delay the taking o f such action. Steps in this direction can be
initiated now. I urge that this be done.

R A D IA T IO N SOURCES

Today two kinds o f radiation sources for food irradiation are available:
machines and radionuclides. In the future, I believe, we will move away from
radionuclides and go to machine sources. Radionuclide sources present problems
we would like to avoid, problems almost entirely associated with the fact that
we cannot ‘turn o f f these sources. We recognize environmental problems,
problems in the handling and operation o f these sources and also economic
problems.
Today the machine sources are primarily electron beam generators. Unfortu­
nately the 10 M eV upper energy limit for electron beams used to irradiate foods
 IAEA-SM-271/114 515

does not provide adequate penetration for treating many foods. The limit for
X-rays is 5 MeV. This provides more penetration than we get with the gamma
rays o f 137Cs and 60Co. The use o f a machine source, such as an X-ray generator,
which can be turned o ff, will permit avoidance o f the particular problems that
radionuclide sources have and at the same time provide the needed penetration
capabilities.
New developments in X-ray generators encourage the belief that X-ray
machines will be the radiation sources o f choice in the future.

F A C IL IT Y E F F IC IE N C Y

With the commercialization o f food irradiation, greater attention will have to

be paid to facility efficiency. This will involve not only improved source efficiency,
but also overall facility efficiency, such as may be obtained by computer-
controlled programming and operation o f the facility. The beginnings o f this
can be seen in existing facilities.
As the use o f food irradiation increases it can be anticipated that fewer
general-purpose irradiators will be employed and, instead, special-purpose facilities
will be used fo r particular types o f operations. One aspect o f this specialization
will be improved efficiency.

F R U IT A N D V E G E T A B L E IR R A D IA T IO N

It is my view that more research is needed into the irradiation o f fresh fruits
and vegetables. These foods can be sensitive to radiation and some potential
uses have not been achieved because o f various phytotoxic effects o f radiation.
We have tended to accept these limitations and have done without some potential
uses. A better understanding o f the relationship between irradiation and the
post-harvest pathology, physiology and biochemistry o f these living foods is
needed.
Most efforts to apply irradiation to fruits and vegetables have been based
on acceptance o f present practices for handling them. What may be needed in
order to use irradiation more effectively in some cases is to m odify these established
practices. I would include in this approach the gamut o f culturing, harvesting,
storage, transport and handling procedures. Additionally modification o f the
foods themselves through genetic changes may be important.
Finally, I believe that radappertization o f fruits and vegetables deserves more
attention than it has been given so far.
Hopefully, additional research will solve some o f the problems that are
preventing broader use o f irradiation o f fruits and vegetables.
 516 URBAIN

RE PLA C E M E N T O F CH EM ICALS

It is recognized that irradiation can replace some chemicals now used with
foods. It appears to me, however, that we have generally waited for the chemicals
to encounter problems before suggesting the use o f irradiation. Y e t in some
situations we can argue for irradiation’ s superiority — no toxic residues; inactiva­
tion o f insects regardless o f the stage o f development, egg or adult or any stage in
between; effective wherever the insect is, on the surface or in the interior o f the
food. I suggest a more aggressive approach be undertaken in order to determine
where irradiation is better than a chemical substance. This may uncover uses for
irradiation hitherto not considered.
One possibility along this line is the problem o f farm soils which are con­
taminated with insects. A t present such soils are treated with chemical pesticides,
for example, ethylene dibromide. These chemical pesticides can transfer to the
food crop and become a consumer health hazard. Could not irradiation be applied
to the fallow soil and succeed where chemicals now are used? A not very large
dose would serve to inactivate the insects and there would be no toxic chemicals
to contaminate the foods.

FOOD IN D U S T R Y P A R T IC IP A T IO N

There is another milestone in the offing that I believe could be o f major

importance. Up to now virtually none o f the research and development concerned
with food irradiation did involve food industry participation. With the issuance
o f government regulations permitting use o f the process it can be anticipated that
industry will become active. When this occurs we look forward to a very much
enlarged discovery o f ways that irradiation can be used. Only industry knows
o f many o f its problems in food processing. Industry is best able to appraise
opportunities for product development.
The input o f industry should greatly enlarge the scope o f the usefulness o f
food irradiation.

D E V E LO P IN G CO U N TRIE S

There has been a general understanding that the usefulness o f food irradiation
may be different in developed and in developing countries. Developed countries
usually have less need for food irradiation because they have in place now food
supply systems that effectively fulfil their requirements. Irradiation may succeed
in these countries only by replacing something else that is already present.
In developing countries there may not be an effective procedure available
to aid in food preservation and distribution. Not only is improvement needed to
 IAEA-SM- 271/114 517

reduce food losses and to facilitate distribution, but with no effective system in
place, irradiation can be installed without having to overcome an existing competi­
tive process. One can conclude that opportunities and need for food irradiation
may be greater in the developing countries.
As I understand it, the FAO/IAEA/W HO programme in food irradiation has
been oriented to giving more assistance to the developing countries than to
developed countries. Other programmes, such as those o f individual nations, could
provide similar assistance to the developing countries. In some countries barriers
to such assistance exist, however, and are the result o f lack o f approval for the use
o f food irradiation in those countries. In the United States o f America, for
example, the Agency for International Development, which is the federal govern­
ment agency for foreign aid, is prohibited from assisting another nation in food
irradiation until the Food and Drug Administration has approved the process for
use in the USA.
In the belief that such barriers to assistance are soon to be removed, there is
reason to anticipate that greater assistance may be made available to less developed
countries.
Such assistance may take a number o f forms. The join t F A O /IA E A programme
has been directed primarily toward sponsoring research and to providing training.
Additional meaningful assistance aimed at implementing food irradiation could
include measures which provide facilities for commercial operations. Business
ventures for the domestic or foreign marketing o f irradiated foods likewise could
be assisted.
I suggest that a productive activity in this direction would be a proper future
milestone target.

CONSUM ER E D U C A TIO N

The last future area I will mention is concerned with consumer acceptance
o f irradiated foods. While we may have confidence that the consumer will accept
irradiated foods, we know that there can be problems in this area. There are
already experiences on record that point to controversy and resistance. We cannot
take a position o f ignoring this aspect o f food irradiation.
I f one holds the view that the problems in gaining consumer acceptance are
the result o f lack o f information, or even o f his having received misinformation,
and i f one has confidence that presenting him with the true facts regarding the
safety o f irradiated foods will lead to his acceptance, then I believe that what
is needed is consumer education.
How to get the facts to the consumer, what to tell him, who is to tell him —
these are questions for which we need answers. This is a programme we should
organize now and put into action soon. Perhaps action should be timed to
coincide with the issuance o f regulations for food irradiation in each nation.
518 URBAIN

We must recognize that there are those who oppose food irradiation and
that there are some who will be active in their opposition. Regardless o f the
motivation for their opposition, we know that they are in error. Unless we
challenge them, they could prevail.
The time for developing a consumer education programme is now. It should
not be postponed. It is a jo b for all o f us.
We need leadership to organize such an effort. A recent statement o f the
World Health Organization suggests we can get help from that organization and
from the F A O and IA E A . I quote:
“ This outline o f W H O ’ s involvement in the field o f food irradiation indicates
that the Organization is confident that this technology can properly be utilized
in an attempt to promote food safety. WHO will therefore continue to collaborate
with its sister organizations, IA E A and FAO , in its efforts to secure for food
irradiation technology its appropriate place in helping increase a safe food supply
for mankind .” 1
May I suggest that there be organized an active effort regarding consumer
education. I suggest, additionally, that each o f us in his own way and with his
own capability accept a role in consumer education.
The accomplishment o f consumer education, and thereby, consumer
acceptance, can be yet another milestone o f progress.

1 Statem ent from the World Health Organization delivered by J .F . Diehl at the 5th Inter­
national Conference on Radiation Processing, San Diego, California, U SA , 2 1 - 2 6 Oct. 1984.
EXPERT PANEL REPORTING

(Session VIII)

Chairman
D.A.A. MOSSEL
Netherlands
 PANEL

IMPLEMENTATION
OF THE FOOD IRRADIATION PROCESS

Chairman: J.S. Sivinski (United States o f America)

Rapporteur: W.R. Bradford (United Kingdom)

Members: J.G. Leemhorst (Netherlands)

A.F. Lustre (Philippines)
R.F. Morris (United States o f America)
R. Muñoz (Ecuador)
J. Reyes Lujan (M exico)
H.M. Roushdy (E gypt)
P. Wills (Australia)

Scientific
Secretary: P. Loaharanu (IA E A )

In association with the Symposium, the sponsoring organizations invited an

Expert Panel to discuss topics related to the implementation o f food irradiation
in developing countries, and to report its conclusions and recommendations for
discussion at the final session o f the Symposium. Each member o f the Panel
attended in an individual capacity and not as a representative o f his or her
affiliated organization.
The Panel met on a number o f occasions during the Symposium. It was
agreed that the question o f implementation o f food irradiation in developing
countries could not be considered in isolation, since many aspects were common
to all countries and progress in one country often depended on progress in
another. Nevertheless, the needs o f developing countries were given particular
attention in the recommendations which form the final section o f this report.
The Panel first considered the principal requirements which had to be met
before implementation o f the food irradiation process could take place, and
identified those which currently needed the most attention.

Tasks substantially achieved

— Demonstrate technological efficacy

— Demonstrate absence o f harmful side effects.

521
522 PANEL

Tasks requiring completion

— Demonstrate economic feasibility

— Establish legislative framework
— Secure consumer acceptance.

Once all the objectives listed had been satisfactorily achieved, the Panel
considered that commercial introduction o f the process, while still requiring
the expenditure o f considerable resources both financial and technological, would
nevertheless be relatively straightforward.

D E M O N S T R A TIO N O F ECONOM IC F E A S IB IL IT Y

Three areas were considered to o ffer the greatest prospects o f economic

benefit from the introduction o f food irradiation, while at the same time giving
rise to immense potential benefits to humanity. These areas are:

( 1) Reduction in post-harvest losses

(2 ) Prom otion o f international trade
(3 ) Improvement in public health.

(I) Reduction in post-harvest losses

Losses during storage and transportation o f staple foodstuffs in some

developing countries may be considerable, often up to 30 or even 50% o f the
total crop. This can have a serious effect on the standard o f nutrition o f large
numbers o f people. The monetary value o f the losses may be increased by the
fact that replacement food supplies may have to be bought at greater cost. The
detriment o f such a situation may be further enhanced by other factors; for example,
development o f a food processing industry is hampered through lack o f continuity
o f supplies o f raw materials.

(2 ) Prom otion o f international trade

Irradiation o f food has the potential to facilitate international trade in a

number o f ways. First, by preventing post-harvest losses, application o f the
process may result in food commodities becoming available fo r export which
would otherwise not be in surplus. The avoidance o f spoilage during transportation
maintains the value o f the consignment and may prevent rejection by the
importing country. Particular applications o f this concept include the possibility
o f food irradiation to satisfy quarantine requirements for fruit and vegetables,
and thus permit an important expansion o f international trade. Similar oppor-
 PANEL 523

tunities arise in respect o f satisfaction o f hygiene regulations concerning food o f

animal origin.

(3 ) Improvement in public health

The incidence o f food-borne disease due to pathogenic and parasitic micro­

organisms is exceedingly widespread in both developed and developing countries.
Irradiation o f food could play an important part in reducing this incidence, with
consequent advantages both economic and in terms o f reduction o f human
suffering.
Other potential improvements in human health which would stem from
the introduction o f food irradiation include the possibility o f reducing the
quantity o f nitrate and nitrite used in the preservation o f certain meat products,
and the replacement o f chemical fumigants and pesticides used for the treatment
o f bacterial contamination ànd insect infestation o f foods.
The Panel agreed that all aspects o f economic feasibility had to be taken into
account and quantified i f possible. In addition to the cost o f the radiation facility
itself, there was a need fo r an associated infrastructure o f services and facilities
which might or might not already be in existence, fo r example:

—' Adequate transportation and storage facilities for product

- Adequate power supplies fo r plant
- Suitable packaging materials fo r product
— Availability o f trained operating and supervisory staff
— Provision o f dosimetric services.

On the other hand, the total value o f benefits accruing from the provision
o f an irradiation facility also needed quantification and not just the visible value
o f components such as fo od losses avoided or international currency earned.
It might not be easy to ascribe a value to improve public health and quality o f
life, but such socio-economic factors cannot be ignored.
A complete analysis also required that a similar study be made o f the costs
and benefits o f achieving the same or similar objectives by alternative means,
including an assessment o f any associated detriment. Thus the cost o f alternative
treatments such as the use o f chemicals fo r fumigation or food preservation must
include an allowance for possible public health effects (which in the extreme case
could ultimately result in the future non-availability o f the alternative).
Selection o f the most suitable type and size o f irradiation plant was identified
as being o f vital importance in achieving economic viability. The requirement for
low unit cost o f treatment leads towards a large, centrally located facility capable
o f high throughput and requiring intensive utilization. The variable pattern o f
food production in many developing countries is, however, not suitable for such
large-scale operation and a smaller, less highly automated plant may be preferable.
In either case it is considered probable that a multi-purpose plant will prove most
524 PANEL

likely to be needed, at least in the initial period o f introduction o f the food

irradiation process.
Selection o f the type o f irradiation facility and radiation sources depends not
only on the physical characteristics o f the differing types available (cobalt, caesium
or machine), but also on their cost and availability both now and in the future.
It was considered essential that economic feasibility studies in developing
countries should be supported by adequate pilot plant studies. Ideally, these
should be carried out locally in order to assess fully the impact o f local environ­
mental conditions and, at the same time, to facilitate the process o f technology
transfer. The part which could be played (and already had been played in some
cases) by Regional A id programmes was considered to be o f immense value, as
was the contribution made by the International Facility for F ood Irradiation
Technology at Wageningen.

E S TA B LISH M E N T O F L E G IS L A T IV E FR A M E W O R K

The Panel noted that introduction o f the food irradiation process is critically
dependent on the existence o f a satisfactory system o f regulatory control. While
national legislation is o f primary importance, international harmonization o f food
irradiation legislation is an essential factor in the development o f international
trade. In some cases, therefore, national and international considerations were o f
comparable significance.
It was agreed that the current disharmony o f existing and proposed national
legislation constitutes a significant obstacle to the economic introduction o f the
food irradiation process. The Codex General Standard for Irradiated Foods and the
associated Code o f Practice were considered to constitute a suitable basis for
international harmonization o f food irradiation legislation. While the reasons
why individual countries were reluctant immediately to enact legislation based on
the Codex Standard were appreciated, the Panel expressed the hope that acceptance
o f the Standard will eventually be universal.

CONSUM ER AC C E PTA N C E O F FO O D IR R A D IA T IO N

Acceptance o f the concept o f food irradiation by the consumer was

recognized as being an essential prerequisite to the introduction o f the process.
A ll available methods o f achieving this objective should be exploited; the production
o f both written and audio-visual material by international agencies, governments,
and representatives o f industry should be encouraged. The aim should be to inform
and educate the public as to the benefits to be derived from introduction o f the
•process, as well as its lack o f harmful side effects.
 PANEL 525

It was agreed that marketing development played a useful part in the educative
process, and it was satisfactory to note that where marketing prom otion had taken
place, consumer reaction was almost always favourable.

R E C O M M EN D A TIO N S

Arising from the Panel’s deliberations, certain positive recommendations o f

a general nature were identified.

— There is far more knowledge concerning the safety o f food irradiation as a

physical process, supported by many years o f research and development, than
is available concerning most other food preservation techniques. It is
recommended that all government agencies be urged to recognize this fact,
and to take all possible steps to facilitate its introduction on a commercial
scale, so that this technology can be made available for the benefit o f man­
kind. It is suggested that parliamentarians, professional and trade associations
and consumer groups sould all play an important part in influencing govern­
ment policy and should be encouraged to do so.

In particular, the follow ing recommendations are considered to be those

which, when implemented, will confer the greatest benefit to developing countries:

— Programmes to achieve radiation disinfestation o f stored food should be

expedited. Such programmes hold out the best prospect o f immediate
economic advantage, as well as improvement in public health by raising
nutritional standards and substituting for the use o f chemicals.
— Programmes to achieve radiation disinfestation o f fruit as a means o f satisfying
quarantine requirements should also be assigned a high degree o f urgency.
Here the benefits are principally economic by prom otion o f international trade,
with secondary advantages in reduction o f post-harvest losses, and improvement
in public health by replacement o f chemicals.
— Another important area should be the introduction o f irradiation as a means
o f reducing food-borne disease resulting from contamination by pathogenic
microorganisms. The principal benefit would stem from the improvement in
public health, although the prom otion o f international trade would also be o f
considerable importance.
— The establishment o f Regional A id programmes by international and national
agencies should be given every encouragement. Such programmes form a very
effective means o f carrying out feasibility studies, including the adaptation
o f the process to local conditions and effecting technology transfer. FA O /IA E A
should be encouraged to develop uniform guidelines for conducting economic
feasibility studies so that the results o f such studies can be compared.
— Potential users o f the food irradiation process should be encouraged to bring
to the attention o f their national authorities the key role which could be
526 PANEL

played by the adoption o f a uniform legislative framework for control o f the

process based on the Codex General Standard for Irradiated Foods. The
advantages in promoting international trade with its consequent economic
and other benefits cannot be overemphasized.
— The possibility o f compiling and maintaining an up-to-date inventory o f
existing requirements for radiation sources (isotopes and machine) for treating
food and non-food items should be considered by FA O /IA E A . Such considera­
tions should include requirements for such sources in facilities under cons­
truction or planned; projected figures for future utilization would also be
useful in reconciling estimates o f supply and demand.
— Every encouragement should be given to the production o f educational and
publicity material by national and international organizations and industry,
with the aim o f achieving the widest possible acceptance o f the process by
consumers.
— It is recommended that this report should be circulated to responsible national
authorities o f Member States party to FA O /IAE A . It is recognized that the
International Consultative Group On F ood Irradiation o f which 20 countries
are members could play an important role in bringing several o f the recom­
mendations stated above to fruition.
 CHAIRMEN OF SESSIONS

Session I J. F A R K A S Hungary

Session II H.M. RO U SH D Y Egypt

Session III F.K. K À F E R S T E IN WHO

Session IV T. RUBIO Chile

Session V L. SAINT-LÈ BE France

Session V I R.F. M O RRIS United States o f America

Session V II H. G LU BRECH T Federal Republic o f Germany

Session V III D .A.A. MOSSEL Netherlands

SECRETARIAT OF THE SYMPOSIUM

Scientific J. V A N KOOIJ Joint F A O / IA E A Division o f

Secretary: Isotope and Radiation
Applications o f A tom ic Energy
for Food and Agricultural
Development, IA E A , Vienna

Administrative E. P IL L E R Division o f External Relations,

Secretary: IA E A , Vienna

Editor: B. K A U F M A N N Division o f Publications,

IA E A , Vienna

527
 LIST OF PARTICIPANTS

Adamantiades, A. Mitre Corp.,

1820 Dolley Madison Blvd,
McLean, VA 22102, United States of America

Adams, D. The Carver Research Foundation,

Tuskegee Institute,
Tuskegee, AL 36088, United States of America

Ahlstrom, S.B. СН2М HILL,

6121 Indian School Road, NE, Suite 206,
Albuquerque, NM 87110, United States of America

Ahmed, M .S .H . Nuclear Research Centre,

P.O. Box 765, Baghdad, Iraq

Andreski, R.E. Miramar Industries Incorporated,

8260 Greensboro Drive/Penthouse,
McLean, VA 22102, United States of America

Andreski, S. Miramar Industries Incorporated,

8260 Greensboro Drive/Penthouse,
McLean, VA 22102, United States of America

Astier-Dumas, M. Centre de recherches Foch,

45, rue des Saints-Pères, F-75006 Paris, France

Auda, H. Nuclear Research Centre,

P.O. Box 765, Baghdad, Iraq

Badel, D. CEA, Centre d'études scientifiques et techniques

d'Aquitaine,
В.P. 2, Le Barp, F-33830 Belin Beliet, France

Ballantine, D.S. United States Department of Energy,

Office of Energy Research, ER-74,
Washington, DC 20545, United States of America

Banditsing, C. Biological Science Division,

Office of Atomic Energy for Peace,
Vibhavadi Rangsit Road, Bangkhen,
Bangkok 10900, Thailand

Basker, D. Agricultural Research Organization,

The Volcani Center,
P.O. Box 6, 50250 Bet Dagan, Israel

Batchelor, T.A. Department of Scientific and Industrial Research,

Entomology Division, Private Bag,
Auckland, New Zealand

Beacham, L.M. National Food Processors Association,

1401 New York Avenue,
Washington, DC 20005, United States of America

Beck, J.A. Johnson and Johnson,

Ethicon, Inc., Route 22,
Somerville, NJ 08876, United States of America

529
530 LIST OF PARTICIPANTS

Beghian, L.E. University of Lowell,

1 University Avenue,
Lowell, MA 01854, United States of America

Blumenthal, H. Center for Food Safety and Applied Nutrition,

Food and Drug Administration,
Room 5014, HFF-150, 200 С Street, S.W.,
Washington, DC 20235, United States of America

Bôg 1, W . Federal Health Office,

Institute for Radiation Hygiene,
Ingolstadter Landstrasse 1, D-8042 Neuherberg,
Federal Republic of Germany

Borner, S. United Fresh Fruit and Vegetable Assoc.,

P.O. Box 1417 E35,
Alexandria, VA 22313, United States of America

Boone, W. Varian Associates, Inc.,

611 Hansen Way,
Palo Alto, CA 94303, United States of America

Borsa, J. Atomic Energy of Canada Ltd,

Chalk River, Ontario K0J 1J0, Canada

Bradford, W.R. Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries and Food,

65 Romney Street, London SW1P 3RD,
United Kingdom

Braud, M. UNISABI,
B.P. 7, F-45550 Saint-Denis de l'Hôtel, France

Brooker, J.R. National Marine Fisheries Service,

NOAA,
3300 Whitehaven Street, NW,
Washington, DC 20235, United States of America

Brynjolfsson, A. Department of Applied Biological Sciences,

Massachusetts Institute of Technology,
Cambridge, MA 02139, United States of America

Burditt, A.K. Yakima Agricultural Research Laboratory,

Agricultural Research Service,
United States Department of Agriculture,
3706 West Nob Hill Boulevard,
Yakima, WA 98902, United States of America

Burns, T.F. American Spice Trade Association,

P.O. Box 1267, 580 Sylvan Avenue,
Englewood Cliffs, NJ 07632, United States of America

Bustamante, R. R. Argatom ICSA,

Maipu 939 PB, Buenos Aires, Argentina

Buyle, R. Institut national des radioéléments (IRE),

B-6220 Fleurus, Belgium

Carter, E. The Carver Research Foundation,

Tuskegee Institute,
Tuskegee, AL 36088, United States of America
 LIST OF PARTICIPANTS 531

Carty, W. Americas Magazine Organization of American States,

Administration Building,
19th and Constitution Avenue,
Washington, DC 20006, United States of America

Casey, M.W. Brand Group, Inc.,

640 N. LaSalle Street, Suite 655,
Chicago, IL 60610, United States of America

Cayle, T. Kraft, Inc.,

801 Waukegan Road,
Glenview, IL 60025, United States of America

Chang, C.N. The Carver Research Foundation,

Tuskegee Institute,
Tuskegee, AL 36088, United States of America

Chawes, J. General Foods Corp.,

250 North Street,
White Plains, NY, United States of America

Chishya, B.E. National Council for Scientific Research,

P.O. Box СН 158,
Chelston, Lusaka, Zambia

Chung, R.A. The Carver Research Foundation,

Tuskegee Institute,
Tuskegee, AL 36088, United States of America

Clavelli, V.L. Gamma Technology International Inc.,

8260 Greensboro Drive,
McLean, VA 22102, United States of America

Cleland, M.R. Iotech, Inc.,

5995 South Syracuse Street, Suite 201,
Englewood, CO 80111, United States of America

Cochran, R. United States Department of Energy,

Washington, DC 20545, United States of America

Cohen, H. EBASCO Services Inc.,

2 World Trade Centre,
New York, NY 10048, United States of America

Collins, С. Radiation Law Reporter,

236 Mass. Avenue, NE,
Washington, DC, United States of America

Conners, C.C. Rockwell International,

Rocketdyne Division - LB II,
6633 Canoga Avenue,
Canoga Park, CA 91304, United States of America

Copple, P. Atomic Energy of Canada Ltd,

Radiochemical Company,
413 March Road, P.O. Box 13500,
Kanata, Ontario K2K 1X8, Canada

Dai, Yin Institute of Food Safety Control and Inspection,

Ministry of Public Health,
29 Nan-wei Road, Beijing, China
532 LIST OF PARTICIPANTS

Dawes, M.A. The Carver Research Foundation,

Tuskegee Institute,
Tuskegee, AL 36088, United States of America

De Franceschi, L. Universitá di Pisa,

Pisa, Italy

De Wet, W.J. Nuclear Development Corporation of

South Africa (Pty) Ltd,
Private Bag X256, Pretoria 0001, South Africa

DeGraff, E.D. Neutron Products, Inc.,

P.O. Box 68,
Dickerson, MD 20842, United States of America

Denny, C.B. National Food Processors Association,

1401 New York Avenue, NW,
Washington, DC 20005, United States of America

Dobkin, R.A. Atomic Industrial Forum,

7101 Wisconsin Avenue,
Bethesda, MD 20814, United States of America

Doores, S. 111 Borland Laboratory,

Department of Food Science,
The Pennsylvania State University,
University Park, PA 16802, United States of America

Doyen, J.-B. CEA, Oris Industrie,

B.P. 21, F-91190 Gif-sur-Yvette, France

Ehlermann, B. Bundesforschungsanstalt für Ernahrung,

Institut für Verfahrenstechnik,
Engesserstrasse 20, D-7500 Karlsruhe,
Federal Republic of Germany

Ehlermann, Dj Bundesforschungsanstalt für Ernahrung,

Institut für Verfahrenstechnik,
Engesserstrasse 20, D-7500 Karlsruhe,
Federal Republic of Germany

Eiss, M. McCormick & C o . ,

202 Wight Avenue,
Hunt Valley, MD 21231, United States of America

El-Kady, E.A. Department of Plant Protection,

Faculty of Agriculture, Ain Shams University,
Shoubra El Kheima, Cairo 13769, Egypt

El-Zawahry, Y.A. National Centre for Radiation

Research and Technology,
P.O. Box 29, Nasr City, Cairo, Egypt

Engel, R.E. United States Department of Agriculture,

Room 402-Annex,
300 12th Street, SW,
Washington, DC 20250, United States of America

Eukel, W.W. Brobeck Corp.,

1235 Tenth Street,
Berkeley, CA 94710, United States of America
 LIST OF PARTICIPANTS 533

Fabech, B. Statens Levnedmiddelinstitut,

Mtfrkh^n Bygade 19, D-2860 Seborg, Denmark

Farkas, J. Central Food Research Institute,

Herman 0tt<5 ut 15, H-1022 Budapest, Hungary

Fiddler, W. Eastern Regional Research Center,

Agricultural Research Service,
United States Department of Agriculture,
600 East Mermaid Lane,
Philadelphia, PA 19118, united states of America

Fisher, F.R. National Academy of Sciences,

Washington, DC, United States of America

Fiszer, W. Laboratory of Nuclear Methods in Agriculture,

Akademia Rolnicza,
Mazowiecka 41, 60623 Poznán, Poland

Fitte, R. A. Argatom ICSA,

Maipu 939 PB, Buenos Aires, Argentina

Frank, R. United States Department of Agriculture,

Food and Nutrition Information Center,
National Agricultural Library,
Beltsville, MD 20705, United States of America

Franklin, R.W. Pico Processing Inc.,

11618 20th Street, SE,
Everett, W A 98205, United States of America

Fraser, F. Atomic Energy of Canada Ltd,

Radiochemical Company,
413 March Road, P.O. Box 13500,
Kanata, Ontario K2K 1X8, Canada

Friedman, S.T. Ionizing Energy Company of Canada Ltd,

P.O. Box 393, Station A,
Fredericton, New Brunswick E3B 4Z9, Canada

Gardner, K.J. MARS Ltd,

Corporate Services,
Banbury Road, Slough, Buckinghamshire,
United Kingdom

Gasper, K.A. Rockwell Hanford Operations,

P.O. Box 800,
Richland, WA 99352, United States of America

Giachetti, I. Secrétariat d'Etat à la consommation,

13, rue Saint-Georges, F-75009 Paris, France

Giddings, G.G. Isomedix, Inc.,

11 Apollo Drive,
Whippany, NJ 07981, United States of America

Glubrecht, H. Institut fur Biophysik, Universitât Hannover,

Herrenhauser Strasse 2, D-3000 Hannover 21,
Federal Republic of Germany
534 LIST OF PARTICIPANTS

Goebel, J.N. NUKEM GmbH,

Rodenbacher Chaussee 6,
Postfach 110080, D-6450 Hanau 11,
Federal Republic of Germany
Grant, R.B. Department of Commerce,
14th and Constitution Avenue, NW, Room 4878,
Washington, DC 20230, United States of America

Green, E.R. National Food Processors Association,

1401 New York Avenue, NW, Suite 400,
Washington, DC 20005, United States of America

Gschwend, W. Inter American Operations,

United States Peace Corps,
806 Connecticut Avenue, NW,
Washington, DC 20526, United States of America

Hannah, K.W. Columbia Research Corporation,

1 Metropolitan Grove Court,
Gaithersburg, MD 20878-4097,
United States of America

Hecht, M.M. Fusion Energy Foundation,

304 West 58th Street,
New York, NY 10019, United States of America

Heldman, D.R. Campbell Institute for Research and Technology,

Campbell Soup Company,
Campbell Place,
Camden, NJ 08101, United States of America

Henderson, A.M. Castle and Cooke Inc.,

P.O. Box 3080, 2300 Glades Blud,
Boca Raton, FL 33431, United States of America

Henon, Y. CEA, Centre d'études nucléaires de Cadarache,

В.P. 1, F-13115 Saint-Paul-lez-Durance, France

Holzapfel W.H. Department of Microbiology,

University of Pretoria,
ZA-0002 Pretoria, South Africa

Hungate, F.P. Battelle Northwest,

P.O. Box 999,
Richland, WA 99352, United States of America

Hunter, B. Western Industries,

P.O. Box 419, 475 Prospect Avenue,
West Orange, NJ 07052, United States of America

Ikuby, p. The Carver Research Foundation,

Tuskegee Institute,
Tuskegee, AL 36088, United States of America

Ito, H. Takasaki Radiation Chemistry Research Establishment,

Japan Atomic Energy Research Institute,
1233 Watanuki-machi,
Takasaki-shi, Gunma-ken 370-12, Japan
 LIST OF PARTICIPANTS 535

Iverson, S.L. Atomic Energy of Canada Ltd,

Whiteshell Nuclear Research Establishment,
Pinawa, Manitoba ROE 1L0, Canada

Jaddou, H. Nuclear Research Centre,

P.O. Box 765, Baghdad, Iraq

Jaffan, R. Agency for International Development,

S&T/AGR/APSA-18,
Washington, DC 20523, United States of America

Jarboe, A. United States Department of Agriculture,

Technology Transfer and Assessment,
Room 4911 South Building,
Washington, DC 20250, United States of America

Jarrett, R. United States Department of Agriculture,

RSS, R226, B001, BARC - W,
Beltsville, MD 20705, United States of America

Jorgensen, M.P. Queensland Department of Primary Industries,

P.O. Box 46, Brisbane QLD 4001, Australia

Josephson, E.S. Department of Applied Biological Sciences,

Massachusetts Institute of Technology,
77 Massachusetts Avenue,
Cambridge, MA 02139, United States of America

Kálmán, В. AGROSTER Irradiation Company,

Jászberényi ut 5, H-1106 Budapest, Hungary

Kasaoka, G.S. Technology Transfer and Assessment Staff,

Food Safety and Inspection Service,
United States Department of Agriculture,
Room 4911-South Building,
14th and Independence Avenue, SW,
Washington, DC 20250, United States of America

KatuSin-Razem, B. "Ruder Boákovié" Institute,

Bijenicka cesta 54, P.O. Box 1016,
YU-41000 Zagreb, Yugoslavia

Katz, A. Agrolife S.A.,

8-K Oakhill Estates,
Gladwyn, PA, United States of America

Kauffman, F.L. United States Food and Drug Administration,

HFF-214, 200 'C' Street, SW,
Washington, DC 20204, United States of America

Kaylor, J.D. National Marine Fisheries Service,

Gloucester Laboratory,
Emerson Avenue,
Gloucester, MA 01930, United States of America

Keehn, W.T. Gaines Foods, Inc.,

1551 E. Willow Street,
Kankakee, IL 60901, United States of America
536 LIST OF PARTICIPANTS

Kelly, J.L. University of Virginia,

Department of Nuclear Engineering
and Engineering Physics,
Reactor Facility,
Charlottesville, VA 22901, United States of America

Keraron, Y. Société générale pour les techniques nouvelles

(SGN),
F-78184 Saint-Quentin-en-Yvelines Cédex, France

Kerin, D. Univerza v Mariboru, -

Visja Agronomska Sola,
Vrbanska 30,
YU-62000 Maribor, Yugoslavia

Khán, I. Nuclear Institute for Food and Agriculture,

P.O. Box 446, Peshawar, Pakistan

Klein, B. University of Illinois,

Department of Foods and Nutrition,
386 Bevier Hall, 905 S. Goodwin,
Urbana, IL 61801, United States of America

Knight, K. Energy Pathways Inc.,

251 Laurier Avenue West, Suite 304,
Ottawa, Ontario KIP 5J6, Canada

Kovács, E. Central Food Research Institute,

Herman Ottó ut 15, H-1022 Budapest, Hungary

Krishnamurthy, K. Bhabha Atomic Research Centre,

Trombay, Bombay 400 085, India

Kunstadt, P. Atomic Energy of Canada Ltd,

Radiochemical Company,
413 March Road, P.O. Box 13500,
Kanata, Ontario K2K 1X8, Canada

Kuznesof, P.M. United States Food and Drug Administration,

Center for Food Safety and Applied Nutrition,
HFF-458, 200 С Street, SW,
Washington, DC 20204, United States of America

Lagunas-Solar, M.C. Crocker Nuclear Laboratory,

University of California,
Davis, CA 95616, United States of America

Laizier, J. CEA, Centre d'études nucléaires de Saclay,

В.P. 21, F-91190 Gif-sur-Yvette, France

Langguth, S. Bund für Lebensmittelrecht und

Lebensmittelkunde eV,
Godesberger Allee 157, D-5300 Bonn 2,
Federal Republic of Germany

Lapidot, M. Soreq Nuclear Research Center,

Yavne 70600, Israel

Lastarria Tapia, H.J. Universidad Nacional Agraria la Molina,

Av. La Universidad s/n, Apartado 456,
La Molina, Lima, Peru
 LIST OF PARTICIPANTS 537

Lauer, B.H. Division of Chemical Evaluation,

Bureau of Chemical Safety,
Health Protection Branch,
Department of Health and Welfare,
Ottawa, Ontario K1A 0L2, Canada

Leaf, M. Food Chemical News,

1101 Pennsylvania Avenue, SE,
Washington, DC 20003, United States of America

Leemhorst, J.G. GAMMASTER BV,

Postbus 4250, NL-6710 Ede, Netherlands

Lembitu,Reio The National Food Administration of Sweden,

P.O. Box 622, S-751 26 Uppsala, Sweden

Leone, F.A. United States Department of Energy,

Washington, DC 20545, United States of America

Lewis, P.F. United States Department of Commerce,

Room 4510,
Washington, DC 20230, United States of America

Licciardello, J.J. National Marine Fisheries Service,

Gloucester Laboratory,
Gloucester, MA 01930, United States of America

Lipman, W. William F. Lipman & Associates,

223 Woodlawn Road,
Baltimore, MD 21210, United States of America

Loretan, P.A. The Carver Research Foundation,

Tuskegee Institute,
Tuskegee, AL 36088, United States of America

Lu, J.Y. The Carver Research Foundation,

Tuskegee Institute,
Tuskegee, AL 36088, United States of America

Luckey, T.D. 1009 Sitka Court,

Loveland, CO 80537, United States of America

Lustre, A. F. Food Processing Department,

Food Terminal Inc.,
East Service Road, South Superhighway,
Taguig, Metro Manila, Philippines

Machurek, J. The Machurek Group, Inc.,

5922 Anniston Road,
Bethesda, MD 20817, United States of America

MacQueen, K.F. 724 Courtenay Avenue,

Ottawa, Ontario K2A 3C1, Canada

Maddox, J.N. United States Department of Energy,

Washington, DC 20545, United States of America
Maha, M. Centre for the Application of Isotopes
and Radiation,
P.O. Box 2, Kebayoran Lama,
Jakarta Selatan, Indonesia
538 LIST OF PARTICIPANTS

Mahmoud, A.A. National Centre for Radiation

Research and Technology,
P.O. Box 29, Nasr City, Cairo, Egypt
Mallett, J.C. Department of Biological Sciences,
University of Lowell,
Lowell, MA 01854, United States of America

Manalo, J.A. The Philippine Women's University,

Taft Avenue, Manila, Philippines

Manoto, E. Philippine Atomic Energy Commission,

Atomic Research Centre,
Diliman, Quezon City, Philippines

Marin, H. Compagnie d'aménagement des Coteaux de Gascogne,

B.P. 21, F-65001 Tarbes, France

Maros, P.G. E.I. DuPont de Nemours and Company, Inc.,

Concord Plaza - Springer Building,
Wilmington, DE 19898, United States of America

Martín Cutinella, V.J Centro de Investigaciones Nucleares,

Universidad de la República О. del Uruguay,
Rambla Euskalerría s/n,
Casilla de Correo 860, Montevideo, Uruguay

Martin, R.E. National Fisheries Institute,

2000 Main Street, NW,
Washington, DC 20036, United States of America

Marulli, A.S. Western Industries,

P.O. Box 419, 475 Prospect Avenue,
West Orange, NJ, United States of America

Matin, M.A. Institute of Food and Radiation Biology,

Bangladesh Atomic Energy Commission,
P.O. Box 3787, Ganakbari, Savar, Dhaka 2, Bangladesh

Matthews, S.M. Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory,

L-389, P.O. Box 808,
Livermore, CA 94550, United States of America

Mattson-Cotter, F.L. Crescent Foods C o . ,

P.O. Box 3026,
Seattle, WA 98004, United States of America

Mayo, W.L. Atomic Industrial Forum,

7101 Wisconsin Avenue, 12th Floor,
Bethesda, MD 20814-4805, United States of America

McAllister, L. E. Bruce Harrison Company,

605 14th Street, NW,
Washington, DC 20005, United States of America

McCabe, N. National Food Processors Association,

1401 New York Avenue, NW, Suite 400,
Washington, DC 20005, United States of America
 LIST OF PARTICIPANTS 539

McKay, R. Department of Consumer & Corp. Affairs,

Place du Portage,
Hull, Quebec K1A 0C9, Canada

McLaughlin, W.L. National Bureau of Standards,

Building 245, Room C216,
Gaithersburg, MD 20899, United States of America

McMain, A.T. , Jr. Radiation Technology Development,

GA Technologies Inc.,
P.O. Box 85608,
San Diego, CA 92138, United States of America

McMullen, W. United States Department of Energy,

Albuquerque Office,
P.O. Box 5400,
Albuquerque, NM 87115, United States of America

McMurray, C. H. Department of Agriculture and Food Chemistry,

Newfordge Lane, Belfast BT9 5PX,
United Kingdom

McNamara, R. C. Emergent Technologies, Inc.,

Drawey 3218,
San Jose, CA 95156, United States of America

Mercader, J. P. Asean Food Handling Bureau,

8th Floor, Syed Kechik Foundation Building,
Bangsar, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia

Metzger, C. USA/AID,
Multinational Agribusiness Systems, Inc.,
1401 Wilson Blvd.,
Arlington, VA 22209, United States of America

Milburn, B. United States Department of Agriculture,

Office of International Cooperation and Development,
14th and Independence Avenue, 3110 - Aud.,
Washington, DC 20250, United States of America

Mills, S. Science Council of Canada,

16th Floor, 100 Metcalfe,
Ottawa, Ontario KIP 0M5, Canada

Modderman, .P. United States Food and Drug Administration,

Division of Chemistry and Physics,
200 С Street, SW,
Washington, DC 20204, United States of America
Montesalvo, M. University of Lowell,
1 University Avenue,
Lowell, MA 01854, United States of America

Morris, R.F. Agency for International Development,

Office of Agriculture,
Room 413A SA-18,
Washington, DC 20523, United States of America
540 LIST OF PARTICIPANTS

Morrison, R.M. Economic Research Service,

United States Department of Agriculture,
500 12th Street, SW, Room 128,
Washington, DC 20250, United States of America

Morrison, T.A. Jack Faucett Associates,

5454 Wisconsin Avenue, Suite 115S,
Chevychase, MD 20815, United States of America

Mosse, D. CEA, Laboratoire de métrologie des rayonnements

ionisants (LMRI),
B.P. 21, F-91190 Gif-sur-Yvette, France

Mossel, D.A.A. Faculty of Veterinary Medicine,

Department of the Science of Food of Animal Origin,
The University of Utrecht,
P.O. Box 175, NL-3508 TD Utrecht, Netherlands

Moy, J.H. Department of Food Science and Human Nutrition,

University of Hawaii at Manoa,
1920 Edmondson Road,
Honolulu, HI 96822, United States of America

Multon, J.L. Institut national de la recherche agronomique

(INRA),
Rue de la Géraudière, F-44072 Nantes Cédex, France

Muñoz, R. Instituto de Ciencias Nucleares de la

Escuela Politécnica Nacional,
Quito, Ecuador

Murphy, J.D. ANEFCO, Inc.,

904 Ethan Alien Hwy.,
Ridgefield, CT 06877, United States of America

Mussman, H.C. National Food Processors Association,

1401 New York Avenue, NW, Room 400,
Washington, DC 20005, United States of America

Nelson, D. Gaines Foods, Inc.,

1551 E. Willow Street,
Kankakee, IL 60901, United States of America

Niemand, J.G. ISO-STER (Pty) Ltd,

P.O. Box 3219, 1620 Kempton Park, South Africa

O'Sullivan, E. International Nutronics, Inc.,

1237 North San Antonio Road,
Palo Alto, CA 94303, United States of America

Olorunda, A.O. Department of Food Technology,

Faculty of Technology, University of Ibadan,
Ibadan, Nigeria

Olson, D.G. Iowa State University,

215 Meat Laboratory,
Ames, IA 50011, United States of America

Oosterheert, W.F. RIKILT,

P.O. Box 230, NL-6700 AE Wageningen, Netherlands
 LIST OF PARTICIPANTS 541

Ouwerkerk, T. Energy Pathways Inc.,

251 Laurier Avenue West, Suite 304,
Ottawa, Ontario KIP 5J6, Canada

Paakkanen, H.J. Ministry of Trade and Industry,

Aleksanterinkatu 10, SF-00170 Helsinki, Finland

Parry, R.M. United States Department of Agriculture,

Agricultural Research Service,
BARC B l d g . 005,
Beltsville, MD 20705, United States of America

Pauli, G.H. Center for Food Safety and Applied Nutrition,

Food and Drug Administration,
200 С Street, SW,
Washington, DC 20204, United States of America

Peaco, J.w., Jr. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration,

Office of the General Counsel,
United States Department of Commerce,
Page 2, Room 386,
3300 Whitehaven Street, NW,
Washington, DC 20235, United States of America

Pearce, S.R. Atomic Energy of Canada Ltd,

275 Slater Street,
Ottawa, Ontario K1A 0S4, Canada

Petruzzello, M. E. Bruce Harrison Company,

605 14th Street, NW,
Washington, DC 20005, United States of America

Phan, D. Laboratoire national d'essais,

1, rue Gaston Boissier, F-75015 Paris, France

Pickering, H.C. F.W. Energy Applications, Inc.,

110 S. Orange Avenue,
Livingston, NJ 07039, United States of America

Poirier Drucker, D. CNFTSV,

Rue du Vercors,
ZI de Corbas-Montmartin, F-69960 Corbas, France

Pollard, S. United States Department of Agriculture,

300 12th Street, SW,
Washington, DC 20250, United States of America

Porter, W. United States Department of Energy,

International Affairs,
Washington, DC 20585, United States of America

Post, A. United States Department of Agriculture,

300 12th Street,
Washington, DC 20250, United States of America

Pretanik, J.S. National Broiler Council,

1155 15th Street, NW,
Washington, DC 20005, United States of America
542 LIST OF PARTICIPANTS

Pritchard, T.W. , III. Atomic Industrial Forum,

7101 Wisconsin Avenue,
Bethesda, MD 20814, United States of America

Prusik, T.P. Allied Corporation,

P.O. Box 1021R,
Morristown, NJ 07960, United States of America

Quevedo, F. Panamerican Health Organization,

525 23rd Street, NW,
Washington, DC 20037, United States of America

Ramm, R.A. Department of Health,

P.O. Box 48, Brisbane QLD 4001, Australia

Ransohoff, J.A Neutron Products, Inc.,

301 + 349 + 5001,
Dickerson, MD 20842, United States of America

Rao, R.D. Alabama A & M University,

Department of Food Science,
Box 264,
Normal, AL 35762, United States of America

Raymond, N. 2101 22nd Street, NW,

Washington, DC 20437, United States of America

Remini, W.C. United States Department of Energy,

Washington, DC 20545, United States of America

Reyes Lujan, J Instituto Nacional de Investigaciones

Nucleares (ININ),
Benjamín Franklin 161, 6 Piso,
Col. Escandón, Salazar, Mexico 11, D.F., Mexico

Reynolds, A.B. University of Virginia,

Department of Nuclear Engineering and
Engineering Physics,
Reactor Facility,
Charlottesville, VA 22901, United States of America

Richman, J.W. Canadian Fusion Fuels Technology Program,

Ontario Hydro,
2700 Lakeshore Road, West,
Mississauga, Ontario L5J 1K3, Canada

Rigney, C.J. Gosford Horticultural Postharvest Laboratory,

P.O. Box 355, Gosford NSW 2250, Australia

Riley, G.E. Columbia Research Corporation,

1 Metropolitan Grove Court,
Gaithersburg, MD 20878-4097,
United States of America

Riordan, M.J. Department of Health,

P.O. Box 5013, Wellington, New Zealand

Risvik, E. Norwegian Food Research Institute,

PB 50, N-1432 AAS-NLH, Norway
 LIST OF PARTICIPANTS 54.3

Roberts, T. Economic Research Service,

United States Department of Agriculture,
500 12th Street, SW, Room 112,
Washington, DC 20250, United States of America

Rocchi, A.-M. CEA, Centre d'études nucléaires de Cadarache,

В.P. 1, F-13115 Saint-Paul-lez-Durance, France

Rodrigues, A.M. RPC Industries,

P.O. Box 3306,
Hayward, CA 94540, United States of America

Rosenberg, L.J. PCI,

604 Clear Spring Road,
Great Falls, V A 22066, United States of America

Ross, G.D. Ionizing Energy Company of Canada Ltd,

P.O. Box 393, Station A,
Fredericton, New Brunswick E3B 4Z9, Canada

Roushdy, H.M. National Centre for Radiation

Research and Technology,
101, Kasr El-Eini Street, Cairo, Egypt

Rubio, T. Comisión Chilena de Energía Nuclear,

Amunategui No. 95, Casilla 188-D, Santiago, Chile

Ruprecht, G.V. Griffith Laboratories Ltd,

757 Pharmacy Avenue,
Scarborough, Ontario MIL 3J8, Canada

Sadat, T. CGR MeV,

551, rue de la Minière, F-78530 Buc, France

Saini, R.S. The Carver Research Foundation,

Tuskegee Institute,
Tuskegee, AL 36088, United States of America

Saint-Lèbe, L. CEA, Centre d'études nucléaires de Cadarache,

В.P. 1, F-13115 Saint-Paul-lez-Durance, France

Schilt, L. Ralston Purina Company,

Checkerboard Square,
St. Louis, MO 63164, United States of America

Schubert, J. University of Maryland,

Baltimore County Campus,
Department of Chemistry,
Catonsville, MD 21228, United States of America

Schubiger, G. Comité suisse du codex alimentarius,

Case Postale 88, *
CH-1814 Latour de Peilz, Switzerland

Sellers, D.B. Gaines Foods, Inc. ,

1551 E. Willow Street,
Kankakee, IL 60901, United States of America
544 LIST OF PARTICIPANTS

Shibko, S.I. Center for Food Safety and Applied Nutrition,

Food and Drug Administration,
200 ’C* Street, SW,
Washington, DC 20204, United States of America
Shieh, J.J. Eastern Regional Research Center,
Agricultural Research Service,
United States Department of Agriculture,
600 East Mermaid Lane,
Philadelphia* PA 19118, United States of America

Shore, C. United States Department of Agriculture,

National Agricultural Library,
NAL Building, Room 304,
Beltsville, MD 20705, United States of America

Simic, M. National Bureau of Standards,

Building 245, Room C216,
Gaithersburg, MD 20899, United States of America

Singh, H. Atomic Energy of Canada Ltd,

Whiteshell Nuclear Research Establishment,
Pinawa, Manitoba ROE 1L0, Canada

Sivinski, J.S. CH2M HILL,

6121 Indian School Road, NE, Suite 206,
Albuquerque, NM 87110, United States of America

Slavin, J.W. Joseph W. Slavin and Associates,,

8203 Ascalibur Court,
Annandale, VA 22003, United States of America

Soemartaputra, M.H. Centre for the Application of

Isotopes and Radiation,
National Atomic Energy Agency,
P.O. Box 2, Kebayoran Lama,
Jakarta Selatan, Indonesia

Spencer, C. United States Department of Agriculture,

FSIS/MPITS/TTA,
Room 4911 - South,
Washington, DC 20250, United States of America

Stapell, D. United Fresh Fruit and Vegetable Association,

727 N. Washington Street,
Alexandria, VA 22314, United States of America

Stersky, A.K. Canadian International Development Agency,

200 Promenade du Portage,
Hull, Quebec K1A 0G4, Canada

Stone, C.D.* M+M/MARS,

High Street,
Hackettstown, NJ 07840, United States of America

Strickland, D. Department of Health and Human Services,

Washington, DC, United States of America
 LIST OF PARTICIPANTS 545

Subbaraman, G. Rockwell International Corporation,

Rocketdyne Division-NA02,
6633 Canoga Avenue,
Canoga Park, CA 91304, United States of America

Switzer, R.K. CH2M HILL,

6121 Indian School Road, NE, Suite 206,
Albuquerque, NM 87110, United States of America

Takeguchi, C.A. Center for Food Safety and Applied Nutrition,

Food and Drug Administration,
200 С Street, SW,
Washington, DC 20204, United States of America

Tallent, W.H. United States Department of Agriculture,

Room 3S8A,
Washington, DC 20250, United States of America

Tape, N.W. Agriculture Canada,

Food Research Institute,
Ottawa, Ontario K1A 0C6, Canada

Taylor, J.M. Queensland Consumer Affairs Bureau,

P.O. Box 252, Brisbane QLD 4000, Australia

Thayer, D.W. Eastern Regional Research Center,

Agricultural Research Service,
United States Department of Agriculture,
600 East Mermaid Lane,
Philadelphia, PA 19118, United States of America

Thiebaut, C. Direction des industries agricoles et alimentaires.

Ministère de l'agriculture,
35, rue Saint-Dominique, F-75007 Paris, France

Timsit, M.-P. GEM, Société d'études Engineering IAA,

58A, rue du Dessous des Berges,
F-75013 Paris, France

Tingey, G.L. Battelle Northwest,

P.O. Box 999,
Richland, WA 99352, United States of America

Totoday, D . Singleton Seafood Company,

P.O. Box 2819,
Tampa, FL 33601, United States of America

Tubino, M. Intec-Chile,
P.O. Box 667, Santiago 1, Santiago, Chile

Urbain, W.M. Michigan State University,

East Lansing, MI 48824, United States of America

Van der Linde, H.J. Nuclear Development Corporation of

South Africa (Pty) Ltd,
Private Bag X256, Pretoria 0001, South Africa

Van Houweling, C.D. National Pork Producers Council,

1015 15th Street, NW, Suite 200,
Washington, DC 20005, United States of America
546 LIST OF PARTICIPANTS

Van Kempen, R.J. Ministry of Welfare, Public Health and Culture,

Dr. Reyersstraat 12, NL Leidschendam, Netherlands

Vanheusden, R.G. Tremayne Corporation,

1611 N. Kent Street,
Arlington, VA 22209, United States of America

Vuillemey, R. Commissariat à l'énergie atomique,

31-33, rue de la Fédération,
B.P. 510, F-75752 Paris Cédex, France

Wallace, T. University of Lowell,

1 University Avenue,
Lowell, MA 01854, United States of America

Wanless, R.H. The Procter and Gamble Company,

W5S09 WHTC,
6250 Center Hill Road,
Cincinnati, OH 45224, United States of America

Wegener, R.H. The Austin Company,

3650 Mayfield Road,
Cleveland, OH 44121, United States of America

Weinstein, J. Center for International Development,

University of Maryland,
1106 Mowill Hall,
College Park, MD 20742, United States of America

Weitzen, W. Tectran, Inc.,

1911 N. Ft. Myer Drive,
Arlington, VA 22209, United States of America

West, G. Ansell International,

P.O. Box 347, Dandenong, Victoria, Australia

Wethington, J. University of Florida,

Department of Nuclear Engineering,
Gainesville, FL 32605, United States of America

Wetzel, G.K. Zentralinstitut fiir Isotopen- und Strahlenforschung,

Akademie der Wissenschaften der DDR,
Permoserstrasse 15, DDR-7050 Leipzig,
German Democratic Republic

White, S. The Carver Research Foundation,

Tuskegee Institute,
Tuskegee, AL 36088, United States of America

Whitehead, D.W. Anderson and Pendleton,

Suite 707, 1000 Connecticut Avenue, NW
Washington, IX! 20036, United States of America

Wierbicki, E. Eastern Regional Research Center,

Agricultural Research Service,
United' States Department of Agriculture,
600 East Mermaid Lane,
Philadelphia, PA 19118, United States of America
 LIST OF PARTICIPANTS 547

Wiesner, L. BGS Beta-Gamma-Service,

Fritz Kotz-Strasse, D-5276 Wiehl-Bomig,
Federal Republic of Germany

Wills, P. Irradiation Research and Technology Section,

Australian Atomic Energy Commission,
Canberra, Australia

Wilson, B.K. Atomic Energy of Canada Ltd,

Radiochemical Company,
413 March Road, P.O. Box 13500,
Kanata, Ontario K2K 1X8, Canada

Wilson, G.D. American Meat Institute,

P.O. Box 3556,
Washington, DC 20007, United States of America

Wongchinda, N. с/o State Institute for Quality Control

of Agricultural Products,
Bornsesteeg 45, Wageningen, Netherlands

Wood, D.F. Agriculture Canada,

Research Branch,
Sir John Carling Building,
Ottawa, Ontario K1A 0C5, Canada

Xie, Liqing с/o Accelerator Department,

Ris0 National Laboratory,
DK-4000 Roskilde, Denmark

Xu, Zhicheng Shanghai Institute of Nuclear Research,

Academia Sinica,
P.O. Box 8204, Shanghai, China

Yang, Renli Institute of Applied Nuclear Technology

of Sichuan Province Sha He Bao,
Chengdu, Sichuan, China

Yemin, L. EBASCO Services, Inc.,

2 World Trade Center,
89th Floor, West,
New York, NY 10048, United States of America

Yuval, N. SOR-VAN Radiation Ltd,

P.O. Box 214, Yavne 70600, Israel

Zaratzian, V. United States Department of Agriculture,

Cotton Annex - Room 510,
300 12th Street, SW,
Washington, DC 20250, United States of America

PARTICIPANTS DESIGNATED BY INTERNATIONAL ORGANIZATIONS

AFRICAN REGIONAL CENTRE FOR TECHNOLOGY (ARCT)

Chinsman, B. The African Regional Centre for Technology,

B.P. 2435,
Route de Ouakam, Dakar, Senegal
548 LIST OF PARTICIPANTS

AMERICAN NUCLEAR SOCIETY (ANS)

Manowitz, B. Department of Applied Science,

Brookhaven National Laboratory,
Upton, NY 11973, United States of America

ASSOCIATION INTERNATIONALE D ’
IRRADIATION INDUSTRIELLE (AHI)

Vidal, P.E. 59, route de Paris

F-69260 Charbonnières-les-Bains, France

CODEX ALIMENTARIUS COMMISSION (CAC)

Kimbrell, E. United States Department of Agriculture,

Room 3064,
Washington, DC, United States of America

COMMISSION OF THE EUROPEAN COMMUNITIES (CEC)

Haigh, M.R. Rue de la Loi 200,

B-1049 Brussels, Belgium

FOOD AND AGRICULTURE ORGANIZATION OF THE UNITED NATIONS (FAO)

Al-Suleiman, S. FAO Programme,

Co-ordinator in Saudi Arabia,
Ministry of Agriculture and Water,
Hassa Irrigation and Drainage Authority,
Al-Hassa Date Factory, P.O. Box 279,
Riyadh, Saudi Arabia

Mikki, M.S. FAO Programme,

Dates Processing Expert,
с/o UNDP, P.O. Box 558,
Riyadh, Saudi Arabia

INTERNATIONAL ATOMIC ENERGY AGENCY (IAEA)

Elbaradei, M. United Nations

IAEA Liaison Office,
Room DC-1-1155,
New York, NY 10017, United States of America

Loaharanu, P. Food Preservation Section,

Joint Division of Isotope and
Radiation Applications of Atomic Energy
for Food and Agricultural Development,
Wagramerstrasse 5,
A-1400 Vienna, Austria
 LIST OF PARTICIPANTS 549

INTERNATIONAL BANK FOR RECONSTRUCTION AND DEVELOPMENT (IBRD)

Brown, J.G. CGIAR,

World Bank,
1818 H Street, NW,
Washington, DC 20433, United States of America

Hill, N.K. CGIAR,

World Bank,
1818 H Street, NW,
Washington, DC 20433, United States of America

ORGANIZATION OF AMERICAN STATES (OAS)

Herrera, H. 1889 F Street NW,

Washington, DC 20006, United States of America

WORLD HEALTH ORGANIZATION (WHO)

Kâferstein, F.K. Food Safety Programme,

CH-1211 Geneva 27, Switzerland
 AUTHOR INDEX
Numerals refer to the first page of paper(s) or poster(s) by the author concerned

Ahlstrom, S.B.: 335 Fiszer, W.: 101

A h m e d , М.: 163 G a t e s , R.A, 238
Ahmed, M . S . H . : 151 Giddings, G . G . : 451
Amin, M.R.: 17 Goebel, J.N.: 161
A n d e r s e n , R . : 336 G r ü n e w a l d , T.: 348, 349
A p p i a h , V. : 244, 2 4 5 Hameed, A.A.: 151
Auda, H . : 317 Harris, L.J.: 338
Aziz, N.H.: 236 Haryadi, в R . Sя . :• 17 0
B a e r , M . : 35 Hegazy, R.A.: 156
B a g i a w a t i , S.: 171 H e n o n , Y.: 9, 3 1 1
Band i t s i n g , C . : 365 Holzapfel, W.H.: 239 , 243
B a s k e r , D.: 233 Horváth, Ny.: 165
Bhuiya, A.D.: 163 H o r v á t h - M o s o n y i , M - 16 5
Blanco, L . R . : 167 H o s s a i n , M . A . : 17
Bongirwar, D.R.: 353 Hossain, M . M . : ± 177
Brodrick, H.T.: 137 H o s s a i n , S . A . K . M . : 163
Br o w e r , J . H . : 235 Huda, S.M.S.: 163
Buchanan, R.L.: 246 H u e b n e r , G . : 35
Burditt, A.K., Jr.: 3 Hungate, F.P.: 3
C a n e e , М.: 340 Hussein, M.A.: 156
Carvacho, O.F.: 338 It o . H.: 171
Chalwe, K.D.: 127 Izard М.: 169
Chinsman, B . : 185 Jáksó, Gy 165
Chishya, B.E.: 127 J a n , М.: 152
Chon, Qixun: 160 Jenkins, R.K.: 238, 246
C h o s d u , R.: 1 70 K a d h u m , A.A..: 151
Cleland, M.R.: 397 K á l m á n , В.: 109
C u r b e l o , S.: 379 K a l u s , w. : j3 4<*8o
Dai, Yin: 234 Kaneshiro, K.Y.: ___
16 8
Dawes, M.A.: 23 5 K a r d h a , S.: 170
D e We t, W . J . : 323 K a t u s i n - R a S e m , B.: 69
D e l i n c é e , H.: 348 K a y l o r , J.D. • 241 ¿4 92 9
Deng, Huachuan: 160 K é k e s s i , !E . : 109
Doma, M.B.: 156 K e r e s z t e s , Á.: 154
Du Plessis, T . A . : 341 K h a n , I.: 152
D v o r n i k , I.: 69 K i s s , I.: 165
Ehlermann, D.A.E.: 348, 349 K l i n g e r , Y . : 1 1 7 , 2233 3
E i s e n b e r g , E.: 233 K o v á c s , E.: 154, 1 6 5
El-Kady, E.A.: 164 K o v á c s , J . : 154
El-Zawahry, Y.A.: 236 K r i s h n a m u r t h y , K.: 353
Engel, R.E.: 297 L a g u n a s - S o l a r , M . C . : 337, 338, 49 9
Farkas, Cs.: 165 Langerak, D.I.: 244, 2 4 5
Farkas , J . : 159, 215 L a p i d o t , М.: 117, 155, 233 339
F a r r a r IV, H.: 335 L ast arria-Tapia, H.J.: 55
F e r r e l l , N. : 23 7 , 3 3 6 , 4 8 7 LT e. a aa rг sе лo nп , DR . J. T . :• 429
Fiddler, W.: 238 Li c c i a r d e l l o , J.J.: 241

551
552 AUTHOR INDEX

Liu, S hu pe i: 160 R a h m a n , S.: 17

L o a h a r a n u , P. : 175 Raèem, D . : 69
Loretan, P . A . : 235 Resilva, S.S.: 167
M a h a , М.: 162 Re z a u r , R . : 163
M a h m o u d , A . A . : 47, 1 5 6 Rigney, C.J.: 169
Malek, M.A.: 17 R o k e y a , B . : 17
Mallett, J.C.: 241 R o s e n b e r g , K.: 155
Manoto, E.C.: 167 R o s s , I.: 117, 155
Martin, V.J.: 379 Roushdy, H.M.: 47, 156, 236
M a t i c , S.: 69 Rubi o, T.: 203
M a t i n , M . A . : 17 R u d o l f , М.: 349
Matthews, S.M.: 337, 3 3 8 Saini, R.S.: 235
M e i s i n g e r , D . : 281 S a i n t - Lèbe, L . : 9
Mendoza, A.B.: 167 Sánta, R . : 109
M i h o k o v i ï , V.: 69 S a t t a r , A.: 152
M i l l e r , A.: 347 S e q u e i r o s , N. : 55
Moffitt, H.R.: 3 Shieh, J.J.: 246, 3 4 3
M o l c o , M . : 155 Siddiqui, A.K.: 17
M o n t a l b a n , A.: 379 Simoen, J.P.: 340
Morris, R.F.: 493 Sivinski, J.S.: 487
M o r r i s o n , R . M . : 407 Slaughter, D.R.: 337, 3 3 8
M o s s e , D.: 340 Slavin, J . W . : 429
Mossel, D.A.A.: 159, 251 Sloan, D.P.: 237
Moy, J.H.: 6 1 , 157, 1 6 8 Soemartaputra, M.H.: 170
Mróz, J . : 101 S t e g e m a n , H.: 159
M u h amad, L . J . : 171 Su b baraman, G . : 335
Mu llen, M . A . : 235 S u d a t i s , B.: 169
M u s t a f a , D.: 162 S u t a n t a w o n g , М.: 365
Nagai, N.Y.: 168 Switzer, R.K.: 469
Na h ar , G . : 163 T a m u r a , N. : 1 7 1
N i e m a n d , J . G . : 239, 243, 3 4 1 Thayer, D.W.: 246
N o o c h a p r a m o o l , K.: 365 Thery, V . : 9
O ' S u l l i v a n , E . : 157 Urbain, W.M.: 509
Odamtten, G.T.: 244, 2 4 5 V a n der Linde, H.J.: 137, 243
O h t a , A . T.: 168 V a n Houweling, C.D.: 281
Olorunda, A.O.: 479 W a h i d , М.: 152
Padov a, R . : 155 W a l l a c e , T.: 342
P a g e a u , G . М.: 397 Wang, Yongzhi: 160
Palumbo, S.A.: 246 W a t a n a b e , H.: 171
P a r k e r , G.: 157 W e t z e l , K . : 35
Parker, J . G . : 157 W i e r b i c k i , E.: 79, 238, 3 4 3
Pensabene, J.W.: 238 W i e s n e r , L . : 437
Pi ad a n g , S.: 365 W o n g c h i n d a , N.: 159
P r a c h a s i t i s a k d i , Y . : 365 Xie, Liqin g: 347
P r a c h a s i t t h i s a k d i , Y . : 159 Xu, Z h i c h e n g : 475
P r i n k s u l k a , V. : 3 6 5 Yang, Renli: 160
P r usi k , T.: 342 Y o u s s e f , Y . A . : 236
Purwanto, Z.I.: 170 Zabielski, J . : 101
Rahayu, A.: 170
 INDEX OF PAPERS AND POSTERS BY NUMBER

(The letter P indicates a poster presentation)

IAEA-SM-271/ Page IAEA-SM-271/ Page

4 ...................... 17 61P ..................... 241

6 ...................... 47 62 ..................... 493
7P ...................... 156 63 ..................... 407
9 P ...................... 236 64P ..................... 157
10P ...................... 340 65 ...................... 61
11 ...................... 311 66P ..................... 342
12 ..................... 9 67P ..................... 343
13P ...................... 348 68 ...................... 487
14P ...................... 349 70 ...................... 469
15 ..................... 437 72 ..................... 281
16 ...................... 35 73 ..................... 79
17P ...................... 244 7 4 P ........ ............. 246
18P ...................... 245 75 ..................... 69
19P ..................... 154 76 ..................... 127
21 ...................... 109 80 ...................... 251
24 ...................... 353 8 2 P ..................... 337
27 ...................... 317 8 3 P ...................... 338
28P ...................... 233 8 4 P ...................... 335
30P ...................... 155 85 ...................... 499
31P ...................... 339 87 ...................... 475
32 ...................... 117 88 P ..................... 160
34 ..... , .............. 479 8 9 P ..................... 234
36 ..................... 55 90 ..................... 175
37 ..................... 101 91 ..................... 185
38P ..................... 341 92 ..................... 203
39P ..................... 243 93 ..................... 215
40P ...................... 239 9 5 P ...................... 152
41 ..................... 323 1 0 0 P ..................... 151
42 ..................... 137 1 0 1 P ...................... 163
44 ...................... 365 1 0 2 P ..................... 164
47P ..................... 159 ЮЗР ..................... 165
49 ...................... 379 1 0 4 P ................ . 167
51 ...................... 451 10 5 P ...................... 168
52 ..................... 3 1 0 7 P ...................... 169
54 ...................... 397 1 0 8 P ...................... 170
55P ..................... 235 1 0 9 P ..................... 347
56 ...................... 297 H O P ..................... 171
57P ..................... 336 1 1 1 P ..................... 162
58P ..................... 237 114 ...................... 509
5 9 P ..................... 238 1 1 6 P ..................... 161
60 ...................... 429

553
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IN T E R N A T IO N A L S U B JE C T G R O U P : I
A T O M IC E N E R G Y A G E N C Y L ife S ciences/Food Preservation
V IE N N A , 1985 P R IC E: A u s tria n S chillings 1100,