)

Electrical Distribution-
System Protection

A Textbook and Practical

Reference on Overcurrent and
Overvoltage Fundamentals,
Protective Equipment and
Applications

Copyright 2005
All rights reserved
Printed in the United States

""'
COOPER Power Systems

I
The information in this manual, while based on generally accepted fundamentals and practices, does not claim to cover all details or variations
in the requirements and problems relating to electrical distribution-system overcurrent and overvoltage phenomena, and in the methods and
equipment for dealing with such phenomena. Also, the examples ctted for achieving overcurrent and overvoltage protection are typical ones
presented for illustration only, and their solutions should not be applied to specific situations without full consideration of all appropriate factors.

II
 A Guide to the Manual
The designer of an electrical distribution tors as well as by causing dangerous In this manual, prepared for system
system must anticipate a variety of sit- voltage transients ondistribution designers, protection engineers, and
uations that might interfere with normal circuits. students, the general subject of
operation of the system. Among the The primary cause of overloads is distribution-system protection is broken
most commonly encountered abnormal simply unforeseen or faster-than- into its two principal areas: overcurrent
conditions are line faults and their expected load growth, and equipment protection and overvoltage protection.
resultant overcurrents, transient over- malfunction or failure also might over- Within each of these sections are
voltages, and system overloads. tax a system. Equipment failure can be detailed discussions of fundamentals
Generally, atmospheric distur- caused by the improper design, manu- and theory, equipment characteristics,
bances-and, to a lesser extent, human facture, installation, or application of and applications. A third section then
and animal interference - are the under- the equipment itself, and by lightning, covers the special considerations that
lying causes of faults and over-volt- insulation deterioration, and system must be taken into account in protect-
ages. Line faults can be caused by faults. ing systems with industrial loads, with
strong winds that whip phase conduc- "Distribution-system protection" is dispersed generation, and with system
tors together and blow tree branches the composite of all the measures automation.
onto lines. In winter, freezing rain can taken on a given system to minimize To guide you into the manual, pre-
produce a gradual buildup of ice on a the effects of the abnormal conditions sented below is a general listing of the
circuit, causing one or more conduc- described above. All of the conditions three main sections, each of which
tors to break and fall to the ground. cannot be prevented from occurring at contains a detailed table of contents.
Squirrels and birds will sometimes all times, but they can be controlled
produce line or ground faults by placing and contained-by protecting equipment
themselves between energized portions and lines from damage to the fullest
of the circuit and/or ground. On under- extent that technology and economics
ground systems, the severing of cables permit, and by limiting any interrup-
by earth-moving equipment is tions of service to the smallest
a prevalent cause of faults. Lightning practical portions of the system and
strokes can fault a system by opening numbers of customers.
lines or initiating arcs between conduc-

Section A (Page 1) Section B (Page 167) Section C (Page 245)

OVERCURRENT PROTECTION OVER VOLTAGE PROTECTION SPECIAL SYSTEM
1. Fundamentals and Theory 1. Fundamentals and Theory CONSIDERATIONS
2. Protective Equipment 2. Insulation and Surge Arrester 1. Effects of Industrial Loads
Characteristics and General Characteristics and General 2. Protection of Systems with
Application Factors Application Factors Dispersed Storage and Generation
3. Protective Equipment Applications 3. Surge Arrester Applications and 3. Protection of Systems with
and Coordination Other Protection Details Automated Distribution
4. Summary of Protection for a 4. Summary of Protection for a
Complete Distribution System Complete Distribution System

III
 Section A
OVERCURRENT PROTECTION
 Table of Contents
Page Page
1. FUNDAMENTALS AND THEORY 2. PROTECTIVE .EQUIPMENT CHARACTER-
Introduction . .. . .... . . ..... .. . . ....... .. .. ...... 5 ISTICS AND GENERAL APPLICATION FACTORS ... 51
Principles and Objectives .. . ..... . .. . ..... . .... ... 6 Introduction . .. . . . .. . ... . .......... . .. . ... . . .. .51
Distribution System Reliability . ................ ... . . .6 Fusing Equipment . . .. .. . .. ..... ... . . ...... . .... 52
Performance Indices .. ..... . ..... . ............ .. 6 Designs and Characteristics ........ . ......... . .... 52
Feeder Length as a Factor in Reliability .... . ... . .. .. 7 Fuse Links ... . .... . ............. . .... .. ...... 52
Protection Concerns and Practices ........ . ...... . .. .7 Fuse Cutouts . . ... .. .. . ..... .. .. . .. . ... . ... .. .53
Temporary vs. Permanent Faults ................ ... 7 Current-Limiting Fuses .. ............... . .... . .. 54
Protecting Feeder Segments and Taps ..............7 Fuse Application Factors .. . ....... . ............ . .. 59
"Protecting" and "Protected" Devices ... . ........... .8 Fuse Cutouts/Fuse Links ..... . ..... . .. . .. . .. . . . .59
Momentary Service Interruptions ..... . ... . ... . ...... 8 Fuse-Link Selection .. ..... . .... . ... . . .. .. . ... . .60
Tools for Fault Analysis ..... . ......... . ......... .9 Current-Limiting Fuse Selection ........... . ...... 61
Method of Symmetrical Components ......... ." ...... .9 Automatic Circuit Reclosers ... . ..... . ...... .. .. . .62
Simplifying the Approach to Recloser Classifications ... . .... .. ...... . .. .. .... . .62
Complicated Problems .. . ......................9 Single-Phase Reclosers . ... ... ... . .. . .. . . . .... .62
Balanced Systems in Symmetrical Components ..... .9 Three-Phase Reclosers . .. ................. . .... 64
Relationships Between Symmetrical Components and Triple/Single Reclosers ............ . .... . ....... 64
Phase Quantities . . . .. . ............ . ......... 10 Hydraulically Controlled Reclosers .. . . . . .. . .. . .... 65
Example of Symmetrical Components Method ....... 10 Electronically Controlled Reclosers . .. .. .. . ... . .... 65
Sequence Impedances ... ............ . ......... 11 Types of Interrupters ... . .. . .... . .. . ....... .. . . .65
The Per-Unit Method ...... . . .... . ................ 11 Types of Insulating Mediums ...... . . . ....... . . . .. 65
Single-Phase System Calculations . ...... ... . .. ... 12 Recloser Locations and Functions .. . . . . ........ . .. .66
Three-Phase System Calculations ................ 13 Pad-mounted Reclosers . .. .. ... . ............. . .66
Use of Impedances in Fault Calculations ............. 14 Recloser Application Factors . . ..... . .. . ....... . .. . .66
Types of Distribution Circuits .... .. ............... 14 System Voltage . .. .. . .. ...... . .. .. .... . ..... . .66
Impedances of Overhead Distribution Circuits ....... 14 Maximum Fault Current ........ . ... . ...... . . . . . .66
Impedances of Underground Distribution Cable ...... 19 Maximum Load Current ....... . .... . .. .. .. . ... . .66
Equations for Calculating Sequence Impedances Minimum Fault Current . . ........ . .............. 66
of Underground Concentric Neutral Cable .. . ....20 Coordination with Other Protective Devices . .. . . . . . .66
Effect of Cable Insulation . . ...... . ... ..........25 Dual Timing . . . .. . . .. .......... . ......... .. .67
Effect of Neutral Size ............ ... .... ......25 Ground-Fault Sensing .. . .... . ..... . . . ........ . .67
Effect of Earth Resistivity ... .. .. . . . .. . .. .. .. ... 25 Sectionalizers .. . .. . . . .. . . . ..... . ..... .. ........ 68
Effect of Interphase Spacing . . .. .. . . .......... .25 Sectionalizer Classifications ... . ... . .. . .. ... . ... ... 68
Skin Effect and Proximity Effect . . .. . . .. . .... .. . .26 Hydraulically Controlled Sectionalizers . ..... . . . .. . .68
Impedances of Transformers ............. .. . . ... .26 Electronically Controlled Sectionalizers ... . .... . .... 68
Impedances of Transmission Lines . . ........ . . ... .27 Sectionalizer Features .. .. .. . . ..... . .... . .... .. ... 68
Impedances of Generators ... .. .... . .. . ....... ..27 Sectionalizer Application Factors .. .. . ....... . . . ..... 68
Source Impedance ................ . ...... . .. . .29 System VoHage .. .......... .. ...... . . . .. . .. . .. 69
Methods for Finding Source Impedance ........ . .30 Maximum Load Current . . .... . ........ . ......... 69
Fault Impedance .. . .. . . . ... ... . . . . .. . .. . .. . .. .31 Maximum FauH Current . .. ......... . .. ... . . . . ... 69
System Faults . . .... . .. . .. . ...... . . . . . . . .... . .. 33 Coordination with Other Protective Devices ...... . .. 69
Types of Faults .. . ... . ... .. . . ............... . ....33 Circuit Breakers and Relays . .. . ..................70
Voltages at the Terminals of a Generator . .. ... . .. . .33 Circuit Breaker Characteristics and Classifications ...... 70
Equations for a Single Line-to-Ground Fault ... . .. . .. 34 Circuit Breaker Ratings . .... . . . .. . ......... . ...... 71
Sequence Networks ...... . ........... . . . ...... 35 Rated Maximum Voltage .. . ..... . .. . .... . .. .. ... 71
Equations for Other Fault Conditions . . .. . .... . .. . .36 Rated VoHage Range Factor, K . .......... .. .... . .71
Thevenin's Theorem . . . . ..... . ..... . ......... .36 Rated Withstand Test Voltage, Low Frequency . . ..... 71
Equations for Fault-Current Magnitudes ... . .. .. . .36 Rated Withstand Test Voltage, Impulse . .... .. ..... .71
Asymmetrical Fault Current . .. . . . .... .. .. .. . . .... . .38 Rated Continuous Current at 60Hz .. . . . ..........71
Definition and Significance . . .......... . ..... . . . .38 Rated Short-Circuit Current
Application of Current Asymmetry Information . ...... 39 (at Rated Maximum kV) . . . ... . . .. . .. . . .. ...... 71
Motor-Current Contributions ......... . ............ .42 Transient Recovery Voltage, Rated Time to Point P ... 71
Fault Calculation Procedures and Examples ...........43 Rated Interrupting Time ... . ..... . ...............71
Assumptions ............ . .......... . . . .. . .. . .43 Rated Permissible Tripping Delay .... . ....... .. . . .71
Basic Approach . . .. . ... .. . . . .. . . . ... . ... . . .. . .43 Rated Maximum Voltage Divided by K ... . ...... . . .72
Example of Source-Impedance Calculation ..... . ... 44 Maximum Symmetrical Interrupting Capability ....... 72
Example of Distribution-System Calculation ........ .45 Three-Second Short-Time Current-Carrying Capability 72
Computer Calculation of Fault Currents . ........ . .47 Closing-and-Latching Capability . . ..... . ....... . .. 72
Index of Figures and Tables . .. . . . ....... . ... . . . . .50 Types of Relays . .. . . .. .. . . ......... . .... . .. . . ...73
Overcurrent Relay . . .......... . .... . . . ... . .... : .. 73
Time-Current Characteristics ... . ... . ..... . ....... 73
Instantaneous Trip .. . ... . ... . ....... . .. .... .. ·. .75
Reset . ..... . .. . .. . ..... . . . . ... ...... . .... . .. 78

2
 Section A
OVERCURRENT PROTECTION

Page Page
Reclosing Relay .................................78 Using Time-Current Curves ....................... 125
Microprocessor Based Relay .....................78 Hydraulically Controlled Reclosers
Index of Figures and Tables ......................79 Coordination Basics ........................... 125
3. PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT APPLICATIONS AND Smaller Reclosers (Series Coil Operated} ......... 125
COORDINATION Larger Recloser (High-Voltage Solenoid Closing) .... 126
Introduction ...................................81 Electronically Controlled Reclosers
Coordination Basics ............................82 Coordination Basics ........................... 126
Example of System Coordination ...................82 Example of Electronic Recloser Coordination ....... 127
Fuse-Fuse Coordination .........................83 Alternate Coordination Scheme ................. 128
TCC Coordination Method .........................83 Features and Accessories for Electronically
Use of Coordination Tables ........................ 84 Controlled Reclosers .......................... 128
Rules of Thumb .................................85 Sequence Coordination ........................ 128
Current-Limiting Fuse Coordination ...............87 Instantaneous Trip ............................ 128
Source-Side Current-Limiting Fuse and Load-Side Instantaneous Lockout ......................... 131
Expulsion Fuse ...............................87 Instantaneous Trip/Instantaneous Lockout
Load-Side Current-Limiting Fuse and Combination ............................... 131
Source-Side Expulsion Fuse ..................... 87 Reclosing Interval .............................. 131
Coordinating Two Current-Limiting Fuses ............. 88 Hydraulically Controlled Reclosers ............... 132
Backup Current-Limiting Fuse and Expulsion Fuse ..... 88 Electronically Controlled Reclosers ............... 132
Transformer Fusing .............................90 Examples of Reclosing Intervals ................. 132
Developing a Transformer Fusing Philosophy .......... 90 Recloser and Relay/Circuit Breaker Coordination ... 133
Types of Fuses for Transformer Protection ............ 90 Microprocessor Overcurrent Relay ................. 133
Capacitor Fusing ...............................98 Electro-Mechanical Overcurrent Relay .............. 133
General Criteria .................................98 Impulse Margin Time .......................... 133
Withstanding Steady-State and Transient Reset Time ................................. 134
Currents ...................................98 Methods for Checking Relay and Downline
Effectively Removing a Failed or Failing Capacitor Recloser Coordination ....................... 135
Unit .......................................98 Recloser and Relay/Circuit-Breaker
Summary of General Criteria ....................98 Coordination Analysis ....................... 137
Group Capacitor Fusing ..........................98 Calculation of Relay Travel
Continuous Current ............................98 During Recloser Operation .................... 137
Transient Currents .............................99 Sectionalizer Applications ...................... 138
Fault Current .................................99 Sectionalizer Coordination Principles ............... 138
Tank-Rupture Curve Coordination ................ 100 Recloser and Hydraulically Controlled
Voltage on Good Capacitors .................... 100 Sectionalizer Coordination ...................... 138
Coordination with Upline Overcurrent Devices ...... 100 Coil Sizes ................................... 139
Summary of Group Fusing ..................... 100 Memory Time ................................ 139
Individual Capacitor Fusing ....................... 100 Voltage Restraint ............................. 140
Continuous Current ........................... 100 Recloser and Electronically Controlled
Transient Currents ............................ 100 Sectionalizer Coordination ...................... 141
Fault Current ................................ 100 Selection of Actuating Levels .................. 141
Tank-Rupture Curve Coordination ................ 103 Sectionalizer Features ....................... 141
Voltage on Good Capacitors .................... 103 Count Reset .............................. 141
Energy Discharge into a Failed Unit .............. 104 Voltage Restraint .......................... 141
Outrush Current .............................. 104 Count Restraint ........................... 142
Coordination with Unbalance Detection Scheme .... 104 Current Inrush Restraint ..................... 142
Summary of Individual Fusing ................... 104 Ground-Fault Sensing ...................... 142
Recloser and Fuse-Link Coordination ............. 105 Recloser, Sectionalizer, and Fuse-Link Coordination ... 142
Recloser Coordination Principles* ................ 105 Recloser, Sectionalizer, and Recloser Coordination .... 143
Recloser Ratings* ............................ 105 Circuit Breaker and Sectionalizer Coordination ........ 143
*Pertain Also to Other Recloser Applications Automatic Load Transfer ........................ 144
Use of Time-Current Curves with Adjustments ...... 111 Switched Load Transfer Schemes .................. 144
Coordination with Source-Side Fuse Links ......... 111 Load Transfer Schemes Utilizing Reclosers .......... 144
Example of Source-Side Fuse and Load Transfer with Manual Return ................ 144
Recloser Selections ......................... 112 Load Transfer with Automatic Return ............. 145
Coordination with Load-Side Fuse Links ........... 112 Loop Sectionalizing ............................ 147
Example of Load-Side Fuse and Loop Sectionalizing Scheme with Three Reclosers .... 147
Recloser Selections ......................... 112 Loop Sectionalizing Scheme with Five Reclosers ...... 148
Relay-Fuse Coordination ....................... 117 Loop Sectionalizing Scheme with Three Reclosers
Relay and Source-Side Fuse Coordination ........... 117 and Two Sectionalizers ........................ 149
Total Accumulated Time Method ................. 117 Index of Figures and Tables ..................... 150
Cooling-Factor Method ........................ 117
Relay and Wad-Side Fuse Coordination ............. 121 4. SUMMARY OF PROTECTION FOR A
Approaches to Temporary Fault Protection ......... 121 COMPLETE DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM
Recloser-to-Recloser Coordination ............... 125 Introduction .................................. 153
3
 Page Page
Preliminary Considerations .....................154
Review of Principles ............................ 154
System Configuration and Data .................... 154
Protective Equipment Selections and Applications .. 156
Substation Transformer Protection .................. 156
Main Circuit Protection .....................•.... 157
Recloser and Relay/Circuit Breaker Coordination .... 157
Feeder Protection ....•......................... 158
Recloser-Sectionalizer Coordination ..........•... 159
Recloser-Recloser Coordination .........•....... 159
Ground-Fault Protection .....................•....160
Branch Protection .............................. 160
Recloser-Fuse Coordination ...•................. 161
Capacitor Fusing ............................... 163
Summary .........................•...........165

* * *
REFERENCES AND CREDITS 264

4
 Section A
OVERCURRENT PROTECTION

1. FUNDAMENTALS AND THEORY

An Introduction
A thorough understanding of fundamentals and theory is of overcurrent protection, which will be repeated and
essential for effective handling of distribution-system protection enlarged upon, as appropriate, in subsequent sections dealing
problems. In order to minimize the undesirable effects an with specifics. Detailed discussions of tools the designer may
occasionally hostile environment can have on system per- use for fault analysis are followed by descriptions of the various
formance, the designer or protection engineer must know the types of faults that may be encountered, presentation of a
types of faults that can occur on the system and the nature of basic method for calculating the magnitude of overcurrent for
their cause, plus, of course, the probability and effects of different types of disturbances, and a discussion of the use of
lightning- and system-produced voltage surges (to be digital computers for analyzing complex systems. All of which
covered in Section B, Overvoltage Protection). is intended to provide a solid foundation for understanding
This section on fundamentals and theory begins with and use of the equipment and application information in
introductory comments about the principles and philosophy Sections A2 and A3.

Table of Contents, Page 2

Index of Figures and Tables, Page 50

5
A. Overcurrent Protection
1. FUNDAMENTALS AND THEORY

Principles and Objectives

The overall objectives of overcurrent protection are the same Performance Indices
as for all areas of distribution-system protection: to prevent For discussion of outage rates, an outage is any complete
damage to equipment and circuits, to prevent hazards to the loss of electric service, even for a second or less.
public and utility personnel, and to maintain a high level of To measure reliability in terms of recorded outages,
service by preventing power interruptions when possible and performance indices frequently are used as described in
minimizing their effects when they do occur. IEEE 1366-1998 Guide for Power Distribution Reliability
Basic system planning for radial or network service, manual Indices. Use of these "standard" indices will permit compar-
or automatic sectionalizing, etc., obviously plays a major role in isons between utilities or between different divisions of a
achieving these objectives. The use of proper phase spacing given utility. More importantly, perhaps, it will allow
and conductor insulation also contribute, as do such practices evaluation of changes by a direct comparison of past and
as periodic tree trimming, inspections for other potential prob- future performance of a feeder or system. These indices are
lems, and equipment maintenance. These areas of planning typically calculated for a single feeder, an operating area, or
and operation are mostly outside the scope of this manual, the entire utility service territory. The several types of stan-
which focuses on the kinds of abnormal conditions that can dard indices are:
occur, the methods for recognizing and analyzing these 1. System Average Interruption Frequency Index (SAIFI)
undesirable conditions, and the selection and application of defines the average number of times a customer's service
protective equipment specifically designed to respond to them. is interrupted during a year for longer than 2 seconds. A
In coping with the increased currents associated with system customer interruption is defined as one interruption to one
faults and overloading, the system designer must provide customer.
adequate protection for all types of distribution apparatus SAIFI _ Total Number of Customer lnterr ions
(transformers, capacitors, voltage regulators, etc.) as well as - Total Number of Customers S
for all segments of the system itself. A variety of devices can
be used, ranging from single-action fuses to automatic circuit 2. System Average Interruption Duration Index (SAID I)
reclosers and relay-controlled circuit breakers. All must be defines the average interruption duration per customer
coordinated, with protective devices in many cases serving to served per year.
protect other protective devices that function as backup
guardians of equipment or circuits. The final system design SAlOl =Sum of Customer Interruption Durations
will be influenced by economic and environmental factors, Total Number of Customers
but the starting point for an effective system must be sound
technical analysis. 3. Momentary Average Interruption Frequency Index (MAIFI)
defines the average number of momentary interruptions
DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM RELIABILITY (2 seconds or less) per customer interrupted per year.
All types of electric utility customers- residential, commer- MAl Fl =Total Number of Momentary Customer Interruptions
cial, institutional, and industrial -are heavily dependent on Total Number of Customers Served
the availability of electric power. For the residential customer, a
loss of service affects just about every function and major 4. Customer Average Interruption Duration Index (CAIDI)
device in the house, both those that are fully dependent defines the average interruption duration for those cus-
on electric power (lighting, refrigeration, microwave ovens, tomers interrupted during a year.
televisions, air conditioners, home security systems, personal CAIDI _ Sum of Customer Interruption Durations
computers) and those that may be only partially dependent - Total Number of Customer Interruptions
on electricity (furnaces, water heaters). Shopping centers
suffer loss of sales and may have serious problems when 5. Average Service Availability Index (ASAI) defines the ratio
outages occur during busy shopping periods. Schools may of the total number of customer hours that service was
cease to function. Patient care is affected at health institu- available during a year to the total customer hours
tions. Industrial customers experience immediate financial demanded (customer hours demanded = 24 hours/day x
loss as machines and processes shut down. =
365 days 8760 hours).
With all of this, the individual electric utility customer has
become very aware of and sensitive to any interruption of ASAI = 8760- SAID I
8760
electrical service. Customer perceptions of service reliability
are affected by both the frequency and duration of outages, For example, a SAlOl (see number 2, above) of 1.0 hours
and efforts to improve reliability must address both of these per year produces:
areas. Even momentary outages lasting less than 2 seconds
can be as troublesome as sustained outages for some
customers. Economics will of course be a factor in each ASAI = 87608760
- 1.0
= 99.989%
utility's approach to reliability.

6
 A1
Feeder Length as a factor in Reliability Maximum service reliability is achieved when the distribution
uany utilities have found that service reliability deteriorated system is designed and operated to minimize the effects
slgnifk:;antly when they converted to a higher distribution voltage of any fault that may occur. Given the high percentage of
,tor example, from 4 kV to 13 kV). The higher voltage allowed temporary faults, two basic rules of distribution protec,ion
bnger feeders and more customers per feeder, but each outage emerge:
aftected more customers, and longer feeders required more 1. All faults must be given a chance to be temporary by
patrol time to locate the fault and take corrective action. providing a reclosing operation for a fault anywhere on the
Even without a change to higher voltage, service reliability system.
can deteriorate as more customers are added to a feeder, 2.1n responding to that low percentage of faults found to
and the feeder itself may be extended. be permanent after the designated number of reclosing
To restore service reliability in such cases, an important operations has been performed, the protective devices
first step is to sectionalize each feeder into smaller segments, must remove from service only the smallest possible portion
thereby limiting the number of customers affected by a given of the system necessary for isolation of the faulted segment.
ootage and reducing the subsequent patrol time. Operating Protecting Feeder Segments and Taps
experience of a number of utilities that have adopted this To minimize the effects of faults on the main feeder, section-
sectionalizing practice suggests that an optimum feeder alizing devices (reclosers or sectionalizers, or a combination
segment in terms of load is 3 to 5 MVA. As the load of a line of the two) can be used to divide the feeder into the desired
segment approaches 8 to 10 MVA, outage rates increase to smaller segments. All taps running off the feeder should have
unsatisfactory levels. a protective device (fuses for small taps, a recloser or section-
alizer for large taps) where they connect to the main feeder.
PROTECTION CONCERNS AND PRACTICES Even on very small taps, a fuse should be used. The justifi-
Temporary Versus Permanent Faults cation is that this type of fuse does not only protect the tap,
Most faults on overhead distribution systems are temporary - but rather protects the remainder of the distribution feeder
perhaps as high as 70 to 80 percent. Also, of those faults from a fault on the tap.
categorized as permanent, at least one-third had initially Regardless of the extent of sectionalizing for a particular
been temporary (that is, lasting only a few cycles to a few feeder, a combination of a recloser and fuses (Figure OA 1)
seconds). and/or sectionalizers is typically used to protect a feeder seg-
A temporary fault is one whose cause is transitory in ment and its taps against both temporary and permanent
nature. Examples include momentary interruptions caused faults. The fast trip curve of the recloser is used to clear all
by two conductors being blown together, by a tree branch transient faults on the main feeder and taps. For permanent
faling across two conductors and then dropping clear, and by faults on the taps, the recloser time-delay curve allows the
a bird or small animal that briefly causes an arc from a live tap fuse to clear, resulting in an outage on the tap only.
terminal to ground. If the arc that results can be cleared Some additional steps that can be taken to minimize the
quickly, before it burns into a permanent fault, the cause of the effects of transient faults on sophisticated electronic and
fault is gone, no equipment damage has occurred, and the microprocessor-controlled devices is discussed below under
circuit can be re-energized immediately, restoring service to "Momentary Service Interruptions."
the entire system. Since the "open" time between fault inter-
ruption and re-energization is so brief, this type of incident
is classified as a momentary outage.
A permanent fault is one in which damage has occurred,
either from the cause of the fault or from the fault arc.
Examples include faults caused by a broken insulator, by a
broken conductor, and by an automobile knocking down a pole.
When a permanent fault occurs, the line must be deener-
gized, and a line crew must travel to the site and repair the
damage. The time to restore service may range from 30 minutes
to several hours; accordingly, the incident results in a recorded Figure OA1.
Reclosers and fuses protect feeder segment and taps
sustained outage. against temporary and transient faults.

7
A. Overcurrent Protection
1. FUNDAMENTALS AND THEORY
Principles and Objectives (Continued)

"Protecting" and "Protected'' Devices Nowadays, however, a momentary service interruption

In order to provide safeguards against unwarranted service disrupts the operation of computers, digital clocks, video
interruption as just described as well as in other overcurrent recorders, microwave ovens, etc., and results in customer
protection situations, there must be a pairing or series of annoyance at having to reset and reprogram the equipment.
protective devices that have been selected to function in The impact is even more severe for businesses, manufactur-
coordinated fashion. By conventional definition, when two or ers, and other organizations that rely heavily on computers,
more protective devices are applied to a system, the device digital controls, and automatic systems.
nearest the fault on the supply side is the "protecting" device, Following are some of the steps that can be taken by electric
and the next nearest (that is, the closest device upline from utilities to control the number of momentary interruptions and
the "protecting" device) is the "protected" or "back-up" device. limit their effects.
See Figure 1A1. 1. The application of recloser-control coordination acces-
When properly coordinated, the protecting device will function sories on substation and midline reclosers can provide
before the protected device has an opportunity to do so, complete coordination of protection devices, thereby
thereby limiting power interruption to the area served by the reducing the number of both momentary and longer inter-
former. It should be noted that a protecting device might also ruptions experienced by the feeder's customers.
function as a protected device if there are additional devices 2. Momentary interruptions can be reduced on main feeders
downline from it. This will be discussed in detail in Section A3, by midpoint sectionalizing devices. By adding a midpoint
Protective Equipment Applications and Coordination. recloser and providing trip coordination with the source-
side recloser, temporary faults downline from the midpoint
recloser will not affect upline customers.
,.
SUBSTATION
PROTECTING

- 3. Critical industrial or commercial loads can be protected by

~

•
jllo

jllo
A

PROTECTED
-8
DEVICE
installing a recloser on the main feeder just downline from
the critical load. This reduces the fast-trip burden of the

1
~
OR BACKUP substation device and consequently the number of
DEVICE momentary interruptions experienced by the critical load.
C PROTECTING 4. Reclosers can be added to longer taps off main feeders to
DEVICE
relieve the main feeder from momentary interruptions
caused by downline faults on the tap.
Figure 1A1. In addition to taking whatever steps are deemed
Conventional definitions of protective devices based on
location. Fuse links are indicated for illustration. appropriate to limit the number of momentary interruptions,
electric power suppliers may want to consider communicating
with customers on the relative desirability of such interruptions
compared to long-term outages. Customers also might be
MOMENTARY SERVICE INTERRUPTIONS made aware that they can purchase appliances and products
In years past, momentary service interruptions as a result of with battery backup, or with circuitry that overrides brief
temporary faults caused little or no customer concerns or power interruptions. For industrial and commercial
inconvenience. In fact, when a brief power loss occurred and customers, the ideal solution may be an uninterruptible
the only result was a dimming of lights or a momentary loss power supply.
of service, there was a feeling of relief because there was no
long-term outage.

8
 A1

Tools for Fault Analysis

The design engineer can approach the challenging task of Load impedances in the figure are assumed to include line
fault analysis with tools that have proved reliable in decades impedances. Note the distinction between balanced voltages
of application involving systems of all types and sizes. As and currents and balanced load. Load impedances in the
discussed later, computer technology has provided additional three phases are equal in both magnitude and angle, whereas
tools in the form of general and customized programs, but the voltages and currents have 120-degree phase separation.
there can be no substitute for a thorough understanding of the The virtue of working with balanced systems is that they can
basic methods and approaches that follow. be analyzed on a single-phase basis, since the current in any
phase is always the phase-to-neutral voltage divided by the
METHOD OF SYMMETRICAL COMPONENTS single-phase load impedance.
Under normal operating conditions, a distribution circuit is Separate calculation of currents in the two remaining phases
essentially a balanced three-phase system. So long as the is not necessary. This characteristic of balanced three-phase
circuit remains balanced, the single-phase equivalent circuit systems is the basis for the use of one-line diagrams in which
is a powerful tool for simplifying fault analysis, but in more a three-phase circuit is pictorially represented by a single line
cases than not, system disturbances or faults create an and standard symbols for transformers, switchgear, and
unbalanced circuit. The method traditionally used to solve other system components.
these problems of unbalanced three-phase systems has In a balanced circuit (Figure 2A 1), the currents and voltages
been the analysis of symmetrical components. In this manual, are not changed if neutral points NS and NL are grounded or
only the symmetrical component equations applicable to connected with a neutral wire, because no potential difference
three-phase power systems will be discussed. can exist between NS and NL. However, this lack of potential
difference will not, in general, hold true if the three-wire system
Simplifying the Approach to is unbalanced in some way. Therefore, system conditions in
Complicated Problems the unbalanced situation will be affected if points NS and NL
The usefulness of the method of symmetrical components are connected.
is that a complicated problem can be solved by vectorially Truly balanced three-phase systems exist only in theory.
summing the solution to three balanced network problems. In reality, many systems are very nearly balanced and, for
!ts success .lies in the ability to establish relatively simple practical purposes, can be analyzed as if they are truly balanced
systems. However, there also are situations (unbalanced
Interconnections between sequence networks at the point of
the fault for a limited number of unbalanced conditions. loads, unsymmetrical faults, open conductors, etc.) where
At any. given point in a balanced three-phase system, the the degree of unbalance cannot be neglected. Many of these
currents 1n the three-phase conductors are equal in magnitude situations involve a single point of unbalance on an otherwise
and separated by 120 degrees in phase angle. The same balanced system, and these are the cases in which the
holds true for the phase-to-neutral voltages and the phase- method of symmetrical components finds ready application.
to-phase voltages. (Figure 2A 1.) The method permits the phasors of the unbalanced three-
phase system to be resolved into three balanced systems of
phasors. The three balanced systems can then be solved
independently and the results combined in a manner that
Ia =II-¢
depends on the type of unbalance.
c A Ic = I LI1.Q:.Q_
Balanced Systems In Symmetrical Components
The balanced systems of phasors used in three-phase
symmetrical component analysis are (Figure 3A 1):
1. Positive-sequence components (denoted by the subscript 1),
lb=I~ consisting of three phasors of equal magnitude and
120-degree phase separation, and having the same phase
PHASE-PHASE VOLTAGES: sequence as the original phasors. (May be denoted by the
subscript p in other literature.)
Vab = Va-Vb= V3 V@
2. Negative-sequence components (denoted by the subscript 2),
Voc = Vb-Vc = V3 V /270 consisting of three phasors of equal magnitude and
Vca=Vc-Va=V3 V~
120-degree phase separation, and having a phase
sequence opposite to that of the original phasors. (May be
Agure 2A1. denoted by the subscript n in other literature.)
Diagram of balanced three-phase system showing con-
ductor and phase relationships. 3. Zero-sequence components (denoted by the subscript 0),
consisting of three phasors of equal magnitude and 360- or
0-degree phase separation. (May be denoted by the
subscript z in other literature.)
It is assumed that the reader is familiar with complex number
notation. Figure 2A 1 uses the polar form of this notation. The T~e p~asors illustrated in Figure 3A 1 are given voltage
magnitudes of the phase voltages and currents are V and I des1gnat1ons, but they could just as well be called currents.
respectively, and the magnitude of each phase-to-phas~ The subscripts correspond to the three phases of the system
voltage is the square root of 3 V. and show the differences among the three systems of com-
ponents. The positive-sequence components have the

9
A. Overcurrent Protection
1. FUNDAMENTALS AND THEORY
Tools for Fault Analysis (Continued)

normal abc phase sequence, the negative-sequence compo-

nents have the opposite abc phase sequence, and the zero-
sequence components are in phase and have no phase
sequence.

Vc,

{3)

These equations permit converting any set of three-phase

voltage (or current) phasors into their equivalent symmetrical
components. Equations 2 and 3 are written in terms of voltage
phasors, but they also apply to currents if the V's are
NEGATIVE SEQUENCES replaced by l's.
POSITIVE SEQUENCES ZERO SEQUENCES
Example of Symmetrical Components Method
Figure3A1.
Consider a three-phase, four-wire circuit supplying a
Balanced systems of phasors used in three-phase sym-
metrical component analysis. wye-connected load. If an open conductor exists in one
phase, what are the symmetrical components of the currents
in the remaining phases?
Relationships Between Symmetrical
Components and Phase Quantities
To transform from symmetrical components to phase
quantities, the following relationships are used {References
1, 3, 4):

Va = Va 1 + Va2 + Vao

Vb =Vb 1 + Vb2 + Vb0 18 = 1 /60° =.5+j.866

Vc =Vc 1 + V~ + Vc0 (1) lb = 1 I -60° .5-j.866
Ic 0
But the quantities on the right side of these equations are not
all independent. For example:
From Equation 3:
Vb1 =a Va and Vc =aVa
2
1 1 1
1
where a =1 /120°, a2= 1 /240° Ia 1 =3 {Ia + alb + a2Ic}
Also, Vb 2 =aVa2 and Vc2 =a2Va2 =! {I 60° + (1/120° X 1 I -60°) + 0}
and Vb0 = Vao and Vc0 =Vao
!{2l..illt}
These relationships can be verified by an examination of
Figure 3A1.
Substituting into Equation 1 provides
=.667/60°
Va=Va 1 +Va2 +Va0
Ia2 =~ {Ia + a Ib + ale}
2

Vb =a2Va 1 + aVa2 + Va0 =! {1 {/ 60° + {1 /240° X 1/ -60°) + 0}

Vc =aVa 1 + a2Va 2 + Vao {2)
=! {(.5 + j.866) + (-1 + jO)}
These equations show that, once the symmetrical
components of the voltage (or current) of one phase of a system = ~ {-.5 + j.866}
are known, the phase voltages {or currents) for all three
phases can be found. =.333/120°
To transform from phase quantities to symmetrical
components, the following equations are used (References lao=! {Ia + Ib + Ic}
1, 3, 4):
=~ {1/60° + 1/60° + 0°}
=~ {1 ill:}
=.333ffi:

10
 A1
Expressing these results both graphically and numerically, Sequence Impedances
the positive-sequence components are: In general usage, the phrase "positive-sequence impedance"
does not mean the positive-sequence component of an
unbalanced set of impedances ~a, ~ b, and ~c. such as
might be calculated from the expression(~ a+ a~ b + a2~ c)l3.
Ia 1 = .667 I 60°
Instead, the phrase means the impedance of a symmetrical
lb 1 = a 21a1 = .667 I 300° three-phase circuit measured when energized by a positive-
sequence voltage source. For example, if a symmetrical
lc 1 =ala 1 =.667 I 180° three-phase line has all three phases shorted at one end and
is energized by a balanced three-phase positive-sequence
Ib1 voltage at the other end, then only positive-sequence cur-
rents will flow in the three phases of the line. The phase A
The negative-sequence components are: line-to-ground voltage at the input to the line divided by the
phase A current will then be the positive sequence of the line.
Similarly, the phrases "negative-sequence impedance" and
Ia2 = .333 I 120° "zero-sequence impedance" are shortened expressions for
"impedance to negative-sequence current" and "impedance
lb 2 = ala 2 = .333 I 240° to zero-sequence current." The symbols normally used to
designate positive-, negative-, and zero-sequence impedances
lc 2 = a 21a2 = .333 ~ are used here. These are, respectively, ~ 1, ~ 2, and ~ o.
This material will consider only symmetrical, or balanced,
circuits. For example, fully balanced distribution lines and
balanced sources of supply are assumed. These are reasonable
The zero-sequence components are: assumptions, and results based on them are sufficiently
accurate for fault calculations. Also, these assumptions help
demonstrate the method of symmetrical components without
getting into the many complications of the method when
working with unsymmetrical systems. In unsymmetrical systems,
positive-sequence currents will, in general, produce negative-
and zero-sequence voltage drops as well as positive-
sequence voltage drop. This means that the mutual coupling
between the sequence networks must be defined. These
Once the symmetrical components are known, phase mutual sequence impedances can be calculated, but with
quantities can be determined by using Equations 2 or 1: considerable difficulty, and as a result, the method of sym-
metrical components loses much of its usefulness. Most
applications of the method are in the analysis of unsymmetrical
I~ ~ / 1 Ia = Ia 1 + Ia 2 + Ia0
-Ia faults, unbalanced loads, etc., on balanced systems.
~ = .667 I 60° +.333 I 120° + .333 L.Q: Therefore, the more involved aspects of symmetrical component
1 theory, such as the mutual impedances between sequence
J Iaa = ~ (.5 + j.866} + ~ (-.5 + j.866} + ~ (1 + iO) networks, are not discussed. However, these are given con-
siderable attention in some of the references, especially
= .5 + j.866 Edith Clarke (Reference 1).

= 1 I 60° THE PER-UNIT METHOD

Computations with power systems involving two or more voltage
levels are greatly simplified by the per-unit method. The value
of the method can best be judged by actual experience, but
some of the reasons for its usefulness are:
= .667 I 300° + .333 I 240° + .333 f.JJ':_ 1. When a circuit element in a system of several voltage levels,
= ~ (.5- j.866) + ~ (-.5 - j.866} + ~ (1 + jO)
such as a transmission line, has its impedance expressed
in ohms, the ohmic value will vary as the square of the ratio
of voltage levels as consideration moves from one level to
= .5- j.866
another. In other words, the value of the ohmic impedance
=11300°=11-60° will change as the point of view of the line is changed from
one side of a transformer to the other. So a problem in
developing an equivalent circuit of a system in actual units
is to select and identify a reference voltage and express all
impedance elements in ohms as viewed from the reference
voltage level. When impedances are expressed in per-unit
= .667 I 180° + .333 1...JL + .333 1...JL on the appropriate base, this problem is eliminated. The
per-unit impedance of the line viewed from one side of the
=0 transformer is the same as that viewed from the other side.
2. The per-unit impedances of machines of the same type
Note that, even though the actual current in phase C is and widely different rating usually lie within a narrow range,
zero, its symmetrical components are not zero. whereas their ohmic values can differ significantly.

11
A. Overcurrent Protection
1. FUNDAMENTALS AND THEORY
Tools for Fault Analysis (Continued)

3. Manufacturers usually specify the impedance of apparatus and defining VAs, the base power, in volt amps as
in percent or per-unit on the base of the nameplate rating.
In analyzing a system containing apparatus, it is conven- VAa Eala
ient to use these per-unit impedances either directly (if the
apparatus ratings are equivalent to the system voltage and provides VA .E......L (6)
kVA base) or suitably modified to conform to the system VAs = Ea Is
bases.
4. In studying the performance of a system, the comparative Thus, the per-unit VA power is defined as
importance of the values of such factors as voltage and
current is more readily judged in the per-unit system, espe- VApu
cially when the system has a multiplicity of voltage levels.
For example, the significance of a 100-ampere current may Therefore VApu = (7)
be different in one part of the system than in another.
Depending on the normal full-load currents of the circuits, Voltage, current, power, and impedance are so related
the 100 amperes may represent a severe overload if it (Equations 4 and 6) that selection of base values for any two
exists on one line and less than normal load on another determines the base values of the remaining two. Usually, base
line. In the per-unit system, the base currents are fre- power in kVA and base voltage in kV are the quantities
quently closely related to full-load conditions. So in the first selected to specify the base. In this case, Equations 4 and 6
case cited, 100 amperes might be equivalent to 1.6 per- become
unit current (60 percent overload), and in the second case,
only 0.35 per-unit current. For this purpose, the numbers
1000 Es Ia~= (8)
1.6 and 0.35 per-unit are more meaningful measures of the kVA 8 = Esls (9)
significance of the current than 100 amperes.
Consider the simple voltage-current-impedance equation where Es =base voltage in kilo volts
Is =base current in amperes
E=lr
where the units of E, I, and r
are volts, amperes, and ohms, -ra = base impedance in ohms
respectively. kVA 8 =base power in kilo volt-amperes.
Dividing both sides of the above equation by the same
number does not destroy the equality. Call this number E8 ,
base voltage.
Similarly, the per-unit definitions (Equations 35 and 37)
E I-r become
Es = Es
Epu = ~s
Defining a base current IB and a base impedance r B, I
subject to the condition lpu = Is
Ea = Is-rs
then -r
_§_ = _N_ -rpu = -rs
Es Is-rs (4)
kVA
Finally, the following per-unit (pu) quantities are defined: kVApu = kVAs {1 0)

Equations 10 are general expressions applicable in converting

Epu E the per-unit calculations. Equations 8 and 9 apply only to
Es single-phase systems.

Ipu = is Single-Phase System Calculations

For single-phase systems or three-phase systems where line
current, voltage line-to-neutral, and kVA per phase are used,
-rpu =is formulas relating the various base quantities are readily
obtained, as follows:
Epu = lpu -rpu and hence
and hence (5)
Taking the power-voltage-current equation kVAs = base kVA per phase or single-phase base
kVA
VA= El
Es = line-to-neutral base voltage or single-
phase base voltage in kV

Is = kfss = base line current in amperes

2
-rs = ~~;s = base impedance in ohms
1
(11)

12
 A1
Three-Phase System Calculations If n is the transformer turns ratio, Ep and Es are the primary
In three-phase circuits, data are usually given as total and secondary voltages in kV, respectively; Ip, and Is are
three-phase kVA and line-to-line kV, and the above formulas primary and secondary currents in amperes, respectively;
do not apply. Hence, if the line-to-line voltage and total three- and ~ is the load impedance in ohms, then the following
phase kVA are specified, the following formulas are used to relationships can be written:
find base quantities instead of Equations 11 :
Ep = nEs
kVAs = three-phase base kVA
1
Ip = nis
E9 = line-to-line base voltage in kV

Is = kVAs = base line current in amperes

V3Es
2
-r9 - 1000Es = base impedance in ohms
- kVA 9 (12)

Once the base quantities are selected, then the per-unit

quantities are immediately obtained from Equations 10, so
long as the units for E, I, -r, and kVA in a three-phase system and, therefore, -rviewed from primary= n2 -r (15)
calculation are line-to-line kV, amperes, ohms, and three-
phase kVA, respectively Now, choosing the base power kVAs the same for both
The per-unit impedance of a circuit element is: sides of the transformer and the base voltage EpB and EsB
so that they have the relationship
-r u = (actual impedance in ohms) X (base kVA) = -r kVAs
P (base voltage in kV)2 X 1,ooo 1,ooo Es EpB = nEsB
(13)
then the base impedances are (from Equation 11)
where base can be either line-to-neutral voltage and single-
phase kVA, or line-to-line voltage and total three-phase kVA.
To change from per-unit impedance on a given base to per-unit -rPs = 1OOOE~ 9
impedance on a new base, the following formula applies: kVAs (16)

~new= ~old (base kvold )

2
X (base kVAnew) and
pu pu base kvnew base kVAold
(14)
-r 1000E§ 1000(E~2
s9 = B = n
As noted initially, an advantage of the per-unit method is kVAs kVAs (17)
realized when the proper voltage and kVA bases are selected
on the two sides of a transformer. When the kVA bases are Using Equation 17, the per-unit value of load impedance
identical and the base voltages are chosen in the same ratio viewed from the secondary is
as the line-to-line voltage transformation ratio (which is the
same as the transformer turns ratio in delta-delta and wye-wye -r
connections), then the per-unit value of an impedance on one -rpu
viewed from secondary
=r
Ss
side of the transformer will not change when it is viewed from
the other side. This can be verified by considering a single-
phase ideal (zero-impedance) transformer serving a load
impedance, ~ (Figure 4A 1). =
1000 E~
B

and, from Equations 15 and 16, the per-unit value of ~

- Is viewed from the primary is

-r pu viewed from primary =
_,._ .
-r PB
.
L.vtewed from pnmary

= n2-r
-rpB

= -rn 2kVAs
n:1 1000 Ep 2
B
Fagure 4A1.
= -r pu viewed from secondary
Diagram of single-phase transformer with zero impedance
serving a load impedance. Therefore, by properly choosing the voltage and power
bases, the per-unit value of an impedance on one side of a
transformer can be used directly on the other side.

13
A. Overcurrent Protection
1. FUNDAMENTALS AND THEORY
Tools for Fault Analysis (Continued)

USE OF IMPEDANCES IN FAULT CALCULATIONS 5. Three-wire system served from an ungrounded, wye-
The impedance information necessary to conduct a fauH study connected transformer
includes the system sequence impedances viewed from each
of the fault points to be considered, and the value of fault
.----------------------------------A
impedance, ::Z: , associated with each type of fault. The
sequence impedances of the system are independent of the
type of fault.
To find system impedance, first identify the individual
components of the system: e.g., underground cable, overhead
lines, transformers, generators, etc. Next, the sequence e------------------~----------c
impedances of the individual components are determined, Additional classifications of circuits involving various
normally through the use of tables and formulas. Finally, the combinations of one or two phase conductors and a neutral
component impedances are combined to produce the equivalent could be identified, but these exist in practice only as two-phase
sequence impedances of the system, taking into account any or si~gle-phase laterals tapped off of one of the above systems.
series-parallel connections and the various voltage levels So s1ngle- or two-phase laterals are not described here as
between the point being studied and the source. separate types of distribution circuits, but rather are referred
to in terms of the type of circuit from which they are supplied.
Types of Distribution Circuits For example, in studying a lateral consisting only of two
The impedance of a distribution circuit is markedly affected phase conductors, one must know whether it is served by a
not only by conductor material, size, and spacing, but also grounded system (Types 1, 2, and 3) or an ungrounded system
by such factors as the presence or absence of a neutral (Types 4 and 5), since both impedances and fault levels are
conductor, the nature of system grounding, and the transformer affected.
connection at the distribution substation. These factors are In the United States, the most common type of primary
what distinguishes one type of distribution circuit from another. distribution circuit is the multigrounded neutral system (Type 1).
Following are diagrams of the types of distribution circuits: This is true for both overhead and underground.
.In some .areas, however, some of the other circuit types are
1. Four-wire multigrounded-neutral system still extenstvely used. For example, countries in the Far East
including Australia, predominantly utilize a three-wir~
.----------------------------------A u.nigrounde:d system and can have distribution feeders many
kilometers 1n length. These systems are characterized by low
~---------------------------8 fault currents and fuses cannot be used effectively for
ground-fault protection; however, single-phase tap dropping
and load switching are minor considerations.
. In the future, as a greater share of the distribution system
e---------------------------------C 1s placed underground, dominance of the multi-grounded
neutral system will increase, since most underground pri-
2. Four-wire unigrounded-neutral system
mary cable installations use bare neutral wire in continuous
r-------------------------------------A contact with the ground.

~----~----------------------B Impedances of Overhead Distribution Circuits

The sequence impedances of an overhead primary circuit
)-----------------------N operating at a constant frequency are dependent on several
factors. Principal factors are the size, material, and spacing
._-----------------------------c or configuration of the phase and neutral conductors, and the
type of distribution circuit. Lesser factors include stranding of
3. Three-wire unigrounded system the conductors, conductor height above ground, conductor
.----------------------------------A temperature, and resistivity of the earth. The problem of
identify~n~ the impedances for ~ given circuit involves, first,
determ1n1ng values for these vanous factors, and then finding
the corresponding impedances in published tables or by
utilizing impedance equations.
The use of published tables is the most common approach to
e--------------------------------c this problem. Its degree of accuracy depends, of course, on
how close a match there is between the values of the various
4. Three-wire system served from an ungrounded, delta-con- factors for the circuit in question and the values of the factors
nected transformer used in preparing the tables. In many situations, the match is
close enough for the results to be considered sufficiently
accurate for fault calculations.
In other situations, a close match between all of the factors
i~ lacking and the amount of error introduced by the tables is
either large or unknown. In these cases, impedance formulas
must be used. Although the application of these formulas will
not be covered in this publication, the reader should be aware
of their. existence (References 1, 3, 4) and of their ready
adaptation to computer programs for calculating impedances
of overhead circuits.

14
 A1
Tables 1A1, 2A1, and 3A1 present values of positive-and A few words are needed about the effect on :Z:. 1 and :Z:. 2 of
zero-sequence impedance of overhead distribution circuits for the spacing of phase conductors. Tables 1A 1, 2A 1 and 3A 1
some typical conductor sizes and spacings of three varieties of are based on geometric mean spacing of 4.69 feet among
canductors: copper, ACSR (aluminum cable, steel-reinforced), the three-phase conductors. That is, the three-phase conductors
and bare all-aluminum. Negative-sequence impedances of are assumed to have an average spacing of 4.69 feet, and
'!li!l:anSmission and distribution lines are equivalent to positive- this average is a geometric mean, not an arithmetic mean.
sequence values. The tables give zero-sequence impedances The term "equivalent delta spacing" is sometimes used instead
of 1hree-phase, three-wire circuits, and of three-phase, four-wire of geometric mean spacing. For example, if the configuration
~unded-neutral circuits. Thus, the sequence impedances of the phase conductors of an actual circuit is as shown in
of iour of the five types of distribution circuits described earlier Figure 5A 1, the impedance calculation is simplified (without
,can be obtained from these tables, assuming the various introducing significant error) if the spacing is assumed to be
spacing, temperature, and other factors are applicable. Of at the corners of an equilateral triangle, as in Figure 6A 1.
::::ourse, it would not be necessary to know the zero-sequence This equivalent delta spacing is found by calculating the
mpedance of a three-wire circuit if the source is ungrounded geometric mean of the three actual spacings:
:"""ypes 4 and 5). The only circuit type not adequately covered
Of these tables is the four-wire unigrounded-neutral system Geometric Mean Spacing =
("Type 2). Even in this case, the tables are applicable in cai- (3 X 2.67 x 5.67)1/3 = 3.57 feet
CUiiating three-phase and line-to-line faults, since those
n.ooNe only positive-sequence impedance. Also, the tables The tables show how the tabulated reactances (X 1 and X2)
::an be used for calculating one class of single-phase faults can be changed if the geometric mean spacing of the circuit
on this type of circuit: that is, faults that involve a phase con- under study is different from the 4.69 feet used in the calcu-
ductor and ground but do not involve the neutral wire. In such lations. For example, three 4/0 copper conductors with the
::ases the return path for fault current is only through ground spacing shown in Figure 5A 1 would have a positive-
and we have essentially a Type 3 circuit. The zero-sequence sequence impedance, as
impedance for this type of circuit is included in the tables.
The data of principal importance in the tables are the :z:. = .0574 + j (.1294-.0064)
~nee and reactance components of the sequence = .0574 + j.1230 ohms/1000 ft
i'npedances. The impedance magnitudes (columns labeled
=
Z 1 Z 2 and :Z:. o) are also given, but these will rarely be of where the reactance is modified by the .0064 ohms/1 000 ft to
use in fault calculations. Calculating fault current at a given account for the spacing change from 4.69 feet to approxi-
location on a radial system can involve addition of many mately 3.5 feet.
irnlpedances between the location and the source. This must
be done by adding resistances and reactances independently;
1lha:t is, the rectangular coordinate form (R+jX) of the complex

1 '1• ""1•
runbers must be retained. Addition of impedance magnitudes
3 2
, :Z:. values in the tables) will, in general, give incorrect results,
since the angles of the polar coordinate form of the impedances
ot various system components will vary widely. The impedance
magnitudes are included in the tables, since they do permit a
qualitative evaluation of the effect of going from one conductor
•A 8 C
size to another or going from one type of distribution circuit to
another. For example, a comparison of Z O's in the tables
makes it clear that the magnitude of the zero-sequence Figure 5A1.
impedance of a circuit is significantly reduced when a Actual configuration of phase conductors referred to in
l'1l'lllltigrounded-neutral wire is added to a three-wire Figure 6A1.
unigrounded system.
The positive-sequence impedance of a circuit is usually a
iunction of the characteristics and configuration of the phase
conductors only. The type of grounding and the existence or
absence of neutral has, for most overhead circuits, a negligi-
bie effect on positive-sequence impedance. However, the
neutral conductor, the type of grounding, and the phase con-
ductors all influence the value of zero-sequence impedance.
This is implied by Tables 1A 1. 2A 1 and 3A 1, since separate
positive-sequence values for the three-wire unigrounded and
flour-wire multigrounded-neutral systems are not given and c
•
8
are not needed. This can be readily verified by the imped-
ance equations used to develop such tables. (References Figure 6A1.
1.3,4.) Assumed configuration of phase conductors for simplified
impedance calculation.

15
A. Overcurrent Protection
1. FUNDAMENTALS AND THEORY
Tools for Fault Analysis (Continued)

TABLE 1A1
Impedance of Copper Conductor in Ohms/ 1000 Feet
Three-phase Geometric Mean Spacing: 4.69 feet* Line-to- Neutral Spacing: 4.00 feet
Earth Resistivity: 100 meter-ohms Conductor Temperature: 50°C

Phase Positive- and Negative- Zero Sequence Phase Neutral Zero-Sequence Impedance
Conductor Sequence Impedance Impedance Com&onents Conductor Wire Components for Four-Wire
Wire Components for Three-Wire ircults Wire Size Multi-Grounded Neutral Circuits
Size Strands R1 =R2 x, =x 2 r, = r2 Ro Xo ro Size Ro Xo ro
500,000 CM 19 .0246 .1195 .1216 .0788 .5606 .5663 500,000 CM 2/0 .1053 .3451 .3598
450,000 19 .0273 .1206 .1252 .0814 .5617 .5682 500,000 1/0 .1254 .3553 .3741
400,000 19 .0307 .1220 .1258 .0848 .5631 .5691 500,000 1 .1311 .3672 .3905
350,000 19 .0348 .1235 .1284 .0892 .5646 .5701 450,000 2/0 .1081 .3462 .3627
300,000 19 .0407 .1254 .1318 .0949 .5665 .5739 450,000 1/0 .1205 .3564 .3769
250,000 19 .0487 .1275 .1364 .1028 .5686 .5777 450,000 1 .1337 .3684 .3920
4/0 19 .0574 .1294 .1415 .1116 .5705 .5795 400,000 2/0 .1114 .3475 .3646
3/0 12 .0723 .1309 .1494 .1265 .5720 .5862 400,000 1/0 .1239 .3580 .3778
2/0 7 .0911 .1360 .1640 .1453 .5771 .5947 400,000 1 .1371 .3697 .3943
1/0 7 .1150 .1386 .1799 .1691 .5795 .6023 350,000 2/0 .1157 .3491 .3665
1 7 .1449 .1413 .2027 .1991 .5824 .6155 350,000 1/0 .1282 .3598 .3826
2 7 .1809 .1434 .2301 .2350 .5845 .6307 350,000 1 .1413 .3712 .3968
3 3 .2280 .1460 .2708 .2822 .5871 .6496 300 ,000 2/0 .1216 .3511 .3722
4 1 .2847 .1506 .3220 .3388 .5917 .6818 300,000 1/0 .1341 .3614 .3854
6 1 .4527 .1559 .4792 .5068 .5970 .7831 300,000 1 .1472 .3733 .4006
8 1 .7197 .1612 .7405 .7739 .6023 .9820 250,000 1/0 .1419 .3633 .3902
250,000 1 .1551 .3752 .4053
250,000 2 .1669 .3922 .4261
4/0 1/0 .1506 .3652 .3949
4/0 1 .1638 .3771 .4110
4/0 2 .1754 .3828 .4205
3/0 1/0 .1653 .3667 .4019
3/0 1 .1786 .3786 .4186
3/0 2 .1902 .3956 .4390
2/0 1 .1973 .3837 .4347
2/0 2 .2089 .4008 .4527
2/0 3 .2205 .4212 .4777
1/0 2 .2328 .4034 .4659
1/0 3 .2443 .4239 .4905
1/0 4 .2477 .4455 .5080
1 2 .2629 .4061 .4848
*For geometric mean spacing of 4.0 ft. , subtract .0034 from X1 = X2 and 1 3 .2744 .4265 .5076
solve for r 1 = r 4 1 4 .2778 .4481 .5265
2 2 .2987 .4080 .5047
For geometric mean spacing of 3.5 ft. , subtract .0064 from X1 = X2 and 2 3 .3102 .4284 .5294
solve for r , = r2 2 4 .3155 .4500 .5511
3 3 .3574 .4313 .5606
For geometric mean spacing of 3.0 ft., subtract .0100 from X1 = X2 and 3 4 .3608 .4528 .5777
solve for r 1 = r 2 3 6 .3619 .4822 .6042
4 4 .4176 .4574 .6203
For geometric mean spacing of 5.0 ft., add .0017 to X1 = X2 and 4 6 .4188 .5057 .6553
solve for r, = r 2 6 6 .5879 .5108 .7784
r =v R2 + X2 8 8 .8420 .5580 1.0114

The error involved in using a representative spacing (such a portion of the total system impedance viewed from the fault
as 4.69 feet) instead of the geometric mean spacing of the point may have the 0.2 to 8.8 percent error. The error in the
actual circuit can be considerably damped out in the final fault- fault current will be smaller than this, depending on the share
current calculation. For example, if the actual spacing is 3 feet of the total system impedance associated with the line sec-
but 4.69 feet is assumed, an error in spacing of more than 50 tion whose spacing is in error, and also depending on the
percent is introduced. For the conductor sizes in Tables 1A1, zero-sequence impedance and fault impedance, if any, used
2A 1 and 3A 1 , the error in impedance magnitude produced by in the fault calculation. Therefore, if the share of the total sys-
this assumption ranges from 0.2 to 8.8 percent. This same tem impedance involved is small, there is no need to worry
percentage of error would be reflected in the fault-current about allowing, for example, a fifty-percent error in conductor
magnitudes if no other impedances were required in the fault spacing for a small portion of an overhead distribution circuit.
calculations, but generally this is not the case. A fault calculation But when all or a large portion of the circuit is involved, then
at a given location on a radial system must include the effect the tabulated impedances should be modified to agree with
of all impedances between the location and the source. Only the spacing of the actual circuit.

16
 A1

DBLE 2A1
llnpedance of ACSR Conductor in Ohms/1 000 Feet
1'1ne-phase Geometric Mean Spacing: 4.69 feet* Line-to- Neutral Spacing: 4.00 feet
Ealt1 Resistivity: 100 meter-ohms Conductor Temperature: sooc

I ......
1IWe
Positive- and Negative-
Sequence Impedance
Comoonents
Zero Sequence
Impedance Com~nents
for Three-Wire ircults
Phase
Conductor
Wire
Neutral
Wire
Size
Zero-Sequence Impedance
Components for Four-Wire
MuHi-Grounded Neutral Circuits
Size Strands R1 = R2 x, x
= 2 ~, = ~2 Ro Xo ~0 Size Ro Xo ~0
tns.ooo CM 26 .0244 .1108 .1138 .0786 .5871 .5928 795,000 CM 4/0 .1144 .3494 .3625
715.000 26 .0273 .11 19 .1153 .0814 .5883 .5938 795,000 310 .1233 .3617 .3807
&6..600 54 .0303 .1133 .1170 .0845 .5896 .5947 795,000 2/0 .1337 .3761 .3977
&36.000 26 .0307 .1133 .1172 .0848 .5896 .5947 715,000 4/0 .1172 .3506 .3703
lliD5_000 26 .0326 .1138 .1188 .0867 .5902 .5966 715,000 3/0 .1261 .3629 .3835
556..500 26 .0352 .1148 .1203 .0894 .5911 .5975 715 ,000 2/0 .1367 .3773 .4019
5DO.OOO 30 0390 .1150 .1214 .0932 .5913 .5994 666,600 4/0 .1203 .3519 .3722
.:rl,OOO 26 .0409 .1167 .1239 .0951 .5930 .6004 666,600 3/0 .1292 .3642 .3872
'31JT,500 26 .0491 .1188 .1284 .1032 .5951 .6023 666,600 2/0 .1398 .3786 4034
336,400 26 .0580 .1206 .1341 .1121 .5970 .6061 636,000 4/0 .1206 .3519 .3722
3DO,OOO 26 .0648 .1220 .1379 .1189 .5983 .6098 636,000 3/0 .1295 .3642 .3867
2&6,800 26 .0729 .1233 .1430 .1271 .5996 .6136 636,000 2/0 .1400 .3784 .4034
4oiD 6 .1121 .1453 .1833 .1663 .6216 .6420 605,000 4/0 .1225 .3525 .3722
:w 6 .1369 .1528 .2055 .1911 .6292 .6572 605,000 3/0 .1314 .3648 .3883
2)10 6 .1695 .1566 .2311 .2237 .6330 .6705 605,000 2/0 .1419 .3792 .4049
1A) 6 .2121 .1595 .2655 .2663 .6358 .6894 556,500 4/0 .1252 .3534 .3750
1 6 .2614 .1612 .3078 .3155 .6375 .7121 556,500 3/0 .1341 .3657 .3898
2 6 .3201 .1612 .3570 .3742 .6375 .7424 556,500 2/0 .1445 .3801 .4072
3 6 .3920 .1604 .4233 .4462 .6367 .7765 500,000 4/0 .1292 .3536 .3769
4 6 .4867 .1600 .5133 .5409 .6364 .8371 500,000 3/0 .1381 .3659 .3924
6 6 .7538 .1627 .7689 .8080 6390 1.0303 500,000 2/0 .1487 .3803 .4091
477,000 3/0 .1398 .3676 .3930
I 477,000 2/0 .1504 .3820 .3939
I
477,000 1/0 .1614 .4008 .4318
397,500 3/0 .1477 .3697 .3977
397,500 2/0 .1583 .3841 .4153
397,500 1/0 .1693 .4028 .4375
336,400 310 .1568 .3716 4025
336,400 2/0 .1672 .3860 .4195
336,400 1/0 .1784 .4047 .4428
300,000 2/0 .1742 .3873 .4244
300,000 1/0 .1852 .4061 .4470
300,000 1 .1943 .4248 .4661
I 266,800 2/0 .1822 .3886 .4545
266,800 1/0 .1934 .4074 .4492
I 266,800 1 .2023 .4261 .4706
4/0 1/0 .2324 .4294 .4879
!
I
4/0 1
2
.2415
.2447
.4481 .5085
.5246
4/0 .4652
I 3/0 1/0 .2574 .4369 .5076
I
I 310 1 .2665 .4557 .5275
I
I 310 2 .2697 .4727 .5445
I 2/0 1 .2989 .4595 .5483
:
I
2/0 2 .3021 .4765 .5610
I 2/0 3 .3025 .4970 .5814
I 1/0 2 .3447 .4794 .5909
1/0 3 .3451 .4998 .6117
, 1/0 4 .3443 .5214 .6241
*For geometric mean spacing of 4.0 ft. , subtract .0034 from X1 = X 2 and 1 2 .3941 .4811 .6222
solve for ~ 1 = ~ 4 1 3 .3945 .5015 .6383
1 4 .3938 .5231 .6534
For geometric mean spacing of 3.5 ft., subtract .0064 from X 1 = X 2 and 2 2 .4528 .4811 .6610
solve for ~ 1 = ~ 2 2 3 .4632 .5015 .6629
For geometric mean spacing of 3.0 ft., subtract .01 00 from X1 = X2 and 2 4 .4525 .5231 .6932
solve for ~ 1 = ~ 2 3 3 .5252 .5008 .7254
For geometric mean spacing of 5.0 ft., add .0017 to X 1 = X2 and 3 4 .5244 .5223 .7008
solve for ~ 1 = ~ 2 3 6 .5102 .5553 .7500
~ =v R2 + X2 4 4 .6193 .5220 .8068
4 6 .6051 .5549 .8210
6 6 .8722 .5576 1.0199

17
A. Overcurrent Protection
1. FUNDAMENTALS AND THEORY
Tools for Fault Analysis (Continued)

TABLE 3A1
Impedance of Bare All-Aluminum Conductor in Ohms/ 1000 Feet
Three-phase Geometric Mean Spacing: 4.69 feet• Line-to- Neutral Spacing: 4.00 feet
Earth Resistivity: 100 meter-ohms Conductor Temperature: sooc

Phase Positive- and Negative- Zero Sequence Phase Neutral Zero-Sequence Impedance
Conductor Sequence Impedance Impedance Components Conductor Wire Components for Four-Wire
Wire Components for Three-Wire Circuits Wire Size Multi-Grounded Neutral Circuits
Size Strands R1= R2 x1 =X2 ~1 = ~2 Ro Xo ~0 Size Ro Xo ~0
795,000 CM 37 .0248 .11 38 .1165 .0792 .5549 5597 795,000 CM 4/0 .1095 .3314 .3485
750,000 37 .0263 .1 146 .1174 .0805 .5555 5606 795,000 3/0 .1220 .3451 .3636
715,000 37 .0277 .1150 .1 184 .0818 .5561 .5625 795,000 210 .1237 .3604 .3807
700,000 61 .0282 .11 52 .1 186 .0824 .5563 .5634 750,000 4/0 .1110 .3322 .3504
636,000 37 .0309 .1163 .1199 .0850 .5574 .5644 750,000 3/0 .1235 .3958 .3665
600,000 61 .0328 .1169 .1216 .0869 .5580 .5653 750,000 210 .1366 .3610 .3866
556,500 37 0352 .1180 .1233 .0894 .5591 .5663 715,500 4/0 .1123 .3326 .3513
500,000 37 .0392 .11 89 .1250 .0934 .5600 .5682 715,500 3/0 .1254 .3462 .3684
477,000 37 .0411 .1 195 .1263 .0953 .5606 .5691 715,500 210 .1384 .3616 .3873
450,000 37 .0436 .1203 .1278 .0977 .5614 .5701 700,000 4/0 .1129 .3328 .3519
400,000 37 .0498 .1214 .1309 .1030 .5626 .5710 700,000 3/0 .1254 .3464 .3689
397,500 19 .0492 .1220 .1316 .1034 .5631 .5720 700,000 2/0 .1384 .3617 .3877
350,000 37 .0557 .1231 .1 347 .1098 .5642 .5739 636,000 4/0 .1155 .3339 .3532
336,400 37 .0580 .1237 .1366 .1121 .5648 .5758 636,000 3/0 .1280 .3475 .3712
300,000 37 .0650 .1252 .1407 .1191 .5663 .5795 636 ,000 210 .1411 .3629 .3902
266,800 37 .0731 .1265 .1460 .1273 .5676 .5814 600,000 410 .1172 .3345 .3542
250,000 37 .0778 .1271 .1489 .1320 .5682 .5833 600,000 3/0 .1299 .3481 .3722
4/0 19 .0920 .1 284 .1580 .1462 .5706 .5890 600,000 210 .1430 .3634 .3911
3/0 19 .1159 .1 311 .1744 .1703 .5720 .5956 556,500 4/0 .1197 .3356 .3551
210 19 .1466 .1347 .1989 .2008 .5758 .6117 556,500 3/0 .1324 .3492 .3741
1/0 19 .1845 .1377 .2301 .2386 .5788 .6307 556,500 2/0 .1455 .3646 3939
1 7 .2330 .1413 .2731 .2871 .5824 .6496 500,000 4/0 .1237 .3366 .3580
2 7 .2934 .1 428 .3263 .3475 .5839 .6970 500,000 310 .1364 .3502 .3759
3 7 .3701 .1466 .3981 .4242 .5877 .7254 500,000 210 .1494 .3655 .3958
4 7 .4661 .1 492 .4886 .5203 .5903 .7879 477,000 3/0 .1383 .3508 .3769
6 7 .7424 .1547 .7576 .7968 .5958 .9962 477,000 2/0 .1515 .3661 .3968
477,000 1/0 .1640 .3843 .4186
450,000 3/0 .1407 .3515 .3788
450,000 210 .1538 .3669 .3996
450,000 1/0 .1663 .3850 .4205
400,000 3/0 .1460 .3527 .3816
400,000 210 .1591 .3680 .4006
400,000 1/0 .1716 .3862 .4223
397,500 3/0 .1464 .3532 .3826
397,500 2/0 .1595 .3686 .4025
397,500 1/0 .1720 .3867 .4233
350,000 3/0 .1528 .3544 .3854
350,000 210 .1659 .3697 .4044
350,000 1/0 .1765 .3879 .4261
336,400 3/0 .1551 .3549 .3873
336,400 2/0 .1682 .3703 .4072
336,400 1/0 .1807 .3884 .4299
300,000 2/0 .1752 .3718 .4110
300,000 1/0 .1877 .3900 .4337
300,000 1 .1979 .4150 .4451
266,800 210 .1833 .3731 .4148
266,800 1/0 .1958 .3913 .4375
266,800 1 .2061 .4163 .4640
250,000 2/0 .1881 .3737 .4167
250,000 1/0 .2006 .3919 .4394
250,000 1 .2108 .4169 .4659
4/0 1/0 .2148 .3936 .4489
4/0 1 .2250 .4182 .4754
4/0 2 .2301 .4388 .4962
3/0 1/0 .2388 .3958 .4621
3/0 1 .2491 .4208 .4886
3/0 2 .2542 .4413 .5095
210 1 .2795 .4244 .5098
210 2 .2847 .4449 .5284
210 3 .2854 .4705 .5492
1/0 2 .3225 .4483 .5511
1/0 3 .3233 .4735 .5739
1/0 4 .3203 .4968 .5928

18 (Continued on Next Page)

 A1
TABIL.E 3A1 (continued)
~ce of Bare All-Aluminum Conductor in Ohms/ 1000 Feet

I Phase Positive- and Negative-

Sequence Impedance
Zero Sequence Phase Neutral
Impedance Components Conductor Wire
Zero-Sequence Impedance
Components for Four-Wire
~ ~or Strands Components for Three-Wire Circuits Wire Size Multi-Grounded Neutral Circuits
Size R1 = R, 1 X1 = X2 1~ 1 = ~ Ro I Xn I ~n Size Ro Xn ~n
•For geometric mean spacing of 4.0 ft., subtract .0034 from X1 = X2 and 1 2 .3710 .4513 .5824
solve for ~ 1 = ~ 2 1 3 .3718 .4771 .6051
1 4 .3688 .5004 .6231
For geometric mean spacing of 3.5 ft., subtract .0064 from X1 = X2 and 2 2 .4324 .4530 .6250
solve for ~ 1 = ~ 2 2 3 .4331 .4786 .6458
2 4 .4301 .5000 .6591
For geometric mean spacing of 3.0 ft., subtract .01 00 from X1 = X2 and 3 3 .5085 .4824 .6989
solve for ~ 1 = ~ 2 3 4 .5057 .5057 .7131
3 6 .4886 .5403 .7273
For geometric mean spacing of 5.0 ft., add .0017 to X1 = X2 and 4 4 .6017 .5083 .7841
solve for~ 1 = ~ 2 4 6 .5847 .5430 .7992
I ~=v'R2+X2 6 6 .8614 .5485 .7814

' 1 a dances of Underground Distribution Cable phase conductors and the three sets of neutral conductors.
Aft measing number of primary distribution circuits involve While the symmetrical component concept is intended to
a mixture of both overhead conductor and underground aid in the analysis of problems of three-phase systems, it is
CiiiJie.. Fault calculations for such circuits require a knowledge convenient on a distribution system to extend the concept to
al lhe sequence impedances of the underground as well as the single-phase portions of the circuit. This means finding
allhe overhead portions of the circuits. 2 1 and 2 o for the single-phase laterals so that they may be
Sequence impedances of overhead lines can readily be combined with the corresponding sequence impedances of
ablained from published equations (References 1, 3, and 4) the three-phase system which supplies the laterals. To find
ar Tables 1A 1 through 3A 1. These references do not apply, 2 1 and 2 o for the single-phase circuit, an arbitrary interphase
IIIEMever, to concentric neutral cable, the type of cable most geometric mean spacing, Sab, must be used in finding 2 ab-g,
CDimlOflly used fo r underground distribution. To help fill this Equation U2. The value assumed for Sab does not matter in
gap. the following material discusses the use of equations the end result of a line-to-ground fault calculation, for example,
Cll!laEd specifically for calculation of the sequence impedances since 2 ab-g cancels out of the total system impedance for
of concentric neutral underground cable for both three-phase this type of fault. The reader can verify this by examining
ani single-phase configurations. These cable-impedance Equations 41, U11, and U12, assuming 21 2 2 =
a:pllions, which are derived from equations in References 1 The solution of Equations U1 through U12 for some typical
and 2. and an explanation of their nomenclature are presented sizes of copper and aluminum 15 kV distribution cable produces
beginning on the following page. To help define some of the the sequence impedance values displayed in Tables 4A 1
ll!lms .-. the equations, Figure 7A 1 shows the cross-sectional through 7 A 1. Conductor resistances and most of the other
geomeby of three identical concentric neutral cables used for cable characteristics required to solve the sequence impedance
a bee-phase underground distribution circuit. equations were obtained from Reference 9. Values of GMR
The spacing of the three cables in Figure 7A 1 is arbitrarily (geometric mean radius) were obtained from Reference 5. An
sbolm as nonsymmetrical to illustrate the generality of the earth resistivity value of 100 meter ohms was assumed.
..,.afions, which are not confined to symmetrical arrange- Tables 4A 1 and 5A 1 give the impedances of three-phase
aaenls.. In practice, the three cables are frequently laid flat in cable such as might be used for underground primary mains.
lie bottom of a trench. In applying symmetrical components A 7.5-, 7.5-, 15 inch, flat cable spacing is assumed. Tables
ID an 011erhead system in which the three phase conductors 6A 1 and 7 A 1 cover single-phase cable commonly used for
.e nol symmetrically arranged in a delta configuration, an primary laterals.
eqni'«alent delta spacing (Figures 5A 1 and 6A 1) is assumed Some of the effects that various cable parameters and
iit c3culating the sequence impedances of the three-phase other conditions have on the impedance of an underground
cilll:uil: - and the same is true for an underground circuit. cable are illustrated by Tables 4A 1 through 7A 1. Others are
~ the actual interphase spacings (Figure 7 A 1), an discussed in the text, which resumes on page 25.
equivalent delta spacing (i.e., geometric mean spacing) is
a*1Wed for use in finding average mutual impedances among

19
A. Overcurrent Protection
1. FUNDAMENTALS AND THEORY
Tools for Fault Analysis (Continued)

EQUATIONS FOR CALCULATING SEQUENCE

IMPEDANCES OF UNDERGROUND CONCENTRIC rnn-g
10
=[ ~ + 4.788 X 10-5 X 2m] + j 2:f [4.681
NEUTRAL CABLE
The following equations* are the basic expressions needed
for calculating positive- and zero-sequence impedances of
both three-phase and single-phase concentric neutral cable. X 10-4 + 6.096 X 10-5 1oge ( _1_ '1/ p/f) + (N-1) 4.681
GMRn
For a three-phase array of cables such as in Figure 7A 1,
Equations U1 through U4 and U7 through U1 0 are used. For
a single-phase circuit Equations, U1, U2, US, U6, U11 , and
U12 are used.

raa-g = [ ra + 4.788 X 10-5 X 21tf] + j 2m [4.681 X 10-4

ran-g
10
= [4.788 X 10-5 X 21tf]

+ 6.096 x 10-5 1oge (_1_ ..JP/f)] (U1)

GMRa
+ j 21tf [ 4.681 X 10-4 + 6.096 X 1o- 5 1oge (_g {/)lf)] (U6)
D
rab-g =[ 4.788 X 10-5 X 2m] + j 21tf [4.681 X 10-4

+ 6.096 x 10-5 1oge (_1_ {0/f)] (U2)

Sab
1 loge ---loge-
+- 1 1 l
N GMRn Sab (U7)
rnn-g
30
= [_!n_
3N
+ 4.788 X 10-5 X 2m] + j 21tf [4.681 X
4
10-

_1_ r an-p = j 21tf X 6.096 X 10-5 [ loge 6- loge s:b l (U8)

+ 6.096 x 10-5 1oge {Pit+ 6.096 x 10-5 1oge ~b

- - r~n-p
10-5 ~ (loge _ 1 _ + (N-1) loge _ 1_)]
3
+ 6.096 X r 130 - raa-g -rab-g r (U9)
nn-p
GMRn KN~ (U3)

(U10)
ran-g = [ 4.788 X 10-5 X 21tfl + j 21tf [4.681 X 10-4
30

+ 6.096 X 1o-5 loge 1 "J

( ~ Jri'ct' - 'P,.,lf>]
..
'Vg. Sab (U4)
2 (U1 2)

* The assistance of Dr. W. A. Lewis in including the effect of neutral

circulating currents on positive-sequence impedance (Equations
U7 through U9) is gratefully acknowledged.

20
 A1
Nomenclature for Equations U1 through U12: r ab-g r an-g30, r an-g10 =mutual impedance between two
D = diameter of the circle defined by the neutral strand conductors or two groups of conductors with earth return in
centers of one concentric neutral cable (see Figure 7A 1) - ohms/1 000 feet. Subscripts a and b denote phase conductors
feet. Values of D can be derived from information published and subscript n denotes a group of neutral conductors. In a
in cable manufacturer's catalogs. three-phase circuit, there are actually three mutual impedances
among the three-phase conductors: r ab-g, r be-g. and rca-g.
f = frequency in hertz. However, in Equation U2, the use of a geometric mean spac-
ing Sab instead of the actual interphase spacing means that
GMRa, GMRn = geometric mean radius of the phase the resulting value of r ab-g is the arithmetic mean of the
conductor (subscript a) and a single neutral strand (subscript three actual values. In a similar sense, r an-g30 is an average
n) in feet. GMRa is readily available from tables such as those of the three actual mutual impedances that exist between
in References 1, 3, and 5. GMRn can also be obtained from each of the three-phase conductors and the entire group of
tables; but since each strand has a solid, circular cross-section, neutral conductors. (See page 376, Reference 1, and page 79,
it is readily calculated using GMRn = .3894dn, where dn is the Reference 2, for the material on which Equations U2, U4, and
diameter of a single neutral strand in feet (see Figure 7A1). U6 are based.}

i = the complex operator, 1~oo. r an-p = positive sequence mutual impedance between the
phase conductors of the cable and their concentric neutrals
KN spacing factor which, when multiplied by D/2, gives the in ohms/1 000 feet. •
geometric mean spacing among the N neutral strands of one
concentric neutral cable. KN is obtained from the expression r nn-p = positive sequence self impedance of the three-
KN = (N)1/(N-1); see page 32 of Reference 4. phase circuit formed by the concentric neutrals of the cables
in ohms/1 000 feet. •
N = number of neutral strands wrapped around the insulation
of one concentric neutral cable (see cable manufacturers' r 13 r 030 = positive and zero sequence impedance,
catalogs). respgctively, of a three-phase concentric neutral circuit in
ohms/1000 feet. •
ra, rn = resistance of the phase conductor (subscript a) and a
single neutral strand (subscript n) in ohms/1 000 feet (see r 11 ' r 01 0 = positive and zero sequence impedance,
cable manufacturers' catalogs). These should be a-c resistance respgctively, of a single-phase concentric neutral circuit in
values calculated for the expected operating temperatures of ohms/1 000 feet*
the phase and neutral conductors. They should include skin
effect and proximity effect, wherever these effects can be *When positive-sequence currents flow in the phase conductors
readily determined. of a three-phase concentric neutral circuit, induced currents
will circulate between each phase's neutral and the earth
p = earth resistivity in meter ohms. Representative values of return path. The magnitude of this current depends upon
;; for various parts of the country are given in Reference 3 neutral resistance, interphase spacing, and the diameter of
1pages 146 through 150), Reference 7 (pages 129 through the circle of centers of the concentric neutral strands. In turn,
131 ), and Reference 8 (page 306). the positive sequence impedance of the circuit is modified by
the magnitude of these neutral currents. r 2an-p/ r nn-p is the
Sab = geometric mean spacing of the three-phase conductors factor that reflects the effect of neutral circulating current on
1n feet. Referring to Figure 7A1, Sab (dabddcdca) 113 • the positive-sequence impedance of three-phase concentric
neutral cable (Equation U9). On an overhead openwire transmis-
r aa-g, r nn-g30, r nn-g10 = self impedance of a phase sion or distribution circuit, this effect is negligible for the close
conductor (subscript aa) and self impedance of a group of spacings associated with concentric neutral cable.
paralleled neutral strands (subscript nn) with earth return in
ohms/1 000 feet. (See pages 376 and 397, Reference 1, and
page 78, Reference 2, for the material on which Equations
U1. U3, and U5 are based.)

21
A. Overcurrent Protection
1. FUNDAMENTALS AND THEORY
Tools for Fault Analysis (Continued)

-dab-

\L._f- - _ _ ; . - - - - - -

PHASE CONDUCTOR

dtx:

NEUTRAL STRAND

Figure 7A1.
Cross-sectional geometry of concentric cables.

22
 A1
TABLE 4A1
Impedance of 15-kV, 3-Phase, 175-mil XLP Underground Cable in Ohms/1 000 Feet
Insulation: 175-mil cross-linked polyethylene Conductor temperatures- Phase: 90°C; Neutral: 70°C
Cable configuration: 3 identical single-phase concentric
neutral cables with 1/3 size neutrals and with 7.5 inches,
7.5 inches, 15 inches, flat spacing (geometric mean
spacing = 9.449 inches)
Earth resistivity: 100 meter-ohms Frequency: 60 Hz
Phase Neutral ~1 ~0
Concentric Strands Positive- and Zero-Sequence
Negative-Sequence Impedance
I Size
AWG
or
MCM
No. of
Strands
(Copper)

No. I
:SIZe
AWG
Impedance Components

R1 = R2 I x1 = x2 1 1~11 = 1~21 Ro
Components

I Xo I 1~ 0 1
Aluminum Phase Conductor
1/0 19 6 14 .2182 .0955 .2382 .5215 .2906 .5970
210 19 7 14 .1782 .0926 .2008 .4697 .2463 .5303
3/0 19 9 14 .1433 .0893 .1688 .4049 .1825 .4441
4/0 19 11 14 .1181 .0858 .1460 .3497 .1402 .3767
250 37 13 14 .1038 .0827 .1327 .3085 .1114 .3280
350 37 11 12 .0837 .0761 .1131 .2315 .0691 .2416
500 37 16 12 .0680 .0674 .0958 .1653 .0428 .1708
750 61 15 10 .0550 .0581 .0800 .1188 .0305 .1227
1000 61 20 10 .0493 .0495 .0699 .0905 .0235 .0935
u Copper Phase Conductor
1/0 19 9 14 .1451 .0944 .1731 .4066 .1852 .4468
210 19 11 14 .1181 .0908 .1490 .3492 .1428 .3773
3/0 19 14 14 .0989 .0867 .1315 .2907 .1033 .3085
4/0 19 11 12 .0854 .0813 .1179 .2318 .0718 .2427
250 37 13 12 .Q785 .0770 .1100 .2008 .0578 .2090
350 37 12 10 .0657 .0685 .0949 .1495 .0408 .1550
500 37 17 10 .0554 .0574 .0798 .1060 .0289 .1098
750 61 25 10 .0463 .0446 .0643 .0724 .0216 .0756
1000 61 33 10 .0404 .0358 .0540 .0554 .0181 .0583

TABLE 5A1
Impedance of 15-kV, 3-Phase, 220-mil XLP Underground Cable in Ohms/1 000 Feet
Insulation: 220-mil cross-linked polyethylene Conductor temperatures - Phase: 90°C; Neutral: 70°C
Cable configuration: 3 identical single-phase concentric neutral cables with 1/3 size neutrals and with 7.5 inches,
7..5 inches, 15 inches, flat spacing (geometric mean spacing= 9.449 inches)
Earth resistivity: 100 meter-ohms Frequency: 60 Hz
Phase Neutral ~1 ~0
Concentric Strands Positive- and Zero-Sequence
I' (Copper) Negative-Sequence Impedance
Size
AWG Impedance Components Components

1~~1l=l~21
or No. of Size
MCM Strands No. I AWG R1 =R2 IX1 =X2 Ro I Xo I l~ol
,I Aluminum Phase Conductor
1/0 19 6 14 .21 77 .0956 .2378 .5205 .2927 .5972
210 19 7 14 .1777 .0927 .2004 .4688 .2484 .5306
3/0 19 9 14 .1427 .0894 .1684 .4043 .1846 .4445
4/0 19 11 14 .1174 .0860 .1456 .3493 .1423 .3772
250 37 13 14 .1031 .0829 .1323 .3082 .1134 .3284
350 37 11 12 .0828 .0765 .1127 .2314 .0709 .2420
500 37 16 12 .0671 .0681 .0956 .1653 .0444 .1711
750 61 15 10 .0542 .0589 .0800 .1188 .0319 .1230
1000 61 20 10 .0486 .0504 .Q700 .0905 .0247 .0938
Copper Phase Conductor
1/0 19 9 14 .1444 .0946 .1726 .4060 .1876 .4472
210 19 11 14 .1173 .0911 .1485 .3488 .1451 .3777
3/0 19 14 14 .0980 .0870 .1310 .2904 .1055 .3090
4/0 19 11 12 .0844 .0818 .1175 .2316 .0738 .2431
250 37 13 12 .0774 .0777 .1097 .2007 .0597 .2094
350 37 12 10 .0647 .0694 .0948 .1494 .0425 .1554
500 37 17 10 .0545 .0585 .0800 .1059 .0304 .1102
750 61 25 10 .0456 .0459 .0647 .0724 .0229 .0759
1000 61 33 10 .0400 .0370 .0545 .0554 .0193 .0587

23
A. Overcurrent Protection
1. FUNDAMENTALS AND THEORY
Tools for Fault Analysis (Continued)

TABLE 6A1
Impedance of 15-kV, 3-Phase, 175-mil XLP Underground Cable in Ohms/1 000 Feet
Insulation: 175-mil cross-linked polyethylene Conductor temperatures- Phase: 90°C; Neutral: 70°C
Full size neutral Geometric mean interphase spacing assumed for i!- 1 and i!- 0 calculations = 1S
Earth resistivity: 100 meter-ohms Frequency: 60 Hz

Phase Neutral i!-, i!-o

Concentric Strands Positive- and Zero-Sequence
Size (Copper) Negative-Sequence Impedance
AWG Impedance Components Components
or
MCM
No. of
Strands No. I Size
AWG R1 =R2 Ix, = X2 lli!-11 = 11!- z1
Aluminum Phase Conductor
Ro I Xo I 11!- ol

4 7 6 14 .5350 .0662 .5391 .8580 .5888 1.0406

2 7 10 14 .3360 .0609 .3415 .7191 .4375 .8417
1 19 13 14 .2680 .0569 .2740 .6558 .3443 .7407
1/0 19 16 14 .2100 .0543 .2169 .5864 .2709 .6459
210 19 13 12 .1690 .0516 .1767 .5043 .1728 .5331
3/0 19 16 12 .1320 .0490 .1408 .4317 .1209 .4483
4/0 19 20 12 .1050 .0463 .1148 .3635 .0779 .3717
250 37 25 12 .0890 .0440 .0993 .3071 .0461 .3106
300 37 20 10 .0750 .0419 .0859 .2647 .0307 .2665
350 37 24 10 .0650 .0402 .0764 .2269 .0170 .2276
Copper Phase Conductor
4 7 10 14 .3260 .0662 .3327 .7122 .4387 .8365
2 7 16 14 .2050 .0609 .2139 .5846 .2692 .6437
1 19 13 12 .1630 .0569 .1727 .5001 .1710 .5285
1/0 19 16 12 .1260 .0543 .1372 .4271 .1186 .4432
2/0 19 20 12 .1010 .0516 .1134 .3604 .0752 .3682
3/0 19 25 12 .0810 .0490 .0947 .2997 .0437 .3028
4/0 19 32 12 .0640 .0463 .0790 .2417 .0200 .2425

TABLE 7A1
Impedance of 15-kV, 1-Phase, 220-mil Conventional Underground Cable in Ohms/1000 Feet
Insulation: 220-mil conventional low density thermoplastic polyethylene
Conductor temperatures - Phase: 75°C; Neutral: 50°C Full size neutral
Geometric mean interphase spacing assumed for i!- 1 and i!- 0 calculations = 1.5"
Earth resistivity: 100 meter-ohms Frequency: 60 Hz
Phase Neutral i!-1 i!-o
Concentric Strands PosHive- and Zero-Sequence
Size (Copper) Negative-Sequence Impedance
AWG Impedance Components Components
Size
or
MCM
No. of
Strands No. I AWG R1 = R2 Ix1 = x2
Aluminum Phase Conductor
=
lri!- 11 11!- 21 Ro I Xo I 11!- 01

4 7 6 14 .5100 .0662 .5143 .8410 .5734 1.0179

2 7 10 14 .3200 .0609 .3257 .7040 .4158 .8176
1 19 13 14 .2550 .0569 .2613 .6384 .3216 .7148
1/0 19 16 14 .2000 .0543 .2072 .5677 .2498 .6202
2/0 19 13 12 .1600 .0516 .1681 .4911 .1717 .5202
3/0 19 16 12 .1250 .0490 .1343 .4204 .1208 .4374
4/0 19 20 12 .1000 .0463 .1102 .3544 0785 .3630
250 37 25 12 .0850 .0440 .0957 .2993 .0486 .3033
300 37 20 10 .0710 .0419 .0825 .2522 .0306 .2541
350 37 24 10 .0610 .0402 .0730 .2154 .0180 .2162
Copper Phase Conductor
4 7 10 14 .3100 .0662 .3170 .6967 .4171 .8120
2 7 16 14 .1950 .0609 .2043 .5652 .2493 .6177
1 19 13 12 .1550 .0569 .1651 .4877 .1703 .5166
1/0 19 16 12 .1200 .0543 .1317 .4166 .1189 .4333
2/0 19 20 12 .0970 .0516 .1099 .3522 .0762 .3604
310 19 25 12 .0770 .0490 .0913 .2919 .0455 .2954
410 19 32 12 .0610 .0463 .0766 .2355 .0223 .2365
1:

24
 A1
EFFECT OF CABLE INSULATION Full-size neutral (25- #12 wires):
For the 15 kV class of concentric neutral underground cable, Z 1 = .1 023 + j.0618 ohms/1 000 ft
which is in predominant use today, the two most common o
Z = .1685 + j.0320 ohms/1000 ft
types of insulation are conventional and high-molecular-
weight polyethylene, although the latter has been the prevailing Cable insulation, cable spacing, earth resistivity, and other
choice in UD cable insulation for many years. Both are available parameters are the same in these two cases. The only change
in 175 and 220 mils. is in the neutral. As can be seen, the effect of going to the full-size
In general, changing the thickness of cable insulation from neutral is significant for both positive-and zero-sequence
175 to 220 mils has only a minor effect on cable impedances. impedance components. On an overhead circuit, the neutral
In the impedance equations, only the value of D (diameter of conductor has negligible effect on Z 1. This is not true for URD
the circle of neutral strand centers) is affected by a change in concentric neutral cable. When positive-sequence currents
~nsulation thickness, and this in turn, will change Z nn-g, Z an-g,
flow in the phase conductors of this type of circuit, circulating
Znn-p, Z an-p, Z 13p, Z o3 , and Zo1p (Equations U3 through currents are induced in the nearby concentric neutrals which
U10, and U12). Numerically, the effect of changing insulation modify the Z 1 of the circuit. As the neutral size is increased,
thickness is illustrated by comparing Tables 4A 1 and 5A 1, the effect becomes greater. In general, this means both Z 1
where the only difference is the thickness of cable insulation. and Z oshould be recalculated for situations calling for three-
Insulation thickness affects the values of both Z 1 and Z o, phase cable with full-size neutrals.
::>ut only to a minor extent.
In contrast, changing the type of insulation has a major EFFECT OF EARTH RESISTIVITY
effect on cable impedance. The reason is that the increase in The value of earth resistivity used in calculating the impedances
maximum phase-conductor temperature made possible by of Tables 4A 1 through 7 A 1 was 100 meter-ohms. Since there
'tie use of newer insulations, such as cross-linked polyethylene, can be a wide variation in this system parameter from one
n turn creates greater impedance under full load conditions. geographic area to another, it is of interest to estimate its
The Insulated Power Cable Engineers Association (IPCEA) effect on impedance. Again, using 250-mcm aluminum cable
sets the maximum conductor temperature rating for continuous with 175-mil XLP insulation as the reference, the effect is as
~JII-Ioad operation for conventional polyethylene insulation at follows:
:so C, and the rating for cross-linked polyethylene at goo C.
The effect this higher permissible operating temperature For p = 10 meter-ohms:
'"laS on the impedance of cable insulated with cross-linked Z 1 = .1038 + j.0827 ohms/1000 ft
::lOiyethylene under full-load conditions can be seen by com- Z 0 .2980 + j. 1181 ohms/1 000 ft
oaring Tables 6A 1 and 7A 1. Table 6A 1 shows sequence
mpedances of single-phase cable with 175 mil cross-linked For p = 100 meter-ohms:
:JOiyethylene (XLP) insulation, and Table 7 A 1 shows the Z 1 = .1 038 + j.0827 ohms/1 000 ft (Table 4A 1)
smaller impedances that result from the lower operating Z 0 = .3085 + j.1114 ohms/1 000 ft (Table 4A 1)
:emperature of 220 mil conventional polyethylene cable.
Tables 4A 1 and 5A 1 are both confined to cross-linked For p = 1000 meter-ohms:
::olyethylene insulated cable, since the higher current-carrying Z 1 .1 038 + j.0827 ohms/1 000 ft
:apacity of this cable makes it the likely choice for three- Z o = .3165 + j.1051 ohms/1000 ft
::lhase applications.
Cable spacing, cable insulation, neutral size, and all other
EFFECT OF NEUTRAL SIZE parameters except earth resistivity are the same in these three
-'Is illustrated by Figure 7A1, the neutral conductor of this cases. A change in earth resistivity does not affect the positive
:"fpe of cable consists of equally spaced strands of wire sequence impedance, but does affect Z o. An increase or
;~~~ped spirally around the outside of the cable insulation.
decrease in the value of p from 100 meter-ohms by a factor
nese are generally #14, 12 or 10 AWG copper wires. The size of ten produces approximate changes in Ro and Xo of three
3l1d number of wires are selected to provide approximately and six percent, respectively, and an approximate change of
;qual conductivity to that of the central phase conductor for two percent in the magnitude of Z o. For the given cable, a
sa1Qie-phase applications (taking into account the increased large change in p has a relatively small effect on Z o and its
ength of the neutral strands due to spiraling). However, for components.
tlree-phase applications, a reduced-sized neutral is available Thus, using a value of 100 meter-ohms for earth resistivity
'or the larger phase-conductor sizes, the circular mil area of should give impedances sufficiently accurate for most situations.
11e group of neutral wires being approximately one-third that
:i the copper equivalent of one phase conductor. Since Tables EFFECT OF INTERPHASE SPACING
~1 and 7 A 1 give impedances for single-phase applications, An examination of Equations U1 through U14 shows that the
rey are based on full-size neutrals. Tables 4A 1 and 5A 1, for geometric mean spacing of the phase conductors, Sab,
:tree-phase applications, are based on reduced-size neutrals. affects the values of both the positive- and zero-sequence
In some three-phase applications, where full-size neutral impedances of the cable. Since three-phase cable spacing
:able is used, it is helpful to know the effect on cable impedance. practices will vary from one utility to another, the question of
~~effect is illustrated by the following impedances of 250 mcm how spacing affects impedance is a logical one. This effect is
aluminum cable with 175 mil XLP insulation. illustrated by the following, using the 250 mcm aluminum
=educed-size neutral (13- #14 wires): cable of the earlier examples.
Z 1 = .1 038 + j.0827 ohms/1 000 ft (Table 4A 1)
Z 0 = .3085 + j.1114 ohms/1 000 ft (Table 4A 1)

25
A. Overcurrent Protection
1. FUNDAMENTALS AND THEORY
Tools for Fault Analysis (Continued)

For Sab = 9.449 inches: The sensitivity of the results to changes in such cable parameters
~ 1 = .1038 + j.0827 ohms/1000 ft (Table 4A1) as insulation, neutral size, and spacing has been described,
~
0 .3085 + j.1114 ohms/1000 ft (Table 4A1) and in some specific situations the tabulated impedances will
not be applicable. In those cases where the cable parameters
For Sab = 1.5 inches: are significantly different from those on which Tables 4A 1
~ = .0909 + j.0439 ohms/1 000 ft through 7 A 1 are based, the impedance equations must be
1
~ = .3170 + j.1047 ohms/1000 ft resorted to, and the results will be of great importance. While
0
solving the equations by hand for a large variety of cable
Neutral size, earth resistivity, cable insulation, and other parameters would be a tedious task, the equations are easi-
parameters except interphase spacing are the same in these ly solved on a computer. A McGraw-Edison Power Systems
two cases. In this one example, it is apparent there can be a service to perform this task is available. Also available: addi-
sizable effect on both positive- and zero-sequence reactance tional work showing how the formulas may be rearranged in
when the cable spacing is changed. In view of this, whenever groups of terms that can be precalculated into "building
the cable spacing in use is significantly different from the blocks" permitting desk calculation for practical cases; and
9.449 inches used for Tables 4A 1 and 5A 1, some calculation comparisons of typical results, to show the effects of spacing
checks for the actual spacing are advisable to determine if the and other factors.
tabulated impedances should be revised. In a more precisely
calculated example, the large decrease in spacing would Impedances of Transformers
also produce some increase in resistance as a result of In moving from any given point on a primary distribution sys-
increased proximity effect. In the numerical example shown, tem back toward the source, either overhead line impedance
the change in proximity effect is not included. or underground cable impedance is the first encountered. On
most systems, the next major impedance element will be the
SKIN EFFECT AND PROXIMITY EFFECT distribution substation transformer. This section briefly covers
Skin effect and proximity effect are phenomena associated the sequence impedance representation of transformers
with the nonuniform current distribution over the cross section (References 2 and 4).
of a conductor. In the case of proximity effect, the nonuniform
current distribution is unsymmetrical and is caused by a variation
of current in one or more neighboring conductors. Detailed
descriptions of both effects are given in References 2 and 11.
Skin effect and proximity effect influence both the resistance
and reactance of a circuit. Generally, the effect on reactance
PRIMARY R~+<> SECONDARY
is much less than it is on resistance and the reactance effect
is neglected. However, the combined effect of skin and proximity
effect on resistance is not always negligible. It depends on
many factors, such as frequency, conductor material and size,
circuit configuration (interphase spacing and phase-neutral
spacing), and the relative magnitudes and phases of currents (a.) SHUNT IMPEDANCE INCLUDED
in the various conductors. For example, for a given three-phase
circuit, proximity effect is not the same with zero-sequence
currents in the conductors as it is with positive-sequence
currents. This means proximity effect modifies positive-
sequence impedance in a different way than it does zero-
sequence impedance. While some work has been done on
the calculation of positive-sequence proximity effect, little has
been done on zero-sequence proximity effect. In contrast to PRIMARY SECONDARY
proximity effect, skin effect does not depend on the sequence
of the currents flowing.
There is need for a thorough study of proximity effects in
underground concentric neutral cable. Based on the work that
has been done on other types of circuits and cables, the (b.) SHUNT IMPEDANCE NEGLECTED
effects of proximity upon reactance are negligible at 60 hertz.
However, the effects upon resistance are probably not negligible Figure8A1.
in the larger cable sizes. Per-unit equivalent circuit for a two-winding trans-
In the calculation of the sequence impedances displayed in former.
Tables 4A 1 through 7A 1, both skin and proximity effects upon
reactance were assumed negligible. The resistance values
include skin effect but not proximity effect. When more is
known about proximity effects in this type of cable, the values A per-unit equivalent circuit for a two-winding transformer is
of phase and neutral conductor resistances {ra and rn) can shown in Figure 8A 1, a. The terms primary and secondary
be suitably modified to account for these effects. here refer to the high- and low-voltage windings of the trans-
Equations U1 through U12 are general expressions for former, not to primary and secondary distribution. Rp and Rs
finding the sequence impedances of concentric neutral cable are resistances, and Xp and Xs are leakage reactances in the
of any stated size, material, and spacing. The results of solv- primary and secondary windings, respectively. Rh+e is the
ing these equations for some cable sizes and configurations resistance required to account for hysteresis and eddy cur-
in common use are presented in Tables 4A1 through 7A1. rent losses in the iron core and Xm is the mutual

26
 A1
reactance between the two windings, also called the
magnetizing reactance. The current flowing through the parallel POSITIVE SEQUENCE REFERENCE BUS
combination of Rh+e and Xm is the transformer exciting current.
That portion of the exciting current flowing through Xm is the
magnetizing current. The total exciting current of a transform~r SOURCE LOAD
is usually small in comparison to its full load current. For th1s -r,
reason, the exciting impedance branch is usually neglected ~ r2=rps
and the equivalent circuit becomes as shown in Figure 8A 1,b.
Equivalent circuits similar to Figure 8A 1 could be drawn for
actual units instead of using the per-unit basis. However, in NEGATIVE SEQUENCE REFERENCE
this situation, the square of the transformer turns ratio would
enter the picture, and two sets of equivalent circuits would
have to be drawn-one showing the circuit elements as viewed SOURCE LOAD
from the primary, and another as viewed from the secondary. ~2
The per-unit system (described earlier) avoids these compli- ~ r2=-r,
cations. The simplified per-unit equivalent circuit for a trans-
former (Figure 8A 1,b) is suitable for most fault-current calcu-
Figure 9A1.
lations. The term ~ ps is the leakage impedance of the trans- Positive- and negative-sequence per-unit equivalent
former. It is also called the transformer's short-circuit imped- circuits of a transformer.
ance, since it can be measured by applying a voltage to one
winding with the other winding short circuited.
Generally, for three-phase transformers rated 1500 kVA and Impedances of Transmission Lines
below and for single-phase transformers rated 500 kVA and The circuit parameters that influence the sequence impedances
below, the resistive component of the leakage impedance is of an overhead transmission line are the same as those that
significant and should not be neglected. In larger units, however, influence the impedances of an overhead distribution circuit.
the transformer reactance dominates and the resistance is The principal parameters are conductor size, material, and
usually negligible (Reference 4). In these cases, the per-unit spacing, plus the type of grounding. In general, the previous
leakage reactance of the transformer is assumed equal to remarks on the effects of these parameters on impedances of
the nameplate percent impedance divided by 100, provided overhead distribution lines apply also to overhead transmission
the kVA base for the per-unit calculations is the transformer lines.
kVA rating on which the nameplate percent impedance is based. However, the circuit parameters of transmission lines can have
For fault calculations on a three-phase system involving a different range of values than the parameters of a distribution
transformers, the sequence impedances of the transformers line. Transmission-line interface spacings are much larger;
must be included in the overall system-sequence impedances. therefore, positive-sequence reactance is larger than for typical
The positive-sequence impedance of a balanced three-phase distribution circuits. Zero-sequence impedances also are
transformer or three identical single-phase transformers is affected by spacing changes, but in this case differences in
1he impedance presented to positive-sequence currents. In the type of grounding, number of ground wires, etc., can have
other words, if the transformer is short-circuited on one side a more significant effect.
and energized by a positive sequence on the other, the phase Transmission-line impedance information is usually needed
A line-to-ground voltage on the supply side of the transformer in distribution-system fault studies only for determination of
tivided by the phase A supply current will be the positive- the equivalent source impedance of the system supplying the
sequence impedance. If both the applied voltage and the current distribution circuit. More will be said about source impedance
are expressed in per-unit on the appropriate bases, then the calculations in later sections. On many systems, transmission-
positive-sequence impedance will be in per-unit. Since one line impedances are readily available, since they are needed
phase of a short-circuited three-phase transformer is being in a variety of transmission-system studies: load flow, short
!iscussed, the positive-sequence impedance is equivalent to circuit, transient stability, system planning, etc. If such impedance
1he leakage impedance of the transformer. Also, since a data is not available, it must be calculated from appropriate
1Jansformer is a passive element, its positive- and negative- equations (References 1, 3, 4, and 5).
sequence impedances are identical. Figure 9A 1 shows the
positive- and negative-sequence per-unit equivalent circuits Impedances of Generators
af a transformer. In moving away from the distribution system, the final impedance
The zero-sequence equivalent circuit of a three-phase element encountered is the generator. For most distribution
1ransformer depends on the transformer connection. Figure circuits, several voltage levels are interposed between
10A 1 shows equivalent circuits for some of the more common distribution and generation, and it is not unusual for the net
,connections. Of the transformer connections illustrated, a generator impedance to be small compared to the line and
cad-side path for zero-sequence current exists only for con- transformer impedances on a per-unit basis. In the case of a
oaections 3 and 5. In connections 3 and 5, if ~ n, is zero, the large interconnected transmission and subtransmission system
zero-sequence impedance is equal to the positive-sequence supplied by a number of generators, it is safe, for distribution
impedance. In theory, this is not strictly true for all transformer fault calculations, to assume the impedance of the equivalent
designs, especially three-phase core-type units, but it is suf- generator to be zero. This is frequently referred to as a "stiff"
fciently accurate for most applications. For autotransformers system. The concept of the Thevenin equivalent, discussed
and transformers with three or more windings, Figure 1OA 1 is after the development of fault-current equations in the follow-
oot applicable and other sources must be referred to for zero- ing section ("System Faults"), handles this automatically. In
sequence equivalent circuits (References 5 and 12). the stiff system, the generator portion of the equivalent series
impedance will be negligible.

27
A. Overcurrent Protection
1. FUNDAMENTALS AND THEORY
Tools for Fault Analysis (Continued)

CONNECTION DIAGRAM ZERO.SEQUENCE ~VIEWED

SOURCE LOAD EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT FROM LOAD SIDE
i

~ y SOURCE
ZERO-SEQUENCE REFERENCE

~
~0 LOAD
0
~oL =CO

2
::y ~ s 0 ~
i:!o
i:!o L = CO

~~ i:!o
S~L
i:!ol =j!,
i

~~ .~ OL
i:!ol =CO

5
~~~. s 0
~.c;:, i:!o L = 1:! • + ~N

~~
6 i:!oL =CO
i:!o
s 0 ~L

7 ::y ~ s
i:!o
o-f'VV"\..--- OL
i:!o L '= C()

~~ so
i:!o
----f'V'VV"'\.. OL
i:!o L = C()

oi'!o = transformer zero-sequence impedance

;i'!1 transformer positive-sequence impedance

oi'!N =neutral impedance

oi'!oL = transformer
equivalent zero-sequence impedance of the three-phase
connection viewed from the load side

Figure 1OA1.
Transformer connections and zero-sequence equivalent circuits.
 A1
However, since there are systems where the generator should be used. This value would apply for times beyond
impedance is not an insignificant portion of the overall system 40 to 60 cycles following the fault, or whatever time period is
impedance, the sequence impedance representation of required for the initial transients to decay to negligible levels.
generators will be discussed briefly. A reactance value applicable for the period from three to
approximately 40 cycles after the fault is called the direct-axis
transient reactance X'd. A third value used for the first two or
POSITIVE-SEQUENCE REFERENCE BUS three cycles following the fault is the direct-axis subtransient
reactance X"d. The time periods indicated are only approxi-
mate and can vary considerably from one generator to another.
e Generally, subtransient reactance is used to determine the
initial rms current value following the occurrence of a fault;
POSITIVE SEQUENCE therefore, X"d is of most interest in fault studies.
In the past, transient reactance has been used in some cases
to determine currents that must be interrupted by a breaker,
and in making stability studies. However, with the availability
of higher speed breakers, it has become more common to
use subtransient reactance or more detailed generator models
in such studies.
In most fault studies, the value used for Xg1 (Figure 11 A 1)
will be the subtransient reactance X'd. Ranges of typical per-unit
values of X"d are 0.07 to 0.14 for two pole turbine generators
NEGATIVE•SEQUENCE REFERENCE BUS
and 0.12 to 0.17 for four-pole turbine generators.
The negative-sequence reactance Xg2 of a synchronous
machine is that met by a current whose phase sequence is
opposite to that of the generated voltage. For this reason, Xg2 is
usually taken as the average between the direct and quadrature
NEGATIVE SEQUENCE axis subtransient reactances, X"d and X"q. For turbine gener-
ators, X"d is nearly equal to X"q, and the ranges of values
cited above for X"d may be used for Xg2 as well as for Xg1 .
The zero-sequence reactance Xgo of a generator varies
with the armature winding pitch and is usually from 10 to 70
percent of the direct axis subtransient reactance. For turbine
generators, a range of typical values for Xgo would be from
0.01 to 0.14 per unit. It should be that these values do not
include any impedance ~ N that may be deliberately inserted
ZERO-SEQUENCE REFERENCE BUS between the neutral of the wye-connected generator and
ground. As shown in Figure 11A1, the neutral impedance is
independent of the generator's zero-sequence impedance. To
account for the presence of the neutral impedance, 3 ~ N
must appear in the zero-sequence equivalent circuit.
ZERO SEQUENCE For most systems, there will be one or more transformers
separating the distribution circuit from the generator. If there
is no way the distribution circuit can be supplied except
through a transformer with a delta-connected main winding,
as is usually the case, then the generator's zero-sequence
impedance has no effect on the zero-sequence impedance
Figure 11A1. seen by a distribution system fault This can be deduced from the
Sequence equivalents of a generator. zero-sequence equivalent circuit of a delta-wye transformer
bank (Figure 1OA 1). As a result, on most present-day systems,
generator zero-sequence impedance is of no significance in
the calculation of distribution system faults.
The positive-, negative-, and zero-sequence equivalent References 3 and 4 provide more thorough treatment of
c:in::uits for a generator are illustrated in Figure 11 A 1. Since a generator impedances. Also, in a specific situation, the typical
generator is designed to supply a balanced three-phase voltage, values cited for Xg1, Xg2 and Xgo may not apply. Wherever
lie equivalent circuits show an ideal voltage source (zero the generator impedance is not negligible in distribution-system
IIEmal impedance) in the positive-sequence diagram, and fault studies, it is best to use specific impedance values
., sources in the negative- and zero-sequence diagrams. provided by the generator manufacturer.
Senerator resistances are usually small, so only reactances
are shown in the equivalent circuits. The value used for Source Impedance
positive-sequence reactance Xg1 depends upon which time One convenient approach to distribution-system fault
period is being studied fault or other system disturbance. If calculations is to begin at the low-voltage (LV) bus of the
llle sustained, steady-state fault current is being calculated, distribution substation, calculate the currents for the various
laen what is called the direct-axis synchronous reactance Xd possible types of fault at that point, and, moving away from

29
A. Overcurrent Protection
1. FUNDAMENTALS AND THEORY
Tools for Fault Analysis (Continued)

LOAD

LOAD

LOAD

LOAD
~ LQAO

DISTRIBUTiOt-j
} SUBSTATION B
DISTRIBUTION
} SUBSTATION A
PRIMARY
P, DI.STR.· IBUTION
PRIMARY } CIRCUITS
DISTRIBUTION
CIRCUITS {

Figure 12A1.
Diagram of a distribution system.

the substation, repeat the calculation procedure at each point the source impedance can be calculated by hand. Using the
of interest on the circuit. To do this, one must first know the per-unit system, the source positive-sequence impedance is
value of the source impedance at the substation low-voltage the sum of the positive-sequence impedances of all system
bus. This is the impedance looking back into the system components from the distribution substation low-voltage bus
supplying the distribution circuit, as illustrated in Figure 12A 1. up to and including the generator. The negative-sequence
At point P1, for example, the source impedance is the source impedance is found in a similar fashion. The zero-
equivalent impedance of the network of transformers, trans- sequence source impedance is usually not the sum of the
mission lines, and generators supplying the low-voltage (LV) component zero-sequence impedances because of the effect
bus in substation A. The source impedance used for other of the transformer connections. An example of the calculation
distribution circuits served by the same bus in substation A of source impedance using Method A is presented below
will be identical to that seen at point P1. In general, however, under "Fault Calculation Procedures and Examples."
in moving to another substation in the system, the source
impedance will change. Thus, the impedance looking back Method B
into the system at point P2 in substation 8 may be much less From a short-circuit study of the transmission system, obtain
than it is at P1 if substation 8 is electrically closer to the system the per-unit values of fault current for a three-phase fault
generation than is substation A. {It30) a line-to-line fault (ltLL), and line-to-ground fault {ltLG)
at the high-voltage bus of the distribution substation.
METHODS FOR FINDING SOURCE IMPEDANCE Preferably, these per-unit fault currents should be complex
Depending on the information available, several methods for numbers. Also, if the per-unit value of V, the voltage at the
finding source impedance may be used. substation high-voltage bus used to calculate the fault currents,
was any value other than 1 + jO, it is important to know the
Method A per-unit value used. Then the sequence-source impedances
In cases where the distribution system is fed through a simple at the high-voltage bus (HV) can be found as follows:
radial transmission system with a generator at the other end,

30
 A1
Method C
In some cases, only the three-phase fault kVA available at the
(18)
high-voltage bus is given. This is similar to the fault-current
approach outlined in Method B, except that only three-phase
fault information is provided. In this situation, a value for
magnitude of -2: s1 is calculated by converting the fault kVA
(19) to a per-unit fault current magnitude. Then, use Equation 21,
assuming a nominal system voltage if the actual value of V
at the high-voltage (HV) bus is unknown. Or, the per-unit
magnitude of -2: s1 can be found directly from the following:
(20)
V2
-2: S1, -2: S2, and -2: so are the sequence-source impedances I r 81 1= k_V._'A_30-"-F-AU_l_T_Ik_V._'A_B
kVA3111 FAULT-PU
at the high-voltage (HV) bus of the distribution substation, and
~ 1 is the fault impedance used in the short-circuit study
Jsually, only bolted faults are calculated in transmission-system where
short-circuit studies, and -2: 1 is zero and can be omitted from
Equations 18 through 20. Also, it is common to calculate only I -2: s 1 I = magnitude of positive-sequence source impedance
three-phase and line-to-ground faults. If these are the only in per-unit,
fault-current values available, then assume -2: S2 = -2: S1. In
11ost situations, Equations 18 through 20 would be replaced V = line-to-line voltage at high-voltage (HV) bus of substation
':JY the following: in per-unit,

kVA3r;,FAULT =available three-phase fault kVA,

(21)
kVAs = base kVA, and

kVA30 FAULT-PU = available three-phase fault kVA in

(22) per-unit.

As in Method B, assume I -2: S2 I = I -2: 81 I if no further

3V information is provided. If a value of -2: so is needed at the
rso = - - 2rs1 (23)
IfLG high-voltage bus, it must be estimated based on prior experience
with the system under study, since it cannot ·be obtained
Note that Equations 18 through 20 and 21 through 23 involve knowing only the three-phase fault kVA. Here again, the
::omplex number calculations and will lead to source impedances substation transformer connection should be determined
:ontaining both resistance and reactance terms. However, if, first. For many connections, -2: so at the high-voltage bus is
from the short-circuit study, only the magnitudes of the fault not needed for fault calculations on the distribution system.
:urrents and the magnitude of the per-unit voltage V are
known, then the equations can only provide the magnitudes Method D
of the source impedances. In this event, it would be necessary Another possible origin of sequence-source impedance
either to assume the source impedances are pure reactances information is the bus-impedance matrix data used in some
or to assign some reasonable resistance and reactance values transmission-system short-circuit studies. In these studies,
that combine to give the proper magnitude. Generally, since the following conditions prevail: each generator is represented
resistances are normally omitted in transmission-system by a constant voltage behind the machine reactance (usually
short-circuit studies, it is appropriate to assume the impedances transient or subtransient reactance), the shunt connections
produced by solution of Equations 21 through 23 are pure (for example, line capacitances to ground) are neglected, all
reactances. the transformers are set at nominal taps, and ground is taken
The -2: s1, -2: S2, and -2: so values obtained from the above as a reference. In the bus-impedance matrix, the diagonal
equations are high-voltage bus values and must be appropri- elements are the impedances seen from each bus looking
ately combined with the per-unit sequence impedances of the back into the system. These diagonal elements are also
substation transformer to give the desired source-sequence called the driving-point impedances. If the high-voltage bus of
impedances at the low-voltage bus of the substation. Also, it the distribution substation is represented in the bus-impedance
-nay be necessary to calculate -2: so at the high-voltage bus matrix, then the diagonal element corresponding to the high-
Equation 20 or 23) if the substation transformer connection voltage bus in the positive-sequence bus-impedance matrix
IS such that the zero-sequence system impedance viewed is the desired value of -2:81. The similar diagonal element in
from the low-voltage side of the substation is unaffected by the zero-sequence bus-impedance matrix is the desired
j'je value of -2: so. For example, of the eight transformer value of -2: so. As in Method B, these values must then be
connections shown in Figure 1 OA 1, only in the case of appropriately combined with the substation transformer per-unit
connection 3 (wye-wye grounded) will -2: so be added to the sequence impedances to produce the source-sequence
:ransformer zero-sequence impedance and therefore affect impedances at the low-voltage bus of the substation.
'dhe zero-sequence source impedance seen from the low-voltage
bus. With each of the other seven connections, the low-voltage Fault Impedance
zero-sequence source impedance is independent of -2: so In the application of overcurrent protective equipment to
seen at the high-voltage bus. distribution systems, it is important to have a knowledge of
minimum as well as maximum fault-current levels. This

31
A. Overcurrent Protection
1. FUNDAMENTALS AND THEORY
Tools for Fault Analysis (Continued)

means that a fault study should result in both maximum and By now it is probably apparent that fault impedance is a
minimum values of fault-current magnitude at each node of nebulous quantity. Selecting an appropriate value for ~ f is by
the circuit. far the weakest link in the procedure for finding minimum fault
Generally, on a radial system the conditions that produce currents on a system. Therefore, some engineers elect not to
maximum fault-current levels are: maximum voltage, source calculate minimum fault currents at all. Instead, they pick a
impedances for maximum generation conditions, and zero value such as the current-carrying ability of the conductor at
values of fault impedance. Conversely, the usual conditions the given point on the circuit as the minimum fault current at
for minimum fault currents are minimum voltage, source that point. Then, by selecting a recloser or other protective
impedances during times of minimum generation, and some device on the source side of this point so that it will operate
non-zero value of fault impedance. (In most practical situations, to clear a current of at least this magnitude in a sufficiently
these conditions are valid for maximum and minimum short time, they prevent damage to the conductor. A disad-
magnitudes of current for three-phase, line-to-line, and line- vantage to this approach is that fault currents below the ther-
to-ground faults. However, there are actual circuits where the mal limit of the conductor may not be detected.
current magnitude in one phase of a double line-to-ground Other engineers calculate minimum fault currents using
fault will increase when going from a zero to a non-zero value some stated value of ~ t. Generally, it is assumed to be a
of fault impedance. This is covered briefly under "Basic pure resistance. If ~ f could be measured in a large variety of
Approach" in the section titled "Fault Calculation Procedures fault situations, the value would be found to be statistically
and Examples:') distributed over a wide range. A study of this type was
In many fault studies, it is customary to use a nominal system conducted in the 1930s on various 26 to 220 kV systems. An
voltage in the fault-current equations. Frequently, no distinction EEl and Bell System report (Reference 13) of the analysis of
is made between circuit loading conditions that produce 1375 faults on these systems states the most frequently
maximum and minimum voltages. Also, it is assumed that the occurring values of apparent fault resistance ranged from
voltage at an end of the circuit has the same magnitude as 5 to 25 ohms. An IEEE Committee Report (Reference 14)
the voltage at the substation. Furthermore, in many studies, states that fault impedance was used in calculations by three
maximum and minimum generation-source impedances are of the 26 companies surveyed. Two of the three companies
assumed to be equal. The validity of these assumptions used 20 ohms and one used 40 ohms. Of the remaining 23
varies from one circuit to another. But if they are reasonable companies, seven reported they used zero fault impedance and
assumptions for a given circuit, then only fault impedance 16 gave no response. A Rural Electrification Administration
permits a distinction to be made between maximum and mini- Bulletin (Reference 15) recommends using 40 ohms for ~ f in
mum faults. minimum line-to-ground fault calculations, but does not give
Fault impedance (~f) is simply the impedance in the fault the basis for the recommendation.
(Figure 20A 1, Page 37). It is not positive- or zero-sequence Whatever value is chosen for ~ f in a given situation, the
impedance, which are system characteristics. It is not neces- minimum fault currents resulting from calculations should not
sarily related to any ground impedance or any so-called be used indiscriminately. A 40-ohm fault at the end of a long
ground effects. Earth resistivity and mutual impedance circuit may produce a calculated current in some source-side
between an overhead conductor and a conducting ground device that appears to be less than normal load current.
plane are examples of ground effects. Both of these affect the Conversely, if nothing other than zero is used for ~ t, then a
values of ~ 1 and ~ o, but not ~ t, which is a highly variable fault midway on a feeder or close to the substation may produce
item, depending on the cause of the fault, the type of fault, and a calculated minimum fault current that is too large, and the
the environment. A line-to-line fault on an overhead circuit result might be selection of a source-side device setting or
caused by a dry or dead tree branch can be a high-impedance rating that prevents detection of fault currents smaller than
fault and ground is not involved at all. A fallen conductor will those calculated. Thus, judgment is required in the use of
be a low ~ f fault if the conductor drops into a stream or calculated minimum fault-current values, no matter what
ground water, but it can be a high ~ f fault if it drops onto a value of fault impedance is used in the calculations. It is
dry pavement where ground-contact resistance is high. desirable to arrive at a minimum fault current that establishes
Also, in any specific fault situation, ~ f is a time variable. A with reasonable confidence the lower end of the fault-current
fault may begin as a high-impedance, low-current fault and range at each point of a circuit. The goal is to make the
progress to a low-impedance, high-current fault. Conversely, probability of occurrence of faults with currents below this
a fault may start out with some fault impedance that increases range as low as possible, recognizing that there is always the
to infinity if the fault is self-clearing, such as a fault caused by possibility of high-impedance faults occurring that cannot be
an animal that positions itself between a phase conductor detected by the protection system.
and ground.

32
 A1

System Faults
TYPES OF FAULTS
The type of fault that can occur depends on the distribution
system. Line-to-ground, line-to-line, and double line-to-ground
faults are common to single-, two-, and three-phase systems.
Three-phase faults are, of course, characteristic only of
three-phase systems.
Line-to-ground faults result when one conductor falls to
grou nd or contacts the neutral wire. Possible points along a
<istribution system where such faults can occur are shown in
Figure 13A 1.

\-vv-
!'J ~
>
~
~ "
...
~,.,.,. ,,. (\
Figure 14A1.
Figure 13A1. Line-to-line faults.
Une-to-ground faults.

Line-to-line faults result when conductors of a two-phase

or three-phase system are short-circuited as shown in Figure
14A1. They can occur anywhere along a three-phase wye or
delta system, or along a two-phase branch.
Double line-to-ground faults result when two conductors
Bl and are connected through ground, or when two conductors
contact the neutral of a three-phase or two-phase grounded
system. Figure 15A1 shows a typical faulted circuit.
This section covers some of the principles underlying the
development of equations for the calculation of currents
leSUiting from power-system faults. The derivation of the
~ation for single line-to-ground faults is given in detail,
beginning with the equations for the symmetrical components
ol the line-to-ground voltage of phase A at the terminals of a
symmetrical three-phase, wye-connected, synchronous
onachine with balanced generated voltages. Equations for
alher types of faults are stated without derivation, since the
Figure 15A1.
procedure followed is similar to that for single line-to-ground Double line-to-ground faults.
faults.

Yollages at the Terminals of a Generator

Figure 16A1 shows a wye-connected synchronous generator Va1 = Ea1- Ia1 r1 (24)
with its neutral grounded through an impedance ~ n.
For a generator that is loaded, the currents Ia, lb, and Ic
Va2 = Ea2- Ia2 r2 (25)
are non-zero. In is the current in the neutral connection. The
Vs represent terminal voltages and the E's are generated
(26)
dages. Voltage equations for the three balanced symmetrical
CXliTlponent representations of this machine's phase A terminal
dage are written:

33
A. Overcurrent Protection
1. FUNDAMENTALS AND THEORY
System Faults (Continued)

..
Ia

.-------------------------~----------•v.
V ao =- In r n + Eao - lao r 9o
= -3 lao rn + Eao - lao rgo
= Ea0 - Ia0 {3r n + rg 0 ) (28)
Comparing Equations 28 with 26 shows

ro= 3rn+ -r 90 (29)

..____________• vb
Remembering that, for balanced generator voltages,
= = =
Ea2 Eao 0, and Ea 1 Ea, Equations 24 through 26
now become

~--------------------•vc
..
lc Va1 = Ea- Ia1 r1

Va2 = -Ia2 r2
(30)

(31)

Figure 16A1. Va0 = -Ia0 (3rn + r 90 ) (32)

Wye-connected synchronous generator.
These are the general equations for the symmetri
components of the line-to-ground voltage of phase A at th
For balanced generated voltages, Ea2 = Ea0 , = 0, and Ea1 is terminals of a symmetrical three-phase, wye-connected, sy
simply Ea. Also, ~ 1 and ~ 2 are the positive- and negative- chronous machine with balanced generated voltages. Th
sequence impedances, respectively, of the generator. The can be used as the basis for the symmetrical compone
value of r 1 depends on whether sub-transient, transient, or analysis of a variety of dissymmetries. In the followin
steady-state conditions are being studied. The value of r 2 does discussion, they are used to investigate a line-to-ground fau
not vary with these conditions. Generally, for turbine-generators on an unloaded generator.
and salient-pole machines, r 2 equals the subtransient value
of~ 1.
The value of ~ o in Equation 26 is not just the zero-
sequence impedance of the generator. It also must include
the effect of r n, the impedance between N and ground. This
...-------------------------. v.,
.. Ia,

is done as follows:
By Kirchoff's Law, the current in the neutral is

In= Ia+lb+Ic
Substituting the symmetrical component equivalents of the
phase currents:

In = Ia1 + Ia2 + lao + Ib1 + Ib2 + Ibo

+ Ic1 + Ic2 + leo
lc.
Since both the positive- and negative-sequence components
of current form balanced phasor diagrams (Figure 3A 1), note •
' - - - - - - - - -.... Vc,
that
Figure 17A1.
Generator diagram considering only zero-sequence
components.
Also, since the zero-sequence currents are in phase and
equal in magnitude,
Equations for a Single Line-to-Ground Fault
First, the symmetrical, wye-connected generator previou
Therefore, described is considered to determine the value of fault curre
produced if one of the phase terminals is grounded through
(27) a fault impedance when the generator is operating unloaded
This involves a symmetrical three-phase system with dissym-
Thus, considering only zero-sequence components, the metry at only one point in the system. Here, the dissymmetry
generator diagram becomes that shown in Figure 17A 1, is a line-to-ground fault, but it could also be a line-to-line or a
where r go is the zero-sequence impedance per phase of the double line-to-ground fault, or even one or two open phases..
generator. Based on this diagram, the zero-sequence compo- The general procedure in developing equations for these
nent of phase A terminal voltage to ground can be written as situations is to replace analytically the phase currents and
voltages at the point of dissymmetry by their symmetrical
components.Then, utilizing what is known about the system

34
 A1
(such as sequence impedances of lines, transformers, etc.) and solving for
and the character of the dissymmetry, analytical expressions
are developed for any unknown symmetrical components. Ia1
These then are transformed back into phase quantities using
expressions similar to Equation 2 (page 10). Ia1 = Ea (35)
This analytical transformation from phase quantities into r 1 + r 2+ r + 3rn + 3rt
90
symmetrical components and back again is employed only in Figure 18A1 illustrates that the phase A current due to the
1lle development of the equations. The equations express the fault equals the current in the generator neutral, since this is
unknown phase quantities in terms of known phase quanti- the only return path. Since Ia = 3Ia1 and In = 3Iao
ties and known sequence impedances. The purpose here is = 3Ia 1, the fault current It is
ID illustrate analytical transformation for one particular type of
It = Ia = In = 3Ea
dssymmetry, and to show how fault-current equations using r 1 + r 2+ r + 3rn + 3rt (36)
symmetrical components are developed. 90
Frequently, the terms in the denominator involving generator
neutral impedance and generator zero-sequence impedance
are all lumped together as

(37)

so that Equation 36 may be rewritten in its more common

..
form as
lb=O
L....--'----e Vb (38)

If desired, expressions for voltage conditions (both phase-

ground and phase-phase) at the fault can be found in a similar
fashion.

lc=O Sequence Networks

L....------..:•---· Vc As mentioned, a balanced three-phase system can be analyzed
on a single-phase basis. This is also true for each of the three
F~gure 18A1. symmetrical component systems that result from the application
Diagram for line-to-ground case study. of the method of symmetrical components to unbalanced
three-phase systems. This means, for example, that the
three-phase positive-sequence network can be replaced for
purposes of calculation by an equivalent single-phase network
Figure 18A1 illustrates the case under study. The only new and can be represented by a one-line impedance diagram. The
symbol introduced is r t, the impedance of the fault from terms positive-sequence network, negative-sequence network,
phase A to ground. and zero-sequence network apply to these single-phase net-
First, look at the conditions at the generator terminals that works. The currents and voltages shown in the one-line dia-
describe this one type of dissymmetry. They are: grams of these networks are those of phase A, the phase
lb=O lc=O Va=Ia~ normally chosen for reference.
The three sequence networks are interconnected in different
ways, depending on the type of unsymmetrical condition. An
By using the above value for lb and Ic in the current equations, example of the interconnection of the sequence networks for
which correspond to the voltage Equation 3 (page 10), the a phase A-to-ground fault at the terminals of an unloaded
symmetrical components of the phase currents are: wye-connected generator is given in Figure 19A1, which
reveals that the interconnection diagram is the graphic equivalent
Ia1 = (Ia +alb + a2Ic) /3 = Ia/3 of Equation 35.
The use of sequence networks is not always essential for
Ia2 = (Ia + a2Ib + ale) /3 = Ia/3
the application of the method of symmetrical components
Ia0 = (Ia + Ib + lc) /3 = Ia/3 (33) but, in many cases, it also provides a better understanding of
the relationships involved. Having drawn the diagram in
Therefore, Ia1 = Ia2 = lao (34) Figure 19A1, for example, one could write the equation for Ia1
(Equation 35) by inspection. Also, if the neutral of the gener-
Since Va = Iart ator is not grounded, the zero-sequence network will be open
circuited and it will be clear from Figure 19A1 that no path
and since Va=Va1 +Va2+Vao exists for the flow of current. However, it will be equally clear
from an examination of Equations 35, 36, or 38, since an
we find, using Equations 30, 31, and 32 ungrounded neutral means r n and r o are both infinite.
Iart= Ea - Ia1 r 1 - Ia2 ~ -lao (3m+ rg 0 ) In considering more complicated systems than the single
unloaded generator used for an initial example, the sequence
But since Ia = 3Ia1 and la1 = la2 = lao this becomes network concept becomes more important. In analyzing con-
ditions on an interconnected system of generators, trans-
3Ia 1rt = Ea - Ia1 r 1 - Ia1r 2 - Ia1 (3rn + r 90 ) formers, and transmission and distribution lines, the normal

35
A. Overcurrent Protection
1. FUNDAMENTALS AND THEORY
System Faults (Continued)

procedure is to obtain the sequence impedances of the various networks. If the system under study is radial, as most distribution
system components and then combine these into the circuits are, then sequence networks are not as useful as
sequence networks representing the entire system. Next, if they are with looped systems. However, even with radial systems,
faults, for example, are being calculated, each sequence network there are situations where drawing the sequence network
is reduced until an equivalent sequence impedance, as representation of the problem is beneficial.
viewed from the fault point, is obtained. Any generators in the
positive-sequence system can be replaced by a single Equations for Other Fault Conditions
Thevenin-equivalent generator representing the voltage at The development of the equation for the current in a line-to-
the fault point prior to the fault. (This is described in the next ground fault (Equation 38) involved only a fault at the terminals
section, "Equations for Other Fault Conditions.") Doing this of an unloaded generator. However, the form of the equation
would produce sequence network equivalents somewhat is valid for any complicated system that has been reduced to
similar to those in Figure 19A1. The networks could then be its Thevenin equivalent.
interconnected to permit the study of various fault conditions
or to permit the direct use of fault-current equations such as THEVENIN'S THEOREM
Equation 38. Thevenin's theorem states that a linear network terminating
Again, it should be noted that the discussion here is confined on two points, a and b, and containing any number of voltage
to line-to-ground faults. The sequence network connections sources may be replaced by a single voltage source and a
for other types of faults are given ample treatment in series impedance between a and b. The series impedance is
References 1, 3, 4, 5. the impedance of the network measured between a and b
The preceding is only a brief sketch of the use of sequence with the internal voltage short-circuited. The single voltage

POSITIVE-SEQUENCE REFERENCE BUS

Ea
+ v., POSITIVE-SEQUENCE NETWORK

- Ia,

NEGATIVE-SEQUENCE REFERENCE BUS

v., NEGATIVE-SEQUENCE NETWORK

-
la,= la,

ZERO-SEQUENCE REFERENCE BUS

Va, ZERO-SEQUENCE NETWORK

-
la,= Ia,

Figure 19A1.
Interconnection of sequence networks for phase A-to-ground faults.

36
 A1
source is equal to the open-circuit voltage measured 2
between a and b. This is the Thevenin-equivalent generator 1I 1= j+jf3v, 1 ro + 3rt -a r2 1
mentioned earlier. r 1 r 2 + (r 1 +r 2 )(ro +3rt) (43)
It should be noted that Thevenin's theorem applies only to In these equations, I is the rms value of the steady-state
linear networks: that is, to those networks in which the resist- symmetrical a-c phase current flowing into the fault; Vt is the
ances, inductances, and capacitances are constant and are rms value of the steady-state a-c voltage to ground at the
independent of the current and voltage. Examples of nonlinear fault prior to the occurrence of the fault; :Z:: 1, :Z:: 2. and :Z:: o are
elements are skin-effect resistance and transformer magnetizing the positive-, negative-, and zero-sequence impedances of
inductance. These elements have important effects in transient the system viewed from the fault; and :Z:: t is the fault imped-
overvoltage studies and, generally, Thevenin's theorem cannot ance associated with a given type of fault (see Figure 20A 1).
oe applied in studies involving them to simplify any part of the The vertical line notation ([I]) means that the magnitude of
network containing the nonlinear elements. However, for the the complex number within the lines is to be taken; i.e.:
purposes of most steady-state load and fault-current calcula-
bons, R, L, and C values are constant, and Thevenin's theo- if I = A + jB, then II I= .V A2 + B2
rem is applicable.
Any consistent set of units may be used for these variables
Thus, assuming linearity, an extensive power system with
in the fault-current equations. For example, they all may be
many generators and closed loops can be reduced to the
expressed in per-unit, or in amperes, volts, and ohms. They
simple system shown in Figure 16A1. From this viewpoint,
also may be expressed in some other set of units, provided
me symbols in Equation 38 can be given a new meaning. Ea
appropriate scale factors are introduced. The nomenclature
s the Thevenin-equivalent open-circuit voltage at the fault above associates rms values with I and Vt, since these are
point: that is, the line-to-ground voltage prior to the fault. The
the values normally used in steady-state fault calculations.
sequence impedances are no longer confined to generator
However, the equations are more general than this. If, instead
and neutral impedances, but now represent the equivalent
of an rms voltage, the crest value of the steady-state a-c voltage
mpedances of the entire system as viewed from the fault
to ground is used for Vf, then the resulting current value will
::JOint with all voltage sources shorted. On a large interconnected
be a crest value also.
rransmission system, the series impedance equivalent is
found for each of the sequence networks by systematically
reducing the network of impedances (by means of delta-wye
and wye-delta transformations) until single values of :Z:: 1, :Z:: 2,
and :Z:: o are obtained. On a radial distribution system, this
:an be a relatively simple procedure. On a large interconnected
network, it can be a laborious task, especially if the calculations
are done by hand. This is one reason for the initial success of
a-c network analyzers, now replaced by the more accurate
and more powerful digital load-flow and short-circuit programs
,see Computer Programs section).
So far, only single line-to-ground fault conditions on a
oower system have been discussed. The procedure followed
1n developing the line-to-ground fault-current equation can THREE-PHASE FAULT LINE-LINE FAULT
easily be duplicated for other types of faults. These equations
are derived in References 1, 3, 4, and 5, or can be developed
oy the reader.

EQUATIONS FOR FAULT-CURRENT MAGNITUDES

The equations for fault-current magnitudes for all of the vari-
ous types of faults are:
Three-phase Fault V
I I I= Ir1 ~ rr I (39)
LINE-TO-GROUND FAULT DOUBLE LINE-TO-GROUND FAULT
Line-to-Line Fault
Figure 20A 1.
I I I=l±i Fault-impedance convention for Equations 39 through 43.
(40)

Line-to-Ground Fault
Some points of interest should be noted about Equations
I I I= I 3Vt I 39 through 43. In most short-circuit studies, only three-phase
r 1 + r 2 + r 0 + 3rt (41) and single line-to-ground faults are calculated. The reason for
this is that a three-phase fault usually, but not always,
Double Line-to-Ground Fault produces the maximum fault current. (On some distribution
1I I= l-i-f3V, 1 ro +3rt -ar2 1 circuits, a line-to-ground fault near the substation can produce
rr 2 + (r 1 +r 2 )(ro +3rt) (42) fault current exceeding that produced by a three-phase fault
1
at the same point.) And the single line-to-ground fault is the
And, in the other phase associated with this fault, most common type of fault.

37
A. Overcurrent Protection
1. FUNDAMENTALS AND THEORY
System Faults (Continued)

The other two types of faults, however, should not be Observing the behavior of current in a single-phase circuit
completely ignored. For example, double line-to-ground faults (Figure 21 A 1) provides some guidance on this type of informa-
are difficult to calculate by hand, but there is little justification tion. The circuit consists of an ideal sinusoidal voltage source
for omitting them from a computer program for short-circuit and a series combination of resistance, an inductance, and a
studies. In finding maximum fault currents, it is customary to switch.
assume a zero value for fault impedance r t, because it is The dotted portion of Figure 21 A 1 serves as a reminder
apparent from Equations 39 through 41 that, with practical that a circuit in which a fault occurs may normally be carrying
r
values of system impedances, any values of f greater than some load. If the fault is represented by the closing of the
zero will reduce the resulting fault current. This is not apparent switch, then the load is shorted and, in the steady state, the
from Equations 42 and 43, since r t appears in the numerator, fault current is unaffected by the load. However, before the
as well as the denominator, of these expressions. On some fault occurs, i(t) is affected by the load, so in theory, the
actual systems, it has been demonstrated that introducing a behavior of i(t) in the period after the fault in which transients
r
small resistive value of f makes the magnitude of the fault exist is influenced by the prefault load current. But in most
current in one phase of a double line-to-ground fault greater practical situations, the fault current is the dominant factor
r
than the fault magnitude with zero f. In fact, in these cases, and load current is ignored.
it was surprising that a double line-to-ground fault with fault The determination of how the fault current behaves as a
impedance produced a current magnitude in one of the faulted function of time involves the solution of the following differential
phases roughly ten percent greater than the current magni- equation:
tudes of both three-phase and single-phase faults with zero
fault impedance. Thus, the current magnitudes produced by Ri + L-ffi= E sin (wt +e)
double line-to-ground faults can be significant. It cannot be (44)
said that they are always less than the magnitudes of three- where R and L are the circuit resistance and inductance,
phase or line-to-ground faults. respectively; i is the instantaneous current in the circuit
Also, line-to-line faults cannot always be ignored, especially (Figure 21 A 1) after the switch is closed; E is the crest value
if the circuit has single-phase laterals consisting of two phase of the sinusoidal voltage source; w is the source generator's
conductors. In general, in situations such as the development angular frequency; and 4> is the angle separating the voltage
of computer programs for fault calculations, there are argu- zero and the time at which the fault occurs (t=O).
ments in favor of calculating all types of faults. The details of the solution of Equation 44 are well covered
in Reference 16 and other textbooks, so only the result is
ASYMMETRICAL FAULT CURRENT* stated here. Assuming the prefault current to be zero (i.e.,
Definition and Significance load current = 0) then the solution is
Some knowledge of the behavior of the actual current waveform
in a circuit following a fault is important in the application of ·Rwt
devices such as fuses, sectionalizers, reclosers, and breakers i = Ae X+ 8 sin (w+ e-o)
for distribution-system overcurrent protection.
The fault-current equations, 39 through 43, are applicable A= E sin (0-e)
only for steady-state conditions. They calculate the rms values where
,f R2 + X2
of fault currents that have persisted for periods sufficiently
long so that all initial transients have disappeared. They tell E
nothing about either the rms or the instantaneous values of B = r,f:;;R:;;:2:::+:::;:X;:;;:2
current in the time immediately following the fault.
()=tan · 1 ~)
R L
~~~--~-----, and X =wl (45)
I
I
,--L-. The first term in Equation 45 is the transient part of the
SWITCH solution, since it is decaying exponential whose value disappears
I LOAD I
=E sin (wt + ¢] '--r-' eventually. The second term is the steady-state part of the
I solution. These are also the d-e and a-c components, respec-
....__ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ ___. _____ .JI tively. The second term is a sinusoidal function of time whose
crest value is simply the crest value of the supply voltage
divided by the magnitude of the system impedance as viewed
from the fault. The phase difference 0 between the supply
Figure 21 A1. voltage (E sin(wt+ 4>)) and the steady-state fault current
Single-phase circuit for study of current behavior depends only on the X/R ratio of the circuit impedance.
immediately following a fault. The significance of the transient and steady-state components
of the fault current is best illustrated by considering an actual
example. Figure 22A 1 shows a specific circuit with an X/R
ratio of 5. The circuit is supplied by a 60-hertz source
(W=377), with the fault arbitrarily occurring (switch closes) at
20 degrees on the voltage wave. The numbers obtained from
the general solution, Equation 45, are given in the figure.
* Portions adapted from material in Reference 17.

38
 A1

E= 100VOLTS X= 100HMS
R X w =377 RADIANS/SECOND R=20HMS

¢ = 20° = .349 RADIANS X=5

R
SWITCH CLOSES
~=10.20HMS
· Att=O
·1 X 78.7o
SUBSTITUTING INTO EQUATION 45 {)=tan R
75 41 1.373 RADIANS.
i = 9.8 sin (1.024) e' .

+9.8 sin (377tt1.024)

= 8.37 e' 75.41 + 9.8 sin (377t- 1.024)

Figure 22A1.
illustration of significance of transient and steady-state fault-current components.

Figure 23A 1, however, graphically illustrates the interaction This is where the significance of current asymmetry lies. In
:i the terms of the equations. The curves were plotted from designing and applying devices that will be exposed to fault
ne specific example of Figure 22A1 and the time base is currents, transient as well as the steady-state fault currents
;raduated for that solution. The curves themselves are must be considered, since both thermal effects and mechanical
abeled with the general equation symbols, so that the interaction forces can be greatly magnified in the initial transient period.
:i curves and equations is clearly shown. The upper curve
snows the voltage waveform. The fault is assumed to occur Application of Current Asymmetry Information
~=0) at a point on the ascending voltage wave 20 degrees The maximum magnetic forces produced in a device occur at
after a voltage zero. The lower graph shows the total fault current the instant the current is maximum. In Figure 23A1 for example,
solid curve) and its transient and steady-state components the total current has peaks at approximately 7, 15, 24, and 32
jotted curves) plotted on a time scale identical to that of the milliseconds for the time range displayed. A protective
..oltage waveform. The solid current curve, which is the wave· device, such as a recloser, in a circuit where this fault current
shape that would be observed on an oscilloscope connected is flowing will experience peak magnetic forces at the same
nto the circuit, is the sum of the two dotted curves. Although times. From the equipment design and application viewpoint,
"'$ither of the two current components could be recorded in the largest of the peaks is of interest, since it subjects equipment
his transient period by an oscilloscope, the dotted curves are to the severest test with respect to magnetic forces. For certain
still of interest since they provide a better perspective of values of the voltage phase angle ( c/>) (Equation 44), the
asymmetry. largest peak will occur in the first current loop, as shown in
Asymmetry in an a·c power system is the phenomenon Figure 23A1. However, there are other values of 4> for which
whereby the symmetrical current oscillations about the zero the largest peak will not occur until the second loop. Figure
ine are shifted so that they oscillate around some transient 24A 1 shows a current waveform of this type.
-eference line that is neither straight nor zero. In Figure 23A 1, The larger of these peaks can be found mathematically by
:Tie total current is oscillating around the decaying exponential differentiating the current expression in Equation 45 with
:;urve, which means that the exponential curve is the new respect to its two independent variables t and cf>. (The other
--eference "zero" line for the sine wave. This will make the total variables, E, R, X, and w, are fixed for any given circuit).
:urrent wave asymmetric with respect to the true zero line, When this is done, it is found that the larQer of the two
since the positive loops of current reach different crest "largest" peaks occurs for zero voltage angle cp. which places
'Tlagnitudes than the negative loops. it in the first current loop. The current waveform thus resembles
Now that asymmetry has been defined, what is its significance that shown in Figure 23A 1 rather than that in Figure 24A 1
n dealing with fault currents? The answer lies in two important This 4> = 0 condition is called the condition of maximum
aspects of the problem: first, the magnetic force exerted on asymmetry.
carts due to the current, and, secondly, the thermal or joule References 17, 18, and 19 provide a thorough treatment of
content of the fault current. Both the thermal and magnetic the mathematics of analyzing current under the condition of
lorce characteristics are a function of the square of the current. maximum asymmetry, and the details are well worth studying
In Figures 22A 1 and 23A 1, the first peak of the asymmetrical for a clear understanding of the implications of asymmetry.
Naveform has a magnitude approximately 1.5 times the crest They show that some of the effects of asymmetry are
value of the steady-state waveform. For example, at this point dependent only on the X/R ratio of the circuit; also, that the
::he magnetic forces on interrupting equipment are about 2.25 effects on the peak value and the energy content of the first
jmes the forces caused by the steady-state fault current. In current loop are much greater than the effect on the rms
:he same fashion, if the first loop is not only greater in ampli· value. For the condition of maximum asymmetry, the rms
:ude but is above the zero line for longer than half a cycle (as value of the first current loop can be as great as 1.7492 times
:n Figure 23A 1), then the i2t content of the current (that is, its the rms value of its steady-state symmetrical component
::hermal or heating effect) is much greater. Both of these (References 17, 18).
affect the design and application of the protective equipment
used on a power system.

39
A. Overcurrent Protection
1. FUNDAMENTALS AND THEORY
System Faults (Continued)

+ 100
e (t) 100 Sin (377t + .349)

VOLTAGE

5 20

-100

0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0

TIME {CYCLES)

754
I (t) = 9.8 Sin (377t- 1.024) + 8.37e'
+15 7
..,.,.,.......... ,
TOTAL
CURRENT
/ ClJRRENT
,.."" '
w
w
a:
----r---- .' """ '\
\
'\
·~ 1/ · - - -..
I
{
I
1- I I
2 0
w I 20
a: 5 I
,gj TIME(ms) · I
0 I
-5 /
I
/

-10
'' ...... _.....,,. /

-15

0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0

TIME (CYCLES)

Figure 23A1.
Interaction of terms of equations in Figure 22A1.

40
 A1
is the same as maximizing I'll, since I is constant. The
condition for maximum i is a zero voltage angle </>, as
described earlier. But for maximum I', the value of </> is
always greater than zero. If I' is calculated for the first current
loop, the maximum value of I'll is 1. 7662. It occurs at an X/R
ratio of 200 and an angle</> of 12 degrees.) The result of plot-
ling the maximums of I'll is shown in Figure 25A 1.
While the integration time interval T for finding I, the rms
value of a symmetrical waveform, is constant n, the interval
for finding I' varies with X/R and 0. The T used to find I' in
Figure 25A 1 is not constant, but it is always the time to the
first current zero of the asymmetrical waveform.
At a point of fuse application on a specific circuit - if for
example, the rms symmetrical fault current for a line-to-ground
fault is known (Equation 41) - the single-phase equivalent
Figure 24A1. X/R ratio can be found from the total system impedance used
Current waveform with largest magnetic-current peak in in the fault calculation. For a line-to-ground fault with zero
the second loop. fault impedance, this would be (2-21 + -2 o)/3. The reactive
part of this impedance divided by the real part is the single-
phase equivalent X/R ratio. An I'll value can be found from
However, the peak of the first current loop can be as great as Figure 25A 1 for this value of X/R. This multiplied by the
two times the peak of the steady-state component, and this calculated rms symmetrical fault current will produce the
energy content can be six times that of the first loop of the greatest rms asymmetrical value possible for that type of
symmetrical a-c component (Reference 17). From the viewpoint fault.
of equipment design and application, these peak current and The same procedure is used for all types of faults possible at
energy comparisons are more meaningful than a comparison the fuse location. Then, the largest rms symmetrical and
of rms values. asymmetrical values can be used for selecting the fuse cutout
The discussion here is confined, however, to rms relationships, with the proper interrupting ratings. (Since Figure 25A 1 is based
since this is the way equipment is now rated and standards on the analysis of current in a simple R, X series circuit, the pro-
are written. The root-mean-square (rms) value of an arbitrary cedure described is not precisely correct for finding the RMS
current is of the asymmetrical current in a double line-to-ground fault or
in any system whose symmetrical component equivalent circuit
involves parallel paths. More study of the transient behavior
(46) of fault current for various types of faults and various systems
needs to be made. However, the procedure described is
where i = a current function of time more precise for line-to-line and single line-to-ground faults
t =time than simply using the X1/R1 ratio, which, strictly speaking, is
T = time interval specified for the rms valid only for three-phase faults.)
determ in at ion. This, briefly, illustrates the application of current asymmetry
information of the type provided by Figure 25A 1, which, as
If i = B sin wt, where B is the crest value of a sinusoidal noted, is based on the first current loop. This is especially
current, Equation 46 shows that I = B/{2 so long as T is an useful in the application of fuses, since many fuses interrupt
integral multiple of a half cycle. From a physical viewpoint, a at the current zero following the initial loop. It is also useful in
sinusoidal current with a crest value of B will have the same checking the momentary ratings of switches, sectionalizers,
effect on p loss in a conductor as a d-e current whose and breakers. However, the use of Figure 25A 1 for selecting
value is B/ or this reason, I is sometimes called the effec- breakers or reclosers with adequate interrupting capacity can
tive value of i, but this {2 relationship does not in result in the selection of ratings much higher than necessary.
general hold for an asymmetrical waveform. Applying In this instance, the rms value of the first current loop is too
Equation 46 to Equation 45 results in a detailed expression conservative for comparison with the interrupting ratings of
for the rms value of the asymmetrical waveform, and the time breakers and reclosers, since these devices do not usually
interval for the integration or averaging process definitely interrupt for a number of cycles after fault initiation. For many
influences the outcome (References 17, 18). Identifying the practical values of X/R ratio, this means much of the asymmetry
rms value of the steady-state a-c component of current in
has disappeared, and the device is interrupting essentially a
Equation 45 as I and the rms value of the total current as 1',
symmetrical current. The procedure to follow in selecting
then a useful measure of an asymmetrical waveform is the
ratio I'll. Fault-current calculations (Equations 39 through 43) breakers and reclosers with adequate interrupting ability for
produce values of I. If an appropriate value for the ratio I'll is a specific circuit is given in industry standards (References
known, it can be multiplied by the calculated I value to obtain 20, 21).
the rms value of the asymmetrical waveform.
Gross and Thapar (Reference 19) cite an expression that
is a function only of X, R, and </>. For any given value of X/R,
the value of I'll with respect to </>can be maximized and then
plotted as a function of X/R. (For the reader who has gone
into the details of asymmetry calculations, Hshould be noted
that this procedure involves maximizing 1', not i. Maximizing I'

41
A. Overcurrent Protection
1. FUNDAMENTALS AND THEORY
System Faults (Continued)

., •i ,·

1.8 "'

1.7
~ ··- ,_,-
.. ·
/
,JJ/
1.6 '

PLOT OF MAXIMUM VALUES OF 1'/1 VERSUS X/R

WHERE 1'/IIS THE RATIO OF THE RMS
Q 1.5 OF THE FIRST LOOP OF THE ASYMMETRICAL
~
WAVEFORM TO THE RMS OF THE FIRST
LOOP OF THE SYMMETRICAL WAVEFORM.
1-
ffi 1.4 ~
0:::
0:::
:::1
1/~
0
1.3

1.2
/ "
,.

/~
1.1

1.0 - ~
v "

I' t,l . " I ..

0.9 I I I I

.2 .5 2 5 10
' 20 50 100

SHORT CIRCUit RAtl6 X/R

Figure 25A1.
Result of plotting the maximums of 1'/I.

MOTOR-CURRENT CONTRIBUTIONS 50 hp in Table 8A 1) a conservative estimate is the 3.6

If short-circuit current contributions from large rotating machinery times rated current (equivalent of 0.28 per unit impedance)
are neglected in system fault studies, the increased current first-cycle assumption of low-voltage standards, and this is
may cause the interrupting capacity of a device to be exceeded. effectively the same as multiplying subtransient impedance
To determine rotating machinery contributions, the reactance by 1.67.
(or impedance) is calculated using the multiplies in Table With this interpretation as a basis, the following induction
8A 1, and all three-phase motors above 50 hp are treated as motor treatment is recommended to obtain a single combi-
sources. As an aid in understanding this complex subject, nation first-cycle short-circuit calculation for multivoltage
following is an excerpt from ANSI/IEEE Standard 141-1986, industrial systems:
from which the table (number 24 in the ANSI/IEEE text) has
been reproduced. The excerpt has been slightly edited to (a) Include connected motors, each less than 50 hp, using
eliminate potentially confusing references to material not a 1.67 multiplying factor for sub-transient impedances.
cited in this manual. if available, or an estimated first-cycle impedance of
To simplify comprehensive industrial system calculations, a 0.28 based on motor rating.
single combination first-cycle network is recommended ...
based on the following interpretation of ... standards. (b) Include larger motors using the impedance multiplying
Because the initial symmetrical rms magnitude of the current factors of Table 8A 1. Most low-voltage motors 50 hp and
contributed to a terminal short circuit might be 6 times
larger are in the 1.2 times subtransient reactance group.
rated for a typical induction motor, using a 4.8 times rated An appropriate estimate for this group is first-cycle
current first-cycle estimate for the large low-voltage induction impedance of 0.20 per unit based on motor rating.
motors (described as all others, 50 hp and above in Table
8A 1) is effectively the same as multiplying subtransient
impedance by approximately 1.2. For this motor group, Short circuits can be calculated using procedures described
there is reasonable correspondence of low- and high-voltage in the following section. The multiple sources and impedances
procedures. For smaller induction motors (all smaller than are paralleled to the point of fault (Reference 24).

42
 A1
TABLE 8A1
Rotating- Machine Reactance (or Impedance) Multipliers
Type of Rotating First-Cycle Interrupting
Machine Network Network
All turbine generators; all hydrogenerators with amortisseur windings; all condensers 1.0 Xd" 1.0 Xd"
Hydrogenerators without amortisseur windings 0.75 Xd" 0.75 Xd"
All synchronous motors 1.0 Xd" 1.5 Xd"
Induction motors
Above 1000 hp at 1800 r/min or less 1.0 Xd" 1 .5 Xd"
Above 250 hp at 3600 r/min 1.0 Xd" 1.5 Xd"
All others, 50 hp and above 1.2 Xd" 3.0 Xd"
All smaller than 50 hp Neglect Neglect
From ANSI/IEEE C37.010-1979 (2) and ANSI/IEEE C37.5-1979 (3)
1. Xd"of synchronous rotating machines is the rated-voltage (saturated) direct-axis subtransient reactance.
2. Xd"of synchronous rotating machines is the rated-voltage (saturated) direct-axis transient reactance.
3. Xd" of induction motors equals 1.00 divided by per-unit locked-rotor current at rated voltage.

FAULT CALCULATION PROCEDURES For each identified type of overhead and underground line,
AND EXAMPLES use Tables 1A 1 through 7 A 1 to find its positive- and zero-
This section outlines a procedure for finding fault currents on sequence impedances in ohms/1 000 feet. In some situations,
a distribution system and includes some numerical examples. the tabulated impedances may not be applicable, and it will
be necessary to resort to calculations using impedance
Assumptions equations.
lin the following fault calculation examples, the underlying 4. Determine line-section sequence impedances in ohms. For
assumptions are: each line section of the circuit diagram, multiply the section
1. System frequency is 60 hertz. length in thousands of feet by the ~ 1 and ~ o values from
2. Distribution feeders radiate from only one substation. There Step 3 in ohms/1000 feet.
is no other source of power feeding into the distribution 5. Select fault impedance.
circuits. In general, fault-current calculations are made both with
3. The supply system is represented by the source impedance and without a fault impedance. Also, it is important to note
at the substation low-voltage bus. This is the impedance that, in some cases, the maximum fault current corresponds
looking back into the system supplying the distribution to a double line-to-ground fault with impedance (see pages
circuit. 37 and 38).
4. The current prior to the fault is neglected: that is, all shunt
connections (loads, line charging, etc.) are neglected. 6. Calculate total sequence impedances at point of fault.
Thus, the voltage at each node of the circuit will be Add the positive-sequence impedances from Step 4 of all line
assumed to be the nominal distribution voltage. sections connecting the point of fault to the source, including
the positive-sequence source impedance determined in
Basic Approach Step 2. Repeat the procedure for the negative- and
This section describes an effective and readily usable proce- zero-sequence impedances, with the negative-sequence
dure for calculating fault currents in a radial distribution sys- impedance of a line section being equal to its positive-
tem. An example of its application to a simple system is pro- sequence impedance.
'iided in the next section. Also, since much of the procedure
IS easily programmable and many fault-current calculations 7. Find symmetrical fault currents.
today are done on a computer, results from a computer study Use the formulas developed under ''Types of Faults" to calcu-
are included. late the following currents:
The procedure consists of the following steps: A. Three-phase fault
1. Draw circuit diagram.
A. Label the points on diagram where fault currents are to (39)
be calculated.
B. Line-to-line fault
B. Identify the different types of overhead circuit and under-
ground cable used.
C. For each line section, write on the diagram the circuit (40)
type of the section and its length in feet.
C. Line-to-ground fault
2. Calculate sequence-source impedances.
Depending on what information is available on the supply
I I I= I 3Vt I
system, use one of the methods outlined previously to
calculate the positive-, negative-, and zero-sequence
r 1 +r 2+r 0 + sr t (41 )
impedances. An example illustrating the use of method A D. Double line-to-ground fault
begins on the next page.
3. Determine line-section sequence impedances by type in
III=I-if3V, ra+3rt-ar2 I
ohms/1000 feet.
r 1 r 2+ <r1 +r 2)(ro +3rt) (42)
And, in the other phase associated with this fault,

43
A. Overcurrent Protection
1. FUNDAMENTALS AND THEORY
System Faults (Continued)

9. Record fault-current range on circuit diagram.

III=I+i-f3Vt ro+3rt-a2r2 I
r1 r The symbol, 502 1183 , as used for the circuits, indicates
2 + ( r 1 +r 2 )(ro +3rt) (43) 1451
In these equations, I is the rms value of the steady-state a minimum available symmetrical current of 502 amperes
symmetrical a-c phase current flowing into the fault; Vt is (rms), a maximum available symmetrical current of 1183
the rms value of the steady-state a-c voltage to ground at amperes (rms), and a maximum asymmetrical fault cur-
the fault prior to the occurrence of the fault; r 1, r 2, and rent of 1451 amperes (ins).
r o are the total positive-, negative-, and zero-sequence
impedances (from Step 6) of the system viewed from the 10. Steps 6 through 9 are repeated for each fault point selected
fault; and r f is the fault impedance associated with a given Example ot Source-Impedance Calculation
type of fault (see Figure 20A1). Figure 26A 1 illustrates the per-unit calculation of sequence-
The vertical line notation ([I]) means that the magnitude source impedances of a distribution circuit supplied by a radial
of the complex number with the lines is to be taken, i.e. transmission system. To apply the per-unit method properly
if I = A+jB, [I) = ,fA2 + 82 to a source-impedance calculation in a three-phase system
of several voltage levels, it is necessary to select a three-phase
8. Calculate asymmetrical fault current at point of fault for base kVA common to all voltage levels, and base voltages
each type of fault that are line-to-line values conforming to line-to-line voltage
r
A. Calculate the equivalent impedance e from Equations transformation ratios. For this example, the generator rating
39 through 43. For example, the equivalent impedance (40,000 kVA) is arbitrarily selected as the base kVA. The
for a line-to-ground fault is (Equation 41 ): base voltages are 6.9 kV, 138 kV, and 12.47 kV.
re = r1 + r2 +ro + 3Z:f Since the generator kVA rating is identical to the base kVA,
and its voltage rating is 6.9 kV, the per-unit values of generator
3
reactance can be obtained directly from Figure 26A 1. In
r
B. Calculate the X/R ratio of a: i.e., the imaginary part of accordance with the previous comments on generator
impedances, the subtransient value of reactance Xd is used;
re divided by the real part of r e.
and since this is a turbine generator, assume xq = X(t Thus,
C. From Figure 25A 1, find the asymmetry ratio corresponding for the generator, the per-unit values of sequence Impedances
to this X/R value: that is, the ratio of the rms of the first are:
loop of the asymmetrical waveform to the rms of the first
loop of the symmetrical waveform. r1 = jX"d = j0.15 pu
D. Calculate the first loop asymmetrical fault current rms
by multiplying the symmetrical fault current from Step 7 r2 = r1 = j0.15 pu
by this asymmetry ratio. (As noted on page 41 , this use ro = jX"90 = j0.05 pu
of an equivalent impedance X/R ratio is not precisely
correct for all types of faults.)

~ GENERATION

+ TRANSMISSION

+ DISTRIBUTION
-1
.6."]_
... .6.~

~ T1 T2

8 ~
12.47 kV

i
6.9kV 138kV 51.6MILES 3-1/0cu
0
p
6.9kV 50mVA ~~ = 31.3 + j 37.8.0 10mVA
40mVA X=10% DJ = 46.1 + j 157.9.0 X=7%

l<d= 15%

Xg= 5%

Figure 26A1.
Per-unit calculation of sequence-source impedances.

44
 A1
Percent transformer impedance is based on the transformer 1. Draw circuit diagram.
rating. The stated impedances of the transformers cannot be A single-line diagram of the system used in the example is
used directly, since their ratings differ from the base kVA. To shown in Figure 27A 1. The system consists of an overhead
convert the impedances of T1 and T2 to the new base, apply circuit and an underground circuit at 12.47 kV. Nodes at
Equation 14 (page 13). which fault currents will be calculated are numbered, and line
lengths and types are identified. Examples of fault-current
ForT1 r1 = j0.10 X ~gggg = j0.08 pu calculations are given for node 5. The same procedure can
be repeated for any other point.
2. Calculate sequence source impedances.
ForT2 r1 = j0.07 x ~gggg = j0.28 pu The sequence-source impedances calculated previously
are used for this example:
These values apply whether the transformers are viewed
from their high- or low-voltage terminals. However, because r1 = r 2 = .255 + j2.291 ohms
the transformers are connected delta-grounded wye, the r 0 = o + j1.089 ohms
zero-sequence impedances will change from one side to the
other (see Figure 1OA 1 ). This will be taken into account later. 3. Determine sequence-line impedances by type in
For the transmission line, impedances are stated in ohms. To ohms/1 000 feet.
get per-unit values, apply Equations 12 and 5. Between the fault at points and the source, one type of
overhead line (Type 1) and one type of underground cable
r 8 = 1000E~ = 1000 (138) 2 =4761 ohms
(Type 3) are used. Their respective sequence impedances
kVA 8 400000 .
in ohms/1 000 feet are obtained from Tables 1A 1 and 4A 1,
and are as follows:
r 1 = _1_ (31.3 + j37.8) = .0657 + j.0794 pu Type 1, 3-1/0 CU (phase) and 1-No. 2 CU (neutral), from
476.1
Table 1A1:
ro = _1_ (46.1 + j158.) = .0968 + j.3317 pu r 1 = .1150 + j.1386, ro = .2328 + j.4034
476.1
Type 3,3-780 MCM AL, 175-mil XLP cable with 1/3 size con-
Keeping in mind the transformer connections and the fact centric neutral, from Table 4:
that zero-sequence impedance cannot be reflected through a
delta-connected winding (Figure 1OA 1), the sequence-source r 1 = .0550 + j.0581, ro =.1188 + j.0305
impedances of the system viewed from point P on the distribution
circuit then become:
4. Determine line-section sequence impedances in ohms.
r1 = r2 The sequence impedances of each section of line or cable
Generator 0 + j0.15 0 between the source and the fault can be calculated by
T1 0 + j0.08 0 multiplying the impedance in ohms/1 000 feet by the length
Transmission 0.0657 + j0.0794 0 of the section in 1000 feet. In this example, impedance values
T2 0 + j0.28 0 + j0.28 will be given with only three decimal places.
Total 0.0657 + j0.5894 pu 0 + j0.28 pu Section Type Length ~ 1 (ohms) ~ o (ohms)
1-2 3 8.448 .465 + j .491 1.004+j .258
To express these source impedances in ohms on a 12.47 kV 2-3 1 4.224 .486 + j .588 .983+j1.704
base, first find the base impedance at this voltage from 3-5 1 21.278 2.447 + j2.949 4.953 + j8.584
Equation 12:
2 5. Select fault impedance.
r = 1000 ( 12.47) = 3 8875 ohms
B 40000 . In the computer results presented later, fault impedances
of 0 and 20 ohms are used in the overhead portion of the
Then the source impedances in ohms as viewed from the system. On the underground portions, only a zero fault
low-voltage bus of the substation are: impedance is used.
r1 = r2 = {0.0657 + j0.5894) 3.8875 6. Calculate total sequence impedances at point of fault. The
total system sequence impedances at the faulted node 5
= .255 + j2.291 ohms are the sum of the sequence impedances of the sections
between the source and node 5.
r 0 = {O + j0.28) 3.8875 Total positive- and negative-sequence impedances:
= .0 + j1.089 ohms .255 + j2.291 source
+ .465 + j.491 section 1-2
Example of Distribution-System Calculation + .465 + j.585 section 2-3
The distribution system used in this example is typical from +2.447 + j2.949 section 3-5
the standpoint of commonly encountered conductor sizes r1 = r2 - 3.653 + j6.316 ohms at node 5
and configurations. Fault currents at one point of the system
are calculated in detail following the procedure outlined in the
previous section. The results of a computer study giving the
fault currents at every specified point of the system also are
included.

45
A. Overcurrent Protection
1. FUNDAMENTALS AND THEORY
System Faults (Continued)

138~
SOURCE IMPEDANCES
at 12.47 kV {Node #1):
i! 1 .256 + i 2.291 ohms
i!0 0 + j 1.089 ohms
12.47kV LINE TYPES

17
OVERHEAD
{ (1)3-1/0CU& 1-#2CU
(2) 1-#2CU & 1-#4CU . II
422'
14)
¥
;
~· UND!=RGROUND
{ (3)3-750MCMAL.XLPCABLES
WITH 1/3 SIZE CONCENTRIC NEUTRAL
I
1
+ 2 3 (4)1·1/0AL.XLPCABLEWITH I
16 0+-++f*-t-t-1~-t-t-IHQ+f-lf+fo++-11++++'10---------a FULL SIZE CONCENTRIC NEUTRAL :
4699' 4224'
+
528':
13) t
t
1320'
(1)

14) 6 3960'
(3)
(4)
.3168'
18 ~ 11)
9

3326'
(3)

++++-+0 14 5
475'
14)
6 o-------o--------;...--.0
10660' 14098'
.8
I
(1) I 12)
I
I 13411'
3-PHASE 3-PHASE II 121
11111111 I
13 OVERHEAD UNDERGROUND I
------
· 1-PHASE
+-t++++
1·PHASE
0
7

Figure 27A 1.
Circuit diagram for sample case.

Total zero-sequence impedance: b. Line-to-line fault, using Equation 40:

.000 + j1.089 source II I= I ±j.f3Vt I =I ± j.f312470 I

+ 1.004 + j.258 section 1-2 r 1 + r 2+ r 1 2.[3 (3.653 + j6.316)
+ .983+j1.704 section 2-3
+ 4.953 + j8.584 section 3-5 =7199.56 1 ±i 1
=
~ 0 6.940 + j11.635 ohms at nodes 4.218 + j7.293

7. Find symmetrical fault currents.

=7199 ·56 =854.541 amperes
8.425
In this example, ~ f is zero. Since the voltage is an rms
value, all calculated currents are also rms values. c. Line-to-ground fault, using Equation 41:
a. Three-phase fault, using Equation 39:
II I= I 3Vt I
II I= I Vt I=I 12470 I r1 + r2 + ro + 3rf
r r
1 + 1 -Y3 (3.653 + j6.316)
I 3* 1247o I
=7199.561
1
1 = rs (2(3.653 + j6.316) + (6.940 + j11.635))
3.653 + j6.316
=7199.56 1
-;:=;:::::::==~=7.:~~
=7199.56 14.749 +1j8.089 1
" (3.653)2 + (6.316)2
7199 ·56 =986.738 amperes =7199 ·56 =767.555 amperes
9.380
7.296
46
 A1
d. Double line-to-ground fault, using Equation 42: for node 5 impedances
~ = 8.089 = 1 703
I\= 0
J-i'i'3(r +3r,-arz)Vt \ R 4.749 .
r 1 r 2 + (r1 + r 2) (r 0 + 3r1 ) from Figure 25A 1,
= 7199.56\ ~((6.940 + j11.635)- (-.5 + j.866)
(3.653 + j6.316)2 + 2(3.653 + j6.316)
\ IAs\ =\I\ x 1.130
=767.555 x 1.130 =867.337 amperes
(3.653 + j6.316)H-n I D. Double line-to-ground fault:
(6.940 + j11.635)
r = r 1r 2 + (r 1 +r 2) + (r 0 + 3r 1)
= 7199.56 1 -i 1
e {3 (ro + 3r, -ar2)
1.361 + j7.763
7199 ·56 = 913.527 amperes for node 5 impedances
7.881
Similarly, in the other phase associated with this fault, X 7.763
using Equation 43: R= 1.361 = 5 ·706
from Figure 25A 1,
I
I I = 7199.56 I . I
I 6.105 + j5.070
7199 ·56 = 907.261 amperes \ IAs\ =Jrj x 1.471
7.935 = 913.527 x 1.471 = 1343.798 amperes
J.. Calculate asymmetrical fault current at point of fault for
each type of fault. In the other phase associated with this fault, from
=or each type of fault, the asymmetrical current is obtained Equation 43:
oy first calculating the X/R ratio of the equivalent impedance
:2- e of the fault. X/R = Imag ( -:2- e)/Real( -:2- e). Then, using r = r1 r2 + (r1 +r2) + (ro + 3r,)
XR ratio calculated, find from figure 25A 1 the corresponding e {3 (ro + 3r, -a 2r2)
asymmetry ratio and multiply this by the rms symmetrical
"7ault current to get the rms asymmetrical value. and
A. Three-phase fault:
X 5.070
R= 6.105 = 0 ·830
r.: = r1 + rt
ior the node 5 impedances: from Figure 25A 1,

x_ 6.316 _ \lAs\ =\I\ x 1.013

'i- 3.653- 1.729
= 907.261 x 1.013 = 919.055 amperes
from Figure 25A 1,
9. Record fault-current range on circuit diagram.
The minimum available symmetrical current of 277
IAs\=\I\ X 1.134 amperes (rms), the maximum available symmetrical cur-
rent of 987 amperes (rms), and the maximum asymmetri-
= 986.738 x 1.134 = 1118.961 amperes cal fault current of 1344 amperes (rms) are recorded on
B. Line-to-line fault: the circuit diagram in Figure 28A 1.
10.Steps 6 through 9 are repeated for each fault point.
~
r.: -- r1 +r2+
{3 COMPUTER CALCULATION OF FAULT CURRENTS
for node 5 impedances The results of a computer program calculation of fault currents
for the sample system at every node are given in Table 9A 1.
X 7.293 For each node, the listing gives two rows each of rms symmet-
~= 4.218 = 1. 729 rical fault currents, rms asymmetrical fault currents, and X/R
ratios for the various types of faults: three-phase, double line-
from Figure 25A 1, to-ground, line-to-line, and line-to-ground. The first row shows
results based on zero fault impedance. The second row is
based on the fault impedance entered as program input. In
IAs\ = Jrj x 1.134
this sample case, zero -:2- t is used on the cable portions of
= 854.541 x 1.134 = 969.049 amperes the circuit, and a 20-ohm -:2- tis used on the overhead portions.
Whenever a zero appears in the Table 9A 1 data, it indicates
C. Line-to-ground fault:
that that kind of fault cannot exist at the indicated node of the
circuit. For example, at node 7, three-phase, double line-to-
ground, and line-to-line faults are not calculated, since this is
a node on a single-phase lateral.

47
A. Overcurrent Protection
1. FUNDAMENTALS AND THEORY
System Faults (Continued)

TABLE 9A1
Results of Computer-Program Calculation of Fault Currents
Fault Currents (Amps) and X/R Ratios
Column**: See Explanation in Text, Previous Page

I Type of Fault I Type of Fault

Node I ** I 3-Phase I LL-G I LL-G I LL I L-G Node I ** I 3-Phase I LL-G I LL-G I LL I L-G
1 SYM 3123. 3720. 3526. 2705. 3793. ASYM 0. 0. 0. 0. 3032.
353. 2616. 2794. 593. 355. 0. 0. 0. 0. 3032.
ASYM 4907. 3862. 3547. 2885. 6095. X/R 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 1.97
377. 2787. 2983. 834. 380. 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 1.97
X/R 8.98 1.06 0.75 0.11 11.12 10 SYM 2245. 2083. 2756. 1944. 2579.
0.11 0.12 0.11 4.48 0.09 2245. 2083. 2756. 1944. 2579.
2 SYM 2506. 2497. 3068. 2170. 2947. ASYM 2923. 2378. 2862. 1981. 3078.
2506. 2497. 3068. 2170. 2947. 2923. 2378. 2862. 1981. 3078.
ASYM 3424. 2791. 3112. 2242. 3749. X/R 3.12 1.78 0.24 0.32 2.16
3424. 2791. 3112. 2242. 3749. 3.12 1.78 0.24 0.32 2.16
X/R 3.87 1.62 0.36 0.26 2.83 11 SYM 2059. 1831. 2518. 1784. 2322.
3.87 1.62 0.36 0.26 2.83 2059. 1831. 2518. 1784. 2322.
3 SYM 2013. 1870. 2141. 1743. 2013. ASYM 2603. 2112. 2659. 1808. 2673.
335. 1665. 1822. 533. 332. 2603. 2112. 2659. 1808. 2673.
ASYM 2553. 1992. 2271. 1768. 2419. X/R 2.75 1.87 0.16 0.36 1.85
354. 1685. 1852. 704. 351. 2.75 1.87 0.16 0.36 1.85
X/R 2.79 1.26 0.14 0.36 2.23 12 SYM 1924. 1665. 2340. 1666. 2138.
0.16 0.38 0.34 3.33 0.15 1924. 1665. 2340. 1666. 2138.
4 SYM 1749. 1608. 1772. 1514. 1623. ASYM 2383. 1932. 2499. 1684. 2407.
329. 1440. 1590. 512. 323. 2383. 1932. 2499. 1684. 2407.
ASYM 2145. 1699. 1895. 1528. 1910. X/R 2.52 1.91 0.11 0.40 1.67
346. 1449. 1608. 662. 339. 2.52 1.91 0.11 0.40 1.67
X/R 2.42 1.20 0.05 0.41 2.04 13 SYM 1729. 1449. 2082. 1497. 1879.
0.18 0.45 0.38 3.04 0.18 1729. 1449. 2082. 1497. 1879.
5 SYM 987. 907. 913. 855. 767. ASYM 2084. 1692. 2226. 1506. 2058.
294. 799. 913. 414. 277. 2084. 1692. 2226. 1506. 2058.
ASYM 1119. 959. 961. 855. 867. X/R 2.25 1.97 0.04 0.44 1.47
303. 801. 915. 495. 281. 2.25 1.97 0.04 0.44 1.47
X/R 1.73 1.20 0.18 0.58 1.70 14 SYM 0. 0. 0. 0. 2056.
0.27 0.67 0.51 2.16 0.33 0. 0. 0. 0. 2056.
6 SYM 785. 723. 714. 679. 586. ASYM 0. 0. 0. 0. 2281.
276. 633. 730. 372. 254. 0. 0. 0. 0. 2281.
ASYM 875. 767. 743. 680. 658. X/R 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 1.56
282. 637. 732. 431. 256. 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 1.56
X/R 1.60 1.23 0.23 0.63 1.64 15 SYM 0. 0. 0. 0. 2188.
0.31 0.75 0.53 1.91 0.40 0. 0. 0. 0. 2188.
7 SYM 0. 0. 0. 0. 526. ASYM 0. 0. 0. 0. 2456.
0. 0. 0. 0. 241. 0. 0. 0. 0. 2456.
ASYM 0. 0. 0. 0. 579. X/R 0.00 0.00 0.00 0. 1.65
0. 0. 0. 0. 243. 0.00 0.00 0.00 0. 1.65
X/R 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 1.50 16 SYM 1972. 1721. 2403. 1708. 2202.
0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.41 1972. 1721. 2403. 1708. 2202.
8 SYM 0. 0. 0. 0. 518. ASYM 2459. 1993. 2556. 1728. 2498.
0. 0. 0. 0. 240. 2459. 1993. 2556. 1728. 2498.
ASYM 0. 0. 0. 0. 569. X/R 2.60. 1.90 0.12 0.39 1.73
0. 0. 0. 0. 242. 2.60 1.90 0.12 0.39 1.73
X/R 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 1.49 17 SYM 2.60 1.90 0.12 0.39 1.73
0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.42 0. 0. 0. 0. 2125.
9 SYM 0. 0. 0. 0. 2597. ASYM 0. 0. 0. 0. 2377.
0. 0. 0. 0. 2597. 0. 0. 0. 0. 2377.
X/R 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 1.62
0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 1.62
18 SYM 0. 0. 0. 0. 2107.
0. 0. 0. 0. 2107.
ASYM 0. 0. 0. 0. 2349.
0. 0. 0. 0. 2349.
X/R 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 1.60
0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 1.60

48
 A1
The circuit diagram of Figure 28A 1 includes current values
obtained from the program results displayed in
Table 9A1.

3-PHASE 3-PHASE
111111111
OVERHEAD UNDERGROUND
17 ++++++
¥
+
1-PHASE 1-PHASE

+ 2 L..-...=....:'-=--.....1 3
16~~H+~~~~+H~~HO-------------o
+
+
+
0
18

.+++++015

++++-+0 14
o----------9--------oS
I
I
I
12387l:141
I
I
I
I
124~~:.261 b 7

figure 28A1.
Cin:uit diagram with fault-current ranges.

49
A. Overcurrent Protection
1. FUNDAMENTALS AND THEORY

Index of Figures and Tables

FIGURE Principles of Overcurrent Protection Page
OA 1 Reclosers and fuses protect feeder segment and taps against temporary and transient faults ..................7
1A 1 Conventional definitions of protective devices based on location .........................................8
Tools for Fault Analysts
2A1 Diagram of balanced three-phase system showing conductor and phase relationships ........................9
3A1 Balanced systems of phasors used in three-phase symmetrical component analysis ........................10
4A1 Diagram of single-phase transformer with zero impedance serving a load impedance ....................... 13
5A1 Actual configuration of phase conductors referred to in Figure 6A 1 ...................................... 15
6A1 Assumed configuration of phase conductors for simplified impedance calculation ........................... 15
7A1 Cross-sectional geometry of concentric cables ......................................................22
8A1 Per-unit equivalent circuit for a two-winding transformer ...............................................26
9A1 Positive- and negative-sequence per-unit equivalent circuits of a transformer ..............................27
10A1 Transformer connections and zero-sequence equivalent circuits .........................................28
11A1 Sequence equivalents of a generator ..............................................................29
12A1 Diagram of a distribution system .................................................................30
System Faults
13A1 Line-to-ground faults ...........................................................................33
14A1 Line-to-line faults .............................................................................33
15A1 Double line-to-ground faults . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ...........................................33
16A1 Wye-connected synchronous generator ............................................................34
17A1 Generator diagram considering only zero-sequence components ........................................34
18A1 Diagram for line-to-ground case study .............................................................35
19A1 Interconnection of sequence networks for phase A-to-ground faults ......................................36
20A1 Fault-impedance convention for Equations 39 through 43 ..............................................37
21A1 Single-phase circuit for study of current behavior immediately following a fault .............................38
22A1 Illustration of significance of transient and steady-state fault-current components ...........................39
23A1 Interaction of terms of equations in Figure 22A 1 .................................................... .40
24A1 Current waveform with largest magnetic-current peak in the second loop ................................ .41
25A1 Result of plotting the maximums of I'll ............................................................. 42
26A1 Per-unit calculation of sequence-source impedances ................................................ .44
27A1 Circuit diagram for sample case ................................................................. .46
28A1 Circuit diagram with fault-current ranges .......................................................... .49
TABLE Tools for Fault Analysis Page
1A1 Impedance of copper conductor ..................................................................16
2A1 Impedance of ACSR conductor ..................................................................17
3A1 Impedance of bare all-aluminum conductor .........................................................18
4A1 Impedance of 15 kV three-phase underground cable with 175-mil cross-linked polyethylene insulation ..........23
5A1 Impedance of 15 kV three-phase underground cable with 220-mil cross-linked polyethylene insulation .......... 23
6A1 Impedance of 15 kV three-phase underground cable with 175-mil cross-linked polyethylene insulation .......... 24
7A1 Impedance of 15 kV single-phase underground cable with 220-mil conventional polyethylene insulation .........24
System Faults
8A1 Rotating-machine reactance (or impedance) multiplies ............................................... .43
9A1 Results of computer-program calculation of fault currents ............................................. .48

50
 Section A
OVERCURRENT PROTECTION

2. PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT CHARACTERISTICS

AND GENERAL APPLICATION FACTORS

An Introduction
This section bridges the gap between fundamentals and theory, The overcurrent protection equipment covered ranges from
and application specifics. Now that the previous section (A1) single-action devices requiring replacement of at least a key
nas supplied the basis for understanding and analysis of component after each operation (fusing equipment) to apparatus
overcurrent phenomena, we present a discussion of the designed for repeated operation over many years (reclosers,
equipment available for reducing or eliminating the potential circuit breakers). Each has its place in present-day electrical
dangers of overcurrent to distribution systems and their distribution systems. Each is discussed in the following pages
:omponent feeders and apparatus. The following overcurrent as to function and characteristics, available types, and general
protection section (A3) contains specific examples of how this selection and application factors.
equipment is used, with particular emphasis on the
coordination of devices to achieve the desired balance
between protection and continuity of service.

Table of Contents, Page 2

Index of Figures and Tables, Page 79

51
A. Overcurrent Protection
2. PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT CHARACTERISTICS AND GENERAL APPLICATION FACTORS

Fusing Equipment
Fuses are the most basic protective devices available for for overload protection. Switch links, on the other hand, have
overcurrent protection on the distribution system. Their primary no element, but are used to convert the fuse-link holder into
function is to serve as inexpensive weak links in the circuit-links a disconnect switch, if required.
that open to clear (interrupt) overcurrents and protect equipment The characteristics of an expulsion fuse link are defined by
against overloads and short circuits. They can also be used its time-current characteristics (TCC). On TCC graphs
for line sectionalizing. (Figure 2A2), the minimum-melt curve is the average melt
Fuses are available in a variety of types offering a wide less the manufacturer's tolerance, approximately 10 percent,
selection of operating characteristics. The basic types include with positive variations. The total clearing time is the average
expulsion fuses (covered under "fuse links" and "fuse cutouts" melt plus manufacturer's tolerance plus arcing time, with vari-
in the following discussions), vacuum fuses, and current-limiting ations in the negative direction. All curves are developed at
fuses. 25° C with no preloading.
Expulsion fuse links are covered under ANSI standard
DESIGNS AND CHARACTERISTICS C37.43, which defines characteristics for the following types
Fuse Links of links.
Fuse links serve as expendable, inexpensive "weak links" in The "N"-rated link was the first attempt at standardizing
expulsion-type protective devices, the most common of which fuse-link characteristics. The standard dictated that it would
are cutouts. That is, fuse links are the components replaced carry 100 percent of its rated current continuously and would
after providing the desired protection, just as blown household melt at less than 230 percent of its rating in five minutes.
fuses are replaced without disturbing the fuse box. From this, an upper limit for the TCC at five minutes is
The principal component of a fuse link is a fusible element defined. Since only the low-current end was standardized,
of various materials and dimensions that determine the time- the actual TCC shape was determined by fuse manufacturers
current characteristics. In parallel with the element is a strain and was highly variable.
wire to remove tension from the fuse link. The construction K and T links - "fast" and "slow" types, respectively - were
(Figure 1A2) utilizes a button head and a leader designed to also defined by standards in the early 1950's. For the Klink,
allow mechanical interchangeability in the cutouts or other a speed ratio of 6 to 8 is defined and for a T link, 10 to 13.
devices in which fuse links are used. Surrounding the fusible The speed ratio is the ratio of minimum-melt current at 0.1
element is an auxiliary tube that aids in the extinguishing of second to minimum-melt current at 300 or 600 seconds,
low-current faults. depending on the fuse-link current rating.
Some links make use of dual elements that reduce the Using this system, three points are established to
long-time minimum-melt currents without reducing short-time adequately describe the fuse curve: 0.1 second, 10 seconds,
minimum-melt currents. These types have special application and 300 seconds (600 seconds for 140- and 200-amp links).

Single Element FUSE ElEMENT AUXILIARYTUBE LEADER

En~ineered for accurate Provides gases for low- Stranded for strength
fusmg using a single tin current interruption. and flexibility.
element for cooler oper-

BUTIONHEAD
STRAIN WIRE
ation.

FERRULE
L
Provides exceptional ten- Copper construction for
sion relief in excess of better soldering, conduc-
standards. tivity, and strength.

Dual Element FERRULE SEAL AUXILIARY TUBE

Retains tube to assure Provides gases for low-
low-current interruption. current interruption.

BUTIONHEAD

FUSE ELEMENT LEADER

Designed for slow-speed, Stranded for strength and
high-surge withstand flexibility.
characteristics.

Figure 1A2.
Fuse-link construction, single and dual element.

52
 A2

Fuse Cutouts
300 As stated earlier, distribution expulsion fuses must be used in
conjunction with another device for proper operation. The
200
most typical devices are cutouts, available in open-link, open,
and enclosed design (Figure 4A2).
100 These devices operate on the "expulsion" principle by
80
60 means of a fuse link and an arc-confining tube with a deionizing
fiber liner. When the fusible element of the fuse link melts, the
40 fiber liner melts, thereby emitting deionizing gases, which
30 accumulate within the tube. The arc is stretched, compressed,
20 and cooled within the tube, and gas escaping at the tube
ends carries away a portion of the arc-sustaining particles.
10 Reestablishment of the arc after current zero is reached is
8 prevented by the deionizing gases, and by extreme gas pressure
6 and turbulence, which increase the dielectric strength of the air
a;- 4 \ gap in the tube. High-pressure gases then expel arc-supporting
-g 3 \
ions remaining in the tube.
i
w
2
1\1\
\ '
Open-link cutouts, the simplest design, rely only on the
fuse auxiliary tube for arc confinement and to clear currents.
~ 1\1\ MAXIMUM CLEARING TIME In both open-type and enclosed cutouts, however, the fuse link
~ 1
.8 \ / is inserted in a bone-fiber tube or fuseholder that enhances
v
\'r-v v
.6 fault-clearing capability. Enclosed cutouts have terminals,
.4 fuse clips, and fuseholder mounted completely within an
.3 \ insulating enclosure, whereas open cutouts, as the name
.2 1\ indicates, have these parts completely exposed .
\ Expulsion cutouts are covered by ANSI standard C37.42.
\ They have maximum voltage ratings of 5.2 kV through 38 kV
.1 and, as a result of testing, have defined symmetrical inter-
.08
.06 7 \ rupting ratings. (Asymmetrical values also are provided in the
.04
v·.V \ \ standards "for information only.") Table 2A2 summarizes the
ratings most commonly used. In addition to continuous current,
.03 f-- _
.02
MINIMUM
MELTING TIME
\
\ "' maximum voltage, and interrupting current, ANSI C37.42
states that distribution-cutout ratings also shall include

.01
I I
I I \"' frequency, basic impulse insulation level (BIL), load-break
current, and short-time current.
g 8 88 gr-- 80 0
0
0
0
0
g
N C"l VLC'l
~ g LC'l
TABLE 2A2
CURRENT (amperes) )
Summary of Available Ratings for Distribution Cutouts
Figure 2A2. (Expulsion Type)
Typical time-current curves for 10K link. Max Design Cont. Current Interrupting
Voltage Type Ratings Sym.Amps
(kV) (amps) (kA)
Typically, in addition to these points, the long-time continuous 5.2 Enclosed 50,100 & 200 1.6 through 12.5
current of a fuse link also is specified. This would generally 7.8 Enclosed 50, 100 1 .4 through 8.0
be 150 percent of rating for tin links and 100 percent of 7 .8 Open Unk 50 1 .2
7.8/13.5 Open 100,200 3 .6 through 12.5
rating for silver links. 15.0 Open Unk 50 1.2
The standard also specifies preferred and nonpreferred 15.0 Open 100,200 2.8 through 10.0
ratings. (Table 1A2.) "Basic" and "intermediate" might be better 15/26 Open 100, 200 1.8 through 5.6
terms, since the categories were established primarily to 18 Open Unk 50 .75
27 Open 100 1.1 through 8.0
facilitate rule-of-thumb coordination, and neither group is 38 Open 100 1.3 through 8.0
actually preferred. ..
See manufacturers ' catalogs for spec1f1c rat1ngs.
Typical fuse curves of various types of links are shown in
Rgure 3A2. It should be noted that there are several types of
fuse links - not all recognized by standards - other than
those described here.

TABLE 1A2
Standard Fuse-Link Ratings
"Non-Prefferred"
Preferred Ratinas Ratinas
6, 10, 15, 25, 40, 8, 12, 20, 30,
I 65,100,140,200 50, 80

53
A. Overcurrent Protection
2. PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT CHARACTERISTICS AND GENERAL APPLICATION FACTORS
Fusing Equipment (Continued)

1000

TYPICAL TIME-CURRENT CURVES

TYPES K. T. N. AND S FUSE LINKS

CURRENT {amps)

Figure 3A2.
Comparison of various fuse-link time-current characteristics.

Current-Limiting Fuses 2. The general-purpose current-limiting fuse is designed to

Current-limiting fuses {Figure 6A2) are basically non-expulsion interrupt all fault currents from its rated interrupting current
fuses that limit the energy available to the protective device. down to the current that causes element meHing in one
Thus, the possibility of catastrophic failure of the protective hour.
device can be reduced. 3. The full-range current-limiting fuse interrupts any continuous
Current-limiting fuses are available in three basic types: current (up to the rated interrupting current) that will cause
1. The backup or partial-range fuse must be used in conjunction the element to melt.
with an expulsion fuse or some other device, as it is only
capable of properly interrupting currents above a specified
level (typically 500 amperes).

54
 A2

MOUNTING
BRACKET

LINE
TERMINAL

LINE
TERMINAL

Open Open-Link

Enclosed

Rlgure 4A2.
J!'stribution-type fuse cutouts.

CLIP STYLE

HINGE STYLE WITH

ARC-STRANGLER®
LOADBREAK DEVICE

Figure 6A2.
Current-limiting fuse.

Figure 5A2.
Loadbreak fuse cutout.
55
A. Overcurrent Protection
2. PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT CHARACTERISTICS AND GENERAL APPLICATION FACTORS
Fusing Equipment (Continued)

A current-limiting fuse, as shown in Figure 7A2, consists of main element continues to arc, it now must do so in three
a fusible element of silver wire or ribbon. The ribbon is wound locations, thereby tripling the arc length and the area avail-
around a supporting member ("spider") which may or may not able to dissipate the circuit energy (Example C). During the ini·
produce ionizing gas to aid in clearing. The fuse is filled with tial arc period, sufficient heat is generated to decompose the
sand and installed in an insulating tube, typically of glass spider in that area, and the blast of gas evolving from the spi-
porcelain or epoxy der cools the fulgurite and reduces the length of arc needed to
The operation of the fuse is dependent on its type. For all achieve fault interruption.
types, high-fault current clearing is basically the same. A flow With other types of fuses, such as the Cooper NXC@
of current melts the full length of the element and the resulting capacitor fuse, the melting of the M spot ignites a squib at the
arc causes the element to explode, thereby vitrifying the sand end of the fuse that operates similarly to an expulsion fuse
and forming a glass tunnel which confines the arc. This glass and cutout to provide low-current clearing.
tunnel, known as fulgurite, restricts the arc by increasing the For current-limiting fuses, important factors to consider
resistance. Current is reduced and forced to an early current include let-through current, the melt l2t, the let-through l2t,
zero. and peak-arc voltage. Let-through current (Figures 9A2 and
In partial-range and full-range fuses, provision must be 10A2) depends on the point of fault initiation in the X/R of the
made for intermediate- and low-current clearing. In Cooper fault current. The minimum-melt 121 measures the fuse's ability
current-limiting fuses, for example, an "M spot" (a bit of tin- to withstand transients without being damaged. The let-through
lead alloy) is placed in the center of the main fusible element 121 measures the fuse's ability to reduce destructive effects on
to lower its initial melting temperature (Figure 8A2, Example faults. Peak-arc voltage is related to available fault current,
A). As soon as the element melts at the M spot, current is trans- the point on the cycle at which fault interruption occurs, or
ferred to an auxiliary element, a small wire wound adjacent system voltage, depending on the type of element. Silver wire
to the main element and gapped closely to the main element elements have a uniform cross-sectional area, and the peak-arc
about one-quarter of the distance from each end. A voltage voltage is a function of available fault current and the voltage
gradient appears across the arc at the M spot and across rating of the fuse (Figure 11 A2). Ribbon elements have notches
both auxiliary element gaps (Example B). Therefore, if the or cutouts which provide arc-voltage-generation control; as a

Clip-Style Current-Limiting Fuse END CAP

STANDARD
CONSTRUCTION Seated to the fuse tube
using a magnetic forma-
END FITTINGS~-:-------------_j
(CONTACTS} .
tion technique where
high-energy capacitors
Silver- or tin-plated as discharge into a maQnetic
required. Copper or red core to provide consistent
brass provides excellent force around the cap cir-
current- and heat-con- cumference.
ducting properties.
~-----EPOXY BOND
SILVER R I B B O N - - - - - - - - - - - - - For added cap-retention
ELEMENT strength.
High-purity sliver with
::!:5% tolerance assures NOTE: All 8.3, 15.5 and
accurate melting charac- 23 kv 2-lnch-dlameter NX
teristics. fuses have magniformed
end fittings.
SPIDER -:-:--:-:-:-:::-::-::7'----------
Gas-evolving support AUXILIARY ELEMENT
element to cool heat dis- - - - - - - - - - - - S i l v e r wire melts rapidly
sipated during fuse opera- to aid in low-current
tion and aid lowcurrent operation.
clearing.
: - - - - - - - - - - M SPOT(SOLDER)
AUXILIARY CONTACTS - - - - - - - . Reduces melting temper-
cause the arc length to ature of silver element at
triple during low fault cur- low fault-current opera-
rents, thus dissipating cir- tion.
cuit energy more rapidly.
----------HIGH-TEMPERATURE-
SAND-FILLED RESISTANTTUBING
Silica sand (99.5% pure) Contains internal pres-
fuses into a glass-like tun- sures during fuse opera-
nel structure (fulgurite) tion.
during fuse operation. dis-
sipating arc heat energy
rapidly.
INDICATOR BUTION - - - - - - - - . . .
Indicates a blown fuse
when protruding.

Figure 7A2.
Basic components of Cooper NX® current-limiting fuse.

56
 A2
result, peak-arc voltage is mainly a function of system voltage
(Figure 12A2).
The ability to reduce the energy available to the protective
equipment, as shown in the preceding figures, is the biggest
advantage of current-limiting fuses.

MAIN ELEMENT

MSPOT\.. \

INDICATOR
WIRE
AUX. ELEMEN~ f \
GAP ELECTRODES

.....-::INITIAL ARC

B~\==~====~~c===~==~f
___ /f K
GAPS FIRE

v AUXILIARY ELEMENT
BURNING OPEN

Figure 8A2.
Low-current operation of Cooper NX current-limiting
fuse.

100
_,
~.

-
50
' ~
/
~ v ,.....,. 200
!50
"'
- ~ ::::
i---"" 130
~ 20 .... 100
~ ~ ~ ;..... 75

~ ~ ~ .,.
::::. ......
~ 65
-lij 10 ~~ 50
45
40
!
1-
z
~
a:
:::>
(,)
5
- --
~
L. ~ ~ .....
::,.....-
"""'
~~ ...-:::: ;....
~
.,...,.. ......-::
.,...,.. ~ .....
;.....
......
~ ¥~&20.
12
10
30&35

- -
~ """' ~ ~ .......
J:

-
(!l
2
...... ....... ~ 68
:::>
..... ......... ......... ...... 1""""- ~r""'
0
"""' .....
a:
J:
1-
._!.
w
~~ k t::: .,...,.. .......
.,...,..
AMPERE RATINGS
v
...J
::!
~
,., .... .....
OF FUSES
.5
1/: ....... .... r-
~ / .... .......
::!
~

.2

.1
.1 .2 .5 2 5 10 20 50 100

AVAILABLE CURRENT (nns symmetrical kiloamperes)

Figure 9A2.
Maximum Jet-through current for NX current-limiting fuses - 4.3 and 5.5 kV.

57
A. Overcurrent Protection
2. PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT CHARACTERISTICS AND GENERAL APPLICATION FACTORS
Fusing Equipment (Continued)

100
/
50
/
/ ,.... ~-"'!~
0
~
Q) 20 k t;:: ::::;:. ;;;
::;...
,.... ~~~88065
~~
0.
E
"'
.Q
:i2 10
~~F' ~ """"
~
......... ::.I-" 50
40

-
-"

-
30
"'
Q)
8
1-
z
w
a:
a:
::J
5

~~
1/"
~~ ~

- ::> --
1- ,.,..
- ~
~ ~ ::;;..--
....-:: ....
....
25
20
12 & 18
10
8

-
~ .........
0
I
2 .... ~ f::::: 1- 1- .... 6
(!)
:..- ~ ~ 1-"" .........
::J
0
a:
I ~~ ~

- ~.-'"'
1-"" ...- ~ .... 3:ij
-_
1-

-
1.5
t!.
w
....1 / ...- ....
:;
::J .5 .... AMPERE RATINGS
/ ~
:; ..... ,..- OF FUSES

-
x ~~ I-"'
<(
:; v ~--"' ""' ... ,..- ~
.2
l..,.....-
"""" ...- ""'
.1 ............ 1-
.1 .2 .5 2 5 10 20 50 100
AVAILABLE CURRENT (rms symmetrical kiloamperes)

Figure 1OA2.
Maximum let-through current for NX current-limiting fuses- 8.3, 15.5, and 23 kV.

120

100
38 KV FUSES 6 THRU 12 AMP
c>
w
<!) 80
~
:..J
§2 27 KV FUSES 6 THRU 12 AMP
{)
a: 60
< I_ I I_
~ 23 KV FUSES 6 THRU 12 AMP
<
w !_ I I
a. 15.51KV FUSE~ 1.5 THRU 12 AMP
:::!!: 40
::::> I I I I I I
:::!!: 8 3 KV FUSES 1.5 THRU 12 AMP
~ ·
5.~ KV FUS~S
1
6THRU 12 AMP
I I -~
:::!!:
20

0
.1 .2 .3 .4 .5 .7 2 3 4 5 7 10 20 30 40 50 70
AVAILABLE CURRENT (rms symmetrical kiloamperes)

Figure 11 A2.
Maximum peak-arc voltage for current-limiting fuses as related to available current.

58
 A2
phase-to-phase fault when one fuse operates before the second
·oo has a chance to melt.
For ungrounded systems, the maximum voltage rating of the
I cutout should equal or exceed the maximum system phase-
90

80
v to-phase voltage. For grounded systems on single-phase
taps, the maximum voltage rating should equal or exceed the
maximum phase-to-ground voltage of the system, provided
the BIL rating is compatible. For three-phase applications, a
>
=-
·-
70 / cutout should be used with its maximum voltage rating equal
to or greater than the maximum phase-to-phase voltage. On
three-phase systems, however, faults that produce conditions
~
':::: I for which a single cutout must interrupt against phase-to-phase
> 60
:i
< 50 I
v voltage are relatively rare, so that slant-rated cutouts may
commonly be used. Table 3A2 lists typical cutout applications.

v
TABLE 3A2
"'~ Typical Open-Type Cutout Applications
::i: Recommended EC~u,\~ion

/I
::; 40
::i: Svstem Voltage (kV) Cutout Ratin kV *
X Four-Wire
<: Nominal Maximum Multigrounded Delta
::i: 30
Neutral
-
20 / 2.4
2.4/4.16
4.16
2.54
2.54/4.4
4.4
7.8/15
-
7.8/15
-
7.8/15

/
I 4.8
4.8/8.32
5.1
5.1/8.8
-
7.8/15
7.8/15
-
10 6.9 7.26 - 7.8/15

0 /
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35
6.93/12
7.2
7.2/12.47
7.62
7.3/12.7
7.62
7.62113.2
8.1
7.8/15

7.8/15
-
-
7.8/15
-
7.8/15
CIRCUIT VOLTAGE (kv) 7.62/13.2 8.1/14.0 15 -
7.97 8.4 - 7.8/15
Figure 12A2. 7.97/13.8 8.4/14.5 15
Maximum peak-arc voltage for current-limiting fuses as 8.32 8.8 - 7.8/15
related to circuit voltage. 8.32/14.4 8.8/15.2 15
12/20.8 12.7/22 15/27 -
12.47 13.2 - 7.8/15
FUSE APPLICATION FACTORS
13.2/22.9 14/24.2 15/27 -
13.2 14 - 7.8115
.Fuse CutoutS/Fuse Links 13.8 14.5 - 7.8/15
3ecause fuse links are used primarily in expulsion-fuse 14.4/24.9 15.2/26.4 15/27 -
14.4 15.2 15
:utouts, the first step in their application is selection of the -
19.9134.5 21.1/36.5 27/38
appropri~te fu~ cutout rating. To determine this rating, system 34.5 36.5 - 27/38
<'Oitage, msulat1on level, maximum available fault current at
application point, X/R ratio, and maximum load current must
.For mulllph~;~se il!ults not mvolvtng ground, slant-rated units rely on two
cutouts tn senes to mte!"'upt the tault and share the recovery voltage. In systems
all be known. From this, the fuse cutout can be selected wtth an ?~er-/underbutld of the same voltage or a situation where the line
~tonalizmg cutouts are spaced apart on diftarent spans, conditions could
:lased on continuous current, voltage, and interrupting capacity. extst where one cutout would be required to interrupt at phase-to-phase
The rated continuous current of the fuse cutout should be voltage. In such applications, lull-rated cutouts must be used.
;;reater than the maximum continuous load current the cutout
11ould be required to carry, including normal currents overload
The symmetrical interrupting rating of a fuse should be
currents, sustained harmonic currents, etc. '
equal to or greater than the maximum fault current at the fuse
Voltage selection is made based on the phase-to-phase or
location. Cutout interrupting ratings are based on X/R values
ohase-to-ground v?lta~~· depending on the system grounding
that are equal to or greater than those encountered on the
and whether the c1rcu1t 1s three phase or single phase. Either
majority of distribution systems. Close to substations where
X/R ratios may be particularly high, cutouts may ha~e to be
a full-rated cutout or a slant-rated cutout can be used.
. By standards, ~ full-rated cutout, which is designated by a
derated as shown in Figure 13A2.
s1ngle voltage rat1ng (such as 15 kV), must be able to interrupt
Where system fault currents are known, it is a simple matter
any ~ault curr~nt up to its maximum interrupting rating at its
to choose a cutout whose symmetrical and asymmetrical
max1mum des1gned voltage.
interrupting ratings are greater than the symmetrical and
. T~e rating of a slant-rated cutout (for example, 15/27 kV)
asymmetrical values of fault current. For example, Table 4A2
1mphes that one cutout i~ capa~le of i~terrupting its full rating
lists both types of interrupting ratings for a cutout with
when the lower voltage IS applied to 1t. It also is implied that
100 ampere fuse holder, and such information is available
two cutouts in series will interrupt the full rating when the
from cutout manufacturers. Also, asymmetrical fault current
higher number is applied (representing a high-magnitude
can be calculated by multiplying the symmetrical value by a
phase-to-phase fault). The cutout must also be able to inter-
factor obtained from the curve shown in Figure 13A2.
rupt low currents .(typicE~:IIY up to 500-1000 amperes) at the
h1gher voltage rat1ng. Th1s would represent a low-magnitude

59
 A2
Generally, single-phase circuits may be protected by current-
limiting fuses whose ratings are greater than the line-to-
(/)
w 120· ground voltage, whereas three-phase circuits require fuses
>
cr: ~, with suitable line-to-line ratings. In certain cases, line-to-
3 115 ·-.....t/1\1 ground ratings may be applied on three-phase systems,
:::i
::l
:l. 110 '' provided the post-interruption voltage impressed across the
fuse does not exceed the maximum design voltage. For this

-- ----' .. '....'........'~ , .. __
5 condition, it is assumed that two current-limiting fuses in
f
JJ
105 ---~llVEA series will share the impressed voltage for the given fault
:2 condition. Table 5A2 shows the recommended voltage ratings
- 100 and applications of current-limiting fuses.
:,)
~
:::; 95
' ---,., For equipment protection, the interrupting requirement of
the current-limiting fuse must coordinate with the equipment
...J
2
90
40 30 20 10 0 10
'' .........
it is protecting. The time-current characteristic must also
coordinate with other protective devices on the system, par-
20 30 40 50 ticularly when there are backup fuses and an expulsion fuse
AMBIENT TEMPERATURE DEGREES CENTIGRADE
must be relied on for low-current clearing. These points will
be discussed in more detail in later sections.
Figure 15A2.
Ambient temperature derating factors for fuse links. Like fuse links, current-limiting fuses must be derated
under certain ambient temperature conditions. The derating
factors for various applications are shown in Figure 16A2.
Current-Limiting Fuse Selection
:::;,ment-limiting fuses are selected primarily on the basis of
:'leir voltage rating. Factors to consider in determining suit- 140
::.Die ratings are the type of system, maximum system volt-
:;.ge, transformer winding conditions if fuses are to protect a 130
::-ansformer, neutral grounding, and type of loading. 120

I=' 110 IN FUSE CANISTER IN OIL -

TABLE 5A2 z
w .....

""'--
I I I
Recommended Current-Limiting Fuse Voltage Ratings a: 100
ecce
System Voltage (kV) Recommended NX Fuse Rating (kV) 125 90
... l'...... I IN TRANSFORMER
BUSHING
Four-Wire ~!:;j
u.;W ~~ I
Multigrounded Delta (!l:::E 80
/
"' " "
Nominal Maximum Neutral ?;:::E
!;(:::) 70
Single- Three- Single- Three- a:!!] FREE AIR
Phase Phase Phase Phase wz ~
o- 60
2.4 2.54 - - 4.3 4.3 1-:::E
z..J "
2.4/4.16 2.54/4.4 4.3 5.5* w<C 50
4.16 4.4 - 4.3 4.3 a:?;
CC:::E
4.8 5.1 - 5.5 5.5 :>a 40
4.8/8.32 5.1/8.8 5.5 8.3* - - Uz
lL
6.9 7.26 - - 8.3 8.3 0 30 DERATING FACTOR FOR NX FUSES
6.93/12 7.3/12.7 8.3 15.5* - e3
7.2 7.62 - - 8.3 8.3 20
7.2112.47 7.62/13.2 8.3 15.5* - - 10
7.97 8.4 - 8.3 8.3
7.97/13.8 8.4/14.5 8.3 15.5* -
8.32 8.8 - - 8.3 8.3 0
0 25 50 75 100 125 150 175
8.32/14.4 8.8/15.2 8.3 15.5* - -
12120/8 12.7/22 15.5 23* - - FREE AIR OR TOP OIL TEMPERATURE
12.47 13.2 - - 15.5 15.5
13.2122.9 14/24.2 15.5 23* - - Figure 16A2.
13.2 14.5 - 15.5 15.5 Ambient temperature derating factors for NX current-
14.4/24.9 15.2/26.4 15.5 27* - - limiting fuse applications.
14.4 15.2 - 15.5 15.5
19.9/34.5 21.1/36.5 23 38* -
34.5 36.5 - 38 38

'.!>.line-to-neutral rating may be used if certain parameters are met;

see three-phase applications.

61
A. Overcurrent Protection
2. PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT CHARACTERISTICS AND GENERAL APPLICATION FACTORS

Automatic Circuit Reclosers

An automatic circuit recloser is a self-contained device with the nications equipment allowing it to be linked with supervisor
necessary circuit intelligence to sense over-currents, to time and systems and/or peer devices.
interrupt the overcurrents, and to reclose automatically to re·
energize the line. If the fault should be "permanent:' the recloser RECLOSER CLASSIFICATIONS
will "lock open" after a preset number of operations {usually Automatic circuit reclosers are classied on the basis of single-
three or four) and thus isolate the faulted section from the main phase, three-phase or triple/single. Table 6A2 summarizes
part of the system. typical ratings in these classifications and identifies units
Most faults on overhead distribution systems - perhaps as specifically designed for pad-mounted installation.
high as 70 to 80 percent- are likely to be temporary in nature
and last only a few cycles to a few seconds at the most. Single-Phase Reclosers
Automatic circuit reclosers, with their ''trip and reclose" capa- Single-phase reclosers {Figures 17A2 and 18A2) are used
bility, eliminate prolonged outages on distribution systems for protection of single-phase lines, such as branches or taps
due to temporary faults or transient over-current conditions. of a three-phase feeder. They can also be used on three·
Although overcurrent protection is the primary duty for phase circuits where the load is predominantly single-phase.
reclosers, electronically controlled devices can be programmed Thus, when a permanent phase-to-ground fault occurs, one
to operate on a variety of circuit conditions. Some controls phase can be locked out while service is maintained to the
include voltage inputs. Controls can be equipped with commu- remaining two-thirds of the system.
TABLE 6A2
Summary of Cooper Reclosers
Interrupting Rating
Voltage Rating Max Cont. Current (sym amps at Interrupting Insulating Reloser
(kV) Rating (amps) max voltage) Medium Medium Control Typet
ISingle· Phase
50 1250 Oil Oil Hydraulic H
100 2000* Oil Oil Hydraulic 4H
200 2000* Vacuum Oil Hydraulic V4H
200 2000* Vacuum Oil Hydraulic PV4H**
15
280
280
4000*
6000
Oil
Vacuum
Oil
Oil
Hydraulic
Hydraulic
L
V4L I
560 10000* Oil on Hydraulic D
400 8000 Vacuum Oil Electronic VXE
400 8000 Vacuum Solid Dielectric Electronic NOVA1
800 12500 Vacuum Solid Dielectric Electronic NOVA1
100 2500 Oil Oil Hydraulic E
280 4000 Oi Oil Hydraulic 4E

s
27 400 8000 Vacuum Oil Electronic VXE
400
800
8000
125000
Vacuum
Vacuum ~ic
S ric
NOVA1
NOVA1
35 560 8000 Oil Oil r DV
rhrAB·Phase
100 2000* Oil Oil Hydraulic 6H
200 2000* Oil Oil Hydraulic V6H
560 10000* Oil Oil Hydraulic w
560*** 10000* Oil Oil Electronic WE
560 12000 Vacuum Oil Hydraulic PWH**
15 560 12000 Vacuum Oil Hydraulic vw I
560 12000 Vacuum Oil Electronic PWE***
560*** 12000 Vacuum Oil Electronic VWE
630 12500 Vacuum Solid Dielectric Electronic NOVA
800 12500 Vacuum Solid Dielectric Electronic NOVA
800 16000 Vacuum Solid Dielectric Electronic NOVA
560*** 12000 Vacuum Air Electronic VSA12
560 16000 Vacuum Air Electronic VSA16
800 16000 Vacuum Air Electronic VSA16
1 ~o~
8
~g~og ~:g~um
uum ~~~ ~~~ronic
tronic
VSA,~~
VSA2 A
560 12000 Vacuum Oil Hydraulip VWV27
27 560*** 12000 Vacuum Oil VWVE27
560 12000 Vacuum Oil PWVH**
560 12000 Vacuum Oil nic PWVE**
Vacuum So~~~ Dielectric
~5~ 12~gp0 Electronic NOVA
8 0 125 Vacuum Soli Dielectric Electronic NOVA
560 8000 Oil Oil Hydraulic wv
560*** 8000 Oil Oil Hydraulic WVE
35 560 12000 Vacuum Oil Hydraulic VWV38
560*** 12000 Vacuum Oil Electronic VWVE38
560*** 12000 Vacuum Oil Electronic VS012
560 16000 Vacuum Oil Electronic VS016
ITrlple Single

I&R!I
15 400 12500 Vacuum f<.!QYA
800 12500 Vacuum NOVA
27 400 12500 Vacuum NOVA
800 12500 Vacuum NOVA
* Interrupting rating Will be higher at lower voltage.
•• Pad-mounted reclosers. All others are overhead- or substation-type
••• Continuous current rating can be extended to 800 amps with an accessory . .
t NOTE: Recloser type designations are assigned by the manufacturer and are not universal. Cooper Power Systems type des1gnabons are the most complete
listing of reclosers in the industry, and are used in this manual for convenience in identifying recloser groupings and ratings.

62
 A2

Figure 17A2.
Pole-top installation of single-phase recloser.

Figure 18A2.
Single-phase recloser.

~19A2.
•~Type NOVA-TS Triple-Single Recloser.

63
A. Overcurrent Protection
2. PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT CHARACTERISTICS AND GENERAL APPLICATION FACTORS
Automatic Circuit Reclosers (Continued)

Three-phase Reclosers
Three-phase reclosers (Figures 20A2 and 21A2) are used
where lockout of all three phases is required for any permanent
fault, to prevent single phasing of three-phase loads such as
large three-phase motors.

Triple-Single Reclosers (Figure 19A2)

Triple-Single Reclosers are electronically controlled and have
three modes of operation. In the single-phase mode each
phase responds to fault currents independently. This mode
will allow only the phase experiencing the fault to trip while
maintaining continuity of service on those unaffected.ln addi-
tion, the control can sense, trip and lockout for ground faults.
Ground faults are an imbalance between all three-phases
and as a result all three phase will trip and lockout all three-
phases. Ground faults sensing is automatically disabled anytime
a phase fault has resulted in the tripping or lockout of one- or
two-phases.
The single-phase trip/three-phase lockout mode permits
single-phase trip operation for single-phase faults, three-phase
operation tor ground faults. Permanent phase or ground faults
will result in the lockout of all three phases.
The three-phase mode will operate exactly like a the three-
Figure 20A2.
phase recloser described above. Three-phase recloser.

Figure 21 A2.
Three-phase NOVA electronically controlled recloser.

64
 A2
Hydraulically Controlled Reclosers proportional to the minimum trip current programmed, (3) the
-1ydraulic control is used in single-phase reclosers and three- level-detection and timing logic is activated. After a time
:::~ase reclosers listed in Table 6A2. This type of control, which delay, as determined by the programmed time-current char-
s an integral part of the recloser, senses an overcurrent by acteristic, (4) the trip circuit is energized, sending a trip sig-
-neans of a series trip coil connected in series with the line. nal to the recloser. (5) A sequence counter then operates, (6)
Nhen current in excess of the coil's minimum trip rating flows causing the reclosing and reset logic to begin timing and
·'irough the coil, a plunger is drawn into the coil to trip open advancing the control program to its next preset operation.
::1e recloser contacts. Timing and sequencing are accom- After the programmed reclosing time expires, (7) a close
::Jiished by the "pumping" of oil through separate hydraulic signal is sent to the recloser and the current sensing begins
:1ambers. again. When the reset time expires, the sequence counter
One of two contact closing methods is used in hydraulically resets the control program to its starting position.
::ontrolled reclosers. In single-phase reclosers rated 280 The control will lock out immediately following a trip signal
a11peres and below, and in three-phase reclosers rated 200 after the programmed number of trip operations occur. When
amperes and below, contacts are closed by springs loaded locked out, the control does not reset or send a close signal
':!Y movement of the series-trip-coil plunger during the over- until the closing operation is manually activated from the control
:;ment opening operation. On 560-ampere single-phase panel or by a remote signal.
·eclosers and three-phase reclosers rated 400 amperes and Electronically controlled reclosers utilized solenoids, motors
.., igher, closing power is provided by a separate closing solenoid or magnetic actuators to open and close interrupters.
::!"!ergized from the line potential on the source side of the
·ecloser. (An optional closing solenoid arrangement can be ~sol Interrupters
Jsed for closing from ex1ernal120- or 240-Vac power.) Reclosers utilize either oil or vacuum as the interrupting
medium. When oil is used, the same oil is used for both arc
Electronically Controlled Reclosers interruption and basic insulation. Some reclosers with
--,e electronic method of recloser control is more flexible, hydraulic control also utilize the same oil for the timing and
~10re easily adjusted and tested, and more accurate than counting functions.
··ydraulic control. The electronic control conveniently permits Use of vacuum as an interrupting medium provides the
::1anging the time-current characteristics, trip current levels, advantages of reduced maintenance and minimum external
3.!1d recloser operation sequences without deenergizing or reaction. Some recloser types are available with either an oil
Jntanking the recloser. A wide range of programming options interrupter or a vacuum interrupter. Vacuum reclosers may
3.llow the operation of the control to be modified to solve many utilize either oil or air as the basic insulating medium.
:: fferent application problems.
Electronic controls are available utilizing microprocessor Types of Insulating Mediums
ogic. Greatly simplied, the operation of the logic is illustrated Reclosers insult those components at line potential with any
'1 Figure 21A2. (1) Line current is sensed by three bushing- one of the following materials:
:Jpe sensing transformers inside the recloser. Secondary • Mineral Oil
:urrents from these transformers are carried to the control by • Air
a rnulticonductor cable that also carries trip-and-close signals • High dielectric gas, such as SFa
:::;ack to the recloser. When these secondary currents, (2) • Solid dielectric, such as polymers.
"towing through sensing circuits in the control, exceed a level

CLOSE-INITIATING CIRCUIT
RECLOSER
TRIP-INITIATING CIRCUIT
I (~)
/1"~
,.._:_.. "-~":
:--- SENSING
LEVEL DETECTION
SEQUENCE RECLOSE
TRIP
BUSHING r-- CIRCUIT r- AND
r- CIRCUIT :--- COUNTER r-- TIMING
C-T's
r--
TIMING CIRCUIT
.... r-

~ PHASE-TRIP NETWORK t
~---1 ------- I
I I I I
l!
1
SENSING
ciRCUIT

I _ _ _ __.JI
I
~1
I LEVEL DETECTION
TIMIN~~?RcUIT
I- - - - - - -I
I
r---
I
- RESET
TIMING
-
GROUND-TRIP NETWORK

Figure 22A2.
Block diagram of electronic recloser control.

65
A. Overcurrent Protection
2. PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT CHARACTERISTICS AND GENERAL APPLICATION FACTORS
Automatic Circuit Reclosers (Continued)

5. Coordination with other protective devices on both source

and load sides of the recloser.
6. Ground-fault sensing.
System Voltage
The system voltage will be known and the recloser must have
a voltage rating equal to or greater than the system voltage.

Maximum Fault Current

The maximum fault current will be known or can be calculated.
The recloser interrupting rating must be equal to or greater
than the maximum available fault current.

Maximum Load Current

The maximum continuous current rating of the recloser must be
equal to or greater than the maximum load current anticipated
for the circuit.
In hydraulically controlled reclosers, the continuous current
rating of the series coil selected may be equal to or greater
than the anticipted circuit load. The coil can be selected to
Figure 23A2. match the present load current, anticipated future load current,
Electronic recloser controls utilizing microprocessor or substation transformer capacity. The minimum trip rating,
based logic. also a property of the series coil, normally is twice the coil's
continuous rating and should be at least twice the expected
peak load current.
In electronically controlled reclosers, the minimum trip current
RECLOSER LOCATIONS AND FUNCTIONS is selected independently of the recloser's maximum continuous
Reclosers can be used anywhere on a system where the current rating, although it normally does not exceed twice
recloser ratings are adequate for the system requirements. that value. Generally, a trip current value at least twice the
Logical locations are: expected peak load current is used.
1. In substations as the primary feeder protective device. For some circuits, such as those that have high air
2. On the lines at a distance from a substation, to sectionalize conditioning loads or electric heating loads, difficulties may be
long feeders and thus prevent outages of the entire feeder experienced when attempting to re-energize the circuit after
when a permanent fault occurs near the end of the feeder. an extended outage (cold load pickup}. For these applications,
3. On the taps of main feeders, to protect the main feeder a trip current setting of 250 percent, or higher, of the peak
from interruptions and outages due to faults on the taps. load current may be required.
Pad-mounted Reclosers
In addition to overhead and substation types, reclosers are Minimum Fault Current
available as pad-mounted units to provide simple, direct The minimum fault current that might occur at the end of the
connections to underground cable systems. line section to be protected must be checked to determine
Some substations utilize UG cable and pad-mounted that the recloser will sense and interrupt this current.
equipment to achieve smaller size and low profile, possibly NOTE: The "minimum fault current" values used in applying
with feeder circuits exiting via UG cable and changing to reclosers and other overcu rrent protection devices are
conventional overhead distribution feeders at nearby riser arbitrary values based on the particular utility's determination
poles. In such substations, and wherever underground sys- as to the level of protection needed for the zone in question.
tems convert to overhead, pad-mounted reclosers offer the Obviously, the true minimum fault level at any point on any
advantages of convenient UG cable connection and low pro- system is zero.
file while providing the desired protection for downline over- Coordination with Other Protective Devices
head distribution feeders. Coordination with other protective devices, both source-side
Pad-mounted reclosers can also be used on UG systems and load-side, becomes important after the first four application
for protection of the cable circuits and as primary protection factors are satisfied. Proper selection of time delays and
for transformers. In these applications, where reclosing oper- sequences is vital to ensure that any momentary interruption
ations are not used, the recloser can be set for one-trip oper- or longer outage due to faults is restricted to the smallest
ation to lockout, thus providing an economical circuit/trans- possible section of the system. Generally, the time-current
former protective device. characteristics and operating sequence of a recloser are
selected to coordinate with source-side devices. After a specific
RECLOSER APPLICATION FACTORS recloser size and sequence are determined, protective
Six major factors must be considered for proper application equipment farther down the line is then selected to coordinate
of automatic circuit reclosers: with it.
1. System voltage.
2. Maximum fault current available at the point of recloser
location.
3. Maximum load current.
4. Minimum fault current within the zone to be protected by
the recloser.

66
 A2

DUAL TIMING A three-phase recloser can have a more sensitive setting

Automatic circuit reclosers have dual timing capabilities that for ground faults, and thus have greater "reach," by utilizing
serve an important function in coordinating with other protective residual current detection for ground-fault sensing. This sensing
devices and in helping limit the areas affected by permanent permits setting of the ground-fault trip current well below the
faults. A typical recloser operating sequence to "lockout" (for phase-trip current.
a permanent fault) is illustrated in Figure 23A2. Many utilities utilize a ground-fault trip setting approximately
As shown, the first fault-current interruptions (one or more) equal to the peak load current. This results in a ground-fault
are performed in accordance with a "fast" timing characteristic. setting of 40 to 50 percent of the phase-trip setting and
The remaining interruptions to lockout incorporate a prede- ensures that there will be no unnecessary trips due to load
termined time delay. The first operations are fast in order to unbalance or operation of downline single-phase protective
clear temporary faults before any downline fuse operation. If devices (fuses or reclosers).
the fault is permanent, the time-delay operation allows a When even greater recloser reach is needed, the ground-fault
device nearer the fault to interrupt the overcurrent, thereby trip setting can be more sensitive than the peak load current
limiting the outage to a smaller portion of the system. To prevent any unnecessary trip operation, the ground-fault
trip setting must be greater than the normal maximum phase-
Ground-Fault Sensing current unbalance plus the added unbalance that would be
The majority of faults on the typical utility system (wye con- created by an operation of the largest downline single-phase
nected) involve either the neutral or the ground and are com- protective device. Note, however, that sympathetic tripping
monly referred to as "ground" faults. Such faults are com- conditions may in some cases dictate higher settings.
monly revealed through the detection of over-current, which When ground-fault sensing is used with a three-phase
is accomplished by sensing the residual current of three- recloser, the ground-fault settings (minimum trip and timing)
phase current transformers. The residual current measured, must be coordinated with the phase-trip settings of the downline
the zero-sequence current of the circuit, is comprised of both single-phase recloser. That is, the ground-fault minimum trip
the line-to-ground (or neutral) fault current plus the unbal- and timings must be greater than those of the downline
ance current of the three-phase feeder. recloser. This will insure trip and lockout of the downline
The standard phase-current sensing of reclosers will recloser on any fault beyond it without causing lockout of the
detect ground-fault currents when the total current through upline three-phase recloser.
any phase (load plus ground fault) exceeds the minimum
phase-trip setting. However, since this setting is relatively high
(two to two-and-a-half times peak load current), many ground
faults may not be detected. Since many of the ground faults
occur at some distance from the substation, the magnitude is
limited by the line impedance, ground resistance, and arc
resistance.

j ! "FAST" ,dPER:b.'T'IONS . "TIME-DELAY" OPER.ATIONS

(~O!iTACTS ¢ LOSED) (CONTACTS CLOSED)

RECLOSER
LOCKOUT
(CONTACTS OPEN)

-
T IME
RECLOSING INTERVALS (CONTACTS OPEN)

Figure 24A2.
Typical recloser operating sequence to lockout.

•
 A. Overcurrent Protection
2. PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT CHARACTERISTICS AND GENERAL APPLICATION FACTORS

Sectionalizers
A sectionalizer is a protective device that automatically isolates
faulted sections of line from a distribution system. Normally
applied in conjunction with a backup recloser or breaker, a
sectionalizer does not have any fault-interrupting capability of
its own. Rather, it counts the operations of the backup device
during fault conditions and, after a preselected number of
current-interrupting operations and while the backup device
is open, the sectionalizer opens to isolate the faulted section
of line. This allows the backup device to reclose into the
remaining unfaulted sections, thus restoring them to service.
If the fault is temporary, however, it will be cleared by the
backup device prior to the sectionalizer count to lockout, and
the sectionalizer will remain closed. The sectionalizer mechanism
then automatically resets to prepare for another complete
cycle of operations should a new fault occur.
Compared to fuse cutouts, which do, of course, have full
interrupting capability, sectionalizers provide several advantages
that, depending on the application and the particular utility's
approach to overcurrent protection, can offset a higher initial
cost. These advantages include application flexibil ity,
convenience, and safety.
After a permanent fault, for example, the fault-closing
capability of a sectionalizer greatly simplifies testing of the
circuit, and if the fault is still present, interruption takes place Figure 25A2.
safely at the backup recloser. Since replacement fuse links Typical electronically controlled sectionalizer.
are not required, the line can be tested and restored to service
with far more speed and convenience. Also, the possibility of
error in selecting the size and type of fuse link is eliminated.
In addition to providing the general advantages just cited, Electronically Controlled Sectionalizers
sectionalizers are particularly suitable for two applications The electronic control used with larger three-phase sectionalizers
where time-current characteristics (which sectionalizers do is more flexible and more easily adjusted than the hydraulic
not have) might pose coordination problems: control. It conveniently permits changing actuating current
1. They can be used between two protective devices with levels, shots to lockout, and memory time without deenergizing
operating curves that are close together. This is a vital or untanking the sectionalizer. A wide range of accessories is
feature in locations where additional coordination steps are available to modify the basic operation and solve many
impractical or impossible. different application problems.
2. They can be used on close-in taps where high fault Line current is detected by sensing current transformers in
magnitude prevents coordination of fuses with the backup the sectionalizer. Intelligence from the current transformers is
recloser or breaker. sent to an electronic cirruit that counts the nurroer of operations
of the backup interrupting device and then sends a trip signal
when necessary to activate an electromechanical release of
SECTIONALIZER CLASSIFICATIONS
the contact opening springs. Some electronically controlled
Sectionalizers are available in single- and three-phase versions sectionalizers are motor operated and may be closed either
controlled by hydraulic or electronic counting mechanisms: electrically or manually; others must be manually closed.
Table 7A2 lists representative ratings. Figure 24A2 shows an
electronically controlled unit. SECTIONALIZER FEATURES
Sectionalizer features include count reset, ground-fault sensing,
Hydraulically Controlled Sectionalizers
and various restraints that prevent unnecessary or undesirable
Hydraulic control, as used in all single-phase sectionalizers
operation and lockout (for example, by distinguishing
and in smaller three-phase units, is an integral part of the between the operation of load-side and source-side inter-
sectionalizer. This type of control senses overcurrent by
rupting devices). These features are covered in detail in the
means of a coil connected in series with the line. When over-
discussions of sectionalizer applications in Section A3.
current flows through the coil, a plunger is drawn into the coil
to arm the counting mechanism. When the over-current dis-
SECTIONALIZER APPLICATION FACTORS
appears, a count is accomplished by "pumping" oil through
hydraulic chambers. After a preselected number of pumping The following factors must be considered when applying
operations, a latch is released to allow preloaded springs to sectionalizers:
open the contacts. Hydraulically controlled sectionalizers 1. System voltage.
must be manually closed. 2. Maximum load current.
3. Maximum fault current available.
4. Coordination with other protective devices.

68
 A2

System Voltage greater than the maximum available fault current. The maxi-
The system voltage will be known and the sectionalizer must mum fault timing of the backup device must not exceed the
have a voltage rating equal to or greater than the system voltage. short-time rating of the sectionalizer.

Maximum Load Current Coordination with Other Protective Devices

The sectionalizer continuous-current rating should be equal Coordination with other protective devices, both source-side
to or greater than the anticipated maximum circuit load. and load-side, becomes a factor after the first three factors
are satisfied. At .this point, actuating levels, shots-to-lockout of the
Maximum Fault Current backup device, and memory time of the sectionalizer become
The maximum fault current will be known or can be calculated, prime considerations. These considerations are discussed in
and the sectionalizer momentary ratings must be equal to or detail in Section A3, "Applications and Coordination."

TABLE 7A2
Typical Sectionalizer Ratings
Hydraulically Controlled- 14.4 and 24.9 kV
Three-Phase
Single-Phase, Type GN3:14.4 kV, 110-kV BIL
Type GH: 95- or 125-kV BIL Type GN3V: 24.9 kV, 125-kV BIL
Continuous Symmetrical Actuating
Current Interrupting Current Short-Time Current Ratinas lamoeresl
Rating (loadbreak Rating Momentary Momentary
(amperes) amperes) (amperes) and Making One- Ten- and Making One- Ten
Current Second Second Current Second Second
(asymmetric) (symmetric)
5 1-Phase 3-Phase 8 800 200 60 800 200 60
10 Units Units 16 1600 400 125 1600 400 125
15 24 2400 600 190 2400 600 190
25 40 4000 1000 325 4000 1000 325
35 56 6000 1500 450 6000 1500 450
50 308 440 80 6500 2000 650 7000 2000 650
70 112 6500 3000 900 8000 4000 900
100 160 6500 4000 1250 8000 4000 1250
140 224 6500 4000 1800 8000 4000 1800
160 256 - - - 9000 4000 2600
185
200
296
320
-
-
-
-
-
-
9000
9000
5700
5700
2600
2600
Electronically Controlled, Three-Phase-14.4, 24.9, and 34.5 kV
14.4-kV, 24.9-kV, 110-kV 34.5-kV and 150-kV BIL
and 125-kV BIL
Continuous Symmetrical Actuating
Current Interrupting Current Short-Time Current Ratinas lamoeres)
Rating (loadbreak Rating Momentary Momentary
(amperes) amperes) (amperes) and Making One- Ten- and Making One- Ten-

I 16
Current
(asymmetric)
Second Second Current
(symmetric)
Second Second

24
40
56
80
200* 440 112
160
9000 5700 2600 - - -
224
256
296
320
16
24
40
56
80
400** 880 112 15000 10000 3500 15000 10000 3500
160
224
320
448
640
• Type GN3E: 14.4 kV; Type GN3VE: 24.9 kV.
- Type GV: 14.4 kV; Types GW : 34.5 kV.
NOTE: Sectionalizer type designations are assigned by the manufacturer and are not universal. Cooper type designations are used in this manual for CCliMliWn:e
in identifying sectionalizer groupings and ratings.
A. Overcurrent Protection
2. PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT CHARACTERISTICS AND GENERAL APPLICATION FACTORS

Circuit Breakers and Relays

Circuit breakers and relays are grouped together in this dis- Circuit breakers also have a stored-energy mechanism that
cussion of equipment characteristics and general application allows the breaker contacts to be closed several times after
factors because relays are normally used with breakers to power has been lost. The types of stored-energy mechanisms
achieve automatic tripping and closing of breaker contacts in and the respective numbers of closing/opening operations
overcurrent protection service. Subjects to be covered include required by ANSI37.12-1981 are as follows:
classifications of breakers and the selection of appropriate 1. Compressed air or other gas: two closing/opening
ratings, plus the types of relays used in distribution protection operations.
and their time-current characteristics. 2. Pneumatic or hydraulic: five closing/opening operations.
3. Motor-compressed spring: one closing/opening operation,
CIRCUIT BREAKER CHARACTERISTICS with spring reset within ten seconds.
AND CLASSIFICATIONS
A circuit breaker is usually employed at the substation level
in distribution-system overcurrent protection applications. By
definition (ANSI C37. 100), a circuit breaker is a mechanical
switching device capable of making, carrying, and breaking
currents under normal circuit conditions, and also capable of
making, carrying for a specified time, and breaking currents
under specified abnormal circuit conditions such as short circuits.
Breakers can be tripped and closed manually or by the use
of external relays or electronic controls. Because of their high
interrupting capacity and high continuous current capacity,
they are relatively expensive and bulky compared to other
distribution-system protective devices.
Circuit breakers can be classified according to both their
interrupting medium and their method of storing energy.
Interruption of currents following separation of contacts may
take the following forms:
1. Oil interruption.
2. Vacuum interruption.
3. Air-blast interruption.
4. SF6 (gas) interruption.
5. Air-magnetic interruption-available with indoor (metalclad)
breakers.
In distribution-system applications the breakers usually are oil,
vacuum, or air-magnetic. Examples of breakers with distribution
voltage ratings are shown in Figure 25A2 (oil interruption)
and Figure 26A2 (vacuum interruption).

Figure 26A2.
Kyle Type VSA20B air-insulated, electronically-controlled
vacuum circuit breaker.

70
 A2
TABLE 8A2
Preferred Ratings for Outdoor Oil Circuit Breakers
Related Required Capabilities
Current Values
Rated Values Max 3-Second Closing-
I Symmet- Short- and-
I Current rical Time Latching
Voltage Insulation Level Rated Transient Inter- Current- Capability
Rated Short- Recovery Rated rupting Carrying 1.6 K
Rated Withstand Continuous Circuit Voltage Per- Rated Capability Capability Times
Rated Test Voltage Current Current Rated Rated missible Max Rated
Rated Voltage at at Time to Inter- Tripping Voltage K Times Rated Short-
Max Range Low 60Hz Rated Point P rupting Delay Divided Short-Circuit Circuit
'lloltage Factor, Frequency Impulse (Amperes, Max kV T2 Time y byK Current Current
{llV, rms) K (kA, rms) (kV, Crest) rms) (KA,rms (ps) (Cycles) (Seconds) (kA, rms) (kA, rms) (kA, rms) (kA, rms)
Col. 1 Col. 2 Col.3 Col.4 Col. 5 Col. 6 Col. 7 Coi.S Col.9 Col.10 Col.11 Col.12 Col.13
15.5 2.67 600 8.9 36 5 2 5.8 24 24 38
15.5 1.29 1200 18 33 5 2 12 23 23 37
25.8 2.15 See Discussion 1200 11 52 5 2 12 24 24 38
38 1.65 in Text 1200 22 63 5 2 23 36 36 58
48.3 1.21 1200 17 80 5 2 40 21 21 33
72.5 1.21 1200 19 106 5 2 60 23 23 37

CIRCUIT BREAKER RATINGS amperes. The continuous load current of the system- including
~EMA SG-4 preferred ratings for alternating-current high-
load transfer and contingencies-plus allowances for load
dage circuit breakers are listed in Table 8A2 (a slightly growth dictate the continuous current rating required.
-evised version ofTable 3 in ANSI C37.06-1979). The ratings Rated Short-Circuit Current
and their applications are explained below in accordance (at Rated Maximum kV) (Col. 6)
rih the ANSI standards. Note that headings in the text relate To obtain the required symmetrical-current interrupting capability
1D table column headings.
of a circuit breaker at an operating voltage between 1/K times
Rated Maximum Voltage (Col. 1) rated maximum voltage and rated maximum voltage, the
The wltage rating is based on ANSI C84-1-19n, voltage ratings following formula shall be used:
b electric power systems and equipment (60 Hz), where Rated Symmetrical-Current Interrupting Capability =
applicable. It is the maximum voltage for which the breaker is
designed and the upper limit for operation. . . (Maximum Voltage}
Rated Short-C1rcu1t Current Rated Operating Voltage
Rated Voltage Range Factor, K (Col. 2)
K is the ratio of maximum rated voltage to the lower limit of the For operating voltages below 1/K times rated maximum
'31Qe of operating voltage, in which the required symmetrical voltage, the required symmetrical-current interrupting capability
cni asymmetrical current interrupting capabilities vary in of the circuit breaker shall be equal to K times rated short-circuit
nverse proportion to the operating voltage. current.
1R ated Withstand Test Voltage, Transient Recovery Voltage,
Low Frequency (Col. 3) Rated Time to Point P (Col. 7)
The rated low-frequency withstand voltage (dry) is the test At its rated maximum voltage, each circuit breaker must be
dage that a new circuit breaker, when tested dry and under capable of interrupting three-phase ungrounded terminal
specified conditions, must be capable of withstanding for one faults at rated short-circuit current in any circuit in which the
"'''inute without puncture or flashover. When tested wet and three-phase ungrounded-circuit transient recovery voltage
mer specified conditions, a new outdoor circuit breaker and does not exceed the rated transient recovery-voltage envelope.
edernal components shall be capable of withstanding the For circuit breakers rated 72.5 kV and below, the envelope Is
low frequency for ten seconds without flashover or puncture. defined by the rated values of E2 and T 2 from ANSI C37.06-
1979. E2 = 1.88 times rated maximum voltage, and T2 is the
IR ated Withstand Test Voltage, rated time to point P given in Table 8A2, Column 7.
-.,ulse (Col. 4)
The rated withstand impulse-test voltage consists of full-wave Rated Interrupting Time (CoL 8)
IPlplllse and a chopped-wave impulse. A new circuit breaker The rated interrupting time of a circuit breaker is the maximum
n.~st be capable of withstanding each without flashover or permissible interval between the energizing of the trip current
puncture when tested under specified conditions. The full-wave at rated control voltage and the interruption of the main current
mpulse voltage is the crest value of a standard 1.2 x 50 in all poles on an opening operation. The current interrupted
mpulse voltage wave. The rated chopped-wave impulse with- must be within the required interrupting capabilities and
stmd test voltages shall consist of 129 percent of rated full- equal to 25 percent or more of the required asymmetrical
rcrve impulse withstand voltage chopped at a minimum time interrupting capability at rated maximum voltage.
of two microseconds and 15 percent chopped at a
"'linimum time of three microseconds. Rated Permissible Tripping Delay (Col. 9)
The rated permissible tripping delay is the maximum value of
Rated Continuous Current at 80Hz {Col. 5} time for which the circuit breaker is required to carry K times
~ is the maximum 60-Hz current the circuit breaker can rated short-circuit current after closing on this current and
any continuously without exceeding allowable temperature before interrupting. K is the rated voltage range factor of
'IISieS. Standard values are 800, 1200, 2000, and 3000 Column 2.

71
A. Overcurrent Protection
2. PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT CHARACTERISTICS AND GENERAL APPLICATION FACTORS
Circuit Breakers and Relays (Continued)

Rated Maximum Voltage Divided by K (Col. 1 OJ The following conditions must be observed:
Throughout most of a circuit breaker's voltage range, the 1. A duty cycle shall not contain more than five openings.
interrupting rating increases as the voltage decreases 2. A period between opening operations greater than 15 minutes
reflecting, of course, the established relationship between shall be considered a new operating cycle.
voltage and current. The figures in this column indicate the In addition, asymmetry in the fault current at the time of
lowest voltages at which this relationship applies, which contact parting must be considered. This magnitude is
means that the interrupting rating does not change at lower between the symmetrical fault-current value and the maximum
voltages. asymmetrical fault-current value.
Figure 28A2 (which is Figure A12 in ANSI C37.010-1972)
Maximum Symmetrical Interrupting tabulates multiplying factors for this consideration - based
Capability (Col. 11) upon X/R of the circuit, contact parting time, and interrupting
For polyphase and phase-to-phase faults, the required time of the breaker. Thus, symmetrical fault current is multiplied
symmetrical interrupting capability is the highest value of the by the appropriate factor and compared to the standard or
symmetrical component of the short-circuit current - in rms modified maximum symmetrical interrupting rating as
amperes at the instant of primary arcing-contact separation - appropriate.
that the circuit breaker shall be required to interrupt at a
specified operating voltage on the standard operating duty Three-Second Short·Time Current-Carrying
and irrespective of the direct-current component of the total Capability (Col. 12)
short-circuit current. The numerical value at an operating voltage The short-time current-carrying capability is that value of rms
between 1/K times rated maximum voltage and rated maxi- short-circuit current that the circuit breaker shall be capable
mum voltage shall be determined by the following formula: of carrying for three seconds. This rms value, determined
from the envelope of the current wave at the time of the maximum
Rated Symmetrical _ Rated Short- crest, does not exceed 1.6K times rated short-circuit current;
Interrupting Capability - Circuit Current or, its maximum crest value does not exceed 2. 7K times the
X Rated Maximum Voltage rated short-circuit current, and the rms value determined
Operating Voltage over the complete three-second period does not exceed K
times rated short-circuit current.
In no case shall the required symmetrical interrupting
capability exceed K times short-circuit current. Closing·and·Latching Capability (Col. 13)
For distribution-voltage-level breakers (i.e., breakers rated The circuit breaker shall be capable of closing and, immediately
below 72.5 kV and having a continuous-current rating 1200 thereafter, latching any normal-frequency making current thai
amperes and below), the duty cycle is CO+ 15s + CO as does not exceed 1.6K times the rated short-circuit current or
defined in ANSI/IEEE C37.04-1979; which means that the whose maximum crest (peak making current) does not
breaker must be capable of closing into its maximum-rated exceed 2.7K times the rated short-circuit current. This corre-
interrupting capability, interrupting, remaining open for sponds to an X/R ratio of approximately 20. Higher X/R values
15 seconds, reclosing, and interrupting again. Breakers with may require the use of a circuit breaker with a higher inter-
continuous current rating above 1200 amperes are not rupting rating and thus a higher close-and-latch rating. This
intended for reclosing service applications. When such rating should be compared to the maximum asymmetricai
applications arise, the manufacturer should be consulted for fault current as calculated in Section A1 (see "System
capability factors. Faults").
Whenever a circuit breaker is applied on a duty cycle having Note that for outdoor circuit breakers rated at 121 kV and
either more operations or a shorter time interval between above, the rated voltage range factor K was changed to unity.
operations, its rated short-circuit current and rated interrupting 1.0, to simplify rating and testing procedures.
capabilities must be modified by the reclosing capability factor R.
ANSI/IEEE C37.04·1979 defines R as

R = 1OO·D (percent)
- d•=3

--
and '----;? KA=OT018.
0 = d1 (n-2) + d1 (15-t1) + d1 (15-t2) 0 ...
15 15 d, = 1/6KA
KA=18T075-
-
where D = total reduction factor in percent

d1 = calculating factor for D in percent of breaker

symmetrical interrupting capability at operating
voltage from Figure 27 A2 (based on Figure 2
in ANSI C37.06-1979).
15
._
-
n = total number of openings o 10 20 30 .co so eo 10 80
BREAKER SYMMETRICAL INTERRUPTING CAPABILITY
IN KILOAMPERES AT OPERATING VOLTAGE
t 1 =first time interval less than 15 seconds Note: See Section 5.10.2.6 of ANSI/IEEE C37.04-1979 for procedures
lor calculating the reclosing capabilities using the reduction factor, d1.
t2 = second time interval less than 15 seconds
Figure 27 A2.
ts = ... Interrupting capability factors for reclosing service.

72
 A2

130

120

110

100

90

80

a: 70
><
0 60
~
a:
50

10~-+~~~4---~~-1
CONTACT PAFlTiNG 2-CYCLE
TIME BREAKER
o~~------~~~~~
1.0 . 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1,0 u 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.0 1.1 1.2 1;3 1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3
MULTiPLYiNG FACTORS FOR E/XAMPERES

Figure 28A2.
Multiplying factors for three-phase and line-to-ground faults fed predominantly through two or more transformations.

TYPES OF RELAYS
Flelays provide the intelligence for identifying fault currents,
u timing and reclosing, and, in general, for controlling the
operation of a circuit breaker. They are an externally applied
apparatus, in that the breaker by itself has no fault-sensing
capability. There are many varieties of relays for sensing and
responding to a multitude of system conditions and quantities,
n:luding overcurrent, overvoltage, differential, impedance,
phase sequence, etc. The types most applicable to distribution-
system protection are the overcurrent relay (Figure 29A2}
and the reclosing relay, and both are used in most applications.

OVERCURRENT RELAY
Tune-Current Characteristics
The time-current characteristics of an overcurrent relay are
represented by a family of curves as shown in Figure 30A2.
The position of the curve is determined by the choice of tap
and adjustment of the time lever. The tap setting determines
1he minimum value of secondary-current input reached by
progressive increases that will cause pick-up of the relay. The
system current at which the relay picks up is defined as minimum
1rip and is determined by lhe following:

Minimum Trip =CT Ratio X Tap Setting

Trip time is determined by the time-lever setting. A higher Figure 29A2.
Typical time-overcurrent relay.
time-lever setting causes the induction disk to rotate a
greater distance, resulting in longer trip times.Thus, the tap
setting establishes the horizontal position of the curve and
1he time-lever setting establishes the vertical position of the
curve.

73
A. Overcurrent Protection
2. PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT CHARACTERISTICS AND GENERAL APPLICATION FACTORS
Circuit Breakers and Relays (Continued)

1' 1\'
6
,\ l\ i\
1\1
\' ' \ l
TYPICAL TIME CURVES
TYPECQ-8
OVERCURRENT RELAY
50-60 CYCLES

5 \
~' .\1\
'~ \~ ~,~
l
"Ni I,
,\ \ ~·,1\ ~ 1\ Ill
(/)
0
z
0
()
4
'
I' ~ ' ~
~
~ ~ 1\ ~ i\ 1\
\I\
.\
1\ 11
TIME DIAL SETTING

~'\ i\\'~~r.~
w ~
(/) 10 '\

3 1\ 8 ~
9 '~ ~
....
I' ' ~ "' ~
'~ ~ ~ I'
7 •'
1\ 6~ !'- r--- h.
I\,4~ 1\~ f\ "' "

~ ""
~

r--- I' r ~,.._

.~.

" " r-- r-. ~ ..... ~~~--

5
~ ~
2 I
3
~ l'lllo

~ ~ !"""" ,.... 1--

I~ r'l
~ 2

,,
l'\. 1\ ' f\ ~" ~ ~ r--- ,.... .... r-.
" f' ~ ~~--
~ ~'-t- ~'-""~

ttJ
~
1'1

~
""',.._ f' ""
~ ..._,
I'
~ ~ r--.. ~ ~ ~ """"
~~

~
I""- r--
1111

,.}':1 ..........
"' ~ r--- ...... ~
"··,'"

~~~ ~ ..._, ,.....,., .....

......... """""

~
'fi"
0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 12 14 16 18 20
MULTIPLES OF TAP VALUE CURRENT

Figure 30A2.
Time-current characteristics of a typical overcurrent relay on the same

There are many different shapes of time-current characteris- capability after an extended outage. Inverse and moderately
tics available, and the type chosen is dependent upon the inverse relays are generally applied where fault-current
application. Figure 31A2 shows the relationship among the magnitude is primarily a function of generation condition at
various families of curves when set on the same tap. the time of fault. Inverse short-time relays are applied for
In general, the very inverse and extremely inverse relays are protection of equipment such as power rectifiers, where fast
used for distribution-system protection, since fault-current tripping is desirable, but tripping not as fast as would be
magnitude is usually a function of fault location and only provided by an instantaneous element. Inverse long-time
slightly a function of generation and voltage conditions. These relays provide protection for motors against overloads where
relays provide excellent coordination with fuses and good thermal devices are not applicable.
recloser coordination in addition to providing load pick-up
 A2

100
0.030
60
~
30 1\ 0
z
rJl

0 0.020
0.025
\ 1\..

"'
u

10 1\ ~
w
rJl

w
I O.Q15
:::!: '' " MAX
r--....
!'--.t--
~ 0.010 r--..... MIN ~

\
""'
:::>
6 :.<:
LONGTIME
~ 0.005

3 '\ 0

'\I\"- 0
rJl 2 3 4 56 7 8 9 10
Cl
z
~
MULTIPLES OF PICK-UP
0
u
w
rJl 1.0
r--...... ..... Figure 32A2. . . .
~ t'-INVERSE Typical instantaneous tnp charactenst1c.
.......
~ o.e ..... 1-~VERY
i=

0.3
1\.
~HORT
\ INVERSE First, assume the following relay and settings have been
chosen:
.....__
IME ~ COB Relay
EXTREMELY
0.1
r--...... INVERSE
BOO : 5 CT Ratio
Tap5
0.06 Time Lever 1.5
IT Tap 12

' Refer to Figure 30A2 for the family of curves for the COB
inverse relay, and proceed as follows:
1.5 5 10 20 50
MULTIPLES OF TAP VALUE CURRENT
1. Minimum Trip = 1 x tap value = CT Ratio x Tap Setting
=BOOx 5
Rgure 31A2. 5
Relationship of various families of overcurrent relay
curves. =BOOA
When plotting on log-log TCC paper:
1X = BOOA
lftstantaneous Trip
rn addition to a time-current characteristic, which is a function 2X = 1600A, etc.
of induction disk movement, overcurrent relays also have an 2. To select the correct curve using the 1.5 time lever setting,
nslantaneous-trip mechanism, which operates magnetically. we must interpolate between the 1 and 2 settings at:
lllnimum value of trip current is determined by adjusting the
position of a plunger inside a solenoid. Different continuously
For 2X =
1600A, T = 2.1 + (4-2.1) X 112 = 3.05 s
~ustable ranges are available by inserting different instan-
For 3X = 2400A, T = .7B + (1.6B- .7B} X 112 = 1.23s, etc.
llaneous elements.Tap settings are indicated, and the
These points are plotted on TCC paper and the result is
nnmum trip is a function of secondary input current and the
setting chosen. This is expressed as: shown in Figure 33A2. To this curve should be added the circuit
breaker interrupting time.
fT Minimum Trip = CT Ratio x Instantaneous Tap Setting
3. The instantaneous element characteristics are shown in
Figure 32A2. Using the maximum curve:
Figure 32A2 shows a typical instantaneous trip character-
sic plotted as a multiple of pick-up current. When transferred Minimum Trip = 1 x Tap value = CT Ratio X Tap Setting
til standard log-log paper, the curves plot as straight lines.
=B00x12
As stated, inputs to both instantaneous and time trips are 5
pEMded by secondary CT current. The CT ratio should be
!1l!f so that the continuous current (including emergency con- = 1920A
dlons} does not exceed the rating of the CT. Often a ratio of For 2X = 3B40A, T = .03 s
1:JS to 1.50 times peak load current is selected to allow for For 3X = 5760A, T = .022 s
energency load-growth conditions. etc.
In order to coordinate the relay with other devices, it is
aJnWOOn to represent the relay curve on log-log paper on a
The curve is added to the time characteristics and the
pTal of time versus primary CT current - a procedure best
combination curve is shown in Figure 34A2. If breaker oper-
iiEtrated by an example.
ating time is added to the instantaneous curve, it would move
upwards slightly.

75
A. Overcurrent Protection
2. PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT CHARACTERISTICS AND GENERAL APPLICATION FACTORS
Circuit Breakers and Relays (Continued)

60 3600
50 3000

40 2400

. 30 1800

20 1200
CO-S RELAY
800:5CT
TAP5
TL 1.5
10 600

8 480

6 360
5 300
4
'\ \ I I I
240

3 180

2 ' ~ 120

\
'\ 60

~ .8
' 48 ....,
['-.
z
~
8
~
.6
.5
' ~
36
30 z
~ .4
24 g
~
i= .3 ' ' I" r
~

.2 ~-- ._."'-
12

0.1 6.0

.08 4.8

.06 3.6
.05 3.0

.04 2.4

.03 1.8

.02 1.2

8 888 8§
CURRENT IN AMPERES

Figure 33A2.
Time characteristics of C0-8 relay using the 1.5 time-lever setting.

76
 A2

60 3600
50 3000
40 2400

30 1800

20 CO-S RELAY 1200

800:5CT
TAP5
TL 1.5
(IT 12
10 600
8 480

6 360
5 300
4 \ 240 .
_1_

3 \ 180

2
' ~ 120

\
~ 60

~ .8
' 1'- 48
:::j
z
~-
8
:.:
.6
.5
' !\ 36
30 z
~ .4 24 ~
~
~ .3 ' ~
f"
18 (/)

"~~~~~-..
~:X:
.2 12 m
-~
-- .............
~
§
0.1 6.0
.08 4.8.

.06 3.6
.05 3.0
-
.04
"" "" i"'lll
2.4

.03 1.8

' "- ,, 1.2

8 8 88 8 § '~
CURRENT IN AMPERES

::;gure 34A2.
nstantaneous trip characteristic combined with time characteristic from Figure 32A2.

77
A. Overcurrent Protection
2. PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT CHARACTERISTICS AND GENERAL APPLICATION FACTORS
Circuit Breakers and Relays (Continued)

Reset Microprocessor Based Relay

One final characteristic of the time-overcurrent relay is identified With the advent of the macroprocessor based relay, the
as reset. Reset is the state of the relay when all response to relay can perform a single function such as the relay shown
decrease of input has been completed. That is, the induction in Figure 35A2 or multiple functions like the relay shown in
disk has returned to its unactuated or "home" position. Disk Figure 36A2. Microprocessor based relays provide more
reset time for various electromechanical relays is available functionality, easier get up and require less service than
from the manufacturers and is very important when coordinating electromechanical relays.
with reclosing relays. For the example, given, reset time is
eight seconds.

RECLOSING RELAY
The reclosing relay's only function is to begin counting the
instant the circuit breaker (in response to the over-current
relay) opens and to send a "close" signal back to the breaker
at prescribed times. There are generally two types of reclos-
ing relays: synchronous-motor timed and electronically
timed.

455
Figure 36A2.
Edison® Relay.
Figure 35A2.
Diagram of relay reclose settings of 2, 15, and 45 seconds.

With the synchronous motor type, reclose is accomplished by

cam-initiated switching, and timing is begun after the first trip
operation. Reset usually occurs ten seconds after a successful
reclose, or it can be delayed to the final reclose. For example,
a typical reclose setting of 2, 15, 45 would appear as shown
in Figure 35A2.
The reclosing relay, therefore, does not time the interval
between fault clearing and the successive reclose. Rather, it
sets up an entire sequence based on the moment of fault
clearing.
Apply the above reclose setting to the example under
"Overcurrent Relay," keeping in mind that the overcurrent
relay disk requires eight seconds to reset.
Upon the occurrence of a short circuit, the overcurrent
relay will sense the high-magnitude current pick-up,
time out to trip, and direct the circuit breaker to open. Figure 37 A2.
Edison® ldea•M Relay.
At this instant, the disk begins to reset and the reclosing
relay begins counting. After two seconds, the reclose relay
signals the circuit to close. If the fault persists, the overcurrent
relay will again begin timing, but a reclose interval of two sec-
onds allows the disk to reset only 2/8 or 25 percent of the
required time. Thus, when the second fault-timing sequence
occurs, the disk will need to travel only 25 percent of the dis-
tance to trip. Trip time will be four times faster and may
impede coordination.

78
 A2

Index of Figures and Tables

R GURE Fusing Equipment Page
1A2 Fuse-link construction, single and dual element .. .... . . ......... .. . . ..... ... . ... ...... .... . .... .. . . .52
2A2 Typical time-current curves for 10K link ............................................................53
3A2 Comparison of various fuse-link time-current characteristics ... . ........... .. .......... ... .......... .. .. 54
4-A2 Distribution-type fuse cutouts .. . ........... . ............ .. .......... .. ...................... .. ... 55
5A2 Loadbreak fuse cutout . ...... .. ............ . ...................................................55
6A2 Current-limiting fuses . .. ..... . ........................ . ...... . ................ . .......... .. .... 55
7A2 Basic components of Cooper NX current-limiting fuse .... ............. ........ . . . .... . . .. . . .... .. .. ...56
BA2 Low-current operation of Cooper NX current-limiting fuse ..... . ... . ....... .. .......... . ................57
9A2 Maximum let-through current for NX current-limiting fuses - 4.3 and 5.5 kV .. ... ..........................57
l 10A2 Maximum let-through current for NX current-limiting fuses- 8.3, 15.5 and 23 kV ...........................58
11A2 Maximum peak-arc voltage for current-limiting fuses as related to available current ........ . . .... ..... ... ... 58
l 2A2 Maximum peak-arc voltage for current-limiting fuses as related to circuit voltage . ...................... . .... 59
l.3A2 X/R derating factors for fuse cutouts ..... . ........ . .. . ... . ........... . ....... . .... . .. . . ........ ... 60
1-4A2 Preload derating factors for fuse links ........ . . .. ....... .. ... . . .. .... ..... . . .... . . . ............. .. 60
l.5A2 Ambient temperature derating factors for fuse links ...................................................61
•6A2 Ambient temperature derating factors for NX current-limiting fuse applications .............................61
Automatic Circuit Reclosers
17A2 Pole-top installation of single-phase reclosers ... .. ........ .... . ...... .. . . ... ......... .. ........ .. ... 63
"'l8A2 Single-phase recloser ...... .... ..... ... .. . . ...... .. .... ..... . ... .... . ..... . ........ . .... . ... . .. 63
"'9A2 Kyle Type NOVA-TS Triple-Single Recloser ......... . ................... . ....... .. ..... ... .. .. .. . ... 63
2!lA2 Three-phase recloser ............... . ............................................. ... .... .. .... 64
Z1A2 Three-phase hydraulically controlled recloser .. ... .......... .. ........... . ...... . ... .. ........ ... ... 64
Z2A2. Block diagram of electronic recloser control .... .... ........ . ........................................65
Z3A2 Electronic recloser controls utilizing microprocessor-based logic ...... .. ............... . ............ .. .. 66
2'CA2 Typical recloser operating sequence to lockout ..... . .... .. . . ...... .. . ..... ... . ......................67
Sectionalizers
:!5A.2 Typical electronically controlled sectionalizer ............... .... ...................... . .......... . ... 68
Circuit Breakers and Relays
25A2 Kyle Type VSA20B air-insulated, electronically-controlled vacuum circuit breaker ..... .. ................. .. .. 70
'llA2. Interrupting capability factors for reclosing service ... ... . .... . ....... .. .... .. .... ... ...... ...... ..... 72
2BA2 Multiplying factors for three-phase and line-to-ground faults fed predominantly through two or more
transformations .. ....... ... ..... .. ................ .. ........ . ... .... ...... .. .......... . ..... 73
.2iA3 Typical time-overcurrent relay . ... ........... .. ................................... . ......... .... .. 73
JDA2 Time-current characteristics of a typical overcurrent relay on the same tap ..... . ..........................74
31 A2. Relationship of various families of overcurrent relay curves ............... . ............................75
J2A2 Typical instantaneous trip characteristic .... ..... .... ... .. ... ......... ... .......... . ............ . ... 75
:3SA2. Time characteristics of C0-8 relay using the 1.5 time-lever setting .................... . ......... . . . ......76
:MA2 Instantaneous trip characteristic combined with time characteristic from Figure 32A2 ......... .. ............. 77
J5A2 Diagram of relay reclose settings of 2, 15 and 45 seconds .............................. ... .......... .. 78
:ISA2 Edison Relay ................ ... ...................... .. .......... .. ........... . ............ . .78
'UA2. Edison Idea Relay ............ . ........................ .. ... .... .... .. ....... .. . . .... . ... . .. . .. 78
'"'ABLE Fusing Equipment Page
1A2 Standard fuse-link ratings ....................... ... .... .. ..................... .... ........... . .. 53
2A2 Available ratings for distribution cutouts (expulsion-type) .................. .. .... .. ................... .. 53
3A2 Typical open-type cutout applications .......... .. .......... .. ....................... . .............. 59
4A2 Interrupting ratings for open cutout with 100 ampere fuse holder . .. .......... . ............. .. ........... 60
5A2 Recommended current-limiting fuse voltage ratings .. . ....... . .......... . ........... ... .... . ...... .. .61
Automatic Circuit Reclosers
~ Summary of Cooper reclosers . .. ........ ..... ............................ .. ....... . .......... ... 62
Sectionalizers
~A2. Typical sectionalizer ratings ..... ... ...... ...... .................... .... .......... ........... . ... 69
Circuit Breakers and Relays
iA2 Preferred ratings for outdoor oil circuit breakers . .. .. ... ..... . ............... .. ........ ....... •• ___ ••71
80
 Section A
OVERCURRENT PROTECTION

3. PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT
APPLICATIONS AND COORDINATION

An Introduction
;).ercurrent protection encompasses two overlapping areas service interruption to the fewest possible customers and the
concern: protection of specific feeder sections or apparatus, shortest possible time. Weighed against this ideal are cost
and protection of the overall feeder or distribution system. It considerations, discussed in general terms in the preceding
s principally the latter that is involved in the "coordination" of section (A2).
~ive equipment, but even protection designed primarily Throughout the application and coordination recommenda-
iJr a single transformer or other apparatus might require the tions that follow, consideration is given to the need for an
:::o::lfdination of two or more devices to assure the desired overcurrent protection philosophy, both in regards to specific
·esponses to different types of faults and to avoid potential equipment areas and for the overall distribution system.
ll&nger to adjacent equipment and lines. Readers not already working with an established protection
The application and coordination of overcurrent protection philosophy may find it helpful, if questions arise, to review the
iQ.ipment obviously will have considerable effect on continuity appropriate discussions in Section A2 on equipment charac-
r:l service, which ideally means limiting any fault-induced teristics and application factors.

Table of Contents, Page 3

Index of Figures and Tables, Page 150

81
A. Overcurrent Protection
3. PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT APPLICATIONS AND COORDINATION

Coordination Basics
Before the application of overcurrent protective devices can Protective devices are located at the coordinating points.
be discussed in detail, the fundamentals for coordinating Device A is at the substation, C and H are in the feeder, B is in
devices installed in series must be established. Some of what the branch tap off the feeder, D is on the distribution trans-
follows will sound familiar, as it is partly a review of principles former primary, and E, F, and G are service entrance fuses
stated previously, in Section A 1. on the distribution transformer secondary. All devices must
First, those series devices whose zones of protection overlap be selected to carry normal load current and respond prop-
must be coordinated so that the device nearest the fault (the erly to a fault, as follows:
"protecting" device) will operate before the upline device next • With respect to C, the protecting device is H, which means
closest to the fault (the "protected" or "backup" device) can that, for a fault at point 1 , device H must interrupt and C
function. The relative locations of "protecting" and "protected" must not open.
devices in a simple over-current protection scheme are • With respect to A, the protecting device is C, which must
shown in Figure 1A3. interrupt permanent fault current at point 2 before A operates
to lockout.
• Device B also is a protecting device for A and must operate

---1
SUBST~TION A PROTECTING similarly to C for a fault at point 3.
DEVICE • Only device A functions for a fault between A and C, such
~
as at point 4.
> PR;ECTED • For a transformer fault at point 5, device D interrupts current
OR BACKUP and permits normal load current to flow in the rest of the
DEVICE
C ) PROTECTING system.
DEVICE • For an overload on the transformer secondary at point 6,
device E interrupts that circuit only, so that power to the
transformer may be continued and customers on the other
Figure 1A3. secondary taps will receive service.
Conventional definition of protective devices based on
location. Fuse links are indicated for illustration.

Such coordination of properly selected and installed

devices will make possible the achievement of these basic
rules of distribution protection:
1. Give all faults a chance to be temporary, for most of them
are - perhaps as high as 70 to 80 percent.
2. Lock out (interrupt power) only for permanent faults.
3. Remove only the smallest possible portion of the line from
service.
In a typical, more complex protection scheme than that
shown in Figure 1A3, some devices serve both protecting
and protected roles, depending on the location of specific
faults. Also, devices with automatic reclosing capability, such
as circuit reclosers, are provided at appropriate points to permit
momentary interruptions in response to temporary faults. DISTRIBUTION
TRANSFORMERrv~~

EXAMPLE OF SYSTEM COORDINATION

Figure 2A3 diagrams overcurrent coordination for a system in
which a substation receives power from a high-voltage
transmission line and steps the voltage down to 7.2/12.47 kV.
Power to the customer is delivered by 7200 - 120/240-volt
transformers.
LOAD LOAD LOAD

Figure 2A3.
Typical example of system coordination.

82
 A3

Fuse-Fuse Coordination
The first step in establishing a fuse-fuse coordination philosophy the feeder.
is strict adherence to the just-described fundamentals for Even more difficult to quantify are the effects of predamage
ax>rdinating series protective devices. All faults should be - the degree to which fuse clearing characteristics may be
given a chance to be temporary, lockout should occur only for affected when currents approach the minimum melt of the
permanent faults, and when lockout does occur, only the time-current characteristic. To avoid the effects of predamage,
smallest possible portion of the line should be removed. in no case should the protected link be allowed to experience
For series-coordinated devices, the trip zones of protection a current within 90 percent of its minimum-melt curve.
owertap. An accepted rule for coordinating fuse links is that Example of fuse-link coordination based on TCC comparisons:
!he maximum clearing time of the protecting link should not Figure 3A3 shows a typical study for part of a system with
aceed 75 percent of the minimum melting time of the pro- feeder fuse A and branch-line fuses B and C. Known maximum
tected link. This assures that the protecting link will interrupt available fault current in symmetrical amperes and normal
n clear the fault before the protected link is damaged in any- load current are shown at each coordination point. Type T tin
way, as further explained below. links will be used in all protective devices.
Three methods that may be used in coordinating fuses are
1he application of time-current curves (TCCs), the use of

____3~:---------~---0--+-J~'OJS_A_~_P_E_R-ES---r--~
mordination tables, and rules of thumb. The TCC method,
fhe most accurate, must be used for critical coordination
areas. Tables, which are derived from TCC coordination, are
ll!latively accurate and can be used in repetitive situations. jr sar ~L
~=~des of thumb, the least accurate, will achieve satisfactory SUBSTATION A ~~~
toofdination in limited applications where fuses are used all
il one series, in either preferred or nonpreferred ratings.
36AMPERES' @
TCC COORDINATION METHOD 21 AMPERES
....,__ ,....15T
ID most cases, the entire system coordination is based on
TCCs for one particular fuse type (K, T, N, etc.) throughout
!he system. If so, coordination is somewhat simplified. Figure 3A3.
In applying fuse links as the protective devices in Figure Diagram for study of TCC fuse coordination method.
1A3, coordination should assure that the source-side protect-
ed ink (A) is not damaged when a fault occurs in the zone of
eiher load-side protecting link (B or C). Factors to consider in
a:complishing this are: Figure 4A3 shows maximum clearing-time and minimum
1. Tolerances. melting-time curves for possible links to be used at points A,
2.. Ambient temperature. B or C on the system. The 15T link, rated 23 amperes
1 Preloading effects. continuous, will meet the 21 ampere load current and provide
4. Predamage effects. a maximum clearing time of 0.021 second for 1550 amperes
at point C. Minimum melting time is not a critical factor if no
In practice, rather than going through a detailed analysis of other devices need be coordinated with the last fuse link on
~lEse factors (they are discussed below), a derating factor of the branch.
75 percent can be used. This will achieve the desired coordi-
'111fion (and prevent damage to the protected link) by assuring
'hal the maximum clearing time of the protecting link is no
peater than 75 percent of the minimum melting time of the
praected link. .16
-\
15T 25T 30T

'~"
\
BOT
...............
~\
2

15
As previously stated, the tolerance in time-current
c:haracteristics is automatically taken into account in standard
TCCs. Simply overlaying the curves and comparing maximum
\\ 1\ -,~,,

' ...
'\.
j\ ',
'\. 08
\. \. 07
dearing of protecting links to minimum melt of protected links !\. 1\ '~ \. \.
,_. account for tolerance. ll 1\ ~
oorg
Published TCCs are based on a 25° C ambient temperature.
~r temperatures will reduce the melt time and lower
.05 1

\
r-.. \.. \. I\ \.
~ '~ 1'\. \ \
' 05
04hl
z
0

.-Dent temperatures will increase it, as was shown earlier

· FIQUre 15A2, Section A2. While this is difficult to evaluate
ill view of yearly and daily variations in temperature, a range
.03 11--

.02 11-,-
~

- - ,.... "~ """"\ ·,

',\ 1\. ~
\
'
03 w
!Q.
::;
i=

can be developed based on maximum and minimum yearly .016 '- · - - r- 1\1-- ·, '· \
~\ \
02

015

1\ If\ \ ·" ' r\

~ratures .
I
Preloading effects -the degree to which the flow of current
lwough a fuse link will raise the temperature and thereby
'li!!OJce melting time - are not taken into account in developing
TCC curves. Using Figure 14A2, Section A2, the effect of
~ ~ ~ § ~~~ ~
CURRENT (AMPERES)
~~ ~ J ~ ~ ~~! f1
p:eloading can be determined for tin and silver links. As with Figure 4A3.
antlient temperature variations, this is a difficult characteris- TCCs for coordinating fuse links in Figure 3A3 example.
ic to evaluate, since preloading can vary over the life cycle of

83
A. Overcurrent Protection
3. PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT APPLICATIONS AND COORDINATION
Fuse-Fuse Coordination (Continued)

A link must now be found to carry 36 amperes continuous which employ the 75 percent ratio in indicating the maximum
current, interrupt 1630 amperes at point B, and coordinate fault-current values at which various types of fuse links will
with the 15T link. The 20T link is unsatisfactory, because it coordinate. Additional coordination tables are available from
can carry only 30 amperes continuously. The next choice, the your Cooper Power Systems representative.
25T link, carries 3B amperes continuously. Minimum melting The example cited under "TCC Coordination Method" can
time of the 25T link at 1550 amperes is 0.016 second. also be solved by using coordination tables. Again, select the
Because the 25T link melts before the 15T link clears, this 15T link as the protecting device at location C in Figure 3A3,
combination is undesirable for coordination. Minimum melting based on load-current considerations; protected links at B
time of the 30T link at 1550 amperes is 0.031 second. The and A can be chosen by referring to Table 3A3. First, locate
maximum clearing time/minimum melting time ratio for the 15T in the "Protecting Fuse Link Rating" column at the left,
30T and 15T combination is 0.021/0.031, or 6B percent. This and then follow horizontally to the right to the "Maximum Fault
is satisfactory, as the ratio for desirable coordination should Current" entry that is greater than the 1550 amperes available
not exceed 75 percent. at location C. That value, 1700 amperes, corresponds to a
An BOT link will satisfactorily interrupt 1BOO amperes at protected link rating of 30T at location B, and since the 30T
point A, carry 105 amperes continuously, and coordinate with link can carry 36 amperes continuously, it is an appropriate
the 30T link at point B. The CT/MT ratio for the BOT-30T com- choice.
bination is 0.051/0.16, or 32 percent. When the procedure is repeated with 30T as a protecting
The results of this study are shown in Table 1A3. link at location B, Table 3A3 indicates that a fuse-link rating of
65T at location A will coordinate with the 30T link up to a fault
USE OF COORDINATION TABLES current of 3100 amperes and satisfy the fault-current range.
When, as in many situations, the choice of fuse-link coordination However, the load current at A is 105 amperes and, since the
is a repetitive process, overlaying TCCs lends itself nicely to 65T link can carry only 97 amperes continuously, it will not
a tabular representation. If a suitable multiplying factor is chosen satisfy the continuous current rating. The next larger size link,
as representative of the system and the fault current can BOT, is therefore checked and found to be appropriate.
be determined over a range for which two fuse links will As can be seen, use of the coordination tables makes fuse-
coordinate, tables can be developed and used. For ANSI fuse coordination relatively easy to accomplish while satisfying
standard links, this is relatively straightforward, since the the 75 percent criterion.
links do not vary from one manufacturer to another.
Examples of this are shown in Tables 2A3 through 6A3,

TABLE 1A3
Study Results, Coordination of 25T - 15T Fuse-Link Coordination
Protected Link Protecting Link
Location of Protected Protecting Maximum Load Maximum Minimum Percent
Protected Link* Link Link Current Fault Current Clearing Time Melting Time CTIMT
c 15T - - 21 - - -
1550 .021 .0165 128
B** 25T 15T 36 (.021/.0165)
B 30T 15T 1550 36 .021 .031 68
(.021/.031)
A SOT 30T 1630 105 .051 .160 32
(.0511/.160)
• See F1gure 1A3
•• No Coordination for 25T-15T combination.

TABLE 2A3
EEI-NEMA Type K Fuse Links
Protecting Protected Link Rating - Amperes
Fuse-Link 8K 10K 12K 15K 20K 25K 30K 40K 50K 65K 80K 100K 140K 200K
Rating-
Amperes Maximum Fault-Current Protection Provided by Protecting Link - Amperes
6K 190 350 510 650 840 1060 1340 1700 2200 2800 3900 5800 9200
SK 210 440 650 840 1060 1340 1700 2200 2800 3900 5800 9200
10K 300 540 840 1060 1340 1700 2200 2800 3900 5800 9200
12K 320 710 1060 1340 1700 2200 2800 3900 5800 9200
15K 430 870 1340 1700 2200 2800 3900 5800 9200
20K 500 1100 1700 2200 2800 3900 5800 9200
25K 660 1350 2200 2800 3900 5800 9200
30K 850 1700 2800 3900 5800 9200
40K 1100 2200 3900 5800 9200
50K 1450 3500 5800 9200
65K 2400 5800 9200
SOK 4500 9200
100K 2400 9100
140K 4000
ThiS table shows max1mum values of fault currents at which EEI-NEMA Type K fuse links w1ll coordinate w1th each other. The table IS based on max1mum clear-
ing-time curves FL2B for protecting links and 75 percent of minimum melting-time curves FL 1 B for protected links.

B4
 A3
RULES OF THUMB times the rating of the protecting link. Such applications ~
Simple rules of thumb have been formulated for coordinating vide a safety factor of 75 percent or more.
EEI-NEMA fuse links of the same type and category - for Preferred T ratings are 6, 10, 15, 25, 40, 65, 100, 140, 200;
example, using preferred T links with preferred T, or nonpreferred nonpreferred T ratings are 8, 12, 20, 30, 50, 80. As in lhe
K links with nonpreferred K. example in the preceding section, a 15T link will coordinate
K links can be satisfactorily coordinated between adjacent with a 25T link up to 24 times 15, or 375 amperes The rules
ratings in the same series up to current values of 15 times the of thumb cannot be extended further, and thus are limited in
rating of the protecting link. T links can be satisfactorily coor- application.
dinated between adjacent ratings up to a current value of 24

TABLE 3A3
EEI-NEMA Type T Fuse Links

Protecting Protected Link Rating - Amperes

Fuse-Link 8T 10T 12T 1ST 20T 2ST 30T 40T SOT SST SOT 100T 140T 200T
Rating-
Amperes Maximum Fault-Current Protection Provided by Protecting Link - Amperes
6T 350 680 920 1200 1500 2000 2540 3200 4100 5000 6100 9700 15200
8T 375 800 1200 1500 2000 2540 3200 4100 5000 6100 9700 15200
10T 530 1100 1500 2000 2540 3200 4100 5000 6100 9700 15200
12T 680 1280 2000 2540 3200 4100 5000 6100 9700 15200
15T 730 1700 2500 3200 4100 5000 6100 9700 15200
20T 990 2100 3200 4100 5000 6100 9700 15200
25T 1400 2600 4100 5000 6100 9700 15200
30T 1500 3100 5000 6100 9700 15200
40T 1700 3800 6100 9700 15200
SOT 1750 4400 9700 15200
65T 2200 9700 15200
BOT 7200 15200
100T 4000 13800
140T 7500
"'S table shows max1mum values of fault currents at wh1ch EEI-NEMA Type T fuse links Will coordinate w1th each other. The table 1s based on maximum cleanng-
11ne curves FL4B for protecting links and 75 percent of minimum melting-time curves FL3B for protected links,

t ABLE 4A3
Type K Fuse Links
Protecting Protected Link Rating - Amperes
Fuse-Link 8K 10K 12K 15K 20K 25K 30K 40K 50K 6SK 80K 100K 140K 200K
Rating-
Amperes Maximum Fault-current Protection Provided by Protecting Link - Amperes
5K 22 150 280 400 490 640 1250 1450 2000 2650 3500 4950 8900 10000
8K 175 350 490 640 1250 1450 2000 2650 3500 4950 8900 10000
10K 200 370 640 1250 1450 2000 2650 3500 4950 8900 10000
15K 200 450 1250 1450 2000 2650 3500 4950 8900 10000
20K 175 1250 1450 2000 2650 3500 4950 8900 10000
25K 900 1450 2000 2650 3500 4950 8900 10000
30K 1300 2000 2650 3500 4950 8900 10000
40K 1300 2500 3500 4950 8900 10000
50K 1700 3200 4950 8900 10000
60K 2000 4950 8900 10000
75K 3700 8900 10000
85K 8900 10000
100K 6000 10000
150K 3000
"11115 1atlle shows max1mum value of fault currents at which Type N fuse links Will coordinate with each other. The table is based on maximum clearing-time curves
IR..iB br protecti ng links and on 75 percent of minimum melting-time curve FL7B for protected links.

85
A. Overcurrent Protection
3. PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT APPLICATIONS AND COORDINATION
Fuse-Fuse Coordination (Continued)

TABLE 5A3
Type K Fuse Link Coordination
Protecting
(D) 20 25 30 40 50 65 80 100 140 200
1 500 750 1000 1300 1700 2200 2BOO 4000 6000 9500
1.5 500 750 1000 1300 1700 2200 2BOO 4000 6000 9500
2 325 670 900 1250 1650 2200 2BOO 4000 6000 9500
3 325 670 900 1250 1650 2200 2BOO 4000 6000 9500
4 620 1050 1500 2100 2BOO 4000 6000 9500
5 620 1050 1500 2100 2BOO 4000 6000 9500
7 620 1050 1500 2100 2BOO 4000 6000 9500
10 620 1050 1500 2100 2BOO 4000 6000 9500
15 620 1050 1500 2100 2BOO 4000 6000 9500
20 620 1050 1500 2100 2BOO 4000 6000 9500
Max1mum fault current to wh1ch protected and protecting fuse Will cooradmate

TABLE 6A3
Type T Fuse Link Coordination
Protecting
(D) 12 15 20 25 30 40 50 65 80 100 140 200
1 5BO BOO 1150 1400 2000 2500 3200 4200 5100 6400 15000 3000
1.5 5BO BOO 1150 1400 2000 2500 3200 4200 5100 6400 15000 3000
2 730 1050 1400 1900 2500 3200 4200 5100 6400 15000 3000
3 730 1050 1400 1900 2500 3200 4200 5100 6400 15000 3000
4 BOO 1200 1BOO 2500 3200 4200 5100 6400 15000 3000
5 BOO 1200 1BOO 2500 3200 4200 5100 6400 15000 3000
7 BOO 1200 1BOO 2500 3200 4200 5100 6400 15000 3000
10 BOO 1200 1BOO 2500 3200 4200 5100 6400 15000 3000
15 1200 1BOO 2500 3200 4200 5100 6400 15000 3000
20 1200 1BOO 2500 3200 4200 5100 6400 15000 3000
Max1mum fault current to wh1ch protected and protecting fuse w111 cooradmate

TABLE 7A3
EEI-NEMA Type K Fuse Link Coordination
Protecting Protected Link rating - Amperes
Fuse Link
Rating- A 8 10 12 15 20 25 30 40 50 65 80 100 140 200
6K 190 350 510 650 840 1060 1340 1700 2200 2BOO 3900 5BOO 9200
BK 210 440 650 B40 1060 1340 1700 2200 2BOO 3900 5BOO 9200
10K 300 540 710 1060 1340 1700 2200 2BOO 3900 5BOO 9200
12K 320 430 1050 1340 1700 2200 2BOO 3900 5BOO 9200
15K B70 1340 1700 2200 2BOO 3900 5BOO 9200
20K 500 1100 1700 2200 2BOO 3900 5BOO 9200
25K 660 1350 2200 2BOO 3900 5BOO 9200
30K B50 1700 2BOO 3900 5BOO 9200
40K 1100 2200 3900 5BOO 9200
50K 1450 3500 5BOO 9200
65K 2400 5BOO 9200
BOK 4500 9200
100K 2000 9100
140K 4000
ThiS table shows max1mum values of fault currents at which EEI-NEMA type K fuse links Will coordinate With each other. The table IS based on max1mum-cleanng
time curves FL2B for protecting links and 75 percent of minimum-melting time curves FL1B for protected links.

86
 A3

Current-Limiting Fuse Coordination

""""-ee are several varieties of coordination situations involving the system will allow modification of this factor.
current-limiting fuses. These include coordination of a source- Example of source-side current-limiting fuse and loa«Hiide
Side current-limiting fuse with a load-side expulsion fuse, a expulsion fuse coordination: Figure 5A3 shows the maxinun
lmad-side current-limiting fuse with a source-side expulsion coordination point for a 65 NX fuse and a 25K link using a
flEe, a current-limiting fuse with another current-limiting fuse, 0. 75 factor. The value is 1250 amperes.
and a backup current-limiting fuse with an expulsion fuse.
LOAD-SIDE CURRENT-LIMITING FUSE AND
SOURCE-SIDE CURRENT-LIMITING FUSE AND SOURCE-SIDE EXPULSION FUSE
LOAD-SIDE EXPULSION FUSE The coordination of a load-side current-limiting fuse with a
As with fuse links, it is essential that the protecting fuse operate source-side expulsion fuse can be made simply by overlaying
I::IEfore the protected fuse begins to melt. An expulsion fuse the TCC as in expulsion-fuse coordination. Again, a factor of
nenupts at a current zero. Therefore, 0.8 cycles is considered 75 percent should be used to assure proper coordination.
!he minimum interrupting time and the range of coordination The zero-forcing properties and very inverse characteristic of
uil be limited as a result. A factor of 75 percent can again be the current-limiting fuse maximum clearing-time curve allow
wsed as a nominal number to take into account the various coordination through any level of fault current.
eilects-remembering, of course, that specific knowledge of

60 3600
50 I \
3000
40 2400
30 1800
1\
20
\ .. ,. 7.2/12.47 KV
1200

10
~t ""l\.,
65C
v
25K
~
- 600
8 480
6 360
5 300
4 240
65C
3 MINIMUM 180
\
MELT
_\ 25K 120
2
\ MAXIMUM
CLEAR

rJ)
1\\ 60~
(j)

0 .8 48 ID
z \. N
0 .6
(..)
\ 36 ~
w 30w
rJ) .5 :I:
~ .4 24 ~
w .3 18 rJ)
:::!; w
\ \
~ ..J
.2
' ~I' I\
12 >
(..)
(..)

~
~ ~I\
25K w
0.1 r-M INIMUM 6.0 ~
1-
.08 r- MELT 4.8
1'\.
.06 3.6
.05 3.0
.04 2.4
.03 1\ 1.8
'\
~
.02 1.2
.75X65C ~
\1 ~
.01
MINIMUM MELT
I I I I II ~ l\
8 88888§ § §§§§§~
CURRENT IN AMPERES

Figure 5A3.
TCC for coordinating source-side current-limiting fuse and load-side expulsion fuse.

87
A. Overcurrent Protection
3. PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT APPLICATIONS AND COORDINATION
Current-Limiting Fuse Coordination (Continued)

COORDINATING TWO CURRENT-LIMITING BACKUP CURRENT-LIMITING FUSE AND EXPUL·

FUSES SION FUSE
To coordinate two current-limiting fuses, the curve should be This protection method is often used, as it permits the majority
plotted beginning at 0.01 second. For current-limiting fuses, of faults (which tend to be low current) to be cleared by an
curves extend downward from that point to fractions of a inexpensive expulsion fuse. When major faults occur within
cycle. Because clearance will occur within these short times, the equipment being protected, the current-limiting fuse operates
two time references must be considered. to limit the available energy
Above 0.01 second, a current-limiting fuse in series with Since it is important that the expulsion fuse clears low-current
another can be coordinated by simply overlaying TCCs and faults without damage to the current-limiting fuse, the
using a 75 percent coordination factor. Below 0.01 second, crossover point is established at current levels higher than
coordination can be achieved through the use of minimum- the minimum interrupting rating of the current limiting fuse. It
melt and total-clear I2t values. A bar graph incorporating the also is important that the current-limiting fuse lets through
75 percent ratio is available for this (Figure 6A3). enough energy after it operates to cause the expulsion fuse
When coordinating two current-limiting fuses in series, the to blow, thus providing a visible indication of the fault and a
maximum let-through J2t of the protecting or load-side fuse sharing of the post-impressed fault voltage by both fuses.
must not exceed the minimum-melt I2t of the protected or Overlaying the fuse characteristics will produce a point
source-side fuse. That is, the load-side fuse will limit the where the maximum-clearing curve of the expulsion fuse
let-through energy to a magnitude that is less than would be crosses the minimum-melt curve of the current-limiting fuse.
required to melt the source-side fuse. Higher currents will result in simultaneous operation.
Example: What is the smallest source-side 8.3 kV NX fuse Table 8A3 gives typical coordination information for Cooper
that will coordinate with a 25 ampere load-side NX fuse? The Power Systems backup current-limiting fuses and fuse links.
bar graph (Figure 6A3) shows that the maximum let-through Such tables are available also from other manufacturers.
of the 25 ampere NX fuse is 2.4 x 104J2t. The smallest
source-side fuse whose minimum-melt J2t exceeds this value TABLE 8A3
is the 65 ampere fuse, with a minimum-melt I2t of 2.65 x 104. Coordination of Backup Current-Limiting Fuse and
Fuse Link
Examining coordination above 0.01 second is not required
because coordinating margins are built into the published Companion* Coordinates with Fuse Links up Through (Amperes)
numbers. Coordination is conservative and will produce a Fuse Rating NEMA NEMA Cooper Kearney
coordinated system up to any fault-current level. If the fault (Amperes) TypeK TypeT TypeD Type X
current available is limited, coordination can be undertaken 12 12 8 1.5 2.5
by the use of J2t versus I curves. 25 25 15 20 10
40 40 20 20 15
*Cooper Power Systems trade name.

88
 A3

2 I
I I I
I I I I I
FOR8.3-KV
C-RATED NX FUSES
108 X 1
8
6

4 t-
1--
1--

2 t--

105 X 1 t- t- t--
t--
8 I= I=
t- t-
r-
t--
6 t- t- t--
t- t- r-
4 t- t- t--
t- t- r-
2 t- r-

104 X 1
~ f.= I= I= f.= I=
? 8 t- t-- t- t-- t-- r-
~
~

6
t- t-- t- t- r-
u I'- t- t- t- t--
w t- t- t- t- t--
en
>< 4 t- t- t- t- t--
a.. ~
::!: t- t- t- t- t--
<
2 t-- t-- t- t- t- t-- r-

103 X 1
8
f.= f.=
t-
I= - ~-
f.= r- r- I=
~
I=
t--
6
t- -
t-- -
t-
t-
-- -- t-
t-
t-
t-
,.--
t-
t--
t--
- - t- - - t- t- t- t--
4 - - t-- - - r- t-- t- t--
- - t- - - t- t- t- t--

2 -MAX.
TOTAL
t- - ,.-- - - t- t- '- t--

- - - r=
102 X 1
8 =
- - -== f::t-
t-
=
- --=
-
I=
r-
t-
I=
t-
f::
t- t-
t-
t--
t--
6 - '- r- - ~
r- r- r- t--
f- t-- - t-- t-- t- - r- r- r-. t--
4 t- t- - t- t- - :- r-
t- - - -
t- t- t-
- . t- t-
"
t-. t--

2 f- f- - t- t- - - t- t- t- t--
MIN.
MELT

10x 1 ~.
1.5 3
.......
4.5 6
'--
8
'-
10
'--
12 18
'--
20
'-
25 30
'-
40 --
50 60 65 80
'- '--
90 100 130 160 200
'-- ....._

Figure 6A3.
Bar graph for coordination of current-limiting fuses.

89
A. Overcurrent Protection
3. PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT APPLICATIONS AND COORDINATION

Transformer Fusing
A total overcurrent protection scheme for transformers must Inrush currents are the transient currents that occur when
accomplish these things: a transformer is energized. They are greatly dependent on
1. Protect the system from transformer faults. the residual flux in the core at the point on the voltage wave
2. Protect the transformer from severe overloads. when closing occurs. To withstand inrush currents, a fuse
3. Remove the transformer from the system as quickly as should typically be able to withstand 25 times the full-load
possible and limit the energy available to it. current for 0.01 second, and 12 times the full-load current for
4. Withstand harmless short-time overloads. 0.1 second.
5. Withstand inrush and cold-load pickup. Cold-load pickup occurs when re-energizing after an outage.
6. Resist damage from lightning surges. It can vary, depending on the system, and the fuse curve
The devices available for transformer overcurrent protection selected should be slower than the inrush curve, if known.
include fuses, circuit switchers, reclosers, fault interrupters, Lightning discharge voltages can saturate the core of the
and circuit breakers. Normally, the choice is likely to be the least transformer, producing inrush currents. Field experience is
expensive device or combination that will provide appropriate the best guide, as the analysis is quite complex. In general, if
protection in recognizing the type of load-and in most appli- lightning damage is a problem, larger fuse sizes are best
cations that choice will involve fusing. For a more complete used.
understanding of the overall subject of transformer protection,
it is recommended that the following discussion of transformer TYPES OF FUSES FOR TRANSFORMER
fusing be read in conjunction with later sections on recloser-fuse PROTECTION
link coordination and relay-fuse link coordination. There are numerous types of fusing possibilities for distribution
transformers, beginning with an internal (inside the trans-
DEVELOPING A TRANSFORMER former) weak link.This provides low-cost installation but has
FUSING PHILOSOPHY limited interrupting capacity. It is not field replaceable and
The first step in protecting transformers with fuses is to develop must often be used with a secondary breaker or Cooper
a fusing philosophy. In general, a fusing ratio can be calculated MagneX® Interrupter.
by dividing the fuse minimum-melt current by the transformer An external expulsion cutout, the next option, also is relatively
full-load current. If a high ratio is used, it protects the system economical and has the advantage of being easily re-fused.
from a damaged transformer but provides limited overload It will not, however, provide current-limiting protection against
protection. A low fusing ratio provides maximum overload catastrophic transformer failure.
protection, but the fuse is subject to damage by inrush and A current-limiting fuse in the bushing or externally mounted
surge currents. is the most expensive option, and the fuse must be replaced
Tradeoffs to be considered in developing a fusing philosophy after all faults. This fuse, however, does the whole job with no
include service continuity, transformer failures due to over- danger of miscoordination or replacement of incorrect links,
loading, coordinating transformer fuses with sectionalizing and it provides protection against transformer catastrophic
devices, effects of inrush and cold-load pickup, etc. failure.
If the transformer characteristics are known, the fuse can Combining a current-limiting fuse with an expulsion fuse
be coordinated simply by making sure the time characteristic has a higher initial installation cost, but since only the expulsion
falls within the confines of the transformer inrush curve and the fuse needs to be replaced as a result of low-current faults, it
transformer damage curve. A development of these curves is is a more desirable option.
defined by standards but may not always be available. These options are available in various configurations for
Therefore, the fuse may have to be selected by considering both overhead and underground applications. Figures 7A3,
the various factors. 8A3 and 9A3 show typical TCC examples for a specific
transformer rating, and Tables 9A3 through 12A3 provide fusing
guides for proper transformer protection. Table 13A3 compares
the ratings and characteristics of applicable expulsion fuses
and current-limiting fuses.

90
 A3

60 3600
50
I l I II II I I 3000
40 2400
30 TRANSFORMER 1800
F0 DAMAGE
20
1\
i\ " .~
~ CURVE 1200

~
10 600
8 480
6
5
4
'\
360
300
240
1. .

~ 180
3 : TRANSFORMER
INRUSH CURVE ,...!!!!"
2 I-
l\ 120

en
~ 60 Ci5
<
c;;
0 .8 48 Ill
z N
0 .6 36\i:
(,)
w 30 ~
en .5
~ .4 24 ~
w .3 18 en
::E w
i= _J

.2 12 ~
z
~
w
0.1 6.0 ~
1-
.08 4.8
\ 3.6
.06
1 3.0
.05
.04 2.4
.03

.02
'\
_1
1.8

1.2

.01 0.6
C1l a> CD c.> ~
8_..
(11
0 0 0
88888§ § §§§§§§ 0
§0 8 8
88
CURRENT IN AMPERES X 10'

Figure 7A3.
TCCs showing transformer inrush current and transformer damage current for a specific transformer size.

91
A. Overcurrent Protection
3. PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT APPLICATIONS AND COORDINATION
Transformer Fusing (Continued)

60 3600

-
50 3000
40 2400
l 1800
30 \ TRANSFORMER
\ \ ,.
20
tt11 ' 1\

~
DAMAGE
CURVE

Ill
1200

m
10 600
8 480
6 360
5 sop
4 240.

I
'\.
3 TRANSFORMER,...
INRUSH CURVE "' 180

2
1\l\ ~ 120
\
(/) 1
\. \ 60
Ci)
~
0
z .8 48 :e
0
0 .6 ssb:

ift 30~
w .5
(/)

~ .4 24 g
w .3
::::E
i=
.2
1\

' l\~
\
...-- 8T

tt m
18

12
;n
w
..J
l20
z
0.1
1\\ 6.0 ~
w

.08 4.8
.08 1\ MIN. 3.6
\ \
.05
.04 ' MELT

MAX.
3.0
2.4
.03 '\ 1.8
(!LEAR

.02 \ 1\ 1.2
\. '\

\ 1\
8 88888§ § §§§§§~
CURRENT IN AMPERES X 101

Figure 8A3.
TCCs showing characteristics of appropriate expulsion fuse for transformer protection.

92
 A3

8
6
5
4
3

(/) 1
Cl
z .8
0 .6
(..)
w .5 TRANSFORMER
(/) INRUSH CURVE
~ .4
w
:::E .3
i=
.2

0.1
.08
.06
.05
.04
.03

.02

.01 ~L.I-~1..1..--l...-"'--1--L...I-l..... 0.6

~ g: ~ 8 1\)

8 ~8888§ § ~§§§§~ ~ ~~~

CURRENT IN AMPERES X 101

=-igure 9A3.
"r'CCs showing characteristics of expulsion and current-limiting fuse combinations for transformer protection.

93
A. Overcurrent Protection
3. PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT APPLICATIONS AND COORDINATION
Transformer Fusing {Continued)

TABLE 9A3
Suggested Primary Fusing for Distribution nansformers
Fuse Ratings Based on Use of Type "N" Fuse Links and High-Surge Type "H" Links
(Protection Between 200% and 300% of Rated Load)

Delta-Connected Primary Wye-Connected Primary

TWMTWm
Figure A Figure B Figure C FigureD Figure E Figure F

i
2400 Delta 2400/4160Y 4800 Delta 4800/8320Y
Figures A and B FigureC Figures D, E and F Figures A and B Figure C Figures D, E and F;
Transformer
Size Rated Link Rated Link Rated Link Rated Link Rated Link Rated Link
(kVA) Amps Rating Amps Rating Amps Rating Amps Rating Amps Rating Amps Rating
3 1.25 2H 2.16 3H 1.25 2H .625 1H* 1.08 1H .625 1H*
5 2.08 3H 3.61 5H 2.08 3H 1.042 1H 1.805 3H 1.042 1H
10 4.17 8 7.22 15 4.17 8 2.083 3H 3.61 5H 2.083 3H
15 6.25 10 10.8 20 6.25 10 3.125 5H 5.42 8 3.125 5H
25 10.42 20 18.05 30 10.42 20 5.21 8 9.01 20 5.21 8
37.5 15.63 25 27.05 40 15.63 25 7.81 15 13.5 20 7.81 15
50 20.8 30 36.1 60 20.8 30 10.42 20 18.05 30 10.42 20
75 31.25 50 54.2 85 31.25 50 15.63 25 27.05 40 15.63 25
100 41.67 60 72.2 100 41.67 60 20.83 30 36.1 60 20.83 30
167 69.4 100 119.0 150 69.4 100 34.7 50 60.1 100 34.7 50
250 104.2 150 180.5 200 104.2 150 52.1 85 90.1 150 52.1 85
333 138.8 200 238.0 138.8 200 69.4 100 120.1 150 69.4 100
500 208.3 361.0 208.3 104.2 150 180.5 200 104.2 150

7200 Delta 7200112470Y 7620113200Y 12000 Delta

Figures A and B Figure C Figures D, E and F Figures D, E and F Figure A and B Figures C
Transformer
Size Rated Link Rated Link Rated Link Rated Link Rated Link Rated Link
(kVA) Amps Rating Amps Rating Amps Rating Amps Rating Amps Rating Amps Rating
3 .416 1H* .722 1H* .416 1H* .394 1H* .250 1H* .432 1H*
5 .694 1H* 1.201 1H* .694 1H .656 1H* .417 1H* .722 1H*
10 1.389 2H 2.4 5H 1.389 2H 1.312 2H .833 1H* 1.44 2H
15 2.083 3H 3.61 5H 2.083 3H 1.97 3H 1.25 1H 2.16 3H
25 3.47 5H 5.94 10 3.47 5H 3.28 5H 2.083 3H 3.61 5H
37.5 5.21 8 9.01 20 5.21 8 4.92 8 3.125 5H 5.42 8
50 6.94 10 12.01 20 6.94 10 6.56 10 4.17 8 7.22 15
75 10.42 20 18.05 30 10.42 20 9.84 20 6.25 10 10.8 20
100 13.89 20 24.0 40 13.89 20 13.12 20 8.3 15 14.44 20
167 23.2 40 40.1 60 23.2 40 21.8 30 13.87 20 23.8 40
250 34.73 50 59.4 100 34.73 50 32.8 50 20.83 30 36.1 60
333 46.3 60 80.2 150 46.3 60 43.7 60 27.75 40 47.5 85
500 69.4 100 120.1 150 69.4 100 65.6 100 41.67 60 72.2 100

13 14400 Delta 14400124900Y

Transformer Figures A and B Figure C Figures A and B Figures C reD, E and F

Size Rated Link Rated Link Rated Link Rated Link Rated Link
(kVA) Amps Rating Amps Rating Amps Rating Amps Rating Amps Rating
3 .227 1H* .394 1H* .208 1H* .361 1H* .208 1H*
5 .379 1H* .656 1H* .347 1H* .594 1H* .374 1H*
10 .757 1H* 1.312 2H .694 1H* 1.20 2H .694 1H*
15 1.14 1H 1.97 3H 1.04 1H 1.80 3H 1.04 1H
25 1.89 3H 3.28 5H 1.74 2H 3.0 5H 1.74 2H
37.5 2.84 5H 4.92 8 2.61 3H 4.52 8 2.61 3H
50 3.79 8 6.56 10 3.47 5H 5.94 10 3.47 5H
75 5.68 8 9.84 20 5.21 8 9.01 20 5.21 8
100 7.57 15 13.12 20 6.94 10 12.01 20 6.94 10
167 12.62 20 21.8 30 11.6 20 20.1 30 11.6 20
250 18.94 30 32.8 50 17.4 30 30.1 50 17.4 25
333 25.23 40 43.7 60 23.1 40 40.0 60 23.1 40
500 37.88 60 65.6 100 34.7 50 60.0 100 34.7 50
*Since this is the smallest link available and it does not protect lor 300% of load, secondary protection is desirable.

94
 A3
TABLE 10A3
Suggested Primary Fusing for Distribution Transformers
Fuse Ratings Based on Use of EEI-NEMA Type "K" or "T" Fuse Links and High-Surge Type "H" Links
(Protection Between 200% and 300% of Rated Load)

Delta-Connected Primary Wye-Connected Primary

Figure A Figure C Figure D Figure E Figure F

2400 Delta 2400/4160Y 4800 Delta 4800/8320Y

I Figures A and 8 Figure C Figures D, E and F Figures A and 8 Figure C Figures D, E and F
1
Transformer
Size Rated Link Rated Link Rated Link Rated Link Rated Link Rated Link
(kVA) Amps Rating Amps Rating Amps Rating Amps Rating Amps Rating Amps Rating
3 1.25 2H 2.16 3H 1.25 2H .625 1H* 1.08 1H .625 1H*
5 2.08 3H 3.61 5H 2.08 3H 1.042 1H 1.805 3H 1.042 1H
10 4.17 6 7.22 10 4.17 6 2.083 3H 3.61 5H 2.083 3H
15 6.25 8 10.8 12 6.25 8 3.125 5H 5.42 6 3.125 5H
25 10.42 12 18.05 25 10.42 12 5.21 6 9.01 12 5.21 6
37.5 15.63 20 27.05 30 15.63 20 7.81 10 13.5 15 7.81 10
50 20.8 25 36.1 50 20.8 25 10.42 12 18.05 25 10.42 12
75 31.25 40 54.2 65 31.25 40 15.63 20 27.05 30 15.63 20
100 41.67 50 72.2 80 41.67 50 20.83 25 36.1 50 20.83 25
167 69.4 80 119.0 140 69.4 80 34.7 40 60.1 80 34.7 40
250 104.2 140 180.5 200 104.2 140 52.1 65 90.1 100 52.1 65
333 138.8 140 238.0 138.8 140 69.4 80 120.1 140 69.4 80
500 208.3 200 361.0 208.3 200 104.2 140 180.5 200 104.2 140

7200 Delta 7200/12470Y 7620/13200Y 12000 Delta

Figures A and 8 Figure C Figures D, E and F Figures D, E and F Figure A and 8 Figures C
Transformer
Size Rated Link Rated Link Rated Link Rated Link Rated Link Rated Link
(kVA) Amps Rating Amps Rating Amps Rating Amps Rating Amps Rating Amps Rating
3 .416 1H* .722 1H* .416 1H* .394 1H* .250 1H* .432 1H*
5 .694 1H* 1.201 1H* .694 1H* .656 1H* .417 1H* .722 1H*
10 1.389 2H 2.4 5H 1.389 2H 1.312 2H .833 1H* 1.44 2H
15 2.083 3H 3.61 5H 2.083 3H 1.97 3H 1.25 1H 2.16 3H
25 3.47 5H 5.94 8 3.47 5H 3.28 5H 2.083 3H 3.61 5H
37.5 5.21 6 9.01 12 5.21 6 4.92 6 3.125 5H 5.42 6
50 6.94 8 12.01 15 6.94 8 6.56 8 4.17 6 7.22 10
75 10.42 12 18.05 25 10.42 12 9.84 12 6.25 8 10.8 12
100 13.89 15 24.0 30 13.89 15 13.12 15 8.33 10 14.44 15
167 23.2 30 40.1 50 23.2 30 21.8 25 13.87 15 23.8 30
250 34.73 40 59.4 80 34.73 40 32.8 40 20.83 25 36.1 50
333 46.3 50 80.2 100 46.3 50 43.7 50 27.75 30 47.5 65
500 69.4 80 120.1 140 69.4 80 65.6 80 41.67 60 72.2 80

13200 Delta 14400 Delta 14400/2900Y 20000/34000Y

Transformer Figures A and 8 Figure C Figures D, E and F Figures D, E and F Figure A and 8 Figures C
Size Rated Link Rated Link Rated Link Rated Link Rated Link Rated Link
(kVA) Amps Rating Amps Rating Amps Rating Amps Rating Amps Rating Amps Rating
3 .227 1H* .394 1H* .208 1H* .361 1H* .208 1H*
5 .379 1H* .656 1H* .347 1H* .594 1H* .374 1H*
10 .757 1H* 1.312 2H .694 1H* 1.20 2H .694 1H* .50 1H*
15 1.114 1H 1.97 3H 1.04 1H 1.80 3H 1.04 1H .75 1H*
25 1.89 3H 3.28 SH 1.74 2H 3.01 5H 1.74 2H 1.25 2H
37.5 2.84 5H 4.92 8 2.61 3H 4.52 6 2.61 3H 1.875 2H
50 3.79 6 6.50 10 3.47 SH 5.94 8 3.47 5 2.50 3H
75 5.68 6 9.84 20 5.21 6 9.01 12 5.21 6 3.75 5H
100 7.57 8 13.12 20 6.94 8 12.01 15 6.94 8 5.00 6
167 12.62 15 21.8 30 11.6 12 20.1 25 11.6 12 8.35 10
250 18.94 25 32.8 50 17.4 20 30.1 40 17.4 20 12.5 15
333 25.23 30 43.7 60 23.1 30 40.1 50 23.1 30 16.65 20
500 37.88 50 65.6 100 34.7 40 60.0 80 34.7 40 25.00 30
-~· ~ce th1s 1s the smallest link ava1lable and 1t does not protect for 300% of load, secondary protectiOn IS des1rable.

95
A. Overcurrent Protection
3. PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT APPLICATIONS AND COORDINATION
Transformer Fusing (Continued)

TABLE 11A3
Overload Protection of Oil-insulated, Self-Cooled, and Dry-Type Transformers@
Single-Phase Application Using Current-Limiting Fusing

~
~
...Cll
...E
.e
Ul
t:
co
F

r
1.5 18 6 6 6

r
3 18 18 1.5 6 6 6
5
7.5
10
15
@
18
18
18
18
@
18
18
18
18
·(! 6
·(!
6
@ 1.5
1.5
3
3
@
6
6
6
6
@
6
6
6
6
@
6
6
6
6
25 18 18 8 6 3 3 6 6 6
37.5 25 18 18 12 10 6 6 6 6
50 25 45 18 25 20 18 12 8 6 6 6
75 75 25 18 10 10 8 6 6
100 25 40 25 12 12 10 8 6
150 40 65 40 18 25 18 20 12 10 8
167 50 20 30 25 12 18 10
200 65 25 40 30 12 20 12 12
250 80 30 50 40 18 25 15 12
333 40
500
750
1000
1250
1500
1667
2000
2500
3000
1. Recommendations are based on fuse melting characteristics at an ambient temperature of 40 C.
2. To prevent fuse blowing on transformer inrush, DO NOT USE FUSES SMALLER THAN RECOMMENDED without specific approval of the manufacturer.
3. Fuses allow in excess of 300% of load.
4. Fuses allow less than 140% of load.
5. Ratings in red area are for parallel-fuse combinations.

96
 A3
TABLE 12A3
Overload Protection of Oil-insulated, Self-Cooled, and Dry-Type TransformersQ)
Three-Phase Application Using Current-Limiting Fusing
Nominal SlngleoPIIase Voltage Across Transformer Terminals (kVj
i~ I 7.2-7.96" I ti1'"2114.4 I 3~5
.. 2A I 4.1& 4.8 8.32
Recommended Fuse Volt&Qe (M:V)
12,47 I 2D8 I 22.!1i'l4..9

..
G)
E 4,3 I .4.3 I 5 .5 I 5.5 I s.s I 15.5 I 1S.!i I 15.5
Recommended Fuse-Current Ratings (amperes) •bill
I 23 J 21 I 38
~c: Column A -140-200% of Transformer Rating
lll Column B- 200-300% of Transformer RiJling
~ A B B A B A A B B A B A B A 9
A. B A B B A A
15 1.5 1.5 ®1.5 ®1.5 6
® (~ ® (~
22.5 Q) 18
r8
("
18 3 3 1.5 1.5 6

l
18 8 4.5 4.5 ®3 6
30
45
18
18
Q)

18 10
6
10 6 6
3
3 3 ®(! 0
6
75 25 35 18 12 20 12 18 10 10 6 6 6· Q)
6
100 35 50 25 20 25 12 18 25 18 12 10 8 6 6
112.5 45 65 25 25 30 12 18 30 18 12 10 10 6 6 6
150 50 100 25 45 25 40 18 25 40 25 18 12 12 8 8 6
200 65 100 45 65 40 65 20 30 18 50 30 25 18 12 18 10 10 8
225 75 39 45 75 40 75 25 40 20 30
65 40 18 12 20 10 10 8
300 100 200 50 100 50 7.5 75 ' 30 50 25 50 20 50 25 18 25 12 12 10
500 200 100 150
.- 100 150 00 50 75 50 80 30 100 50 30 50 20 25 18 25 15
200 iao ~SQ 80 30 65 130 40 80 40 80 25 40 25 40 18 25
~=
750 2Q[JJI
1000 ,.150• 150 100 160 100 Ulll 65 100 65 lOQ 30 30 &') 25 30
1500 1!W 200 130 200 100 16'0 80 ·1160 4()0 50 80 30 50
2000
2500
:D)()
I~ ,~ 2IXt , ZOO 13o '2()()
D
: ~ocr· tell MO
;Zr;)()
faD'

~~
0 eo
Bel
00
,'fOD
II
40
.!SO
e~
60•
00
00
3500 200 16tfV 1QP ae
~: I ~ :~ ~00

t ~..,
3750 i '~
4000
5000 l ~:~iir I~~
1. Recommendations are based on fuse melting characteristics at an ambient temperature of 40 C.
2. To prevent fuse blowing on transformer inrush, DO NOT USE FUSES SMALLER THAN RECOMMENDED without specific approval of the manufacturer.
3. Fuses allow in excess of 300% of load.
4.. Fuses allow less than 140% of load.
5.. Ratings in red area are for parallel-fuse combinations.

TABLE 13A3
Comparison of Expulsion Fuses and
Current-Limiting Fuses
Fuse Type
Rating Expulsion Current-Limiting
\titage Ratings (kV): 8.3,15,23 8.3,15,23
Current Ratings (ANSI): 1 through 100 12 through 65
Fault Current
Clearing Capacity (kA): Determined by Through 50 kA
cutout rating symme~ic

Discharge Interrupting
Capacity (kilojoules): 15 50-100
• A current-limiting fuse, when operating, changes the circuit X/R radically.
lherefore, no asymmetric ratings are normally assigned, as the fuse will
+andle any current.

97
A. Overcurrent Protection
3. PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT APPLICATIONS AND COORDINATION

Capacitor Fusing
GENERAL CRITERIA are capacitor-bank switching and lightning surges. Switching
The basic objectives in selecting capacitor fuses are: is typically of concern only when capacitor banks are
1. The fuse must be capable of withstanding steady-state switched on the same bus: i.e., back-to-back switching. This
and transient currents in order to avoid spurious fuse oper- is seldom the case for pole-mounted, group-fused capacitors.
ations. However, the fuses in such applications are subject to high-
frequency transients due to lightning surges, which are more
2. The fuse should effectively remove a failed or failing likely to damage low-current-rated links.
capacitor unit from service without causing further dam- Individually fused applications involve an additional transient
age or disruption to the system. consideration. When a capacitor unit fails -that is, goes to a
These objectives are accomplished through two different short circuit - the remaining good capacitors will discharge
protection methods: group fusing and individual fusing. into the failed capacitor. Fuses on the good capacitors should
In group protection, one fuse protects more than one be able to withstand this high-frequency outrush current to
capacitor- usually with a single fuse on each phase protecting avoid multiple fuse operations.
all the capacitors on that phase (Figure 1OA3). Group fusing
is generally used for protecting pole-mounted distribution Effectively Removing a Failed or
capacitor racks. In such applications, the fuse links are Failing Capacitor Unit
installed in cutouts and mounted on a crossarm above the A failed or failing capacitor unit should be removed from service
capacitor rack. without causing any further damage or disruption to the system.
It is important, therefore, that the clearing fuse and the
capacitor unit be able to withstand the available 60Hz current
and the high-frequency energy discharge from the parallel
capacitors. In addition, the fuse must clear fast enough to
limit the duration of voltage on the remaining good capacitors
and to coordinate with upline overcurrent devices or an
unbalance detection scheme.

Summary of General Criteria

Figure 1OA3. A summary of the key criteria in choosing the appropriate
Diagram of group capacitor fusing. fusing for a shunt-capacitor application is given in Table
14A3. In comparing the need for slow-clearing and fast-clear-
ing fuses, it sometimes is not reasonably possible to meet all
In individual protection, each capacitor in a bank is protected criteria. In such cases, trade-offs must be made and some
by its own individual fuse (Figure 11 A3). This type of protec- risks taken in regard to the conditions when fuses and capac-
tion is commonly used in outdoor-substation capacitor banks. itors may not operate in a desirable manner.
Fuses are the bus-mounted type.
GROUP CAPACITOR FUSING
The following considerations are involved in selecting a
fuse for group capacitor protection:
• Continuous current.
• Transient current.
• Fault current.
• Tank-rupture curve coordination.
• Voltage on good capacitors.
• Coordination with upline overcurrent devices.
Figure 11 A3.
Diagram of individual. capacitor fusing. Continuous Current
The fuse's continuous-current capability is chosen to be
equal to or greater than 135 percent of rated capacitor current
Withstanding Steady-State and for grounded-wye connected racks, and 125 percent for
Transient Currents ungrounded-wye racks. This overrating takes into account the
Continuous-current and transient-current duties determine effects of overvoltage (ten percent), capacitor tolerance (five
the minimum acceptable fuse size that may be used without to 15 percent), and harmonics (five percent for ungrounded-
risking spurious fuse blowing under normal conditions. The wye and ten percent for grounded-wye configurations). The
requirements for group fusing and individual fusing are similar minimum-size fuse link for a grounded-wye application is
for continuous-current duty but different for transient duty. calculated as follows:
The fuse link is chosen to have a minimum rating of at least
125 to 135 percent of rated capacitor current. This overrating Iiink = 1.35 X kvar3"'
is necessary because of overvoltage conditions, capacitance V3 kVL-L
tolerance, and harmonics.
Fuses can be damaged by high-magnitude, high-frequency This calculation is based on the link's being 100 percent
currents. If possible, therefore, it is desirable to minimize spu- rated. In the case of NEMA Type T and K tin links, which are
rious fuse operations by selecting an appropriate fuse link to 150 percent rated, this value must be divided by 1.50.
withstand such transient currents, whose principal sources
98
 A3
TABLE 14A3
Summary of Shunt-Capacitor Fusing Criteria
Fusing Method Fuse Characteristic Desired
Key Criteria Group Individual Slow Fast
Protection Protection Clearing
Withstanding Steady State and Transient Currents:
Continuous Current X X X
External Transient Currents
-Lightning X X
-Switching X X
Outrush Current X X
Effectively Removing Failed or Failing Capacitor Unit:
Fault Current X X . .
Tank Rupture Curve Coordination X X X
Voltage on Good Capacitors
Energy Discharge Into Failed Unit
X X
X . .
X

Coordinate with Upline Overcurrent Devices X X

Coordinate with Unbalance Detection Scheme X X
*These cntena help to determine whether expulsion or current-limiting fuses are requ;red.

Transient Currents Fault Current

Fuses can be damaged by high-magnitude, high-frequency As stated previously, the fuse link and capacitor must be able
currents. If possible, it is desirable to minimize spurious fuse to handle the available fault current. When capacitors are
operations by selecting an appropriate fuse link to withstand connected grounded-wye or delta in a pole-mounted rack, a
these transient currents, whose principal sources are capacitor- capacitor failure (terminal-to-terminal short) will cause system
bank switching and lightning surges. Switching is typically of fault current to flow. The capacitor must be able to withstand
concern only when capacitor banks are switched on the the fault current until the fuse interrupts the circuit, and the
same bus: i.e., back-to-back switching. This is seldom the fuse must be able to interrupt the available fault current
case for pole-mounted capacitors, although the fuses in such For K and T links, the available symmetric fault current
applications are subject to high-frequency transients from should not exceed the limits shown in Table 14A3. When the
ightning surges. available current for a given application does exceed the values
To minimize spurious fuse operations due to lightning given in the table, however, possible solutions include the fol-
surges, the use ofT tin links is recommended in group fusing lowing:
for low-ampere ratings through 25 amperes, and K tin links • Limit the available fault current the capacitor will see by
'or above 25 amperes. The T link can withstand a higher using current-limiting fuses.
surge current than the K link, and this general recommenda- • Unground the neutral and operate the bank as ungrounded
:ion has resulted in good performance for areas of significant wye, which generally is a more cost effective solution. In
1ghtning activity. (Note that installing switched capacitor this type of connection, the available current is limited to
:::anks very close together on the same pole or on adjacent three times the line current because of the impedance of
:·oles should be avoided unless precautions are taken to min- the capacitors in adjacent phases. (If a major insulation
-nize the high-magnitude, high-frequency inrush current.) failure or simultaneous failures in two phases should occur,
In areas of high lightning incidence and where experience then fault current could flow. These events are very rare
::1tetates, T tin links may be used at higher current ratings for and normally are not considered when applying fuses in
;;rounded-wye and delta-connected racks. For areas where an ungrounded-wye application.)
::istribution lines are shielded by trees or buildings or where • Move the capacitor rack to a location with an acceptable
:"'.e lightning incidence is low, the user may consider the use fault-current level.
-:f K links over the entire range of link ratings.
Occurrences of spurious fuse blowing due to lightning can
~so be reduced by locating the fuse cutout between the
:aoacitor and its arrester rather than placing the arrester
:e.veen the capacitor and the cutout.

TABLE 15A3
=autt Current Limitation (50.. to 400-kvar All-Film Capacitors)*
Maximum Link Rating
Maximum Symmetric Fault Current that Coordinates with
Cutout Rating (RMS amps) When XIR Is: Available Fault Current
(kV) 0 5 10 15 K-Tin T-Tin
Up to 25 12,000 8,500 7,400 7,100 100 80
38 8,200 5,700 5,000 4,700 100 EK 80 ET I
I
-.a::x:er Power Systems EX line of capacitors or equivalent.
3:A PROTECTIVE
Overcurrent Protection
EQUIPMENT APPLICATIONS AND COORDINATION
Capacitor Fusing (Continued)

Tank-Rupture Curve Coordination the delta, but in that case the system voltage must be made
The maximum-clearing TCC curve for the fuse link must equal to the capacitor unit voltage in order _to follow the
coordinate with the tank-rupture curve for the capacitor recommendations in the table. Recommendations for delta
{Figure 12A3). This coordination is necessary to insure that fusing at 2400 volts are given in Table 17A3, but for all other
the fuse will clear the circuit before tank rupture can occur. system voltages use Table 16A3 as directed.
The fuse's maximum-clear TCC must fall to the left of the
tank-rupture TCC at and below the level of available fault current. INDIVIDUAL CAPACITOR FUSING
Jn the case of high fault currents, the tank-rupture curve The following considerations are involved in selecting a
should be compensated for asymmetry. In general, the largest fuse for individual capacitor protection:
fuse sizes that coordinate with the tank-rupture curve for • Continuous current.
modern all-film capacitors such as McGraw-Edison's EX line • Transient current.
are 100K and SOT tin links. See Table 15A3 for details. • Fault current.
• Tank-rupture curve coordination.
Voltage on Good Capacitors • Voltage on good capacitors.
For ungrounded-wye capacitor banks, the voltage on the • Energy discharge into a failed unit.
good capacitor units, when o~e is ~hort~d, is equal syste~ !o • Outrush current.
line-to-line voltage: i.e., 1. 73 t1mes 1ts rat1ng. If the fa1led u~1! IS • Coordination with unbalance detection scheme:
not cleared from the circuit quickly, this high overvoltage condition
could lead to a second capacitor failure in another phase, Continuous Current
resulting in a phase-to-phase fault. For ~hi:> ~ason, it is d~~i~able The fuse's continuous-current capability is chosen to be
to use a fast-clearing fuse so as to mtmm1ze the poss1b1llty of equal to or greater than 135 percent of the capacitor's rated
a second unit failure. Note that this criterion calls for a fast- current. This overrating takes into account the effects of over-
clearing fuse, such as a Klink, while the criterion for transient voltage conditions (ten percent), capacitance t<:l~rance (15
current calls for a slow-clearing fuse, such as aT link. percent), and harmonics (ten percent). The mrmmum-s1ze
fuse link is calculated as follows:
Coordination with Upline Overcurrent Devices
When a capacitor unit fails, it is desirable that the capacitor . _ 1 35 X kvarunit
fuse clear the capacitor without any other overcurrent 1link- · kV .
un1t
devices on the feeder having operated; that is, the capacitor This calculation is based on the link's being 100 percent
fuse must coordinate with the upline overcurrent devices. rated. In the case of NEMA type T & K tin links, which are 150
This criterion may dictate the maximum-size capacitor rack to
percent rated, the value must be divided by 1.50.
be used on a given feeder or adjusting the source device setting
upward. It is particularly important. to note the coordination Transient Currents
with source ground relays when usmg grounded-wye racks.
Unlike pole-mounted capacitor racks, individ~ally fuse? s~~sta­
tion capacitor banks generally are not subJect to s1gn1f1cant
Summary of Group Fusing high-magnitude, high-frequency lightning surges: The reason:
Group fusing recommendations for the EX line of all:film good substation shielding and enough fuses 1n parallel to
capacitors are listed in Table 16A3. These recommendatl?ns share the transient current.
assume a typical level of lightning incidence; therefore, t1n T Transient currents due to switching also are of little concern
links are listed for line-current ratings of 25 amperes and
unless capacitor banks are switched back-to-back, and even
below (see earlier discussion under "Transient ~urrents"),
then, if the switchgear is applied within .the ANSI standards
and tin K links for ratings above 25 amperes. Available fault-
for inrush-current frequency and magmtude, the fuse duty
current levels are assumed to be within the limitations listed
usually is acceptable in such applications, switch-~l~sing
in Table 15A3. resistors or inrush-current-limiting reactors generally llmrt the
It is recognized that, in specific cases, utilities r:night. elect transient currents to acceptable levels.
to use different link ratings or types than those g1ven m the
tables because of such considerations as lightning incidence Fault Current
rates, fuse stocking requirements, and feeder coo~dination. Just as in group fusing, the fuse link and individually protected
For example, when fusing ungrounded-wye racks w1th a very
capacitor must be able to handle the available f~ult cu.rrent.
low probability of lightning transients, Type K tin links might
When capacitors are connected grou.nded:wye 1n a .smgle-
be considered over the entire range of ratings. Or, rather than series group substation bank, a capac1tor fa1lure (termmal~to­
fusing grounded-wye racks with relatively low-current-rated T
terminal) will cause system fault current to flow. Th~ capacitor
links, higher-rated T links might be considered to reduce spu- must be able to withstand the fault current until the fuse
rious fuse blowings due to lightning. With ungrounded-wye
interrupts the circuit, and the fuse must be able to su?C~ss!ully
racks the user can choose between Type T and K links but interrupt the available fault current. The fault-current llm1tat1ons
usualiy cannot select a different rating. However, in making are the same as for group fusing (Table 15A3).
any adjustments in the recommendations it is important to In substation banks with multiple series groups, system
take into account all of the criteria discussed above. fault current will not flow through a failed unit unless other
Generally, group-fused racks are connected in wye. At tir:nes
units experience simultaneous fa~lures or extern~! flashovers
it may be advantageous to connect racks in delta, es~ec1ally occur in other parts of the capaci1or bank. For th1s reason, 1t
on 2400-volt systems or to minimize the number of d1fferent
usually is assumed that fault current will not flow in capac~tor
spare units kept in stock. The group fusings reco.mme~dations banks of more than one series group. Therefore, expuls1on
in Table 16A3 can be adjusted for delta configurations, as fuses rather than current-limiting fuses are commonly used.
explained by the note in the table, by making the capacitor
unit voltage equal to the system voltage. Larger kvar-rated
delta-connected racks are possible if the fuses are put inside

100
 A3

N
CURRENT (ampsl
(II _,. C.O 01 CD 0 "' 0~ 80 0g~0 0~
0 g "' 00... 00,. 00'""'
0
0
0
0 8§
IOOOOU. c, iD - "' "' _,. C.O 01 CD 0 0 000000 0 0 0 0 0 00 0 0600000

8000 480000
2HR
6000 360000
!1000 300000
4000
Ill 240000
IHR I HR
3000 80000

2000 I I I'
1/z HR
I 20000
1/z HR

1000
l/4 HR
II II
1/4HR
60000
800 48000
SAFE ZONE UNSAFE ZONE
600 36000
SAFE FOR MOST APPLICATIONS; UNSAFE FOR MOST 30000
!100 USUALLY NO GREATER DAMAGE APPLICATIONS;
400 THAN SLIGHT SWELLING OF CASE. CASE MAY RUPTURE. 24000
300 I 8000

200 I 2000

100 6000
80 4800
60 3600
50 3000
40 2400
30 I 800

20 I 200

\ 600
480
360
300
240
I 80

\ I 20 ·:
;;
...
\ N
:1:
6
I 60 co
;;
.8 48 ~
.6 36 !
1\.
~~
.!I
.4 FOR TIMES SHORTER

.3
THAN 0.1 SECOND •
USE ASYMMETRICAL
\ I8
RMSAMPS.
.2 \ I2

0. I 6.0
.08 4.8
.06 THE MINIMUM J2T RATING FOR THE EX' LINE OF SINGLE-PHASE 3.6
.05 CAPACITORS IS 2,000,000 AMP2 SECONDS FOR FAULT 3.0
.04 CURRENTS OF 10,000 AMPS OR LESS . 2.4
.03 I .8

.02 I .2

MINIMUM CLEARING TIME (0.8 CYCLEI FOR SAFE COORDINATION WITH EXPULSION FUSES.
""'""'CD 0.6
~ ~~82:~8 ~0 0~ 0~g~ ~8
CURRENT (ampsl 00 0 0 § cs88
~ oo 88
o0
0

Figure 12A3.
Capacitor tank-rupture curve.

101
A. Overcurrent Protection
3. PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT APPLICATIONS AND COORDINATION
Capacitor Fusing (Continued)

TABLE 16A3
Group Fusing Recommendations for AII·Film Capacitors, Using EEI·NEMA Tin Expulsion Links*
Three- Rated Line Recommended Three- Rated Line Recommended
System Capacitor Phase- Current Link Size System Capacitor Phase- Current Link Size
line-to-Line Unit Bank in Grounded- Ungrounded- Line-to-Line Unit Bank in Grounded- Ungrounded-
Voltage Voltage** kvar Amperes Wyet Wyet Voltage Voltage• • kvar Amperes Wyet Wyet
4160 2400 150 20.8 20T 20T 16500 9540 150 5.2 5T 5T
300 41.6 40 K 40 K 300 10.3 10T 10T
450 62.5 65 K 65 K 450 15.7 15T 15 T
600 83.3 80 K 80 K 600 21 .0 20T 20T
4800 2770 150 18.0 20T 15 T 900 31.4 30 K 30 K
300 31 .6 40 K 30 K 1200 41 .9 40 K 40 K
450 54.2 50 K 50K 1350 47.2 50 K 40 K
600 72.2 65 K 65 K 1800 62.9 65 K 65 K
900 108.3 100 K 100K 2400 83.8 80 K 80 K
2700 94.3 100 K 80 K
7200 4160 150 12.0 12T 10T
300 24.0 25T 20T 17250 9960 150 5.0 5T 5T
450 36.0 40 K 30 K 300 10.0 10T 10T
600 48.1 50 K 40 K 450 15.0 15 T 15T
900 72.1 65 K 65 K 600 20.1 20T 20T
1200 96.2 100 K 80 K 900 30.1 30 K 25T
1350 108.2 100 K 100 K 1200 40.2 40 K 40 K
1350 45.2 40 K 40 K
8320 4800 150 10.4 10T 10 T 1800 60.2 65 K 50 K
300 20.8 20T 20 T 2400 80.3 80 K 80 K
450 31 .2 30 K 30 K 90.4 80 K
2700 80 K
600 41.7 40 K 40 K
900 62.5 65 K 65 K
3600 120.5 - 100 K
1200 83.3 80 K 80 K 21600 12470 300 8.0 8T 8T
1350 93.8 80 K 80 K 450 12.0 12T 10 T
600 16.0 15 T 15 T
12470 7200 150 6.9 8T 6T 900 24.0 25T 20T
300 13.9 15T 12 T 1200 32.1 30 K 30 K
450 20.8 20T 20T 1350 36.1 40 K 30 K
600 27.8 25 T 25T 1800 48.1 50 K 40 K
900 41 .7 40K 40 K 2400 64.2 65 K 65 K
1200 55.6 50 K 50K 2700 72.2 65 K 65 K
1350 62.5 65 K 65 K 3600 96.2 100 K 80 K
1800 83.3 80 K 80 K
2400 111.1 100 K 100 K 22860 13200 300 7.6 8T 8T
450 11.4 10T 10T
13200 7620 150 6.6 6T 6T 600 15.2 15 T 15 T
300 13.1 12T 12T 900 22.7 20T 20T
450 19.7 20T 20T 1200 30.3 30 K 25T
600 26.2 25T 25T 1350 34.1 30 K 30 K
900 39.4 40K 40K 1800 45.4 40 K 40 K
1200 52.5 50 K 50 K 2400 60.6 65 K 50 K
1350 59.0 65 K 50 K 2700 68.2 65 K 65 K
1800 78.7 80 K 65 K 3600 90.9 80 K 80K
2400 105.0 100 K 100 K
2700 118.1 - 100 K 23900 13800 300 7.2 8T 6T
450 10.9 10T 10T
13800 7960 150 6.3 6T 6T 600 14.5 15 T 12T
300 12.6 12T 12T 900 21.7 20T 20T
450 18.8 20T 20T 1200 29.0 30 K 25T
600 25.1 25T 25T 1350 32.6 30 K 30 K
900 37.7 40 K 40K 1800 43.5 40 K 40 K
1200 50.2 50 K 50 K 2400 58.0 65 K 50K
1350 56.5 50 K 50 K 2700 65.2 65 K 65K
1800 75.4 80 K 65 K 3600 87.0 80 K 80K
2400 100.5 100 K 100 K
2700 113.1 - 100 K 24900 14400 300 6.9 8T 6T
450 10.4 10T 10T
14400 8320 150 6.0 6T 5T 600 13.9 15 T 12T
300 12.0 12T 10T 900 20.8 20T 20T
450 18.0 20T 15 T 1200 27.8 25 T 25T
600 24.0 25T 20 T 1350 31.2 30 K 30 K
900 36.0 40K 30 K 1800 41 .7 40 K 40 K
1200 48.1 50 K 40 K 2400 55.6 50K 50K
1350 54.1 50 K 50 K 2700 62.5 65 K 65 K
1800 72.1 65 K 65 K 3600 83.3 80 K 80 K
2400 92.2 100 K 80 K (Continued on Next Page)
2700 108.2 100 K 100 K
• General Notes:
1. See fault current limitations in Table 14A3.
2. Fusing recommendations are for the Cooper Power Systems EX line of capacitors or equ ivalent.
•• This column applies to wye-connected capacitor racks. To use these recommendations for delta-connected racks, make the capacitor unit voltage equal to the
system voltage given in the first column and use the recommendations for grounded-wye racks. (See Table 16A3 for group fusing recommendations for delta-
connected racks on 2400-volt systems.)
t If spurious fuse blowing is a problem w1th grounded-wye racks, it is possible to go to higher fu se ratings as limited by the ratings in Table 14A3 and by coordi-
nation with upline devices.

102
 A3
TABLE 16A3 (Continued)
Group Fusing Recommendations for All-Film Capacitors, Using EEI-NEMA Tin Expulsion Links*
Three- Rated Line Recommended Three- Rated Line Recommended
System Capacitor Phase- Current Link Size System Capacitor Phase- Current Link Size
LiRe-to-Line Unit Bank in Grounded- Ungrounded- Line-to-Line Unit Bank in Grounded- Ungrounded-
Voltage Voltage•• kvar Amperes Wyet Wyet Voltage Voltage•• kvar Amperes Wyet Wyet
34500 19920 300 5.0 5 ET 5 ET 37400 21600 450 6.9 8 ET 6 ET
450 7.5 8 ET 8 ET 600 9.2 10 ET 8 ET
600 10.0 10ET 10 ET 900 13.2 15 ET 12 ET
900 15.1 15 ET 15 ET 1200 18.5 20 ET 20 ET
1200 20.1 20 ET 20 ET 1350 20.8 20 ET 20 ET
1350 22.6 20 ET 20 ET 1800 27.8 25 ET 25 ET
1800 30.2 30 EK 25 ET 2400 37.0 40 EK 40 EK
2400 40.2 40 EK 40 EK 2700 41.7 40 EK 40 EK
2700 45.2 40 EK 40 EK 3600 55.6 50 EK 50 EK
3600 60.3 65 EK 50 EK
• General Notes:
1. See fault current limitations in Table 14A3.
2. Fusing recommendations are for the Cooper Power Systems EX line of capacitors or equivalent.
- This column applies to wye-connected capacitor racks. To use these recommendations for delta-connected racks, make the capacitor unit voltage equal to the
system voltage given in the first column and use the recommendations for grounded-wye racks. (See Table 17A3 for group fusing recommendations for delta-
connected racks on 2400-volt systems.)
t If spurious fuse blowing is a problem with grounded-wye racks, it is possible to go to higher fuse ratings as limited by the rating s In Table 14A3 and by coordi-
nation with upl ine devices.

TABLE 17A3
ELF Fuse Selection for Capacitor Bank Protection
Capacitor
Bank Data

Cap. Bank
Three-Phase
kVAR

• Wulti-barrel fuse design.

- Multi-barrel fuse design at higher voltage ra ted fuse only.
a A line-to-neutral rated fuse may be used if there is no chance of a three-phase fault not involving ground.
Ill For delta connected capacitor banks, use the lower voltage rated fuse where two voltage ratings are given. For this application, the fuses must be connected
nside the delta of each side of each group of capacitors (six fuses total). Consult the manufacturer for applications where the fuses will be outside of the delta.
c'- The shaded area indicates ELF fuse current ratings that are only available at the lower voltage where tow voltage ratings are specified for grounded wye appli-
cations. Therefore, footnote "a" must apply for these applications.

TABLE 18A3 Tank-Rupture Curve Coordination

Group Fusing Recommendations for Delta-Connected The maximum-clearing TCC curve for the fuse link must coor-
~Film Capacitors on 2400-volt Systems, Using dinate with the tank-rupture curve for the capacitor (Figure
EEI-NEMA Tin Expulsion Fuse Links.• 12A3). This coordination is necessary to insure that the fuse will
System Three- Rated Line clear the circuit before tank rupture can occur. The fuse's max-
l..ile-to-Line Capacitor Phase- Current Recommended imum-clear TCC must fall to the left of the tank-rupture TCC at
Voltage Unit Voltage Bank kvar in Amperes Link Size and below the level of available fault current. In the case of high
2400** 2400 150 36.1 40 K fault currents, the tank-rupture curve should be compensated
300 72.2 65 K
450 108.3 100 K for asymmetry.
2400t 2400 150 20.8 20T Voltage on Good Capacitors
300 41 .6 40 K When a capacitor unit goes to a complete short, other series
450 62.5 65 K groups within the capacitor banks are subject to a 60 Hz over-
600 83.3 80 K
voltage until the fuse clears, and the fuse should clear fast
• General Notes:
.See fault cu rrent limitations in Table 14A3. enough to prevent overvoltage damage to the good units. When
2. Fusing recommendations are for the Cooper Power Systems EX line of a capacitor unit is shorted on phase A, the 60 Hz voltage on the
capac1tors or equivalent.
3. See Table 15A3 for group fusing recommendations for all other system voltages. other series groups in the bank are as summarized in Table
~ F uses are outside !he delta, Three cutouts are used. 19A3. The capacitor fuse chosen should insure that the duration
t Fuses are Inside the delta. Six cutouts are used.
103
A. Overcurrent Protection
3. PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT APPLICATIONS AND COORDINATION
Capacitor Fusing (Continued)

of these overvoltages does not exceed the limitations defined in possible solutions: reconnect the bank to reduce the amount
ANSI/IEEE Standard 18. of parallel-stored energy, or use current-limiting fuses.
TABLE 19A3 Outrush Current
Per-Unit Voltage on Unfailed Capacitors with a Series When a capacitor failure occurs, the remaining good capacitors
Group Shorted on Phase A will discharge into the failed unit, and the fuses for the good
Grounded Ungrounded Split capacitor units must be capable of withstanding this high-fre-
No. of
Series Wye Wye Ungrounded Wye quency I 2t discharge to avoid multiple fuse operations. Extensive
Groups Va Vb Vc Va Vb Vc Va Vb Vc analysis and testing have been conducted on capacitor units
1 - 1.00 1.00 - 1.73 1.73 - 1.73 1.73 and typical block arrangements to determine these duties.
2 2.00 1.00 1.00 1.50 1.15 1.15 1.71 1.08 1.08 Coordination with Unbalance Detection Scheme
3 1.50 1.00 1.00 1.29 1.08 1.08 1.30 1.04 1.04
4 1.33 1.00 1.00 1.20 1.05 1.05 1.26 1.03 1.03 When a fuse operates in a capacitor bank, an increase in the
5 1.25 1.00 1.00 1.15 1.04 1.04 1.20 1.02 1.02 fundamental frequency voltage occurs on the remaining units
in that series group. An unbalance detection scheme is
Energy Discharge into a Failed Unit employed to monitor such conditions and to take action as
The fuse and the capacitor must be capable of handling the required . Its settings should be coordinated with fuse TCCs
available parallel-stored energy, since all of the stored energy so that the fuses will be allowed to clear a failed capacitor
of the parallel-connected capacitors can discharge through the unit before the unbalance detection scheme trips the capac-
failed capacitor and its fuse (Figure 13A3). Therefore, to pre- itor bank. If the bank is tripped before the fuse operates,
vent probable fuse failure and rupture of the capacitor tank, the there will be no visible indication of the cause of the bank
total calculated parallel-stored energy should not exceed the tripping.
energy capability or joule rating of the capacitor unit and fuse. Summary of Individual Fusing
In selecting the best fuse for a given application, it sometimes
is not reasonably possible to meet all of the above criteria. In
such cases, trade-offs must be made among the criteria and
some risks taken in regard to the conditions when fuses and
capacitors may not operate in a desirable manner.
Table 20A3 lists individual fusing recommendations, using
either expulsion or current-limiting fuses, for the EX line of all-
film capacitors applied in outdoor substation banks.These
recommendations will meet most of the criteria described
Figure 13A3. above for most typical capacitor-bank configurations.
Diagram of energy discharge into failed capacitor unit.
For metal-enclosed applications, it is recommended that
current-limiting fuses be used, even if the available parallel
The calculated value of energy should not exceed 15,000 energy in some cases indicates an expulsion fuse could
joules (i.e., 4650 kvar in parallel) for conventional all-film serve. A current-limiting fuse will minimize any gassing that
capacitors and 10,000 joules (i.e., 3100 kvar in parallel) for might occur in the enclosure during fuse operation.
paper/film capacitors. When the EX line of capacitors is used Excessive gases can cause flashovers in the enclosure.
with the recommended fusing, the available energy can be The recommendation in Table 20A3 are applicable for ambient
allowed to be as high as 30,000 joules (i.e., 9300 kvar in par- temperatures up to 40° C. if higher ambient temperatures are
allel). When the calculated value of the parallel energy expected, especially in enclosures, the capacitor manufacturer
exceeds the limitation of the expulsion fuse, there are two should be consulted for appropriate fuse recommendations.
TABLE 20A3
Individual Fusing Recommendations for All-Film Capacitors,t
Using EEI-NEMA Tin Expulsion Links or Current-Limiting** Fuses
Capacitor Unit kvar
Capacitor Fuse Voltage sott 200 400
Unit Rating (kV) I 100 150 I 300 I
Voltage Recommended Expulsion Link or Current-Limiting Fuse
Rating Exp. C-L Exp. C-L Exp. C-L Exp. C-L Exp. C-L Exp. C-L Exp. C-L
2400 8.7 8.3 20T 30 40K 65 65K 90* 80K - - - - -
2770 8.7 8.3 20T 25 40K 65 50K so· 65K - - - - -
4160 8.7 8.3 12T 18 25T 40 40T 65 50K 65 - - - -
4800 8.7 8.3 12T 18 20T 30 30T 45 40T 65 - - - -
6640 8.7 8.3 12T 18 1ST 25 25T 40 30T 45 SOT 65 65K 90*
7200 8.7 8.3 10T 18 1ST 25 20T 30 25T 40 40T 65 SOT 90*
7620 8.7 8.3 10T 18 1ST 18 20T 30 25T 40 40T 65 SOT 90*
7960 8.7 8.3 10T 18 1ST 18 20T 30 25T 40 40T 65 SOT 80*
8320 8.7 15.5 10T 10 1ST 18 20T 25 25T 35 40T 50* SOT 70*
9960 15.0 15.5 8T 10 1ST 18 20T 25 25T 30 30T so· 40T 60*
12470 15.0 15.5 - - 12T 12 1ST 18 20T 25 25T 35 30T 50*
13280
13800
15.0
15.0
15.5
15.5
-- -
-
12T
12T
12
10
1ST
1ST
18
18
20T
20T
25
25
25T
25T
35
30
30T
30T
50*
50*
14400 15.0 15.5 - - 10T 10 15T 18 20T 25 25T 30 30T 50*
19920 23.0 23.0 - - 8T 12 12T 12 1ST 18 20T 25 25T 36*
21600 23.0 23.0 - - 8T 12 10T 12 1ST 18 20T 25 25T 25
t Fus1ng recommendations are for the Cooper Power Systems EX line of capac1tors or equ1valent.
tt For 50-kvar capacitors, it is difficult to choose reasonably sized fuses that will withstand the 12t outrush. This is due to the fact that 12t withstand goes down
exponentially with fuse-link rating rather than linearly. Consequently, 50-kvar capacitor fusing recommendations cover only units with voltages up to 9960 volts.
• Indicates two fuses in parallel.
•• Current-limiting fuse ratings are for Cooper Power Systems NXC capacitor fuses.
104
 A3

Recloser and Fuse-Link Coordination

Tile following comments on coordination principles and ratings will serve as references also for other
IJ8doser applications covered in this manual

~OSER COORDINATION PRINCIPLES RECLOSER RATINGS

~tic circuit reclosers are the overcurrent protective Recloser ratings include nominal voltage, impulse withstand
al!aices most often used to "give every fault a chance to be voltage (81), maximum continuous current, trip-coil current,
li!lllpOfary," as stated under "Coordination Basics" at the minimum trip current, and interrupting current. In Tables
b!ginning of Section A3. For proper application of reclosers 21A3, 22A3, and 23A3, which list typical ratings, reclosers
a distribution system, the following basic coordination are grouped for convenience into three major categories: single-
pinciples must be observed: phase hydraulically controlled, three-phase hydraulically
1. The load-side device must clear a permanent or temporary controlled, and three-phase electronically controlled. The
faajt before the source-side device interrupts the circuit or interrupting medium, oil or vacuum, is indicated for each
operates to lockout. recloser.
2.. Outrages caused by permanent faults must be restricted to Please note that "Recloser Type" designations (H, 4H, V4H,
1he smallest section of the system. etc.) in both tables and text relate to the products of Cooper
Power Systems and are not universal industry terms. This
~ principles primarily influence the selection of operating departure from the generic approach used throughout most
anes and sequences of both source-side and load-side of the manual is done to facilitate references to recloser fam-
G!lllices, and the general location of these devices on the ilies and ratings in discussing applications, and the reader is
llistrixrtion system. The placement and number of devices to encouraged to investigate other possible sources. Units
PeStrict Outrages to "the smallest section of the system" designed specifically for pad-mounted application are so indi-
.e determined by individual utility practice, and the recom- cated in the tables; all others are commonly referred to as
wendations and examples in this manual represent only a overhead-type but include some ratings normally installed in
aoss-section of accepted practices. substations. To assist in obtaining detailed information on
specific reclosers and related accessories and mountings,
applicable Cooper Power Systems catalog sections are listed.

TABLE 21A3
Single-Phase, Hydraulically Controlled Reclosers
Max
Cont Trio-Coil
Nominal Current Inter- Rating Min-Trip
Aecloser Voltage BIL Rating ruptlng (cont Ratlnij Interrupting Rating Catalog
Type (kV) (kV) (amps) Medium amps) (amps (rms sym amps) Section
At 2.4 thru 14.4 kV
5 10 125
10 20 250
H 2.4-14.4 95 50 Oil 15 30 375 280-10
25 50 625
35 70 975
50 100 1250
At 4.8 kV At 8.32 kV At 14.4 kV
5 10 200 200 200
10 20 400 460 400
15 30 600 600 600
4H 2.4-14.4 110 100 Oil 25 50 1000 1000 1000 280-10
35 70 1400 1400 1400
50 100 2000 2000 2000
70 140 2800 2500 2000
100 200 3000 2500 2000
5 10 200 200 200
10 20 400 400 400
15 30 600 600 600
25 50 1000 1000 1000
V4H 2.4-14.4 110 200 Vacuum 35 70 1400 1400 1400 280-10
50 100 2000 2000 2000
70 140 2800 2500 2000
100 200 3000 2500 2000
140 280 3000 2500 2000
200 400 3000 2500 2000
(contmued on next page)

105
A. Overcurrent Protection
3. PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT APPLICATIONS AND COORDINATION
Recloser and Fuse-Link Coordination (Continued)

TABLE 21A3 (continued)

Single-Phase, Hydraulically Controlled Reclosers
Max
Cont Trio-Coil
Nominal Current Inter- Rating Min-Trip
Recloser Voltage BIL Rating rupting (cont Rating Interrupting Rating Catalog
Type (kV} (kV) (amps) Medium amps) (amps) (rms sym amps) Section
At 2.4 thru 14.4 kV
5 10 200 200 200
10 20 400 400 400
15 30 600 600 600
25 50 1000 1000 1000
PV4H* 2.4-14.4 95 200 Vacuum 35 70 1400 1400 1400 2B5-65
50 100 2000 2000 2000
70 140 2BOO 2500 2000
100 200 3000 2500 2000
140 2BO 3000 2500 2000
200 400 3000 2500 2000
25 50 1500 1500 1500
35 70 2100 2100 2100
50 100 3000 3000 3000
L 2.4-14.4 110 2BO Oil 70 140 4200 4200 4000 2B0-1 0
100 200 6000 5000 4000
140 2BO 6000 5000 4000
200 400 6000 5000 4000
2BO 560 6000 5000 4000
At 14.4 kV
5 10 300
10 20 600
15 30 900
25 50 1500
35 70 2100
V4L 2.4-14.4 110 2BO Vacuum 50 100 3000 2B0-10
70 140 4200
100 200 6000
140 2BO 6000
200 400 6000
2BO 560 6000
At 4.8 kV At 8.32 kV At 14.4 kV
100 200 6000 6000 6000
140 2BO B400 B400 BOOO
160 320 9600 9600 9600
1B5 370 11100 10000 10000
D 2.4-14.4 110 560 Oil 225 450 12000 10000 10000 2B0-20
2BO 560 12000 10000 10000
400 BOO 12000 10000 10000
400X 560** 12000 10000 10000
560 1120 12000 10000 10000
56 0X 750** 12000 10000 10000
At 24.9 kV
5 10 300
10 20 600
15 30 900
25 50 1500
E 24.9 150 100 Oil 35 70 2100 2B0-10
50 100 2500
70 140 2500
100 200 2500
50 100 3000
70 140 4000
4E 24.9 150 2BO Oil 100 200 4000 2B0-10
140 2BO 4000
200 400 4000
2BO 560 4000
At 24.9 thru 34.5 kV
100 200 6000
140 2BO BOOO
160 320 BOOO
1B5 370 BOOO
I
225 450 BOOO
DV 24.9-34.5 150 560 Oil 2BO 560 BOOO
400 BOO BOOO 2B0-20
400X 560** BOOO
560 1120 BOOO
i
560X 750** BOOO
!=or pad mounted installation.
--'ll rating is 140% of X coil ratings; all others are 200%.

106
 A3

TABLE 22A3
Three-Phase, Hydraulically Controlled Reclosers
Max
Cant Trio-Coli
Nominal Current Inter- Rating Min-Trip
Recloser Voltage BIL Rating rupting (cant Rating Interrupting Rating Catalog
Type (kV) (kV) (amps) Medium amps) (amps) (rms sym amps) Section
At 4.8 kV At 8.32 kV AT 14.4 kV
5 10 200 200 200
10 20 400 400 400
15 30 600 600 600
6Ht 2.4-14.4 110 100 Oil 25 50 1000 1000 1000 280-10
35 70 1400 1400 1460
50 100 2000 2000 2000
70 140 2800 2500 2000
100 200 3000 2500 2000
5 10 200 200 200
10 20 400 400 400
I
15 30 600 600 600
25 50 1000 1000 1000
V6Ht 2.4-14.4 110 200 Vacuum 35 70 1400 1400 1400 280-1 0
50 100 2000 2000 2000
70 140 2800 2500 2000
100 200 3000 2500 2000
I 140
200
280
1400
3000
3000
At 4.8 kV
2500
12500
At 8.32 kV
2000
2000
At 14.4 kV
100 200 6000 6000 6000
140 280 8400 8400 8400
160 320 9600 9600 9600
185 370 11 100 10000 10000
w 2.4-14.4 110 560 Oil 225 450 12000 10000 10000 280-30
280 560 12000 10000 10000
400 800 12000 10000 10000
400X 560** 12000 10000 10000
560 1120 12000 10000 10000
560X 750** 12000 10000 10000
At 2.4 thru 14.4 kV
50 100 3000
I 70 140 4200
100 200 6000
140 280 8400
160 320 9600
185 370 11100
PWH* 2.4-14.4 95 560 Vacuum 225 450 12000 285-70
280 560 12000
400 800 12000
400X 560** 12000
560 1120 12000
! 56 0X 750** 12000

' 50
70
100
140
At 24.4 thru 14.4 kV
3000
4200
100 200 6000
140 280 8400
160 320 9600
185 370 11100
vw 2.4-14.4 110 560 Vacuum 225 450 12000 280-30
280 560 12000
400 800 12000
400X 560** 12000
560 1120 12000
56 0X 750** 12000
t ..
Phases tnp 1nd1v1dually on overcurrent, but trip and lockout all three phases at the final step in sequence; other three-phase reclosers operate all three phases
simultaneously under all conditions.
• For pad-mounted installation.
- Trip rating is 140% of X coil ratings; all others are 200%.

(continued on next page)

107
A. Overcurrent Protection
3. PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT APPLICATIONS AND COORDINATION
Recloser and Fuse-Link Coordination (Continued)

TABLE 22A3 (continued)

Three-Phase, Hydraulically Controlled Reclosers
Max
Cent Trip-Coil
Nominal Current Inter- Rating Min-Trip
Recloser Voltage BIL Rating rupting (cent Rating Interrupting Rating Catalog
Type (kV) (kV) (amps) Medium amps) (amps) (rms sym amps) Section
At 24.9 kV
50 100 3000
70 140 4200
100 200 6000
140 2BO B400
160 320 9600
1B5 370 11100
PWVH* 24.9 125 560 Vacuum 225 450 12000 2B5-70
2BO 560 12000
400 BOO 12000
400X 560** 12000
560 1120 12000
560X 750** 12000
At 24.9 kV
50 100 3000
70 140 4200
100 200 6000
140 2BO B400
160 320 9600
1B5 370 11100
VWV27 24.9 125 560 Vacuum 225 450 12000 2B0-30
2BO 560 12000
400 BOO 12000
400X 560** 12000
560 1120 12000
560X 750** 12000
At 34.5 kV
50 100 3000
70 140 4200
100 200 6000
140 2BO B400
160 320 9600
1B5 370 11100
VWV3B 34.5 150 560 Vacuum 225 450 12000 2B0·30
2BO 560 12000
400 BOO 12000
400X 560** 12000
560 1120 12000
560X 750** 12000
At 24.9 thru 34.5 kV
100 200 6000
140 2BO BOOO
160 320 BOOO
1B5 370 BOOO
wv 24.9-34.5 150 560 Oil 225 450 BOOO 2B0·30
2BO 560 BOOO
400 BOO BOOO
400X 560** BOOO
560 1120 BOOO
56 0X 750** BOOO
* For pad-mounted mstallat1on.
•• Trip rating is 140% of X coil ratings; all others are 200%.

108
 A3

TABLE 23A3
llwee-Phase, Electronically Controlled Reclosers
I, Max
Cont
Nominal Current Inter- Min-Trip
Recfoser Voltage BIL Rating ruptlng Rating Interrupting Rating Catalog
Type (kV) (kV) (amps) Medium (amps) (rms sym amps) Section
At 4.8 kV At 8.32 kV At 14.4 kV
200 12000 10000 10000
2BO 12000 10000 10000
WE 2.4-14.4 110 560** Oil 400 12000 10000 10000 2B0-40
560 12000 10000 10000
BOO 12000 10000 10000
1120 12000 10000 10000
I! At 2.4 thru 14.4 kV
I 100
140
12000
12000
200 12000
PWE* 2.4-14.4 95 560 Vacuum 2BO 12000 2B5-71
400 12000
560 12000
BOO 12000
1120 12000
At 2.4 thru 14.4 kV
100 12000
140 12000
200 12000
2BO 12000
I VWE 2.4-14.4 110 560** Vacuum 560 12000 2B0-40
400 12000
560 12000
BOO 12000
l 1120 12000
At 2.4 thru 14.4 kV
I 100
140
12000
12000
200 12000
VSA12 2.4-14.4 11 0 560** Vacuum 2BO 12000 2B0-45
400 12000
560 12000
BOO 12000
I 1120 12000
At 2.4 thru 14.4 kV
I 100 16000
140 16000
200 16000
VSA16 2.4-14.4 110 560** Vacuum 2BO 16000 2B0-45
400 16000
560 16000
BOO 16000
u 1120 16000
I 100
140
12000
12000
200 12000
VSAT 2.4-14.4 95 560 Vacuum 2BO 12000 2B0-46
400 12000
560 12000
BOO 12000
1120 12000
• For pad-mounted installation.
- Continuous current rating can be extended to 800 amps with an accessory.

(continued on next page)

109
A. Overcurrent Protection
3. PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT APPLICATIONS AND COORDINATION
Recloser and Fuse-Link Coordination (Continued)

TABLE 23A3 (continued)

Three-Phase, Electronically Controlled Reclosers
Max
Cont
Nominal Current Inter- Min-Trip
Recloser Voltage BIL Rating rupting Rating Interrupting Rating Catalog
Type (kV) (kV) (amps) Medium (amps) (rms sym amps) Section
At 24.9 kV
100 12000
140 12000
200 12000
PWVE* 24.9 125 560 Vacuum 280 12000 285-71
400 12000
560 12000
800 12000
1120 12000
At 24.9 kV
100 12000
140 12000
200 12000
VWVE27 24.9 125 560** Vacuum 280 12000 280-40
400 12000
560 12000
800 12000
1120 12000
At 34.5 kV
100 12000
140 12000
200 12000
VWVE38 34.5 150 560 Vacuum 280 12000 280-40
400 12000
560 12000
800 12000
1120 12000
200 8000
280 8000
WVE 24.9-34.5 150 560** Oil 400 8000 280-40
560 8000
800 8000
1120 8000
At34.5 kV
100 12000
140 12000
200 12000
VS012 34.5 150 560** Vacuum 280 12000 280-57
400 12000
560 12000
800 12000
1120 12000
At 34.5 kV
100 16000
140 16000
200 16000
VS016 34.5 150 560** Vacuum 280 16000 280-57
400 16000
560 16000
800 16000
1120 16000
* For pad-mounted rnstalla!IOn.
** Continuous current rating can be extended to 800 amps with an accessory.

110
 A3

USE OF TIME-CURRENT CURVES TABLE 24A3

WITH AD.JUSTMENTS "K" Factor for Source-Side and Load-Side Tin Fuse Links
Coordination between a recloser and fuse links can be achieved Source-Side Fuse Links
by using methods based on time-current curves adjusted by For source-side fuse coordination, the "K" factor, plotted to aver-
a multiplying factor. age values, is used to multiply the time values of the delayed
Source-side fuses, selected to provide protection to the curve (B, C, D, E, etc.). The intersection of this reference curve
transformer, will basically determine what recloser curve or with the fuse minimum-melting time curve determines the maxi·
mum coordinating current. Note that either the fuse or recloser
curves can be considered. When the recloser size and time- curves must be shifted so that both are plotted to the same volt-
current curves for coordination with source-side fuses have age reference.
been determined, then load-side fuses are selected to coor- Multipliers for:
dinate with the recloser. Reclosing Two-Fast, One-Fast, Four
For a more complete understanding of the subject of trans- Time in Two-Delayed Three-Delayed Delayed
former protection, it is recommended that the discussions Cycles Sequence Sequence Sequence
here be read in conjunction with the earlier section titled 25 2.7 3.2 3.7
"Transformer Fusing:' 30 2.6 3.1 3.5
60 2.1 2.5 2.7
COORDINATION WITH SOURCE-SIDE 90 1.85 2.1 2.2
120 1.7 1.8 1.9
FUSE LINKS 240 1.4 1.4 1.45
Fuse links on the source side of the transformer generally 600 1.35 1.35 1.35
protect the system from a transformer fault and protect the Load-Side Fuse Links
transformer from a fault at the secondary bus. This fusing
arrangement is shown in Figure 14A3. The automatic circuit For load-side fuse coordination, the "K" factors are used to multi-
ply the time values of the recloser fast curve. The intersection of
recloser (ACRE1) must be selected to coordinate with the this reference curve with the fuse minimum-melting time curve
source-side fuse link so that the fuse does not interrupt the determines the maximum coordinating current. These factors
circuit for any fault current on the load side of the recloser. are based on the recloser fast curve plotted at maximum time.
The cumulative heating effect of the recloser operations must Multipliers for:
be less than the damage characteristic curve of the fuse link. Recloslng Time One Fast Two Fast
This is accomplished through the use of a multiplying factor in Cycles Operation Operations
on the recloser time-current curve that identifies the damage 25-30 1.25 1.8
or fatigue point of the fuse link. The recloser's modified 60 1.25 1.35
delayed curve must be faster than the source-side fuse's min- 90 1.25 1.35
imum-melt curve. 120 1.25 1.35
Time-current curves are used to coordinate the secondary-
side recloser with the source-side fuse link, utilizing the With an unsymmetrical transformer connection (delta-wye),
following rule: the ratio of primary to secondary fault current will be different,
For the maximum available fault current at the recloser depending on the type of fault. The following factors are used
location, the minimum melting time of the fuse link on the to determine the amount to shift the fuse curve to refer it to
transformer's source-side must be greater than the average the secondary of a delta-wye transformer connection:
clearing time of the recloser's delayed curve, multiplied by a
specific factor. The multiplying factors ("K" factors) for various Fault Type Multiplying Factor
reclosing intervals and operating sequences are listed in Three-Phase N
Table 23A3. Phase-to· Phase 0.87 N
Since the fuse is located on the high-voltage side and the Phase-to-Ground 1.73 N
recloser on the low-voltage side of the transformer, a
comparison of the time-current characteristics of the fuse
and recloser will require that either the fuse or the recloser Where N is the voltage ratio, 46 = 3.7
curves be shifted horizontally on the current axis to allow for 12.47
the transformer turns ratio. Since the fuse size is determined
by the transformer size, it is usually easier to shift the fuse For theN ratio of 3.7, the multiplying factors are:
curve and compare it to the different recloser curves available.
Three-Phase: Fuse curve moved to the right by

SOURCE-SIDE LINK 46 = 3.7 factor

50 Amp TypeS 12.47

Phase-to-Phase: Fuse curve moved to the right by 0.87 X

46000VOLTS
2500KVA (3.7) = 3.2 factor
7200/12470VOLTS
RATED SECONDARY= 116AMPERES
Phase-to-Ground: Fuse curve moved to the right by 1.73 X
140-AMPERE COIL (3.7) 6.4 factor.

Since the phase-to-phase fault factor of 3.2 will result in the

Rgure 14A3. tightest coordination, that should be used as the limiting factor.
Example of recloser and source-side fuse protection Any other factor would result It in a larger shift and allow more
scheme. coordination space between the recloser and fuse curves.
111
A. Overcurrent Protection
3. PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT APPLICATIONS AND COORDINATION
Recloser and Fuse-Link Coordination (Continued)

Example of Source-Side Fuse and Selective fuse sectionalizing of a faulted section of line
Recloser Selections beyond a recloser is not possible with all-fast or all-delayed
The example of fuse-recloser coordination in Figure 14A3 recloser sequences. An all-fast sequence does not allow time
shows a 2500 kVA transformer with 46/12.47 kV transformation. for the fuse to clear, and an all-delayed sequence results in
A primary fuse size of 50 Amp Type S has been selected to pro- fuse operation on the first overcurrent.
vide proper transformer protection. The rated secondary current Two selection rules govern the use of fuse links as protecting
is 116 amperes, so a 140 ampere coil size has been selected. devices on the load side of reclosers:
For the recloser type (ACRE1 ), either three single-phase 1. For all values of fault current possible at the fuse link, the
reclosers or a three-phase recloser can be used, depending minimum melting time of the link must be greater than the
on requirements. If the loads are predominantly single phase, clearing time of the reclosers fast operation, times a multi-
three single-phase reclosers would provide individual clearing plying factor. Multiplying factors provide a safety margin
for single-phase faults. Selection of a three-phase recloser between the clearing time of the recloser's fast curve and
would permit use of ground-fault sensing, thereby providing the melting time of the fuse link to prevent damage or
more sensitive tripping for ground faults and increasing the fatigue of the fuse link. The magnitude of the multiplying
recloser "reach." With three-phase operation, however, all factor varies with the number of fast operations and the
three phases would be interrupted for any single-phase fault. reclosing-time intervals between fast operations. These
For this example, three single-phase reclosers will be load-side multiplying factors are tabulated in Table 24A3
selected. Although either Type V4H or Type L reclosers would for reclosing intervals of 30, 60, 90, and 120 cycles and
satisfy the requirements of a 140 ampere coil and the 1650 sequences with one fast and two fast operations. As can
ampere maximum fault current, the Type L will be used since be seen in the table, the shorter the reclosing interval, the
the 4000 ampere interrupting capability and 280 ampere higher multiplying factor, since the fuse link has less time
maximum continuous current rating will allow for future up rating in which to cool.
of the substation. 2. For all values of fault current possible on the section
The 2A2C sequence has been selected: two A operations protected by the fuse link, the maximum clearing time of
for transient fault clearing, while the C curve will provide the the fuse should be no greater than the delayed clearing
maximum time delay to allow for downline recloser and fuse time of the recloser, provided the recloser sequence is set
coordination. for two or more delayed operations. If the curves are very
Curves selected for this application are shown in Figure 15A3. close the recloser may trip when the fuse operates, but it
As indicated in Table 24A3, the delayed curve is raised by a fac- will reclose, returning service to the remaining system.
tor of 1.7 because a 2A2C sequence with 120 cycle reclosing Coordination range between the recloser and fuse link is
intervals is used. The minimum-melt curve for the 50 Amp S fuse fixed by the above two selection rules. Rule 1 establishes the
link on the primary of the transformer, must be transposed to the maximum coordinating current, while Rule 2 establishes the
right by a factor of 3.2 because coordination is based on minimum coordinating current. The maximum current is the
secondary fault current. current shown where the fuse-link minimum melting curve
Since the adjusted delayed C curve intersects the transformed intersects the reference curve obtained from the product of
50 Amp S curve at 2300 amperes, the maximum coordination the recloser's fast clearing-time curve and the multiplying factor.
point is above the maximum 1650 amperes of available fault The minimum current is at the intersection of the fuse-link
current and is therefore satisfactory. If the fuse and recloser maximum clearing curve and the delayed curve of the recloser.
curves had intersected below 1650 amperes, the fuse might If the link maximum clearing does not intersect and lies below
operate unnecessarily during the second time-delay operation the recloser's delayed curve, the minimum coordination point
for a phase-to-phase fault. For this situation, coordination could is the minimum-trip current of the recloser.
be improved by changing the recloser to either a 2A2E or
2A28 sequence. Example of Load-Side Fuse and
Recloser Selections
COORDINATION WITH LOAD-SIDE FUSE LINKS Figure 16A3 shows a system requiring selection of fuse links
Maximum coordination between reclosers and load-side fuse at location ABC/29. Available fault currents at the fuse locations
links is generally obtained by setting the recloser for two fast and at the end of each three-phase feeder are indicated on the
operations followed by two delayed operations. What this diagram. The load currents shown are present peak-load cur-
accomplishes can best be explained by citing percentages rents. Three single-phase Type L reclosers, with 140 ampere
that are largely hypothetical, since what actually occurs can series coils and 2A2C sequence, are located in the substation.
vary greatly, depending on types of faults, system characteristics, Fuse-link groups F1 and F2 are to be located in each three-
etc. For illustration, therefore, let us assume the first recloser phase feeder at point ABC/29. The fuse links and reclosers
opening allows approximately 70 percent of temporary faults must be coordinated so that, for any faults between points
to clear, and the second opening, about 10 percent more. If ABC/29 and ABC/30, the circuit is first interrupted by the
faults are persistent or permanent, the fuse link melts to clear recloser on its fast curve, after which, if the fault persists, it is
them before the recloser operates a third or fourth time. cleared by the fuse in group F2. Similarly, the recloser must
Coordination is achieved to a lesser degree with one fast clear any fault between ABC/29 and ABC/31 on its fast curve,
followed by three delayed operations. This sequence also and permit the fuse in group F1 to clear the fault if it persists.
should clear about the same percentage of faults during the The recloser must be capable of interrupting any faults occurring
first recloser opening, but is most likely to be used when between points ABC/27 and ABC/29.
automatic sectionalizers are installed at intermediate points
between recloser and fuse.

112
 A3

60 3600
50 3000
40 50 Amp Type S *3.2 2400
50 Amp TypeS
30 1800

20 1200
1\ \
\
10 \ 600
8 480
6 360
5 300
4 240
3 180
\. 1\
2 \ .\ 120
\\
(Jl
1 1\ ~ 60
UJ
en
<(
0 .8 Max Current 2300 Amps 48 []J
z \. 1
,
N
0 .6 "\ 36 I-
u 1\. ~
a:
w .5 30 w
(Jl I
~
.4 I'\. 24 0
w .3 18 £
(Jl
~ w
i= \ _J
.2 12 u
c >-
\ I' t.f:.1(J u
~
0.1
[\ 1\ \ 6.0 ~
.08 4.8 i=
.06 3.6
.05
.04 ' 3.0
2.4
.03 1.8
r-. ILA \ 1.2
.02
\
.01 0.6
~ W-1>- CJlQ) CD~ N W -1>-CJlQ)CD
0 88 8 8 8 08 08 08 80000
8 8 8 80
0
CURRENT IN AMPERES

Rgure 15A3.
TCCs for application diagrammed in Figure 14A3.

ABC/31 ©
l~~crs 7200/12470 VOLTS
20AMPERES

ABC/27
l
~
~
-
35AMPERES

Ftgure 16A3.
Typical system requiring coordination between recloser and load-side fuse links.

113
A. Overcurrent Protection
3. PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT APPLICATIONS AND COORDINATION
Recloser and Fuse-Link Coordination (Continued)

The recloser selected immediately fulfills the first three minimum melting curve must be compared with the recloser
requirements for proper recloser application. Its interrupting fast ("A") curve, multiplied by a factor to prevent fatiguing of
rating of 4000 amperes at 14.4 kV is sufficient to interrupt the fuse. For a Type L recloser with the 2A2C sequence and
1660 amperes at the substation secondary. Continuous load 120-cycle reclosing time, this "K" factor is 1.35, selected from
current is 90 amperes, less than the 140 ampere rating of the Table 24A3.
recloser coil. A minimum-trip value of 280 amperes permits For best fuse-recloser coordination, Type T links will be
the recloser to sense the lowest level of fault current in the used.
desired protected zone of 340 amperes at point ABC/31. Figure 17A3 compares the adjusted A curve (A x 1.35) to
Selection of a three-phase recloser at ABC/27 would allow the minimum melting-time characteristics of various T links.
use of ground-fault sensing, providing more sensitive trip values The 30T link is found to be too small for coordination, since
for faults involving ground. A possible ground-trip setting the current at the A-curve intersection is not satisfactory for
could be 100 amperes. If this were selected, the following the 1190 ampere maximum fault indicated. The 40T link, on
fuse selection procedures would be compared against the the other hand, will coordinate to a fault of 1430 amperes,
combined ground/phase characteristics of the recloser. and the 50T and 65T links have even higher coordination
To insure that the reclosers at ABC/27 can clear a transient points of 1950 and 2680 amperes.
fault without damaging or fatiguing the fuse link, the fuse-link

60 3600
50 \ 40 T Min Melt 3000
40 2400
1-1 50 T Min Melt
30 1800
\ \
20 \ \<" 1 65 T Min Melt 1200
\ \\
10
\ \ 600
8 c 480
6 360
\
5 300
4 '\ 240
3 i\ 1\
180

2 120
\I\
1\
\\ (j)
(f)
60 U5
<(
0 .8 48 fil
z '\.
N
0 .6 36 I-
0 ~·u~ \ r\. a:
w .5 30 w
(f) I
~
.4 24 6
w
~
.3 " 18 8
(f)
w
i= 1\ \ _J
.2 ...... 12 0
>-
\ 0
\ ~
0.1 1\ \\ 1\ 6.0 ~
.08 4.8 i=
\
.06
.05 .\ \
1430Amos~ K
" 2680 Amps
3.6
3.0
.04 2.4
.03 1950 Amps 1.8
I'
.02 \ \ \ 1.2
,I\
~\ \
.01 0.6
c.n en oo ....... 1\) W"" 01 0> CO~ 1\) W ""010>CO 1\) (,.)..,.01
000 0
0
0
0
00
00
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
g
0
g g gggg
0 0 0 0 0
§
0 0
0
0
000
000
0 0 0
0 000
CURRENT IN AMPERES

Figure 17A3.
For application diagrammed in Figure 16A3: comparison of recloser curves with T-link minimum melt curves.

114
 A3

The next step is to check coordination for permanent faults current. For example, the 40T link could be used for group
~ comparing fuse maximum clearing-time curves with the F1, and for any other taps where the peak-load current was
~er "C" curve. Figure 18A3 shows that complete coordi- less than 40 amperes; and the 50T link could be used for
l'lation is achieved with any of the three links (40T, 50T and group F2, and for any other taps with peak-load currents
65T) that passed the minimum-melt check, since none of the between 40 and 50 amperes. However, this approach would
lhree fuse maximum clearing curves intersect with the make it necessary for service crews to carry different size
fU:Ioser "C" curve. Any of these fuses will melt and clear for links and to take special precautions to make certain the correct-
lhe given fault-current range without resulting in a recloser size links are used for replacement. Use of a smaller link than
1Jip operation on the time-delay curve. the particular installation requires could result in loss ot
Fuse selections can now be made. One approach would coordination, fuse fatigue, and unnecessary fuse operation
be to select fuse sizes for each tap based on the load and outrages.

60 3600
50 I I I Ill I 3000
40 T Max Clear
40 I 2400
30 50 T Max Clear 1800
\I I
20 il \ 65 T Max Clear 1200
1\
10 \ 1\' 600
8 c 480
6 360
\ \I\
5 300
4 240
3 180
\ \.
2 \ 120
\ \
\ [\
\
en
U5
(J)
1 60 <(
0 .8 48 al
z "\.
0 .6 36 ~
0 A*1.35 a:
w .5 30 w
(J) I
z .4 24 6
w
::;;:
.3 \
\
' 18 :e.
(J)
w
i= 1\ \\ _J
.2 12 0
\ \ \ r-- >-
0
1\
0.1 ,\ \ \\ 6.0 ~
~

.08 '\.
4.8 i=
'\. '\.
.06
.05 " 3.6
3.0
.04 2.4
2400 Amps 4780Am ps
.03 1.8
3430 Amps"' ~
.02 1.2
r-...

.01 0.6
(T1 0'> OJ .....l. 1\) w .!>- (]1 cr> CXl ~ 1\) w .,(::::. (T1 0'> OJ .....l. 1\) W.!>-(]1
0 00 0 0 00 0 0 0 0 0 0 00 0 0 0 0 000
0 0 00 0 0 0 0 0 0 00 0 0 0 0 000
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 8 0
0
000
000
CURRENT IN AMPERES

Figure 18A3.
Fer application diagrammed in Figure 16A3: comparison of recloser curves with T-link maximum clearing curves.

115
A. Overcurrent Protection
3. PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT APPLICATIONS AND COORDINATION
Recloser and Fuse-Link Coordination (Continued)

A simpler approach would be to select a single link size for If substantial load growth were anticipated, with possible
all fuse locations. In this example, the SOT link would satisfy increase in the size of the substation transformers, another
the requirements for both groups F1 and F2, and for any option would be to select and standardize on a 65T link,
other taps where the load current did not exceed 50 thereby providing capacity for taps up to 65 amperes and a
amperes. The maximum coordination current of 1900 higher maximum coordination current.
amperes would also allow use on any tap up to the substa- Coordination tables based on time-current curves simplify
tion itself. Thus, the SOT would probably be the only fuse link the task of thoroughly studying operating characteristics as
required for any tap off the main feeder between ABC/27 and required for any recloser and fuse-link coordination scheme.
ABC/29. Tables covering coordination ranges for reclosers and fuse
Figure 19A3 shows that the SOT link will coordinate with links, which are available from manufacturers, include all
the substation recloser from the minimum trip of the recloser standard ratings of single- and three-phase units set for two
to 1900 amperes, which is well beyond the 1650 ampere fast/two delayed sequences. Values in these tables can be
maximum fault available at the substation. modified for one fast/three delayed sequences.

60 y; i1 3600
50 3000
40 /}!--
50 TMax Melt 2400
~
30 1800
50 TMin Melt t/,%\
20 ~ 1200
I~

10 ~ ~I 600
8
c 480
~
6 1/j:.\
360
5 300
4 240
v.;
3 180
1\:0 r\
2 '%~ 120
i~v: r\
1\ r\ (j)
(j)
1 60 U5
<(
0 .8 48 rn
z '\
N
0 .6 IV:: '\. 36 I-
0
w .5 riA· ~ '<I? a:
30 w
(j) I
z .4 1'\. 24 6
w .3 ~
18 (j)
:::2: w
i=
.2
1\ _j

12 0
~ I' >-
'I\ I~ 1\
0
~
0.1 6.0 ~
.08 4.8 i=
IV ~
.06
.05 " .\: ij
3.6
3.0
.04 2.4
.03 1900 Amperes r/. 1.8
1:/: I'
.02 I' 1.2
['(~ ~~

.01
~ ~~ 1%
~ ~ ~ ~~ti 0.6
01ffiCO [\) c.u .~>- 01 m co ~ N c.u .~>- 01 m co [\) C.U.!>-01
0 00 0 00 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 8 00 0 0 0 0
0
0 0 0 0 0 0
0000000
0
0
0
0
000
000
0 0 000
CURRENT IN AMPERES

Figure 19A3.
For application diagrammed in Figure 16A3: comparison of recloser curves with curves forT-link selected as standard.

116
 A3

Relay-Fuse Coordination
Relay-fuse coordination involves two distinct applications:
69-12.47/7.2 VOLTS
relay and source-side fuse, and relay and load-side fuse. In
both cases the relay is serving as a circuit breaker time-and-trip
~CE ___3 t~ot----
control, but the coordination objectives of the two applications
are entirely different.
The objective of relay and source-side fuse coordination is
that the relayed breaker should go through its entire operating
sequence without causing fuse melting or damage, so that
-S&~ t
_

119-5 y• y•
10MVA
3-CYCLE
BREAKER =
@
the smallest segment of the circuit will be sectionalized. The
objective of relay and load-side fuse coordination, on the Figure 20A3.
other hand, is generally accepted to be a relay curve that is Diagram of installation with relayed breaker and
slower than the fuse curve, so that fusing operation and iso- source-side fuse.
lation of the fault take place before the breaker completes its
sequence. In the latter case, the addition of instantaneous
relay elements that function faster than the load-side fuse on only one fault timing. But since the reclosing relay has an
the first breaker operation provides a measure of transient instantaneous (INST) setting, the first two fault timings of the
fault protection. relay must be added together and plotted for true comparison
These two applications are discussed in detail below. with the fuse curve. With that in mind, it is obvious lever 4 will
not coordinate, since its curve crosses the fuse curve at the
RELAY AND SOURCE-SIDE FUSE COORDINATION
5000 ampere level. Although the fuse will not necessarily
The principal application would be a primary fuse protecting function on the first operation of the breaker, it could see
a substation transformer, with a relayed breaker serving as the enough current for heat damage to occur.
secondary protection. Coordination can be undertaken by Let us take a closer look, then, at the total accumulated
either of two methods: total accumulated time or cooling factors. time for lever 2, with its instantaneous time as indicated
For a comparison of relay and fuse time-current characteristics (Figure 22A3}. (The total accumulated curve consists of the
to be made, both curves must be expressed on the same first two fault timings of the relay; the instantaneous element
voltage base by shifting one of the curves, as discussed in was operative on the first shot only.) As can be seen, compar-
the preceding section on recloser and fuse-link coordination, ing the adjusted lever 2 relay curve with the fuse curve shows
beginning with the fourth paragraph under "Coordination with a margin greater than 50 percent for any fault level up to 5000
Source-Side Fuse Links." amps. Therefore, the coordination is acceptable with lever 2
and the settings shown.
Total Accumulated Time Method
The simplest and most conservative method of achieving Cooling-Factor Method
coordination is to add up the relay fault timings that are When coordination requirements are tighter, there is another
separated by less than ten seconds, the time typically method that will result in more precise coordination. This
required for fuses to cool completely, and compare this total to involves the use of cooling factors for the fuse link (explained
the fuse curve. A time margin of 50 percent of the source-side in Table 25A3) and an evaluation of the actual reclosing intervals
fuse's minimum-melt curve is recommended to allow for of the relay. The formula used is:
iJ•reloading, ambient, predamage, and non-repeatability of
relay characteristics. Some utilities use 0.3 seconds as a Teff = TF(N) + CN x TF(N-1) + CN-1 x CN x
'1largin rather than a percentage. TF(N-2) + ...
As a basis for discussion, an installation involving a relayed
tl•reaker and source-side fuse is diagrammed in Figure 20A3 Where Teff = the effective fault timing of the relay
The transformer and breaker ratings are indicated. The fuse is incorporating successive reclosing heating
a 125E power fuse. The overcurrent relay is a type IAC53, with effects.
a CT ratio of 1000:5. It can be set at tap 2 or 4, and has an
nstantaneous tap setting of 10. The reclosing relay has a
reclosing sequence of instantaneous, 15 seconds, and 45
CN =the cooling factor for the fuse during the tenth
reclosing (open) interval. This varies from 1.0
seconds. For more details regarding relay settings, refer to at very short reclosing times to 0.0 at long
'Circuit Breakers and Relays" in Section A2. reclosing times.
In Figure 21A3, the fuse and breaker relay curves are
:ompared. The fuse minimum-melt curve has been referred TF(N) = Nth fault duration of the reclosing device.
:o the secondary by the voltage ratio 69/12.47 because the
7atlSformer connection is symmetrical - i.e., wye-grounded/ Use of the above formula also requires a knowledge of the
wye-grounded. For proper coordination up to 5 kA, it appears reset characteristics of the reset relay The relay's reset time
1lat both relay time-lever settings (2 and 4) will coordinate for is 10 seconds (at 0 percent remaining load) for time-lever 2,
and the fuse's cooling factors are as shown in Table 25A3.
(Note that fuse-link cooling factors may not be generally
available from manufacturers.)

117
A. Overcurrent Protection
3. PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT APPLICATIONS AND COORDINATION
Relay-Fuse Coordination (Continued)

60 3600
II Ill I I II II II I I II
50 3000
2400

~
40 125E
30 REFERRED ~~ 1800
TOSECONDAR y~ 000
MINIMUM
125E
~ .LJH
11. L
,..
BKR
20 MELT 1200

~
I \ ll~2.47/7.2
10 ~ \ 600
lAC 53 480
8
1000:5
6 1\ TL20R4 360
_l_l\. l CT 1000:5
5 300
2 TAP4
4 240
3 '" '" IT10
180

1\
2
' \ "' 120

en
0
z
1
.8
' ~
~

60
48
en
~
co
0 1::!
a:
u .6 36
w .5
en
~ .4
' \ loo..
30 ~
24 ~
w 18 en
:::!; .3
w
i=
.2
\_
-- ........
12
...J

~
~

0.1
INST \ 6.0 ~
w
1-
.08 4.8
.06 3.6
I\"
.05 3.0
.04 2.4
.03 1.8

.02 1.2

.01
'
8 88888§ § §§§§§~
CURRENT IN AMPERES

Figure 21A3.
Preliminary attempt to coordinate protection in Figure 20A3 example.

TABLE 25A3
Fuse-Link Cooling Factors*
Cooling Interval Cooling Factor
(Seconds) (Multiplier)
0.5 1.0
1 .93
2 .8
3 .68
4 .57
5 .46
6 .36
7 .26
8 .17
9 .09
10 .02
• Fuse-link cooling factors are used to determine the percentage of residual
higher-than-normal heat in the link at the indicated elapsed times following
exposure to melting current.

118
 A3
60 3600
50
Ill! I
3000
40 2400
30 69 12.47/7.2 1800
,_ ~®,
125E
125E II 1200
20
I \ I I 1ooo
I

' II
TOTAL

~
ACCUMULATED

cum
10 \

00
TIME 1-- 600
8 1-- lAC 53 480
1-- 1000:5
6 \ 360
\ i\ TAP4
5 Tl2 300
4 IT 10 240
T
INST-15-45
3 180
!\
2 1\ 120
I'
'
'
'iii
en 1 60~
0 .8 48fl)
z N
0 .6 36 li:
u
w .5 30w
en .J:
~ .4 24 ~
w .3
~
18 en
w
i= ._J

.2 \ 12 u
\ G
~

':fij
w
0.1 ~-+++ 6.0 ~
1-
.08 4.8
.06 3.6
\.
.05 3.0

•
.04 IT 2.4
.03 1.8

.02 =t=t=M 1.2

8 88888§ § §§§§§~
CURRENT IN AMPERES

Ftgure 22A3.
Curve comparison with Lever 2 showing total accumulated time.

The reclosing relay timing would produce the operating

sequence shown in figure 23A3. The first step in the cooling-
factor method is to determine if the INST reclosure caused
fuse damage. This is essentially the operation performed in

r
the previous example, since the cooling factor is 1.0 for the
30-cycle (0.5 second} reclosing interval. The curves are
15
directly added.
45

Figure 23A3.
Relayed breaker operating sequence.
A. Overcurrent Protection
3. PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT APPLICATIONS AND COORDINATION
Relay-Fuse Coordination (Continued)

If the first reclosing interval is one second, we would use Net travel= 18.75-5 = 13.75%.
the following relation for a fault-current magnitude of 5000 2nd fault timing= (.4) (1 - .1375) = .345 seconds forT. L. 2.
amperes: 2nd reclosing interval = 15 - .345 - .5 = 14.155 seconds:
10.
Teff= TN+ CN x TN-1 =TN+ .93 TN-1 Total fuse cooling occurs after 2nd reclosing interval.
Teff = .345 + 1.0 (.075) = .42 seconds.
Where TN = .40 (Nth or last fault timing occurs on
T.L.2). As can be seen, coordination is assured up to the maximum
TN-1 = .075 (next-to-last or first fault timing occurs on 5000 amperes. in this case, in fact, the more precise analysis
INST curve. was somewhat academic. However, as shown in the following,
if reclosing settings are changed from instantaneous, 15, and
We must then evaluate whether the total reclosing cycle 45 seconds to 5, 15, and 30 seconds, the analysis takes on
would cause a cumulative heating effect sufficient to blow the an entirely different meaning.
fuse. Since the actual open time varies with the fault timing,
this must be done on a point-by-point basis, as in the following Example 2
examples. 5 - 10 - 30 Reclosing Sequence

Example 1 At 1200 Amperes

{INST- 15- 45 Reclosing Sequence) 1st fault timing = 6 seconds forT. L. 2.
1st reclosing interval = 5 seconds.
At 1200 Amperes % reset during interval = 5/10 = 50%
1st fault timing = 6 seconds forT. L. 2. 2nd fault timing = (.5) {6) = 3.0 seconds forT. L. 2.
1st reclosing interval .5 seconds. 2nd reclosing interval = 15 - 5 - 3 = 7 seconds.
%reset during interval= .5 (100) = 5%. % reset during interval = 7/1 0 = 70%.
lO 3rd fault timing = .7 (6) = 4.2 seconds forT. L. 2.
3rd reclosing interval = 30 - 4.2 - 7 - 3 - 5 = 10.8
2nd fault timing = (.05) (6) = .3 second forT. L. 2. seconds; 10.
2nd reclosing interval = 15 - .5 - .3 seconds = 14.2 Total fuse cooling occurs after 3rd reclosing interval.
seconds; 10. Teff = 4.2 + .26 (3.0) + (.26) (.46) (6) = 5.7 seconds.
Total fuse cooling occurs after 2nd reclosing interval.
Teff = .3 + 1.0 (6) - 6.3 seconds. At 2000 Amperes
1st fault timing = 1.5 seconds forT. L. 2.
At 2000 Amperes 1st reclosing interval = 5 seconds.
1st fault timing = 1.5 seconds forT. L. 2. % reset during interval = 50%.
1st reclosing interval = .5 seconds 2nd fault timing= (.5) (1.5) = .75 forT. L. 2.
% reset during interval = 5% 2nd reclosing interval= 15-5- .75 = 9.25 seconds.
2nd fault timing = (.05) (1.5) = .075 seconds forT. L. 2. % reset during interval = 9.25/10 = 92.5%.
2nd reclosing interval = 15- .5 - .075 seconds = 14.425 3rd fault timing= .925 (1.5) = 1.3875 seconds forT. L. 2.
seconds; 10. 3rd reclosing interval= 30- 1.39-9.25- .75-5 = 13.61
Total fuse cooling occurs after 2nd reclosing interval. seconds; 10
Teff = .075 + 1.0 (1.5) = 1.575 seconds. Total fuse cooling occurs after 3rd reclosing interval.
Teff = 1.39 + .09 (.75} + (.09) (.46) (1.5) = 1.52 seconds.
At 3000 Amperes
1st fault timing = .09 seconds for I. T. setting of 10. At 5000 Amperes
%disk travel= .09 (100} = 12.86%. (Although reclosing 1st fault timing = .075 seconds for I. T. setting of 10.
7 relay tripped on instantaneous, Disk travel= (.075) (100) = 18.75%.
disk travels until reclosing occurs.) .4
1st reclosing interval = .5 seconds. 1st reclosing interval = 5 seconds.
% reset during interval = ~ (1 00) = 5%. % reset during interval = 100%.
10 2nd fault timing = .4 seconds.
Net travel= 12.86- 5 = 7.86%. 2nd reclosing interval = 15 - 5 - .4 = 9.6 seconds.
2nd fault timing= (.7) (1- .0786} = .645 seconds forT. L. 2. % reset during interval = 9.6/1 0 = 96%.
2nd reclosing interval = 15 - .645- .7 seconds = 13.655 3rd fault timing = .96 (.4) = .384 seconds.
seconds; 10. 3rd reclosing interval= 30- .38-9.6- .4-5 = 14.62
Total fuse cooling occurs after 2nd reclosing interval. seconds; 10
Teff = .645 + 1.0 (.09) = .735 seconds. Total fuse cooling occurs after 3rd reclosing interval.
Teff = .38 + .09 (.4) + (.09) (.46) (.075) = .42 seconds.
At 5000 Amperes
1st fault timing = .075 seconds for I. T. setting of 10. In general, the effects of the reset time of the electro-
Disk travel= (.075) (100} = 18.75%. mechanical relay and the timing characteristics of the reclosing
-:4 relay tend to offset each other. Therefore, the more precise
1st reclosing interval = .5 seconds. cooling-factor method of coordination is not often required.
% reset during interval = (.5) (1 00) = 5%.
10

120
 A3

RELAY AND LOAD-SIDE FUSE COORDINATION Approaches to Temporary Fault Protection

1n, its simplest form, an overcurrent relay has a single curve, Of course, the single relay curve, as stated above, allows
and the objective of relay and load-side fuse coordination is only one of the objectives of distribution-system protection to be
jO assure that the relay curve is slower than the fuse curve.
achieved: removal from service of the smallest portion of the
3y thus allowing the fuse to operate in the event of a fault system in the event of a fault. It also may be desirable to have
tem~orary fault protection, which, in the case of reclosers, is
:cwnline from it, the breaker is protected from a permanent
".autt and only the smallest portion of the line is removed from obtamed as a result of a dual timing characteristic {discussed
service. in Section A2). In the relay-fuse installation under consideration
Figure .24A3 illustrates a typical installation for study. The here, however, it may be necessary to attempt to achieve
""?lay settings are the same as those in the previous example coordination for temporary protection within the range of the
~nder "Relay and Source-Side Fuse Coordination."
minimum fault current the recloser can sense up to the
maximum fault current available at the fuse location.
For example, protection against temporary faults will be
~btained by adding an instantaneous element with a tap set-
tmg of 8 to the relay in the study case. The minimum pick-up
3-CYCLE Q of the instantaneous element is, therefore, 1600 amperes
(8x(1000/5)), which is roughly twice the pick-up of the time
BREAKER
KLINK
\51 curve. Figure 26A3 shows that temporary fault protection is
achieved from 1600 to 2700 amperes, but the 75 percent rule
observed for the fuse link produces a maximum of 2250
amperes. (Remember that the fuse minimum-melt curve is
shifted by 75 percent to account for ambient temperature dif-
Figure 24A3. ference, load current, and predamage.)
Diagram of installation with overcurrent relay and load- In general, this range of protection can be expanded by
side fuse. lowering the instantaneous setting. The lower limit, however,
is often dictated by inrush and downline device coordination,
For coordination up to 5 kA, what is the maximum K fuse that and the upper limit is fixed by the speed of the breaker.
'Hill assure a maximum fuse clearing time that does not exceed Three-cycle interruption (0.05 seconds) is generally accepted
the relay time? A margin of 0.2 to 0.3 seconds between the as the fastest fault clearing obtainable with a circuit breaker.
fuse's maximum-clear curve and the relay's time-lever curve The range can also be expanded by the use of a ground over-
should generally be observed to allow for CT error, setting current relay with an instantaneous element. This addition
errors, tolerances, overtravel, etc. For currents below three permits the instantaneous element to be set at lower levels.
tim~s pickup, a 10-percent time margin has proved workable.
The upper limit, however, is fixed by the relay and breaker
Typically, the complete family of K-fuse maximum-clear operating times.
curves would be overlayed on the relay curve, and the fuse If temporary fault protection (and the resultant fuse saving)
whose curve is closest to the relay curve while satisfying i~ desired in protection applications involving relays and load-
appropriate time margins is the maximum-size fuse that can Side fusing, the process is maximized by using the largest
be used. With these considerations in mind it can be seen in fuses practical on lateral taps and setting the instantaneous
Figure 25A3 that a 200K link is the largest' that can be used element as low as possible. Maximum fuse size is governed
in this application. by conductor burndown and coordination with the relay time
curve.

121
A. Overcurrent Protection
3. PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT APPLICATIONS AND COORDINATION
Relay-Fuse Coordination (Continued)

CURRENT IN AMPERES
1\)

1000
010> CDC
1\)
0 8 88888§ §
Boo 48000
140K 200K
600 36000
500 I 30000
400 I 24000
100K

@
300 18000
BKR.
200 000 12000
141"1
~~~5~ FUSE
100 1000:5 6000
80 DOWN LINE FUSE TAP4 4800
MAXIMUM CLEAR TL2
60 CURVES INST-15-45 3600
50 3000
40 2400
30 1800

20 1200

10 1\ 600
8 480
6 RELAY 360
5
\ \ 300
4 \ 240
3 1\ 180

2
\ \ 1\ 120
~ \
1\ \
'
Cii'
Cll
1 soCii
<(
0
z .8 48~
0
u .6 \
\ 36 li:
w .5 30 ~
Cll
\
~ .4 24 ~
w .3
~
\ \ .... 18 Cll
w
;:::
.2
1\ 1\ i\ i""-.... ........ 12 ~
...J

'1\' \ ~ u
""' z
~ w
0.1 6.0 ~
1-
.08 4.8
.06 3.6
.05
.04 ' 3.0
2.4
.03 1.8
~
.02 1.2
1\
.01 0.6
~

8 88888§
CURRENT IN AMPERES

Figure 25A3.
Comparison of fuse and relay curves for application in Figure 24A3 example.

122
 A3

60 3600
50 3000
40 2400
30 1800
BKR
20
14Ji
lAC 53 140K
®).
000
1200

10 1000:5 600
TAP4
8 TL2 480
6 ITS 360
5
\ 300
4 240
140K
3 \ 180
1\
2 120
\
CJ) 1 \ ~ 1-- RELAY
60~
(j)

0 .8 481D
z N
0 .~
36li:
(.) .6
w \ 30w
CJ) .5 J:
~ .4
w .3
24
~
::!:
i=
' ..... 18 CJ)
w
..J
.2 1\. 12 >-
(.)

....' \
(.)
INST____., \ ~
w
0.1
.08
.06
' \. -
6.0 ~
4.8
3.6
1-

.05 3.0
.04 2.4
.03 1.8

.02
' ~
1.2

.01
g g: ~ 8 8 88888§
CURRENT IN AMPERES
§ §§§§§~ '"
Figure 26A3.
Curves showing temporary fault protection with instantaneous element.

123
A. Overcurrent Protection
3. PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT APPLICATIONS AND COORDINATION
Relay-Fuse Coordination (Continued)

Figure 27A3 shows a Southeastern utility's approach to

relay and load-side fuse coordination. The scheme allows
temporary fault protection by using low-set ground and a low-set
instantaneous element. These are both locked out by the
reclosing relay after the first shot, leaving only the phase time
delay for an interval of 10 to 15 seconds, after which all relays
are reestablished.

1~~~~~~~~fl~~~~~§§~§§!jjjfj§Et§~§E~~jjj§§~
~OO.AMPFUSE
60 MIN. MELT -1-M-+ 60
~ ~
40~~HH--~-.~~~+- 40
30 1--+~1-H-~--!++1--++-+++- 30

~
z
8 .6
~ .5
~ .4

~ .3
i=

.02

.Q1 ~......I...I.J.......--I---l..--l-...l...-'...L..I.L.LJ...U...I....--L.-J.-L.-:':-JU-I~~J.J...L.....--I---L--1-...L.I.-.I-I-J .Q1

iJ>ma,- 1\J "'~(]l(l) 000 ~ ~ ~~ 8 g:8 8 8 88
SCALE X 100 =MULTIPLES OF MINIMUM ACTUATED CURRENT

Figure 27A3.
Southeastern utility's approach to relay and load-side fuse coordination.

124
 A3

Recloser-to-Recloser Coordination
'USING TIME-CURRENT CURVES reclosers that are similar to the shape of hydraulic recloser
llecloser-to-recloser coordination is achieved primarily by the curves, many other fast and delayed curve shapes are avail-
selection of different series trip-coil ratings in hydraulic able to fit various coordination requirements.
oedosers, or different minimum-trip current values in electronic An important consideration when coordinating reclosers
"edosers. The proper selections are determined after a study with reclosers is the time (cycles) between the curves of the
of the reclosers' time-current characteristics. two reclosers. Different recloser types require different minimum
Tme-current curves of different hydraulic reclosers generally times between curves to prevent simultaneous operation , as
are of similar inverse shapes. If the reclosers involved have described in the following sections.
smilar timing mechanisms, their time-current characteristics
=-e not only similar, but also essentially parallel. This tends to HYDRAULICALLY CONTROLLED RECLOSERS:
snplify coordination. COORDINATION BASICS
Microprocessor controlled reclosers, on the other hand, Smaller Reclosers (Series Coil Operated)
offer a variety of time-current curves. With the number of time- When coordinating hydraulically controlled reclosers in series,
anent curves and minimum trip values available, the charac- the minimum time required between time-current curves differs
Eristics of a microprocessor controlled recloser generally can depending on the recloser types involved. On smaller single-
be tailored to fit any coordination requirement. and three-phase reclosers, movement of the series trip-coil
Tme-current curves can be selected to make best use of dual plunger (when accelerated by overcurrent flowing through the
tnling- a feature on all reclosers that can be programmed so series coil) opens the recloser contacts and loads the closing
lhat the first operation(s) in the recloser sequence are on a springs. Cooper Power Systems reclosers of this construc-
fast time-current curve and are followed by delayed-curve tion are Types H, 3H, 4H, V4H , L, V4L, 6H , V6H, E, 4E and
operations. Figure 28A3 illustrates a typical set of time-current V4E. When two such reclosers are in series, time-current
curves for a hydraulic recloser, with A being the fast curve, B curve separation of less than two cycles will always result in
delayed, and C extra delayed. Some hydraulic reclosers offer simultaneous operation, and separation of two to twelve cycles may
ttvee or four delayed curves in addition to the one fast curve. do so. When curves are more than twelve cycles apart, how-
While there are curves for microprocessor controlled ever, simultaneous operation will not occur. (Table 26A3.)
TABLE 26A3
20 1200 Time-Current Curve-Separation Guidelines for Series
Operation of Hydraulically Controlled Reclosers
10 600 Reclosers* Definite Possible Never
480 (Cooper Slmul- Slmul- Simul-
7
\ Types) taneous tan eo us taneous
\
360 Operation Operation Operation
5 300
\ 240 Series Coil Operated Less Than 2 to 12 More Than
J ~ 180
(e.g.: H, 3H, 4H, V4H, L, V4L, 2 Cycles Cycles 12 Cycles
6H,V6H, E, 4E, V4Ej
2 \ \ 120 (i) High-Voltage Solenoid
Closing (e. ~, r:N, R, Less than 2 to 8 More than

~ \. som
~ RX, RV, W, 27, WV38X,
VW, VVVV27, VWV38X)
2 cycles cycles 8 cycles
1

7
48 ~ •source-s1de recloser diCtates the necessary curve separat1on.
a:
36 w An example of the application of such reclosers to be coor-
os I'
JOr
\ dinated in series by selecting coil ratings is shown in Figure 29A3.
z
8.3 \ '" 24 ~
18 (i)
Three reclosers with adjacent coil sizes are programmed for

'
a 2A2C operating sequence. Branch lines tap off at intermediate
-.2
~
;:::
1\. " ' ~ 12
w
d
~
points between reclosers. The time-current characteristics of
these reclosers, Figure 30A3, indicate that, at a fault current
I
i\ ~ ""c
6.0 ~
w of 1000 amperes, the fast characteristics (A curves) are clos-
er than two cycles, which means that this fault current on the
B. 4.8 1-
load side of the 50 ampere recloser can cause simultaneous
3.6
3.0 fast operations by all reclosers. Also, simultaneous operations
2.4 may occur at this current even on delayed timing, since the
A separation between delayed curves at 1000 amperes is
1.8
approximately three cycles for the 50 and 70 ampere units
1.2 and eight cycles for the 70 and 100 ampere units.
At 500 amperes, separation between the delayed curves of
the 50 and 70 ampere units is 13.7 cycles, and between the
~ 00
M
0
0 0
0
'1:1' ~
00
,......
8
-
0.6
70 and 100 ampere units. 28.8 cycles. At this level of fault
current, coordination would exist between the reclosers even
CURRENT (AMPERES) though limited simultaneous operation would result, based
on characteristics of the fast curves. For a 500 ampere fault
Rgure 28A3.
Yypical ABC time-current curves for 50 ampere, single- on the load side of the 50 ampere recloser, all three units may
phase hydraulic recloser.

125
A. Overcurrent Protection
3. PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT APPLICATIONS AND COORDINATION
Recloser-to-Recloser Coordination (Continued)

perform their two fast operations simultaneously, but during

the delayed operation only the 50 ampere recloser would 100 AMPERE
clear the fault by opening before the 70 and 100 ampere 2A2B
units. The 50 ampere unit would lock out for a permanent
fault on its load side, and the other two units would reset.
On special occasions where hydraulically controlled
reclosers in series must have the same series-coil rating,
coordination can be achieved by setting the reclosers to
operate on different sequences and different delayed time-
current curves. However, the requirement on time between
curves at the fault-current levels involved still applies and
should be confirmed. 100 AMPERE
Figure 31A3 shows an example in which all reclosers have 2A2B
100 ampere coils, but ACRE1 is set for a 1A3C sequence
while ACRE2 and ACRE3 are set for 2A2B sequence. Should
Figure 31 A3.
a fault occur at point F, ACRE1 and ACRE2 will simultane- Diagram of reclosers coordinated in series by means of
ously perform one fast operation. operating sequence selection.
This response is expected because both reclosers are
operating on the same time-current curve. The ACRE2 on the
2A2B sequence then completes its second fast operation
50-AMPERE before ACRE1 can operate on its delayed C curve. If the fault
is permanent, ACRE2 operates to lockout because ACRE2
operates on the B curve faster than ACRE1 operates on the
ALL2A2C C curve. This assumes sufficient time between the B and C
SEQUENCE
curve to prevent simultaneous operation at the fault-current
level involved.
With this method, the branch-line fault causes one brief
interruption of loads along the primary feeder. For a permanent
fault at F, only ACRE2 will lock out. ACRE1 will lock out only
for a permanent fault on the primary feeder such as K.

Larger Reclosers
100-AMPERE (High-Voltage Solenoid Closing)
On larger single- and three-phase hydraulically controlled
Figure 29A3. reclosers (such as Cooper Types D, DV, W, VW, WV and VWV),
Diagram of reclosers coordinated in series by selection movement of the series trip-coil plunger merely releases the
of coil ratings.
preloaded opening springs. A separate closing solenoid loads
the opening springs and closes the contacts. Consequently, as
shown in Table 26A3, the minimum time allowable between
10 time-current curves without incurring simultaneous operation is
8
6 different than for the smaller reclosers discussed earlier. When
5 the larger of two reclosers in series is of this type (separate
\ \
4
\ 3
closing solenoid), time-current curve separation of less than
en \ \1\ 2
two cycles will result in simultaneous operation, but when the
curves are separated by more than eight cycles, the possibility
~ ~r\
1i)
~ 69.0!-
of simultaneous operation is remote.
1 Except for this difference in curve separation required to avoid
N
t- .8 en
ffi 40.2 70A simultaneous operation, coordination of the larger hydraulically

., .,
.6 0
J:
0 26.5!-· 1\- .;. . .\- ·- .55 controlled reclosers is the same as for smaller units.
.4 ()
CD 50A'.. 100A ~ .3 w
~ 16.5t- ~-
~ MICROPROCESSOR CONTROLLED RECLOSERS:

' ""
w 100C
.2 w COORDINATION BASICS
...J
()
>-
g 6.0
\ \ 1\ ~ soc 70C
.1
:::i!
i= Microprocessor controlled reclosers offer a wide range of operat-
w 4.8 .08 ing characteristics to closely meet individual system require-
:::i! .07 ments. For all reclosers to be coordinated, consideration
i= 3.6
.05 must be given to minimum trip levels for ground faults and
-~ .04
1.8
----= .OJ phase faults, choice of time-current curves, operating
sequence, reclosing intervals, and application of acces-
1.2 .!)2
sories.
Adjacent electronically controlled reclosers can be coordinated
0.6lil cog oco~o 8N og ego co 0 g gog g 8 closely together since there is no override or follow-through
-.::1"\ll
~"'g ~g 0
o8o o o
~
Q
M . . t.n(OCO~ of electronic circuits. If the load-side recloser clears faster
CURRENT (AMPERES) than the response time of the sourceside recloser, coordination
is assured. Load-side clearing time with its plus tolerance
Figure 30A3.
Time-current curves demonstrating recloser coordination must be less than the sourceside control response time with
by means of adjacent coil selection. its negative tolerance.

126
 A3
A general guideline for coordinating electronically controlled consideration of anticipated peak load currents on the system
oeclosers - after voltage ratings, interrupting capacities, and and the lowest fault-current level in each recloser's zone of
continuous current capacities for the reclosers to be used in protection. For the Type WE, ratings from which the trip current
1he system have been established - is to do so by means of can be selected range from 50 to 1120 amperes. Minimum
mW'Iimum trip levels and time-current curves. trip values of 1120 amperes for the substation recloser
With microprocessor controlled reclosers, the minimum trip (ACRE1) and 400 amperes for the line recloser (ACRE2)
level chosen does not alter the maximum continuous were selected to facilitate cold-load pickup after an outage
CUTent capacity of the recloser - unlike hydraulically controlled and to allow for future load growth.
&:losers, in which the minimum trip and continuous current The time-current curves shown in Figure 33A3 are typical
l3lings are related in that both are properties of the series and are used for clarity of illustration. On an actual system,
coi. In microprocessor controlled reclosers, the minimum trip many influences not apparent from this isolated example may
CUTent programmed in the control circuits is independent of necessitate consideration of different curve shapes.
lhe recloser's maximum continuous current rating. However, Since the purpose of this example is to show the relationship
lhe minimum trip current chosen should account for anticipat- of one recloser to the other, time-current curves A (fast) and
ed peak system-load current. Also, it should be chosen so that B (delayed) will be reviewed first. For clarity, tolerances have
1he recloser operates for any fault current in its protection zone. been ignored here but should be considered in actual practice.
Because protection against temporary faults is needed for Faults down line of ACRE2 should be cleared by the line
lhe line between the substation recloser and load-side recloser before the ACRE1 control responds. On fast opera-
lledoser, the substation recloser should have at least one fast tions, the curves show that, at fault-current levels of 1900
aperation. The load-side recloser will coordinate with the amperes and higher, the two reclosers will operate simulta-
souce-side recloser if it has the same or greater number of neously. On delayed operations, since the 117 response
fast operations. Delayed curves should be chosen so that the curve for ACRE1 is slower throughout than 117 clearing for
'Dad-side recloser can operate to lockout on a permanent ACRE2, the line recloser (ACRE2) will clear without the sub-
tot without the backup unit tripping after it performs its fast station recloser opening on its delayed curve. Assuming a 2-
aperations. Simultaneous trippings can be eliminated by the 101 , 2-117 sequence on both reclosers, a 3000 ampere per-
selection of proper curves and use of the Cooper sequence manent fault downline of ACRE2 would cause two simultane-
coordination accessory, which is discussed later in this sec- ous fast trips of both reclosers, followed by two delayed trips to
1i1Jn under "Features and Accessories for Microprocessor lockout of ACRE2, after which ACRE1 would reset. The entire
Controlled Reclosers:· feeder would have experienced two short fast interruptions. By
setting the substation recloser (ACRE1) to 1-101, 3-117, one
bample of Microprocessor Recloser Coordination of the unnecessary feeder interruptions can be avoided.
Mhough coordination of microprocessor controlled reclosers
is done via time-current curve studies, the coordination of
curves to each other is different than it is with hydraulically 10 600
cmlrolled reclosers. Please refer to Figure 32A3 and the follow- 8 117 CLEAR . 480
ACR2(400)
llg example. G~~~HM+r-\+-+-~++H-++~--+-+-~++~360

The maximum substation three-phase fault current is 5 \ D

4 ~0
~.(X)()() ampers and maximum load current is 450 amperes. At a
sectionalizing point down the line, maximum three-phase
3f-+H+~~-++t--\-+-++-t-t-++t-++++t-+-+-!-+-++H180
f;;Ut current is 3600 amperes where maximum load current is 2f-+H+-H-++t---+-\'H-,+-t-t-++t-++++t-+-+-!-+-++H120
"60 amperes. With these ratings factored into the recloser en
1~~~~~~~~~~~tf~~~~~~60 ~
aiiJI)ication criteria discussed earlier, the Cooper Type WE
I'IE!doser would fit both the substation application and the line
a~~JP~ication. Unquestionably, other recloser types have a range .8~ ~ a:~
Dl ratings that would satisfy these requirements, and the WE enG \ 36w
~ .5 30 :I:
lii'E are used here merely as typical. User selection depends
illllso upon operating experience, system construction, and 8.4 \ 24~
ax:epted practices. w .3 I\. I\. 117 RESPONSE 18 en
!!?. I' I' ACR1 (1120) w
Selection of the specific minimum trip currents must include w .2 101 CLEAR 12 ..J

~ ACR2 (400) ~
w

· 1m~~~~§lftm~~~g§!EmB.O:::!
1
~ u~
.06 1....... " " 3.6
~5 ~ 10
~ ~

m 1B
HHH++++H-~~I~\101RESPONSE~~,+++H
.02 ACR1 (1120) 1.2
l l l l i I II II

1\ II II II
~ ~ ~~~ ~ ~
CURRENT (AMPERES)

Rgure 32A3. Figure 33A3.

Qcuit diagram for coordination of electronically TCCs for application diagrammed in Figure 32A3.
controlled three-phase controllers.
127
A. Overcurrent Protection
3. PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT APPLICATIONS AND COORDINATION
Recloser-to-Recloser Coordination (Continued)

Alternate Coordination Scheme Sequence Coordination

Improved coordination would be achieved by employing a The sequence coordination feature is used to improve service
slower fast curve on the substation recloser, such as illustrat- continuity on lines protected by reclosers in series. It prevents
ed in Figure 34A3. With ACRE1 programmed for 2-104, 2- unnecessary fast-trip operations of the back-up recloser on
117 simultaneous tripping is avoided for fault currents below faults that can be cleared by the down line unit.
3700 amperes, which is above the level expected in ACRE2s The two typical recloser operations without sequence coor-
zone of protection. This method is advantageous where faults dination in Figure 35A3 are similar to the examples in the
are predominantly temporary in nature and clear after one or preceding section. In example A, two reclosers with similar
two fast-trip operations, but it has disadvantages when a per- fast curves are in series. A permanent fault beyond the downline
manent fault is encountered. In response to a permanent recloser is sensed by both reclosers, which then trip simulta-
fault, ACRE2 operates twice on its fast curve and sequences neously on their fast curves.
to its delayed curve, but since ACRE1 is still on its 104 Even if the two reclosers had not tripped simultaneously,
response curve, it operates twice by beating ACRE2's 117 because the fast curve of ACRE2 is faster than ACRE1 (illus-
curve. Again, there are two unnecessary feeder interruptions. trated in example B, Figure 35A3), the backup ACRE1 will trip
The ideal is to have ACRE1 avoid those unnecessary inter- twice on its fast curve when the downline ACRE2 sequences
ruptions yet still maintain its dual-timing capability for proper to its delayed curve. In either case, service to the area
protection in its own zone. This is easily accomplished by between reclosers has experienced two short, but unnecessary
activating the sequence coordination feature in the substation interruptions. Both of these situations are discussed in the
recloser control. This feature and others are described in the preceding example of microprocessor recloser coordination
next section. and the alternate coordination scheme.
In sequence-coordinated operation, diagrammed in the
10 600
Figure 36A3, the backup recloser merely counts the fast
8 117 CLEAR 480 operations of the down line reclosers but does not trip. Its pro-
ACR2(400) gram sequence is advanced twice toward its delayed opera-
s~~~hn~r-~+-~r+rH~HH;+--~r+~HHH~
5 300 tions, but no trip signal is issued. Therefore, while the fault is
4 \ m sensed by the backup recloser, no operation occurs, and
3 1\. ' 180 when the downline recloser reaches its time-delay opera-
2HH~~I\.~r-~'~~++~++H-~;-rr~1W tions, it alone trips because of the difference in time-current
characteristics. Consequently, the needless service interrup-
\ (i) tions to the area between reclosers are prevented.

1~~~~~§f~~~~~~~~~~~~: ~II:
Sequence coordination functions on fast operations only,
.8~ N so the number of operations that will be coordinated is deter-
jg .s104 CLEAR -"~--+-+-+'k-+++-+lf+++--+--+-+-i-+11-H36 mined by the number of fast operations programmed for the
Z _5 ACR2(1120).\" 30 w source-side recloser. The fast TCC for the source-side
8 .4 \\ \ 24 l: recloser must have a response curve slower than the clear-
~ .3 \ \ ~ 117 RESPONSE 18 ~ ing TCC for the load-side fast curve.
~ .2
~
~

,,
.'\ \
" ACR1 (1120)
12 ~
(i)

u
~
When ground tripping is employed on reclosers that use
sequence coordination, the same requirements must be met
by the ground-trip TCCs as described above for phase trip.
Figure 37 A3 shows typical ground-trip curves for source-side
· r~~~~~Em~m~m~~~~~~G.O
1
.08 101 4.8 ~ (ACRE1) and load-side (ACRE2) reclosers. As in the compar-
CLEAR '\. ~
J.s w
ison of TCC's in the phase TCC analysis, the response curve
: :~"'~c~R~2~(400~~)t~~a~~~~~~~~~~J.O
~

.OJ
...... ~

1.8
for ACRE1 must be slower than the clearing curve for ACRE2.
Of course, the requirements specified under "Electronically
HHK+-+++++-+-+-t-++-N104 RESPONS '\ Controlled Reclosers: Coordination Basics" also must be
.o21-+H+-H++t---+-t-++t-tt ~q~\W20> met.
1 1 -+-~-++H 1.2

1\ II II Instantaneous Trip
At higher fault-current levels, the instantaneous trip feature
~ ~~§~~~ extends the range of recloser coordination with source-side
CURRENT (AMPERES) devices. Above a predetermined level of fault current, it allows
the control to bypass the programmed time-current characteristic
Figure 34A3. and immediately trip the recloser without intentional time
Alternate TCCs for application diagrammed in Figure delay.
32A3.
Instantaneous tripping can be programmed to occur when
fault current exceeds a selected multiple of minimum trip current.
A range of multiples is provided to allow operation of this feature
FEATURES AND ACCESSORIES FOR at the desired level for the particular application, and the
MICROPROCESSOR CONTROLLED RECLOSERS accessory can be set to operate on any one or more trip
Improved flexibility and coordination are made possible by the operations in the sequence. The multiple for ground trip need
use of various features and accessories available with not be the same as the multiple for phase. For fault currents
microprocessor controlled reclosers. Coordination studies may below the selected minimum trip multiple, the control will time
be more complicated, of course, but the accessories can provide and trip according to its normally programmed characteristics.
many benefits in the form of improved system performance.

128
 A3

OPEN
LOCKOUT

117 117
CLOSED -

~TIME------ ...

FAULT
START

OPERATION WITH SIMULTANEOUS TRIPPING

BvL
OPEN ------~.;nn~
CLOSED - - • ....- - - - - - - - - - - -
1
OPEN--- ------1---
1 LOCKOUT

CLOSED---
-
0
I
I 111 117

I
FAULT
START
TIME - - - - - - •

OPERATION WITHOUT SIMULTANEOUS TRIPPING

Figure 35A3.
Diagrams of two examples of microprocessor recloser operation without sequence coordination on backup recloser.

c
I
:1-------"-~__;:=-
~ PAOGAAMSEOUENCESTEPS
ACR •
I I
BUT RECLOSER CONTACTS
DO NOT OPEN
I I
SEQUENCE COORDINATED I I
2-104, 2-117 CLOSED--~~-----~-------------------------
OPEN --,..---- --· ----- ------ LOCKOUT

CLOSED ~ J.Q! 117 117

TIME-

SEQUENCE-COORDINATED OPERATION

'9ft36A3.
lllgrams of microprocessor recloser operation with sequence coordination on backup recloser.

129
A. Overcurrent Protection
3. PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT APPLICATIONS AND COORDINATION
Recloser-to-Recloser Coordination (Continued)

CURRENT (AMPERES) 100

0

lll co~ ~ g~g ~~ ~ ~~~ ~~ 70

FUSE MIN. MELT -
50 SHIFTED FOR TRANSFER RATIO-

30
I II
-~e
,.,
20 r-

360
·--6000
E 2400 ~
1BOO en
1200 ~
10

6
5
I\
F' > 400A

(jj 4
CII 0
600 1-N z 3 RECLOSER DELAYED\
a: 0 PHASE-TRIP CURVE
360 UJ
u \
UJ 2 MULTIPLIED PER
J:

~
240 0 ~ TABLE22A3
UJ RECLOSER
180 !e. ::; TCC
120 en
UJ
i= 1
EXTENDED 1-
...J .Bt----·
60
~ .6
36 8 .5
24
18
UJ
::!!
i=
.4r--- j-RECLOSERTCC
t- AS ALTERED BY--:"
.3r--- FEATURE
'"~
3.6
12
N0.113_1. I_! ··I".

-~ ~ ~t~ ~ ~ i~ ~ ~ ~ C~L~E~AR~I~N~G~TI~M~E
.2
r~
6.0 \
.1 r\
.OJ
.02
N0.113CONTROLRESPONSETIME ~
18
'
12
.08
.06
.05
.o 1 Ll111 111111111111 llllliiiUII o.6 .04
288 gg 8 8 § R 0 0
8 §
e ~ 8
ln co~ o ooo og g o ooo og 0
~ M~U")
00
M~l!'l ~ g~§ ~~ l'l 51
.- N 000
'"' 0
R e
CURRENT (AMPERES) CURRENT (AMPERES) '"'

Figure 38A3.
Figure 37 A3. . . . . TCCs illustrating coordination of recloser, equipped with
Typical ground-tnp curves show1ng safe coordmat1on instantaneous trip feature, and source-side primary
zone when sequence coordination accessory is used.
fuse.

To keep pace with changing system requirements, the

minimum trip multiple can easily be changed to any other
value within the range or to different operations of the sequence.
Coordination of a recloser with the instantaneous trip fea-
ture active with a source-side primary fuse is illustrated in
Figure 38A3. The recloser has a minimum trip setting of 400
amperes and, with the delayed time-current curve shown but
without instantaneous trip, coordination with the primary fuse
would be lost with fault currents of approximately 1600
amperes and higher.
With an instantaneous trip multiple of four, however, the
recloser will trip instantaneously at any fault current level
above 1600 amperes, so that, in this case, coordination with
the primary fuse is extended to about 7000 amperes.
Adequate margin must be provided between the recloser
TCC and the fuse minimum melting curve to prevent fuse
damage or fatigue.
Instantaneous tripping allows coordination to be tailored to Figure 39A3.
the requirements of the system. For example, again using a Diagram of coordination scheme utilizing reclosers with
multiple of four, a fault at F1 in the system diagrammed in instantaneous trip feature active.
Figure 39A3 would initiate instantaneous tripping for any fault
greater that 1600 amperes. The fault would be isolated by the Instantaneous Lockout
sectionalizer (83), which requires only momentary current Additional flexibility is provided by the instantaneous lockout
durations to activate its counting mechanism. feature, which permits the control automatically to shorten its
A fault at F2, however, would not activate instantaneous sequence when fault current above a preset level is encoun-
tripping because of the lower fault-current level. The recloser tered. This feature is valuable for minimizing the effect of
will operate on its normal 2-1 04, 2-133 sequence, and the high-magnitude, close-in faults where there is a high probability
delayed 133 curve will allow the fuse to clear the fault. the fault is permanent and coordination with downline devices
is not required. By reducing the shots to lockout on faults
above a preset level, the likelihood of equipment or conductor
damage is considerably reduced.
130
 A3
The instantaneous lockout operates in the same manner RECLOSING INTERVAL
as instantaneous trip. Minimum-trip multiples are specified The time between a recloser's overcurrent opening operation
from a range of values. The feature can be set to lock out the and the next closing operation (lockout not considered) is
control after the first, second, or third operation. known as the reclosing interval. Recloser contacts are open
during the reclosing interval, which may range from 0.~ seconds
Instantaneous Trip/Instantaneous Lockout for instantaneous reclosing to 1000 seconds, depending on the
'C ombination type of recloser and the application. Somet.hin~ in be.tween
Combining instantaneous trip and instantaneous lockout these two extremes will be used for most apphcat1ons, w1th two
giYes the control yet another step of application flexibility: seconds being the most common. Of course, microprocessor
1t1e ability to provide three "zones" of protection. For example, controlled reclosers offer the greatest flexibility.
equipping the recloser applied in Figure 39A3 with instanta-
'1eOUS lockout as well as instantaneous trip enables use of a Hydraulically Controlled Reclosers
zoned protection scheme as illustrated In Figure 40A3. Reclosing intervals for Cooper hydraulically controlled
reclosers are shown in Table 27 A3.
Control operation on faults in Zone 3 would be the On all single-phase and the smaller three-phase units
programmed 2-1 04, 2-133 sequence, providing normal (Types 6H and V6H), the indicated reclosing interval is fixed,
'ledoser fuse coordination for a fault at F2. with no adjustment or selection available. On the larger three-
With the instantaneous trip set at a minimum-trip multiple phase hydraulically controlled reclosers (Type W series), the
of tour, faults in Zone 2, which would exceed the 1600 ampere standard reclosing interval is two seconds, but an accessory
level, could cause four instantaneous trip operations. can be included to provide a 30 cycle reclosing interval on
t-lowever, for faults beyond the sectionalizers, coordination with the first reclosing operation. This would enable a 30 cycle,
!he sectionalizers (covered in a later section) would limit them two-second sequence of reclosing intervals to be employed
m three, as the fault at F1 would be cleared by the sectionaliz- on a four-shot recloser program.
er on the third operation.
For close-in faults (Zone 1), where high-magnitude fault TABLE 27A3
anent could cause conductor burndown or possible substation Reclosing Interval Hydraulically Controlled Reclosers
ecJ.ipment damage, the instantaneous lockout can automatically
'
Cooper Reclosing Interval
shorten the control sequence. Setting the feature at a mini- Recloser Type (seconds)
ftJfll trip multiple of 16 would activate it at 6400 amperes. H, 3H, 1.0
Above that fault level, the instantaneous lockout, set for one 4H , 6H 1.5
operation to lockout, minimizes the number of high fault cur- V4H , V6H 1.5
Blls seen, thereby reducing the possibility of line and eq~ip­ L,V4L,D, D~E,4E,V4E 2.0
'!Delll: damage. Where the probability is high that trans1ent W, WV27, WV38X, R, RX, RV,
BJts might occur in Zone 1, the instantaneous lockout could VW, VWV27, VWV38X, 2.0*
be set to allow two Zone 1 operations. • Accessory available for 30-cycle reclos1ng on first operation.

4DO-AMPERE
2-104 2-133

~-----ZONE1------~----------ZONE2----------~----------ZONE3-----------

figure 40A3. k b" t"

llilgram of zoned protection possible with instantaneous trip/instantaneous loc out com 1na Jon.

131
A. Overcurrent Protection
3. PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT APPLICATIONS AND COORDINATION
Recloser-to-Recloser Coordination (Continued)

Microprocessor Controlled Reclosers such as Multipliers, Minimum Response Time Adders, High
A wide range of reclosing intervals can be programmed on Current Trip, etc through a series of dialog boxes within the
microprocessor controlled reclosers: from the shortest possi- configuration software. While this is effective, the actual time
ble time, called instantaneous (0.3 seconds) reclosing, to current curve is not displayed in the software. The second
intervals as long as 1000 seconds. The choice of reclosing method offered by Cooper Power Systems is a graphical TCC
interval is influenced by a number of factors. Editor that is a separate application integrated with the config-
Instantaneous reclosing, being the shortest contact-open
uration software. The TCC Editor allows visual indication of all
time, provides the best chance of maintaining motor loads
such as industrial supply, irrigation systems, or other loads the base TCC and all the modifiers to immediately verify that the
that drop oH with an extended open period. Instantaneous TCC is correct per the desired system coordination. The TCC
reclosing is frequently desirable for the first reclosing in the Editor's capabilities also include creating a completely unique
sequence. TCC by entering time/current data coordinates which the
There are, however, disadvantages. Instantaneous reclosing Editor software converts to a data set in the format required by
may not allow sufficient time to clear transient faults, such as the control into which it is to be loaded. The Cooper Power
a tree limb in contact with a line, or lines blown together in the Systems controls use an Import and Export feature to share
wind. Also, ionized gases from the fault arc may not have the TCC between both applications.
dissipated. The graphical TCC Editor also includes the ability to create
The two-second reclosing interval is quite common. It curves based on both ANSI and IEC standard formulas.
provides more time for transient faults to clear and ionized gases
to dissipate, but an interval longer than two seconds further TABLE 28A3
increases the possibility of motor loads dropping off. When TCC Curve Cross Reference
used between fast trip operations, a two-second reclosing F6 Curve F3 Cross
interval allows more cooling time for load-side fuses. Name Reference Index
A five-second reclosing interval often is used between the Kyle 101 A 0
delayed trip operations of a substation recloser to allow more Kyle 102 1 1
cooling of the high-side fuse. This permits the recloser timing Kyle 103 17 2
to be closer to fuse minimum-melt timing. Kyle 104 N 3
Longer reclosing intervals (1 0, 15 seconds, etc.) generally Kyle 105 R 4
Kyle 106 4 5
are used if the back-up protection is a mechanical relay-con-
Kyle 107 L 6
trolled breaker. This allows the timing disk on the overcurrent Kyle 111 8*, 8+ 7
relay more time to fully reset. Kyle 112 15 8
Kyle 113 8 9
Examples of Reclosing Intervals Kyle 114 5 10
Kyle 115 p 11
Typical sequence on a line recloser where back-up protection
Kyle 116 D 12
is another recloser: Kyle 117 B 13
Kyle 118 M 14
INST, 2-sec, 2-sec Kyle 119 14 15
or Kyle 120 y 16
2-sec, 2-sec, 2-sec Kyle 121 G 17
Kyle 122 H 18
Kyle 131 9 19
Typical sequence on a station recloser with a high-side Kyle 132 E 20
fuse involved (recloser trip sequence set for two fast, two Kyle 133 c 21
delayed operations): Kyle 134 z 22
Kyle 135 2 23
INST, 2-sec, 5-sec Kyle 136 6 24
or Kyle 137 v 25
2-sec, 2-sec, 5-sec
Kyle 138 w 26
Kyle 139 16 27
Kyle 140 3 28
Typical sequence on a recloser where back-up protection Kyle 141 11 29
is a relayed breaker (recloser trip sequence set for two fast, Kyle 142 13 30
two delayed operations): Kyle 151 18 31
Kyle 152 7 32
Kyle 161 T 33
INST, 2-sec, 15-sec Kyle 162 K-Phase 34
or Kyle 163 F 35
2-sec, 2-sec, 15-sec Kyle 164 J 36
Kyle 165 K-G round 37
Reclosing intervals of longer than two seconds generally are IEC lnv n/a 38
IEC VI n/a 39
used only after delayed trip operations. Instantaneous or two- IEC El n/a 40
second intervals generally are used after fast trip operations. Constant n/a 41
ANSIInv n/a 42
ANSI VI n/a 43
TCC EDITOR™ ANSI El n/a 44
Many microprocessor recloser controls have the capability of USER1 n/a 45
modifying time current curves by various methods. As an USER2 n/a 46
USER3 n/a 47
example, Cooper Power Systems has developed two methods
USER4 n/a 48
for modifying TCC's. The first method is through setting modifiers USERS n/a 49

132
 A3

Recloser and Relay/Circuit Breaker Coordination

To achieve proper coordination of a downline device with a ELECTRO-MECHANICAL OVERCURRENT RELAY
relay-controlled breaker or recloser, the characteristics of the Unlike microprocessor relays, electro-mechanical relays (e. g.,
overcurrent relay must be understood. As discussed in Westinghouse Type CO and General Electric Type lAC) have
Section A2, the two types of overcurrent relays involved are several characteristics that must be considered for coordina-
microprocessor and electro-mechanical. Each is described tion with a downline device.
below as it relates to recloser coordination.
Impulse Margin Time
MICROPROCESSOR OVERCURRENT RELAY When timing on a fault current, the relay disk moves toward
The typical microprocessor relay has fast reset of timing. Thus, the closed position, and it will "coasf' for a short time after
coordination is relatively simple, since there is essentially no being deenergized when the fault is interrupted by a down line
·overshoot" or "coasting" of the timing function to be consid- device. This additional movement is called coasting time or
ered. The response or relay time may be used without adjust- impulse margin time. The times involved are as follows for a
ment to determine if tripping will occur, with the goal of assur- CO relay:
ing that the down line clearing time is faster than the minimum
retay time. Because of the microprocessor relay's fast reset,
::umulative timing of a downline recloser is not a factor.

60 3600
50 3000
40 2400
30 1800

20 1200

"C" ~C0-81lHL.
10 600
8 480
6 \ 360
~
5 300
4
3
,, 240
180

2
'_\ '\ 120

en 1
~ .8
\ ' 60~
48 CD
Ul

N
8 .6 36 ::t
~ .5 30~
~ .4 24 ~
~ .3 .......... 18 en
>= .... w
....1
.2

"A" [\
' ~
12 ~
u
z
w
~ 6.0 ~
0.1
1-
.08 4.8

.06 ...... 3.6

.05
1".. 3.0
.04 2.4
.03 1.8

.02 1.2

.0 1

8 88888§ § §§§§§~
CURRENT IN AMPERES

~re 41A3.
CGmparison of relay impulse margin time and breaker curves.

133
A. Overcurrent Protection
3. PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT APPLICATIONS AND COORDINATION
Recloser and Relay/Circuit Breaker Coordination (Continued)

TIM: Impulse Margin Thus, when operating with a downline recloser, the relay time
Relay Type Time-Seconds tends to accumulate.
C0-2 0.05 Reset times of typical electro-mechanical overcurrent relays
C0-6 0.06 are shown in Figure 42A3.
C0-7 0.05
CO-B 0.03
C0-9 0.03
C0-11 0.03

The formula for determining impulse margin time is

TIM =TOP-TI

in which TIM is impulse margin time, TOP is relay operating

time, and Tl is minimum fault time (impulse time), during
which sufficient inertia is supplied to the disk to cause it to
coast closed following deenergization.
Figure 41 A3 shows the effect of impulse margin time for an
application involving a C0-8 relay with the time lever set at
1 112. "A" and "C" are the fast and delayed recloser curves.
At 1600 amps: TOP = 3.0 seconds, TIM = 0.03 seconds,
and Tl = 2.97 seconds.
At 10,000 amps: TOP= 0.3 seconds, TIM= 0.03 seconds,
and Tl = 0.27 seconds.
Impulse margin time (TIM) is significant at the higher
currents and lower time-dial settings.

Reset Time 2 4 6 8 10
TIME DIAL POSITION
The typical electro-mechanical relay does not reset immediately
after deenergization, but rather requires significant time for Figure 42A3.
the disk to return to its original position. Reset times of typical electro-mechanical relays.

134
 A3
Methods for Checking Relay and Downline A more accurate approach is to add impulse margin time
Recloser Coordination to the clearing time of the downline device. The relay time
1. For a single-shot (nonreclosing) downline device, compare must be greater than this. Either allow for tolerances, or use
the curves and add 0.3 seconds to the downline device's actual timing data and allow for variations due to temperature
clearing time. This conservative approach is illustrated in plus any other variations.
Figure 43A3.

60 3600
50 3000
40 2400
30 1800

20 1200

~
10 1\ 1\ 600
8 480
\
6 \ 360
__\
5 300
4 240
3 l\. 180
1\
2 '
~ _1
~
120

(/)
1
\ ~' 60
(jj
~
48 ~
Q
z .8
0
u .6 36 lr
UJ .5 30 ~
g
(/)
C+0.3
~ .4 24
UJ 18
::!: .3
(/)
_::-...... UJ
;::: ~
C0-8
~

.2
"I' f""'o u
12 >
u
~
I' !'I UJ
0.1
.08 " c 6 .0 ~
4.8
1-

.06
.05
' ~
3.6
3.0
A
.04 2.4
.03 1.8

.02 1.2

.01

§§§§§~
~
0'1 O'J CXJ -.
0 0 0 8 8 88888§ §
CURRENT IN AMPERES

Figln43A3.
llllllly-recloser coordination check with 0.3 seconds added to recloser clearing time.

135
A. Overcurrent Protection
3. PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT APPLICATIONS AND COORDINATION
Recloser and Relay/Circuit Breaker Coordination (Continued}

2. For a reclosing sequence of a downline recloser, add all A more accurate approach is to calculate actual relay disk
times of the sequence and compare to the relay curve, as travel for each trip operation of the downline recloser, add
in Figure 44A3. This does not account for resetting of the recloser timing plus relay impulse time for each trip, and subtract
relay disk between operations. It is an extremely conserva- the relay reset time for each reclosing interval. Following is a
tive method and may not be realistic for many applications. demonstration of this method.

60 3600
50 3000
40 2400

30 1800
1\
20 1200

10
8
'\ l 600
480
6 "\\ ~ 360
5 300
4 _, 240
3 \. ' 180
\ \
\ \
2
' 120

en
Cl
z
1
.8
\ ' '1\ 60 ~
48 ID
en
N
0
(.) .6 36 tr
w 30 ~
en .5
~ .4 3C 24 ~
w .3 18 en
:::!: ~ w
i= --~- C0-8 -'
.2
r\ 12 >
(.)

"
(.)

"~
w
0.1
~ 60 ~
.08 c 4.8
1-

.06
.05
" ....... 3.6
3.0
.04 A 2.4
03 1.8

.02 1.2

CD ~

§ §§§§§§
~ r\J
0 8 8 88888§
CURRENT IN AMPERES

Figure 44A3.
Comparison of total reclosing sequence time with relay curve.

136
 A3
RECLOSER AND RELAY/CIRCUIT BREAKER Relay reset during 2 sec. reclosing interval . . .- 6.7 percent
COORDINATION ANALYSIS Net relay travel ... . . . ...... .. . . . ... .... .4.1 percent
Let us examine the coordination possibilities for a recloser Relay travel during second A operation ...... + 5.8 percent
that has a 2A/2C sequence with two-second reclosing intervals, Relay impulse travel .... . .. .. ... . . . ......~ percent
and an inverse relay curve set for 300 amperes minimum Net relay travel . . ..... . ... . ....... . .... 14.9 percent
pickup and no. 5 time lever. (See Figure 45A3.) The relay Relay reset during 2 sec. reclosing interval ... - 6.7 percent
requires approximately 0.6 seconds to close contacts on Net relay travel .... . .... . . . .... . .... . ... 8.2 percent
1000 amperes, and 30 seconds to reset fully. It has an
impulse margin time of .03 seconds. Relay travel during first C operation
(.3/.6 x 100) ............. . ......... .+ 50.0 percent
Recloser clearing time on A curve at 1000 Relay impulse travel .... ... ......... . ....±...M percent
amperes . ...... . .... . .... . ........ . .0.035 second Net relay travel . . ........... . ... . .... . .63.2 percent
Recloser clearing time on C curve at 1000 Relay reset during 2 sec. reclosing interval . .. - 6. 7 percent
amperes . ... .. ...... . .... . ......... .0.030 second Net relay travel . ... .. . .... . .... . . . .. .. .56.5 percent
Relay reset during 2-second open time of recloser Relay travel during second C operation .....±.QQ,.Q percent
(2/30 X 100) ................... . ....... 6. 7 percent Total relay travel ... . .. . . .. ... . ... .. ... 106.5 percent
Impulse margin time (.03/.60) .. . ... .. . . ..... 5.0 percent Since the total calculated relay travel is greater than 100
percent, the circuit breaker will trip during the last "C" curve
timing operation of the recloser. This can be corrected by
50 changing the last reclosing time of the recloser sequence to
40
30 a longer time - for example, to 10 seconds. This adjustment
20 is used as the basis for the following recalculation, starting at
the time before the first C operation in the preceding analysis.
10 1-- RECLOSER CURVES
8 c
6 Operation Relay Travel
5
4 \
! I\ OCBRELAY Net relay travel . . .... ..... . . . .... .. ..... . .8.2 percent
3
2 I~ CURVE
Relay travel during first C operation
~ 1 \ (.3/.6 X 100) . . . . ...... . ....... . ..... + 50.0 percent
~ .8 Relay impulse travel . . .... . .. . ......... . .±..Q..Q percent
u .6
w .5 ~ Net relay travel . . ... . ... . .. ... ... .... . .63.2 percent
!2 .4
\
w .3
........ Relay reset during 10 sec. reclosing interval
:IE
;:: .2 \ (10/30X 100) .. . ... .. .... . . . . . . . ... . .- 33.3 percent
Net relay travel ...... . .... .. ..... . .....29.9 percent
1
.08 Relay travel during second C operation . . . . .+ 50.0 percent
.06
.05 Relay impulse travel ... . . . .. . . . ....... . .. + 5.0 percent
.04 Total relay travel .......................84.9 percent
.03 r--.
.02
Since the total relay travel is less than 100 percent, the
o ogoooo breaker does not trip and coordination is therefore attained.
~ ~ .. §~~~ The current at which this analysis is performed should be
CURRENT (AMPERES) selected at the point where the recloser and relay curves
have minimum separation. If the calculated coordination is
Agure45A3. "tight," a second point should be used to verify coordination
Tine-current curves for recloser and relay/circuit breaker throughout the entire current range. The entire process is
coordination. repeated for the second point.

c.lculation of Relay Travel During Recloser

Operation

Operation Relay Travel

Relay travel during first A operation
(.035/0.60 X 100) .. . ....... . ..... . ...... 5.8 percent
Relay impulse travel ........ .. .... . ......±...M percent
Initial total relay travel .... . ... . ... . .. . .. 10.8 percent
A Overcurrent Protection
3." PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT APPLICATIONS AND COORDINATION

Sectionalizer Applications
A review of the basic sectionalizer application factors covered
in Section A2 may be desirable before considering the coor- FIRST SECTIONALIZER COUNT rTHIRD COUNT
dination principles and specific applications discussed here. SECTIONALIZER
OPENS
I-SECOND
SECTIONALIZER COORDINATION PRINCIPLES I COUNT
The following basic coordination principles should be
SECTIONALIZER MEMORY TIME
observed in the application of sectionalizers.
1. The minimum actuating current of a sectionalizer should FAULT
1 - - - - - BACKUP TIME 3 'I
be 80 percent of the minimum trip of the source-side

-
URRENT R2
device (recloser or breaker). For electronically controlled
sectionalizers, the actuating current is set directly. For
hydraulically controlled sectionalizers, the minimum actuat- TIME
ing current is 160 percent of the series coil rating. When R1 & R 2 =1ST AND 2ND RECLOSING TIMES
coordinating a hydraulically controlled sectionalizer with a
backup recloser that is series coil operated, the sectionalizer Figure 46A3.
coil should have the same current rating as the backup Sectionalizer memory time, three counts to lockout.
recloser. The 160 percent factor for actuating current will
assure positive coordination with the recloser's 200 percent
factor of minimum trip to coil size. RECLOSER AND HYDRAULICALLY CONTROLLED
2. Sectionalizers not equipped with ground-fault sensing SECTIONALIZER COORDINATION
should have their phase actuating current selected to coor- Because sectionalizers do not have time-current curves as do
dinate with the ground minimum-trip setting of the backup fuse links, their coordination does not require a study of curves.
device. This will assure that the sectionalizer will sense and In the typical application shown in Figure 47A3, th~ backup
count all load-side faults cleared by the backup device. recloser is set for four shots to lockout. These operations may
With this more sensitive setting, however, the possibility of be any combination of fast followed by delayed timing.
erroneous counts due to inrush currents must be considered. The sectionalizer must be set for fewer counts than the
For electronically controlled sectionalizers, several restraint backup recloser, and in this case, three counts are selected.
features are available to prevent false counts. For hydrauli- If a permanent fault occurs beyond the sectionaliz~r, t~e
cally controlled sectionalizers, the actuating current level sectionalizer opens and isolates the fault after the th1rd tnp
should be at least ten times the peak load current at the operation of the recloser. The recloser then re-energizes the
sectionalizer location. A more sensitive actuating current unfaulted sections to restore them to service.
setting may result in false counts and lockout because of
inrush currents produced by backup-device trip operations
in other parts of the circuit.
3. The sectionalizer should be set to lock out in one less
operation than the backup device. This general rule need
SUBSTATION
not apply in the case of several sectionalizers in series,
where successive units may be set for one, two, or three
operations less than the backup recloser.
4. The opening and reclosing times of the backup device
must be coordinated with the sectionalizer's count memory 50-AMPERE COIL
time. The combined tripping (except for the first trip) and 50-AMPERE COIL SO-AMPERE
reclosing times of the backup must be shorter than the 100-AMPERE MINIMUM TRIP ACTUATING
sectionalizer's memory time, as shown in Figure 46A3. If
the backup operating time is longer than the sectionalizer's Figure 47A3. . . . .
Basic sectionallzer-recloser coordmat1on, w1th recloser
memory time, the sectionalizer will partially ''forget" the
set four shots to lockout.
number of backup tripping operations. This may require an
extra backup trip operation and result in the backup lock-
ing out for a fault beyond the sectionalizer, in which case
both the backup device and the sectionalizer would be If additional sectionalizers are added in series, they can be
locked out. set for fewer counts to lockout, as shown in Figure 48A3. A
fault beyond the last sectionalizer actuates the ~ecloser, ~nd
5. Three-phase sectionalizers are limited to coordination with all three sectionalizers count the current mterrupt1on.
three-phase simultaneous-opening backup devices. Sectionalizer C, however, locks out to isolate the faulted
Nonsimultaneous phase tripping of backup devices could branch. The recloser restores the unfaulted lines to service,
result in an attempted fault interruption by the sectionalizer, and sectionalizers A and 8 then reset. Note that there is no
which is not designed for such operation. protection for temporary faults beyond sectionalizer C. Also,
setting hydraulically controlled sectionalizers for fewer than
three counts prevents the use of fuses down line from the
sectionalizers.

138
 A3

OIL TEMPERATURE (F)

1 COUNT
·22 ·4 14 32 50 68 86 104 122 140 158
-.f.---{ c l - - - ~ 200
SECTIONALIZERS >
w
l
50-AMPERE COIL 0
SO-AMPERE Q.
::I
ACTUATING :.l:
~ 150
Ill
w~
ACR ll
~~
50-AMPERE COIL
100-AMPERE MINIMUM TRIP
u.Z
oo
wU 100
::!!~
1\
Figure 48A3.
i=u:J
frl~
\
Sectionalizers added to branch lines; recloser set four
shots to lockout.
~~-
~ 50
COORDINATION
IN THIS AREA. \
'
::I
(.)

~
r--...... .... ~
Coil Sizes ...J
Hydraulically controlled sectionalizers are rated similarly to ~
hydraulically controlled reclosers, since both have coils that Q -30 - 20 ·10 0 10 20 . 3() 40 50 60 70
establish the continuous-current and minimum actuating-current OIL TEMPERATURE (C)
ratings. For hydraulically controlled sectionalizers, matching
the series coil with the series coil of the backup will assure Figure 49A3.
coordination. For example, a recloser rated 50 amperes con- Coordination curve for hydraulically controlled
tinuous will coordinate with a sectionalizer rated 50 amperes sectionalizers.
continuous. The sectionalizer can carry the same load current
as the recloser, but to provide positive coordination, its minimum
actuating current is 80 amperes compared to the recloser's TABLE 29A3
minimum trip current of 100 amperes (that is, the SO-percent Oil Temperature Rise
relationship discussed above).
Load Current Approximate Temperature Rise
(% of coil rating) ("C) ("F)
llemory Time
Hydraulically controlled sectionalizers were originally designed 25 2 4
br use with hydraulically controlled reclosers. Since hydraulically 50 7 13
controlled reclosers generally have a maximum two-second 75 15 27
rectosing time, hydraulically controlled sectionalizers have a
memory time that is fixed (there is no choice), but which will proper coordination. These appropriate fault times and
M>rk with any hydraulically controlled recloser. The memory reclosing times during which the sectionalizer must retain the
lime depends on the resetting of the sectionalizer's hydraulic proper count constitute what is called "total accumulated
counting circuit; thus, the memory time is a function of the time": the total time in seconds from the instant of interruption
viscosity of the oil in the hydraulic mechanism, which in turn on the first fault operation to the instant of interruption on the
is dependent upon the temperature of the oil. last fault operation the sectionalizer counts before locking
Figures 49A3 and 50A3, and Table 28A3 provide information out.
b accurately determining whether or not the hydraulically When a hydraulically controlled sectionalizer is set to lock
controlled sectionalizer will coordinate with a backup device. out after counting three fault currents, the total accumulated
Figure 49A3 shows the memory time of hydraulically time (TAT) of the backup device is the sum R1 + F2 + R2 + F3
c:ontrolled sectionalizers as a function of maximum oil in seconds. If the sectionalizer is set to lock out after two
left1lerature and the operating sequence of the backup counts, the TAT is R1 + F2 . Should the sectionalizer be set for
device. Maximum oil temperature is the ambient temperature one count to lockout, there is no need to be concerned about
pbs the temperature rise of the oil due to current flow through memory time.
lie sectionalizer. Two requirements involving memory time must be met to
Table 26A3 indicates the approximate oil temperature rise assure that a hydraulically controlled sectionalizer will coordi-
llill occurs in a hydraulically controlled sectionalizer at various nate with backup devices:
~rrent levels. Assuming a period of load-current flow
1. Accumulated fault current on time cannot exceed 70 percent
l[llliol'to sectionalizer operation, the temperature rise is added of the allowable TAT. In a two-count sequence, F2 cannot
-.e sectionalizer ambient temperature to determine an exceed 70 percent of TAT = R 1 + F2. In a three-count
lfiiP'OXimate maximum oil temperature. sequence, F2 + F3 cannot exceed 70 percent of R 1 + F2 +
f9,1re 50A3 indicates the portions of the backup operating R2 + F3.
...,.ence that must be considered to determine 2. At the established oil temperature (ambient plus rise), the
total accumulated time must not exceed the value indicated
by the sectionalizer coordination curve, Figure 49A3.
Following are two coordination examples for which FIIQiftS
49A3 and 51A3 will serve as references.
A. Overcurrent Protection
3. PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT APPLICATIONS AND COORDINATION
Sectionalizer Applications (Continued)

TOTAL ACCUMULATED TIME

OPERATION OF BACK-UP DEVICE

L =LOAD CURRENT
F, = 1STTRIPTIME
R, = 1ST RECLOSING TIME
STARTI-+------TOTALACCUMULATEDTIME-------+1
F2 =2NDTRIPTIME
R2 =2ND RECLOSING TIME
F, =3RDTRIPTIME SECTIONALIZER
R, = 3RD RECLOSING TIME OPENS

MAX. POSITION - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -

2ND POSITION

START
SECTIONALIZER TRIP PISTON POSITIONS
- - - - ACTUAL COUNT RETENTION
I I / ;' I THEORETICAL WITH NO RESETIING

Figure 50A3.
Sectionalizer count retention as related to backup operating sequence.

Example 1 Example2
Conditions: Conditions:
Maximum ambient temperature .................. a5o F Maximum ambient temperature .................. a5o F
Sectionalizer coil size .................... 100 amperes Sectionalizer coil size .................... 100 amperes
Normal load current ...................... 50 amperes Normal load current ...................... 50 amperes
Backup OCR .........set for 1 fast, 3 delayed operations Backup OCR ......... set for 1 fast, 3 delayed operations
Sectionalizer ..................set for 3 counts to open Sectionalizer ..................set for 2 counts to open
Maximum oil temperature ........... a5o + 13° = gao F Maximum oil temperature ........... a5o + 13° = gao F
From the coordination curve in Figure 4gA3, allowable TAT The allowable TAT is again 2a seconds; with the sectionalizer
at gao F is 2a seconds. Figure 51A3 illustrates this example, set for two counts to open, there is only one fault current
and explanation follows: on-time (F 2) and only one reclosing time (R 1). Therefore, the
To meet memory-time requirement no. 2, the maximum fault current on-time (F 2) cannot exceed 20 seconds, and the
current on-time (F2 + F3 ) for a TAT of 2a seconds is 2a x 0.70 reclosing time (R 1) must be a seconds or less.
= 1g.6 seconds (round off to 20 seconds).
Therefore, F2 plus F3 cannot exceed 20 seconds. Voltage Restraint
To meet memory-time requirement no. 1, the TAT must not This feature, which enables the sectionalizer to discriminate
exceed 2a seconds. With F2 and F3 each at ten seconds, a between source-side and load-side interrupting devices, is
maximum limit can be calculated for R1 and R2 as shown available on three-phase hydraulically controlled units. It is
below: discussed in the following section, under"Sectionalizer Features."
TAT = (R1 + R2) + (F2 + F3)
R1 + R2 =TAT - (F2 + F3)
= 2a- (1 0 + 10)
=a seconds
Therefore, the sum of the two reclosing times cannot exceed,
but can be less than, eight seconds.

140
 A3

R, - - M - - F, = 10 ~~~-----<---++-- R 2 ---+l~-

f - - - - - - - - - - ALLOWABLE TAT= 28 SEC.--------~

Figure 51A3.
lotal accumulated time of hydraulically controlled sectionalizer.

RECLOSER AND ELECTRONICALLY CONTROLLED COUNT RESET

SECTIONALIZER COORDINATION This feature resets to zero any accumulated counts whenever
Selection of Actuating Levels the current through the electronically controlled sectionalizer
=·:x coordination of electronically controlled sectionalizers flows without interruption for longer than the time programmed
'111'ii:h reclosers, the sectionalizer's continuous current rating (after a successful reclose of the backup device). Count reset
rluSt be equal to or greater than the maximum load current will operate with any current flow from a minimum load of five
3i: the point of application, and the minimum actuating level
amperes to the minimum actuating current. To coordinate
T"'IUSt be selected in relation to the minimum trip of the back- properly with the backup device, the count reset time selected
..c recloser. for the sectionalizer must be greater than the reset time of the
For example, on the system shown in Figure 52A3, the backup. Reset times of 15, 30, 60, and 120 seconds are
:leak load current is 130 amperes, and the minimum trip cur- available with the selector switch. (The count will also reset to
'IEfll of the three-phase recloser at the substation is 280 zero whenever the sectionalizer is opened, either manually or
inrperes. The three-phase electronically controlled sectional- automatically.)
.2er has a maximum continuous current rating of 400
il""llp9res, and its minimum actuating current is 80 percent of VOLTAGE RESTRAINT
re minimum trip value of the recloser, or 224 amperes. Proper _and complete application of sectionalizers frequently
necessitates use of a voltage restraint feature (available only
on three-phase units), which enables the sectionalizer to
~ ~ discriminate between the operation of source-side and load-side

-
130
~
devices. It accomplishes this by blocking a count operation
AMPERES ~ (for electronic control) or a lockout operation (for hydraulic
control) when source voltage is present at the sectionalizer
SECTIONALIZER
after current interruption-a condition indicating that a down line
device (recloser or fuse) interrupted the current. This feature
280-AMPERE MINIMUM TRIP 224-AMPERE
2A2D MINIMUM ACTUATING allows use of the more effective two-fast, two-delayed sequence
on the backup device.
Agure 52A3. In a typical electronically controlled sectionalizer application,
EJanple of recloser-electronically controlled sectionalizer the sectionalizer is located between two reclosers as shown
CICOI'Ciination. in Figure 53A3. For a fault (F1) beyond the load-side recloser
(ACRE2), only the load-side recloser operates, and the
sectionalizer does not count because source voltage is not
Sectionalizer Features interrupted. For a load-side fault (F2) interrupted by the
-'"le mtures described below apply to sectionalizers manufac- source-side recloser (ACRE1 ), the sectionalizer counts the
!a~lt interruption and operates normally, since source voltage
"ured by Cooper Power Systems; similar or additional features
11ra1 be offered by other manufacturers. Except for voltage 1s mterrupted.
IIF.STaint, the features discussed are available only on electron-
llii:all"f controlled sectionalizers.

141
A. Overcurrent Protection
3. PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT APPLICATIONS AND COORDINATION
Sectionalizer Applications (Continued)

restraint increases the actuating current level of the sectionalizer

to a predetermined multiple of the original setting (2, 4, 6, or
8 times, or block) and holds it there for a selected time (5, 10,
15, or 20 cycles). At the same time, ground overcurrent is
blocked entirely for a period of 0.3, 0.7, 1.5, 3, or 5 seconds.
The time through which the actuating current is held at the
raised level is measured from restoration of system voltage.
The settings at which this feature is applied must be deter-
mined based on system inrush current characteristics.
Figure 53A3.
Typical application of sectionallzer located between two GROUND-FAULT SENSING
reclosers. Complete coordination of electronically controlled sectional-
izers with backup reclosers or circuit breakers is made possi-
For hydraulically controlled sectionalizers, voltage restraint ble with the ground-fault sensing feature, which insures
will not insure proper coordination if there is a possibility of counting of all ground-fault currents interrupted by backup
fault-protection apparatus.
cascading trip operations of the reclosers on fast-trip curves
when the down-line recloser is set for a two-fast, two-delayed With this feature, the sectionalizer incorporates separate
operating sequence. For a fault at F1, assume ACRE2 per- sensing and actuating characteristics for both phase and
forms its two fast-trip operations, but ACRE1 does not trip on its ground faults. Minimum ground-fault actuating current set-
fast-trip curve. The sectionalizer will count the two operations tings normally should be approximately 80 percent of the
of ACRE2 (voltage restraint on a hydraulically controlled sec- minimum ground-fault current setting of the backup device.
tionalizer blocks lockout only, not counts), ACRE2 will However, on grounded-wye systems, the minimum ground-
sequence to its time-delay curve, and ACRE1 will then trip on fault actuating current should be set no lower than the load
its fast curve. The sectionalizer will count this voltage inter- current through the sectionalizer; if lower, the sectionalizer
ruption (the source-side recloser tripped) as a third operation may count and open for faults on its source side.
and trip open, since the voltage restraint does not prevent the
opening operation. RECLOSER, SECTIONALIZER, AND FUSE·LINK
COORDINATION
COUNT RESTRAINT Application rules and coordination practices for each of these
The count restraint feature performs essentially the same devices must be considered in order to attain proper coordi-
function as voltage restraint in that it permits the sectionalizer nation. Both the sectionalizer and the fuse link are selected
to discriminate between the operation of source-side and to coordinate with the recloser, but the sequence of the
load-side interrupting devices. It does this by blocking the recloser may have to be modified to obtain proper operation
count operation as long as a load current of five amperes or for a fault beyond the fuse when using a hydraulically con-
more flows through the sectionalizer, thus indicating the trolled sectionalizer without the voltage restraint feature.
source-side device is closed and that fault interruption has If, for example, a recloser is set for a typical two-fast, two-
been performed by the load-side device. The advantage of delayed sequence (Figure 54A3), the sectionalizer will count
this feature over voltage restraint is that no voltage sensing is twice on the first two operations of the recloser, and will count
required; the disadvantage is that a minimum of five amperes the third time when the fuse blows, on the first delayed oper-
of load current must be present. ation. The sectionalizer counts the fuse clearing as the third
Again, refer to Figure 53A3 for a typical application. For a current interruption and erroneously isolates the section
fault (F1) beyond the load-side recloser (ACRE2), only the between it and the fuse link for the system. This is not prop-
load-side recloser operates, and the sectionalizer does not er coordination.
count because load current through it is not interrupted. For
a load-side fault {F2) interrupted by the source-side recloser
SUBSTATION ACR FUSE LINK
(ACRE2), the sectionalizer counts the interruption and oper-
ates normally, since load current through it is interrupted.

CURRENT INRUSH RESTRAINT

The current inrush restraint feature makes the sectionalizer
---1 5Q-AMPERE 5Q-AMPERE
insensitive to inrush currents resulting from subsequent 2A2C 3 COUNTS
operations of a source-side recloser or breaker after interruption
of a permanent fault on another part of the circuit. The inrush Figure 54A3.
currents otherwise would appear as faults, thus causing the A two-fast, two-delayed reclosing sequence is not rec-
ommended for hydraulically controlled sectlonallizers
sectionalizer to count in error. without a voltage restraint feature.
Whenever loss of source voltage is not preceded by current
above the original actuating current level, the current inrush
 A3

A recloser sequence of one fast followed by three delayed

operations will permit proper coordination of a recloser, a
hydraulically controlled sectionalizer, and fuse link (Figure
55A3). The sectionalizer counts once on the recloser's first
fast operation, and the fuse blows while the recloser is timing
on its first delayed operation, which is actually the second
operation in the recloser's sequence. The sectionalizer regis- SUBSTATION ELECTRONIC
SECTIONALIZER
ters its second count when the fuse clears and remains
closed. Since the fault has been removed by the fuse, the
sectionalizer and recloser both reset. Figure 56A3.
Coordination of recloser, electronically controlled sec-
tionalizer, and recloser.

SUBSTATION SECTIONALIZER FUSE LINK

RECLOSER, SECTIONALIZER, AND RECLOSER
COORDINATION
Figure 56A3 illustrates a coordination scheme with a recloser,
50-AMPERE 50-AMPERE an electronically controlled sectionalizer, and a recloser. An
1A3C 3COUNTS electronically controlled sectionalizer is equipped with voltage
restraint and count restraint, thus permitting a recloser to be
Figure 55A3. used successfully on the load side of the sectionalizer by
Example of recommended coordination scheme with preventing the sectionalizer from counting tripping operations
recloser set for a one-fast, three-delayed sequence. of the downline recloser.

CIRCUIT BREAKER AND SECTIONALIZER

Note, however, that voltage restraint (standard on electron- COORDINATION
ically controlled sectionalizers and an accessory on The principles involved in the application of reclosers with
hydraulically controlled units) does permit the more typical sectionalizers must be followed in applying circuit breakers with
two-fast, two-delayed recloser sequence when used with a sectionalizers. Generally, hydraulically controlled sectionalizers
three-count sectionalizer in series with a fuse, since it prevents are not used with breakers because of their typically long
the sectionalizer from tripping on the third backup operation, reclosing times. Electronically controlled sectionalizers can
when the fuse blows. The count restraint feature on electron- be used by following the procedures outlined under "Recloser
ically controlled sectionalizers will also prevent count of the and Electronically Controlled Sectionalizer Coordination."
fuse operation if the remaining load current through the
sectionalizer is a minimum of five amperes.

143
A. Overcurrent Protection
3. PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT APPLICATIONS AND COORDINATION

Automatic Load Transfer

The preceding sections have dealt primarily with. overl.oad LOAD TRANSFER SCHEMES UTILIZING
protection on radial distribution systems, where the Ideal IS to RECLOSERS
limit Outrages to the lowest possible number, and to limit In the schemes discussed below, load transfer is accomplished
those that do occur to the shortest possible duration and with specially equipped electronically controlled reclosers
the lowest possible number of customers. All of this to located in both the preferred-source and alternate-source
be achieved, of course, within the guidelines of the individual lines. Setups for manual return and automatic return are
utility's protection philosophy, which must be based in large described. In the schematics used for illustration, the red
part on establishing a proper balance between cost to the lines represent energized portions of the circuit.
customer and occasional inconvenience.
There are many critical loads, however, that cannot tolerate Load Transfer with Manual Return
interruptions of any length. Among these are airports, shopping In this example (Figure 58A3), the electronically controlled
centers, hospitals, sports arenas, water systems, prisons, reclosers are equipped with Cooper Power Systems Type LS
continuous-process mills, and other loads of such a nature controls. Load is normally fed from the preferred source- S1.
that additional steps and costs to avoid power Outrages can Recloser ACRE1 normally is closed and senses voltage
easily be justified. For such applications, or wherever the (one or three phases) on its source side. It opens after a time
need for a very high degree of distribution system reliability is delay upon loss of S1 voltage.
established, automatic load transfer and loop sectionalizing
(to be covered in the next section) can be used to keep outage
times to a practical minimum, or to maintain service to the
greatest portion of the load or its most critical areas. ACR1

SWITCHED LOAD TRANSFER SCHEMES

A line schematic of a simple load transfer scheme using a
Cooper Power Systems Type S transfer control and electrically LOAD
operated switches is shown in Figure 57 A3.
ACR2
In this scheme, power normally is supplied from a preferred
source and automatically switched to an alternate source if
the preferred source is lost. Upon restoration of the preferred-
source voltage, the load then is switched back automatically
or manually. Return switching can be either in a closed transition
(parallel return) mode, in which preferred source closes before
alternate source opens, or in an open transition mode (non- Figure 58A3.
parallel return), in which alternate source opens before Diagram of manual-return load transfer scheme utilizing
reclosers. Energized portions of circuit are gray.
preferred source closes.

TO
IMPORTANT
LOAD

PREFERRED ALTERNATE
SOURCE SOURCE
SWITCH .....__ _ ___._ __
SWITCH ....._--+---~

SENSING SENSING
TRANSFORMER(S) TRANSFORMER(S)
SINGLE OR THREE SINGLE OR THREE
PHASE PHASE
TYPE
s
CONTROL

Figure 57A3.
Diagram of switched load transfer scheme.

144
 A3

Recloser ACRE2 normally is open and senses voltage

(one or three phases) on its load side. It closes after a time ACR1
delay (longer than ACRE1) upon loss of load voltage. In addi- S1
tion, ACRE2 will prevent any attempt to close ACRE2 if S2 is
not energized.
When preferred-source voltage (S 1) is lost, the controls of
LOAD
both reclosers sense the loss of voltage. If voltage is not
restored within the time delay selected, ACRE1 opens. After ACR2
a longer time delay, ACRE2 closes to restore service to the
load (Figure 59A3). (A momentary cold-load pickup setting
can be used for ACRE2 to prevent tripping on inrush.) When
preferred-source voltage (S1) is restored, transfer back to the
preferred source is done manually. (NOTE: If the sources can
be paralleled during transfer, an automatic-reset setting can Figure 61A3.
be used to close ACRE1 when voltage on S1 is restored. Figure 58A3 scheme with both reclosers locked out as
However, ACRE2 must be opened manually.) result of load-side fault.

ACR1 Load Transfer with Automatic Retum

S1 In this set-up (Figure 62A3), electronically controlled
reclosers again are used in both the preferred-source and
alternate-source lines. Both reclosers are equipped with Type LS
controls, or one recloser control is equipped with a Cooper
LOAD Power Systems Type S control. A requirement of this scheme is
ACR2 that the reclosers must be near enough to each other to
establish a communication link between them. Load is normally
fed from the preferred source, 81 .

ACR1
Agure 59A3. S1
Agure 58A3 scheme with load transferred to alternate
source.
LOAD
If a permanent fault occurs on the load side of the system,
as shown in Figure 60A3, the preferred-source recloser
ICRE1) operates to lockout. The alternate-source recloser
IACRE2) senses the loss of load voltage and, after a time
detay, ACRE2 closes into the fault and also operates to lockout
(f9Jre 61A3). (A momentary nonreclose setting can be used
b' one-shot lockout of ACRE2 to minimize load distur- Figure 62A3.
bances.) After the fault is cleared, service from the preferred Diagram of automatic-return load transfer scheme
source is restored manually. utilizing reclosers.

ACR1
ACR1
S1

LOAD
LOAD

Rgure 60A3.
Figure 58A3 scheme with load-side fault. Figure 63A3.
Figure 62A3 scheme with load transferred to alternate
source.

145
A. Overcurrent Protection
3. PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT APPLICATIONS AND COORDINATION
Automatic Load Transfer (Continued)

Recloser ACRE1 normally is closed and senses voltage If a permanent fault occurs on the load side (Figure 66A3),
(one or three phases) on its source side. It opens after a time the preferred-source recloser (ACRE1) operates to lockout
delay upon loss of 81 voltage. The control of the normally (not shown). However, the alternate-source recloser
open alternate-source recloser (ACRE2) is connected (dot- (ACRE2) is blocked from closing due to the presence of pre-
ted line in the schematics) to the control of ACRE1. In addi- ferred-source voltage (81) and/or the lockout state of
tion, ACRE2 will prevent any attempt to close ACRE2 if 82 is ACRE1. After the fault is cleared, the transfer scheme is reset
not energized. by reclosing ACRE1.
When preferred-source voltage (81) is lost, the control of
ACRE1 senses the loss of voltage. If voltage is not restored ACR1
within the time delay selected, ACRE1 opens and signals
ACRE2 to close to restore service to the load, provided the
alternate source (82) is energized, as shown in Figure 63A3.
(A momentary cold-load pickup setting can be used for the
LOAD
alternate-source recloser to prevent tripping on inrush.)
Because of the communications link, transfer from St to S2 ACR2
is much faster than when two independently operating controls
are used, since the latter must be coordinated by adjusting
individual time delay relays.
When preferred-source voltage (8~) is restored, return to
the preferred source is automatic through either parallel
return (ACRE1 closes before ACRE2 opens), as shown in Figure 65A3.
Figure 64A3, or nonparallel return (ACRE2 opens before Figure 62A3 scheme showing automatic nonparallel
ACRE1 closes), as shown in Figure 65A3. The system is return to service.
restored to normal.

ACR1 ACR1

LOAD
ACR2 ACR2

Figure 64A3. Figure 66A3.

Figure 62A3 scheme showing automatic parallel return Figure 62A3 scheme with load-side fault.
to service.

146
 A3

Loop Sectionalizing
The purpose of loop sectionalizing is to improve reliability
ACR1
and maintain service continuity to the greatest possible number
of customers. Because its principal feature is an automatically
provided alternate source of power to portions of a circuit out·
side the fault zone, applications often include critical load
areas such as those listed in the preceding section, "Automatic
ACR3
Load Transfer."
In a loop scheme, two distribution circuits are tied together ACR2
by a normally open recloser so that, in case of an outage on
one circuit, load can be transferred temporarily to the other.
Also, to limit even further the number of customers who may
be affected by an outage, one or two normally closed
reclosers equipped with a sectionalizing control accessory, or
a recloser and sectionalizer, are located up the line on each Figure 6BA3.
circuit. Figure 67A3 scheme with entire loop fed from source S2.
In the following examples, all reclosers are electronically
controlled and Cooper Power Systems Type LS controls are
used. The operating descriptions cover what happens when If a permanent fault occurs on the load side of ACRE1
loss of voltage or a fault occurs on one circuit; it should be (Figure 69A3), ACRE1 operates to lockout. Tie recloser
noted that similar conditions on the other circuit will produce ACRE3 senses the loss of voltage and, after a time delay,
the same sequence of events, utilizing corresponding closes into the fault and also operates to lockout. The faulted
devices, in the opposite direction. As in the preceding section, section is thereby isolated and service is maintained to the
the gray lines in schematics represent energized portions of balance of the loop from source S2, as shown in Figure
the circuit. 70A3. (A momentary nonreclosing setting can be used for
ACRE3 to provide one shot to lockout in the event of closing
LOOP SECTIONALIZING SCHEME WITH THREE into a fault.)
RECLOSERS
In the simplest loop scheme, three electronically controlled
ACR1
reclosers are used as shown in Figure 67A3.

ACR1

ACR2

ACR3
ACR2

Figure 69A3.
Figure 67 A3 scheme with load-side fault on source S1.

F!Qure 67 A3.
Diagram of loop sectionallzing scheme utilizing three
reclosers.
ACR1

ACRE 1 and ACRE2, which are normally closed reclosers

equipped with Type LS sectionalizing controls, will open, after
a lime delay, upon loss of their respective source voltage.
ACRE3, a normally open recloser with Type LS tie control,
closes upon loss of voltage on either side after a time ACR2
delay longer than than that of ACRE1 or ACRE2.
For example, upon loss of S1 voltage, both ACRE1 and
ACRE3 sense the loss of voltage. If voltage is not restored
wihin the time delay selected, recloser ACRE1 opens and,
after a longer time delay, recloser ACRE3 closes. The entire Figure 70A3.
loop (up to ACRE1) is then fed from source S2, as shown in Figure 67 A3 scheme with fault Isolated and balance of
f9Jre 68A3. The return to normal is manual. loop fed from source S2.
A. Overcurrent Protection
3. PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT APPLICATIONS AND COORDINATION
Loop Sectionalizing (Continued)

LOOP SECTIONALIZING SCHEME WITH FIVE After a longer time delay than for ACRE3, recloser ACRE5
RECLOSERS closes and the entire loop up to ACRE1 is fed from source
In this scheme (Figure 71 A3), each distribution circuit is divided 82, as shown in Figure 73A3. Return to normal is accom-
into two sections of equal load through normally closed feeder plished manually.
reclosers. Each circuit is connected at the tie point with a
normally open tie recloser. The reclosers are set to isolate a ACR1 ACR3
section under permanent fault and to transfer unfaulted
sections to the adjacent circuit.

ACR1 ACR3
ACR5
OAMPERE

Figure 73A3.
Figure 71 A3 scheme with loop fed from source S2.

Figure 71A3. If a permanent fault occurs at F1 (Figure 74A3), recloser

Diagram of loop sectionalizing scheme utilizing five
reclosers. ACRE1 operates to lockout. Reclosers ACRE3 and ACRE5
sense the loss of voltage, and ACRE3 then times out,
changes its minimum trip from 560 to 280 amperes, and
ACRE1 and ACRE2 are normally closed reclosers changes to one shot to lockout. After its time delay (longer
equipped with Cooper Power Systems Type LS sectionalizing than ACRE3's), ACRE5 closes into the fault, and ACRE3
control accessories. They open, after a time delay, upon loss locks out (Figure 75A3). This isolates the fault while maintain-
of source voltage. ing service to three-fourths of the loop.
ACRE3 and ACRE4 also are normally closed reclosers
equipped with Type LS sectionalizing controls. However,
upon loss of source voltage and a time delay longer than that
of ACRE1 or ACRE2, they change their minimum trip value
and optional number of shots to lockout.
ACRE5, a normally open recloser with Type LS tie control,
closes upon loss of voltage on either side after a time delay
longer than that of ACRE3 or ACRE4.
For example, upon loss of 81 voltage, reclosers ACRE1,
ACRE3, and ACRE5 all sense the loss and, if voltage is not
restored within the time delay selected, ACRE1 opens. After
an additional time delay, ACRE3 changes its minimum trip
value from 560 to 280 amperes and changes to one shot to
lockout to coordinate with tie recloser ACRE5, as shown in
Figure 72A3. Figure 74A3.
Figure 71 A3 scheme with faults indicated tor discussion.
ACR1 ACR3

ACR1 ACR3

ACR5
OAMPERE

Figure 72A3.
Figure 71A3 scheme showing intermediate condition fol-
lowing loss of S1 voltage. Figure 75A3.
Figure 71A3 scheme with fault F1 isolated and service
restored to three-fourths of loop.

148
 A3

If a permanent fault occurs at F2 (Figure 74A3), recloser Tie recloser ACRE3 is normally open and is equipped wilh
ACRE3 operates to lockout. Recloser ACRES then senses a Type LS tie control. It will close upon loss of volage on
the loss of voltage and, after its time delay, closes into the either side after a time delay longer than that of ACRE1 and
fault and operates to lockout (Figure 76A3). This isolates the ACRE2.
fault while maintaining service to three-fourths of the loop. Upon loss of S1 voltage, both ACRE1 and ACRE3 sense
the loss and, if voltage is not restored within the time delay
ACR1 ACR3 selected, ACRE1 opens. After an additional time delay, tie
recloser ACRE3 closes and the loop is fed from source S2.
If a permanent fault occurs at F1 (Figure 77A3), ACRE1
operates twice and locks out. Tie recloser ACRE3 senses the
loss of voltage and, after a time delay, ACRE3 closes into the
fault. During the first trip operation of recloser ACRE3, the
down line sectionalizer SEC1 counts and opens. This isolates
the fault, ACRE3 then recloses into an unfaulted line (Figure
78A3), and service remains to three-fourths of the loop.
Sectionalizer SEC2 senses the fault current during the oper-
ation of ACRE3 but is blocked from operating by its voltage

Figure 76A3.
Figure 71 A3 scheme with fault F2 isolated and service
restored to three-fourths of loop.

LOOP SECTIONALIZING SCHEME WITH THREE

RECLOSERS AND TWO SECTIONALIZERS
By substituting electronically controlled sectionalizers for the
upline reclosers closest to the tie recloser, the loop scheme
shown in Figure 77 A3 is developed. This arrangement would
probably be limited to those cases where another step in
coordination is not possible.
Figure 78A3.
Figure 77 A3 scheme with fault F1 isolated and service
restored to three-fourths of loop.

restraint and count restraint features.

If a permanent fault occurs at F2 (Figure 77 A3), both SEC1
and ACRE1 sense the overcurrent. Recloser ACRE1 oper-
ates and, during its first trip operation, sectionalizer SEC1
counts and opens, and ACRE1 closes into an unfaulted line.
Tie recloser ACRE3 senses the loss of voltage on its S1 side
and, after a time delay, closes into the fault. Recloser ACRE3
then operates to lockout to isolate the fault and maintain
service to three-fourths of the loop (Figure 79A3).
Sectionalizer SEC2 senses the fault current during the oper-
Figure 77 A3. ation of ACRE3, but is blocked from counting by its restraint
Diagram of loop sectionalizing scheme utilizing three
reclosers and two sectionalizers, with faults indicated for ACR1 SECi
discussion.

ACRE1 and ACRE2 are normally closed, electronically con- ACR3

trolled reclosers equipped with Type LS sectionalizing con- 560 AMPERE
trols. They open, after a time delay, upon loss of voltage. TIE
SEC1 and SEC2 are normally closed, electronically
controlled sectionalizers operating as normal sectionalizers.
That is, they are equipped with voltage restraint and count
restraint, and have no Type LS control accessories. In the
example in Figure 77A3, they are set for one count. The
minimum actuating current is selected to coordinate with the
tie recloser (ACRE3). Figure 79A3.
Figure 77A3 scheme with fault F2 isolated and service
restored to three-fourths of loop.

149
A. Overcurrent Protection
3. PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT APPLICATIONS AND COORDINATION

Index of Figures and Tables

FIGURE Principles of Overcurrent Coordination Page
1A3 Conventional definition of protective devices based on location .........................................82
2A3 Typical example of system coordination ............................................................82
Fuse-Fuse Coordination
3A3 Diagram for study of TCC fuse coordination method ..................................................83
4A3 TCCs for coordinating fuse links in Figure 3A3 example ...............................................83
Current-Limiting Fuse Coordination
5A3 TCC for coordinating source-side current-limiting fuse and load-side expulsion fuse .........................87
6A3 Bar graph for coordination of current-limiting fuses ...................................................89
Transformer Fusing
7A3 TCCs showing transformer inrush current and transformer damage current for a specific
transformer size .............................................................................91
8A3 TCCs showing characteristics of appropriate expulsion fuse for transformer protection .......................92
9A3 TCCs showing characteristics of expulsion and current-limiting fuse combinations
for transformer protection .....................................................................93
Capacitor Fusing
10A3 Diagram of group capacitor fusing ................................................................98
11A3 Diagram of individual capacitor fusing .............................................................98
12A3 Capacitor tank-rupture curve ...................................................................101
13A3 Diagram of energy discharge into failed capacitor unit ...............................................103
Recloser and Fuse-Link Coordination
14A3 Example of recloser and source-side fuse protection scheme ..........................................111
15A3 TCCs for application diagrammed in Figure 14A3 ...................................................113
16A3 Typical system requiring coordination between recloser and load-side fuse links ........................... 113
17A3 For application diagrammed in Figure 16A3: comparison of recloser curves with T-link
minimum melt curves .......................................................................114
18A3 For application diagrammed in Figure 16A3: comparison of recloser curves with T-link
maximum clearing curves ....................................................................115
19A3 For application diagrammed in Figure 16A3: comparison of recloser curves with curves forT-link
selected as standard . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ......................................................116
Relay-Fuse Coordination
20A3 Diagram of installation with relayed breaker and source-side fuse ...................................... 117
21A3 Preliminary attempt to coordinate protection in Figure 20A3 example ................................... 118
22A3 Curve comparison with Lever 2 showing total accumulated time ....................................... 119
23A3 Relayed breaker operating sequence .............................................................119
24A3 Diagram of installation with overcurrent relay and load-side fuse ....................................... 121
25A3 Comparison of fuse and relay curves for application in Figure 24A3 example ............................. 122
26A3 Curves showing temporary fault protection with instantaneous element ..................................123
27A3 Southeastern utility's approach to relay and load-side fuse coordination ................................. 124
Recloser-to-Recloser Coordination
28A3 Typical ABC time-current curves for 50 ampere, single-phase recloser .................................. 125
29A3 Diagram of reclosers coordinated in series by selection of coil ratings ................................... 126
30A3 Time-current curves demonstrating recloser coordination by means of adjacent coil selection ................ 126
31A3 Diagram of reclosers coordinated in series by means of operating sequence selection ...................... 126
32A3 Circuit diagram for coordination of electronically controlled three-phase controllers ......................... 127
33A3 TCCs for application diagrammed in Figure 32A3 ...................................................127
34A3 Alternate TCCs for application diagrammed in Figure 32A3 ...........................................128
35A3 Diagrams of two examples of recloser operation without sequence coordination on backup recloser ........... 129
36A3 Diagram of recloser operation with sequence coordination on backup recloser ............................ 129
37A3 Typical ground-trip curves showing safe coordination zones when sequence coordination
accessory is used . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ........................ 130
38A3 TCCs illustrating coordination of recloser, equipped with instantaneous trip feature,
and source-side primary fuse .................................................................130
39A3 Diagram of coordination scheme utilizing reclosers equipped with instantaneous trip feature ................. 130
40A3 Diagram of zoned protection possible with instantaneous trip/instantaneous lockout combination .............. 131
Recloser and Relay/Circuit-Breaker Coordination
41A3 Comparison of relay impulse margin time and breaker curves .........................................133
42A3 Reset times of typical electro-mechanical relays ....................................................134
43A3 Relay-recloser coordination check with 0.3 seconds added to recloser clearing time ........................ 135
44A3 Comparison of total reclosing sequence time with relay curve .........................................136
45A3 Time-current curves for recloser and relay/circuit-breaker coordination ..................................137

150
 A3

FIGURE Sectionalizer Applications Page

46A3 Sectionalizer memory time, three counts to lockout ..................................................138
47 A3 Basic sectionalizer-recloser coordination, with recloser set four shots to lockout ........................... 138
48A3 Sectionalizers added to branch lines; recloser set four shots to lockout .................................. 139
49A3 Coordination curve for hydraulically controlled sectionalizers .......................................... 139
50A3 Sectionalizer count retention as related to backup operating sequence .................................. 140
51 A3 Total accumulated time of hydraulically controlled sectionalizer ........................................141
52A3 Example of recloser-electronically controlled sectionalizer coordination .................................. 141
53A3 Typical application of sectionalizer located between two reclosers ...................................... 142
54A3 A two-fast, two-delayed reclosing sequence is not recommended for hydraulically controlled
sectionalizers without a voltage restraint feature ..................................................142
55A3 Example of recommended coordination scheme with recloser set for a one-fast, three-delayed sequence ...... 143
56A3 Coordination of recloser, electronically controlled sectionalizer and recloser .............................. 143
Automatic Load Transfer
57A3 Diagram of switched load transfer scheme ........................................................144
58A3 Diagram of manual-return load transfer scheme utilizing reclosers ......................................144
59A3 Figure 58A3 scheme with load transferred to alternate source .........................................145
60A3 Figures 8A3 scheme with load-side fault ..........................................................145
61A3 Figure 58A3 scheme with both reclosers locked out as result of load-side fault ............................ 145
62A3 Diagram of automatic-return load transfer scheme utilizing reclosers ....................................145
63A3 Figure 62A3 scheme with load transferred to alternate source .........................................145
64A3 Figure 62A3 scheme showing automatic parallel return to service ......................................146
65A3 Figure 62A3 scheme showing automatic nonparallel return to service ...................................146
66A3 Figure 62A3 scheme with load-side fault ..........................................................146
Loop Sectionalizing
67A3 Diagram of loop sectionalizing scheme utilizing three reclosers ........................................147
68A3 Figure 67A3 scheme with entire loop fed from source S2 .............................................147
69A3 Figure 67A3 scheme with load-side fault on source S1 ...............................................147
70A3 Figure 67A3 scheme with fault isolated and balance of loop fed from source S2 ........................... 147
71A3 Diagram of loop sectionalizing scheme utilizing five reclosers .........................................148
72A3 Figure 71 A3 scheme showing intermediate condition following loss of S1 voltage .......................... 148
73A3 Figure 71 A3 scheme with loop fed from source S2 ..................................................148
74A3 Figure 71 A3 scheme with faults indicated for discussion ..............................................148
75A3 Figure 71 A3 scheme with fault F1 isolated and service restored to three-fourths of loop ..................... 148
76A3 Figure 71 A3 scheme with fault F2 isolated and service restored to three-fourths of loop ..................... 149
77A3 Diagram of loop sectionalizing scheme utilizing three reclosers and two sectionalizers,
with faults indicated for discussion .............................................................149
78A3 Figure 77A3 scheme with fault F1 isolated and service restored to three-fourths of loop ..................... 149
79A3 Figure 77A3 scheme with fault F2 isolated and service restored to three-fourths of loop ..................... 149
TABLE Fuse-Fuse Coordination Page
1A3 Results of fuse coordination study based on Figures 3A3 and 4A3 ......................................84
2A3 EEI-NEMA Type K fuse links ....................................................................84
3A3 EEI-NEMA Type T fuse links .....................................................................85
4A3 Type K fuse links ..............................................................................85
5A3 Type K fuse link coordination ....................................................................85
6A3 Type T fuse link coordination ....................................................................86
7A3 EEI-NEMA Type K fuse link coordination ...........................................................86
Current-Limiting Fuse Coordination
8A3 Coordination of back-up current-limiting fuse and fuse link .............................................88
Transformer Fusing
9A3 Suggested primary fusing for distribution transformers based on use of Type N and high-surge Type H links ...... 94
10A3 Suggested primary fusing for distribution transformers based on use of Type K or T links and high-surge
Type H links ................................................................................95
11A3 Overload protection of single-phase oil-insulated and dry-type distribution transformers using
current-limiting fuses .........................................................................96
12A3 Overload protection of three-phase oil-insulated and dry-type distribution transformers using
current-limiting fuses .........................................................................97
13A3 Comparison of expulsion fuses and current-limiting fuses ..............................................97
Capacitor Fusing .
14A3 Summary of shunt capacitor fusing criteria .........................................................99
15A3 All-film capacitor fault-current limitations ...........................................................99
16A3 Group fusing recommendations for all-film capacitors ................................................102
17A3 ELF fuse selection for capacitor bank protection ....................................................103
18A3 Group fusing recommendations for delta-connected all-film capacitors on 2400-volt systems ................. 103

151
A. Overcurrent Protection
3. PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT APPLICATIONS AND COORDINATION
Index of Figures and Tables (Continued)

TABLE Capacitor Fusing (Continued) Page

19A3 Per-unit voltage on unfailed capacitors .... .. ... . . ... . .... .... ..... .... . . ... .... . . .. .... . . . . . ..... .104
20A3 Individual fusing recommendations for all-film capacitors .. . .... .... .. .. ... .... . . .. ... ... . ..... . ...... 104
Recloser and Fuse-Link Coordination
21A3 Ratings of single-phase, hydraulically controlled reclosers .. .... ... . . ... ... . ... . ...... .. .... .. ....... . 105
22A3 Ratings of three-phase, hydraulically controlled reclosers ..... . ....... . .... .. . . ..... .. .. ... ..... ... ... 107
23A3 Ratings of three-phase, electronically controlled reclosers . ..... . ... . ........ ..... ... ....... . .. . ... . .. 109
24A3 K factors for source-side and load-side tin fuse links . . ... ... ... . ... .. .. .. .. ... ...... .. .. .. ... . .. . .... 11 1
Relay-Fuse Coordination
25A3 Fuse-link cooling factors . .. . .. . . .... . .. ... . . ........... . .... . . . . .. .. . . . ... . .. . . ... . ... . .... ... .118
Recloser-to-Recloser Coordination
26A3 Time-current curve-separation guidelines for series operation of hydraulically controlled reclosers . . . . ......... 125
27A3 Reclosing intervals for hydraulically controlled reclosers .. . . .. .............. . .. .... . .. . ...... .. . .. .... 131
28A3 TCC Curve Cross Reference . .... .. . . ..... .. .. ... ... .. .. ... .... ....... . ..... .... ..... . ........ .132
Sectionalizer Applications
29A3 Oil temperature rise, hydraulically controlled sectionalizers . . ....... .. . . .... .. . . ...... . ....... . . ...... .139

152
 Section A
OVERCURRENT PROTECTION

4. SUMMARY OF PROTECTION FOR A

COMPLETE DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM

An Introduction
mllis section, the reader is taken through the procedure of covering the entire range of overcurrent concerns, from
gmv;ding overcurrent protection for a complete distribution protection of the substation transformer to isolation of the
s,stem, from substation to secondary feeders and branches. most remote segment of line in the event of a permanent
Railer than including detailed analysis of hypothetical situations fault, the section presents a complete picture of the coordinated
lEt would duplicate other sections of the manual, the procedure use of all of the equipment previously discussed: circuit
tx:uses on the principal considerations and steps involved in breakers and relays, automatic circuit reclosers, sectionalizers,
dellermining over-current protection requirements at critical and fuses.
1111Jin1s on a system for which basic facts are "given," and in The specific equipment selections for the demonstration
selecting equipment to satisfy those requirements. system obviously do not include all available varieties, but
The basis for discussion is a relatively simple radial system, each device chosen will provide a safe margin of protection
the principles with which the engineer works in designing within the indicated parameters. As an additional exercise,
~C~~~~BCUrrent protection are essentially the same regardless of the reader may want to try varying the parameters and
cunplexity. Our primary intention here is to demonstrate, in designing an overcurrent protection scheme based on the
~ understood terms, how the various overcurrent protective earlier detailed discussions of equipment and its coordination.
devices work together throughout a distribution system. By

Table of Contents, Page 3

153
A. Overcurrent Protection
4. SUMMARY OF PROTECTION FOR A COMPLETE DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM

Preliminary Considerations
REVIEW OF PRINCIPLES 1. One-line diagram of system: line length, important loads,
Any overcurrent protection scheme, whether for a complete system configuration .
distribution system or a segment of line, must be based 2. Source information: maximum available fault currents,
primarily on the principles cited in previous sections: positive- and zero-sequence impedances.
• All faults should be given a chance to be temporary, 3. Transformer information : impedance, rating, ratio, X/R,
because most of them are. damage characteristic.
• Lockout (interruption of power of more than momentary
duration) should occur only for permanent faults. 4. System information: minimum and maximum fault currents,
• The smallest possible portion of the line should be removed X/R, peak load currents, fixed protective devices, inrush
from service as a result of lockout. characteristics.
Even while abiding by these principles, however, each utility It must be pointed out that "minimum" fault current in the
or distribution protection engineer employs procedures tailored context of overcurrent protection is based on a calculation
to the particular utility's protection and service criteria, including whereby a fault impedance is assumed. Thus, the term
economic constraints. The result can be a significant differ- does not refer to the minimum fault current possible, but
ence in the speed of reaction to the first indication of a fault, rather to the minimum fault current at which devices are set to
with some utilities choosing to give the fault a relatively trip, based on the particular utility's protection philosophy.
longer opportunity to clear itself before a protective device The data needed to perform the equipment selection
opens, while others employ a highly sensitive system with and coordination study are shown on the system diagram
near-instantaneous response. In the first case, customers (Figure 1A4) or will be introduced at appropriate points in
may be spared some resetting of electronic equipment and the discussion. Note that the only protective device
other annoyances, but the utility's equipment is subjected to indicated at this point is an oil circuit breaker on the source
longer fault durations with subsequent loss of equipment life. side of the 10-MVA substation transformer. Maximum load
In the second case, the life of utility equipment is prolonged, currents are shown alongside each line segment, some of
but at the expense of numerous service outages while crews which have three-phase loads, and the maximum and
are engaged in replacing fuses or resetting other devices. minimum short-circuit currents for each segment appear
Past experience-the degree of success achieved in minimiz- inside circles. Node identifications are printed in gray for
ing the effects of outages, customer relations, etc. easy reference.
- will contribute to finding the right balance. Other established elements are:
The example that follows demonstrates the coordinated
application of overcurrent protection devices throughout a 1. Substation (OCB) relay: Westinghouse Type COS time-currert
distribution system, from substation to remote feeders. relay, tap 3, CT ratio 200:5, TL 3; at Node 0.
Detailed data on the types of load, line length, minimum fault 2. Distribution transformer fuse links: 20T; at Nodes 5 and 7_
sensing, and reach rules (which establish the limitations of
3. Capacitor bank on one feeder: specifics included with dis-
protection zones for specific devices) are not included in the
cussion of capacitor fusing.
discussions of equipment selection and placement, as such
application specifics are beyond the scope of this manual. We will begin our analysis of overcurrent protection
Rather, equipment selections and placement reflect the general requirements at the substation, i.e., at the transformer, and
principles involved in fitting the devices to the types of proceed to select and coordinate series devices for each ~
applications for which they are best suited. ment of the system, to the ends of all feeders. Beginning at the
substation permits choosing the minimum pick-up based on
SYSTEM CONFIGURATION AND DATA ultimate substation or feeder capacity and maximizing the
size of feeder sectionalizing fuses. The resu lt is maximum
Although some of the factors are not treated in detail here,
continuity of service.
the following data and system characteristics must generally
be known for effective overcurrent protection planning,
regardless of the procedure or philosophy:

154
 A4

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I
1Q-MVA TRANSFORMER I
110 kV 14.4/24.9 kV
y y
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~~ 1 -
220A

71A~
12
-
105A
/8
40A t I
I /4

29A ~~
/6

®0
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LEGEND
3 PHASE
@
50
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----- 2 PHASE - ' - 1800-KVAR I
----- 1 PHASE ~ POLE-MOUNTED I
/1

-
220A
NODE NUMBER
MAX. LOAD CURRENT ® 3 ;~
,.;)
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Y CAPACITOR BANK
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® 0
NAX. SHORT CIRCUIT CURRENT
MIN. SHORT CIRCUIT CURRENT fY"fY''

0 GENERATOR

OIL CIRCUIT BREAKER

locBI

lBJ RECLOSER

@ SECTIONALIZER

.-rv- FUSE

f9,1re 1A4.
Dlmonstratlon system for study of overcurrent protection.

155
A. Overcurrent Protection
4. SUMMARY OF PROTECTION FOR A COMPLETE DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM

Protective Equipment Selections and

Applications
SUBSTATION TRANSFORMER PROTECTION plotted by multiplying the transformer full-load current by spe-
Figure 2A4 shows the substation relay time-current curve as cific factors for specific time-current coordinates. (Analytical
plotted based on the transformer primary current. The trans- calculations have determined the magnitudes and duration
former inrush-current and damage curves are also plotted to for inrush current. ANSI and NEMA standards require that a
illustrate the degree of protection afforded by the relay-con- transformer should withstand the thermal and mechanical
trolled breaker and the ability of the relay to override inrush stresses imposed by specific fault magnitudes and dura-
currents. The relay time-current curve, as shown, should lie tions.)
between the inrush and damage curves. These curves are

60 3600
50 l. 1\. 3000
40 2400
30 ''\ 1800

20
u TRANSFORMER 1200
1\ DAMAGE CURVE

10
\' ~ 600
8 480
\
6 \ \ 360
I~
5 300
4 240
1\ 180
3
\ ~

TRANSFORMER'
1\ " ~~ ' 120

Ci)
(/)
....
f-
INRUSH
CURVE
ooCi5
<
0 .8 48 co
z
0
u .6 1\
"" ..... RELAY CURVE
fo.,..(PRIMARY) 36
N
lr
w .5 30 ~
(/)

~ .4 24 ~
w 18 (/)
:::!' .3 w
i= ..J
.2 12 ~
1\ u
z
w
0 .1 6.0 ~
f-.
.08 4.8
06 3.6
.05 3.0
.04 2.4
03 1.8

.02
~ 1
\
.0 1 \
8 88888§ § §§§§§~
CURRENT IN AMPERES

Figure 2A4.
Plots of substation relay time-current curve, based on the transformer primary current, and transformer inrush-
current and damage curves.

156
 A4
'aBLE 1A4 coordination accessory can be used. Remember that
a.Hiplying Factors for Constructing Transformer Inrush sequence coordination will eliminate the momentary "blinks"
Curves (Applied to Transformer Full-Load Current.) on the upline feeder for faults beyond the downllne recloser.
Momentary outages are receiving a high degree of attention at
Time (Seconds) Inrush Factor utilities because of the increasing number of complaints about
100-300 2 how these blinks turn off digital timers, disrupt computer
10 3 programs, etc.
I~ 1 6
0.1 12
0.01 25 10-MVATRANSFORMER

TABLE 2A4
llultiplying Factors for Constructing Transformer
Damage Factors (Applied to Transformer Full-Load
f:\
~t /1
c;t: 3 E
110 kV 14.4/24.9 kV TYPE WVE

y 56:AI-
22-:::0:::.A_ _!2.,__1.;;;;.£.;:;..5A_
71A~
Current)
Time (Seconds) Damage Factor @V
60 4.75
30 6.7
10 11.3
5 14.3 ~
4 16.6 ~ i3
3 20
2 25.
Figure 3A4.
Main circuit protection.
Tables 1A4 and 2A4 list the full-load-current multiplying
tactors for use in constructing transformer inrush and dam-
age curves. For the present example, and for plotting the The recloser choice for the main circuit is a three-phase
a.Jrves in Figure 2A4, transformer full-load current is arrived unit, consistent with three-phase loads, set for a two-fasV
at by the following calculation: two-delay reclosing sequence-a typical sequence that pro-
tects against temporary faults. As indicated in Figure 3A4, the
Transformer Full-Load Current= :.J%VA30 load current at the recloser location is 220 amperes. For an
3 kVL-L electronic recloser, the minimum trip current is based on
10 000 2.5 x maximum load current; thus, 2.5 x 220 = 550 amperes.
= • = 52.49 Amperes A Type WVE recloser with a 560-ampere minimum trip (Table
'>/3 (110)
21A3 in Section A3) will satisfy both the current rating and
voltage (24.9 kV) requirements. Tentatively, pending a coor-
Transformer damage curves will vary, depending on the dination check, we will choose a B curve as the recloser
transformer rating. delayed curve and an A curve as the fast curve.
Figure 4A4 compares the COB relay curve (referred to the
MAIN CIRCUIT PROTECTION secondary of the substation transformer) and the recloser B
The segment of line between Nodes 1 and 2, immediately curve with a 560 ampere minimum trip. To coordinate properly,
down line from the substation, will be designated "main circuit," the recloser should operate twice with the delayed curves
since any functioning of the protective device located there and lock out fora permanent fault before the breaker relay
will affect the entire distribution system. disk rotates to the trip position. This is insured by adding the
Also, as discussed below, the device (an automatic circuit recloser B-curve times at discrete current values for two
recloser is the logical choice; see Figure 3A4) must be operations and comparing this cumulative curve to the relay
coordinated with the breaker/relay. curve. The point of intersection, if any, defines the range of
coordination. In this case, as Figure 4A4 shows, coordination
Recloser and Relay/Circuit Breaker Coordination is achieved throughout the range of the cumulative B curve.
For main circuit protection we will apply an electronically Closer coordination can be accomplished by considering
controlled recloser with a ground-fault trip and a sequence relay reset time.
coordination device. The ground-fault trip can be set as low A ground minimum trip of 280 amperes (one-half the
as one-half of the phase minimum trip, and will help protect phase minimum trip) would be capable of protecting for all
against high impedance currents. A downed conductor is an calculated minimum fault currents at the ends of the feeders.
example of a typical and very hazardous condition that might Ground-fault coordination will be discussed in detail later in
produce high impedance currents. this section.
The use of three single-phase reclosers down line (let us
assume this decision, which will be discussed under "Feeder
Protection," is already known through analysis of overall system
requirements) makes the choice of an electronically con-
trolled recloser a natural application, since the sequence

157
A. Overcurrent Protection
4. SUMMARY OF PROTECTION FOR A COMPLETE DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM
Protective Equipment Selections and Applications (Continued)

1000 FEEDER PROTECTION

At Node 2 the circuit forks to form two feeders (Figures 5A4
and 6A4), one of which has three branches. Each feeder will
require protection plus a means of being isolated from the rest
100
of the system in the event of a permanent fault. The branches
must of course be considered in setting up protection for their
feeder, and also will be discussed separately below.
CO&-TAP 3, 200.5 CT. Tl 3 Since the maximum/minimum fault currents at Node 3 are
REFERRED TO SECONDARY
1680/793 amperes, the Type WVE recloser in the main circuit

§en -i"o:\~'"" \ ~
:g 10 at Node 2, with 560 ampere minimum trip, is capable of pro-
tecting the segment of line between Nodes 2 and 3 (Figure
5A4). Because no additional fault interrupting capability is
~
needed, but rather just a means of isolating that segment in
w the event of a permanent fault, a sectionalizer will be used at
~ 1 the head of the line. The load at Node 3 is a large three-

~·~·~ -......._
BCURVE
phase customer, so a three-phase sectionalizer will provide
the best protection, particularly since it will not allow single-
phasing to the three-phase loads. (One point to note, however,
.1 '-.. in choosing a sectionalizer, is that the upline recloser will be
required to provide fast trip protection for transient faults,
1'--- thereby increasing the number of blinks on the main feeder.
If this presents a problem, a recloser may be needed instead
of the sectionalizer.)
.01 I I I I I I I I I The minimum fault currents at the ends of the branches at
10 100 1000 10000 100000 1000000 Node 5 and Node 7 (Figure 6A4) are 500 amperes and
CURRENT IN AMPERES
475 amperes, respectively. Because the recloser in the main
Figure 4A4. circuit at Node 2, with its 560 ampere minimum trip, will not
Comparison of substation relay curve, referred to the respond to fault levels below 560 amperes in these branches,
transformer secondary, and recloser B curves. a reclosing device is required at the head of the feeder
supplying the branches. The minimum trip should be less
than 4 75 amperes, so that all possible fault currents will be
sensed and the appropriate circuits isolated.

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105A /8 40A t'l /4
~--~----~---------------.~---.------~----------------_, 16
71A~
29A ~I
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1800-KVAR
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Figure 5A4.
Protection of feeder by adding sectionalizing device only.

158
 A4

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TYPEWVE TYPE4E
I
-
560A 140A
220A 105A
- !8 40A t I /4
t - _ . . : ; - - - - , - - - - - ' - - - - - - - - 1 1 /6
/1 71A~ 29A ~I
~ I
\:§7 TYPEGW
448A I
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1800-KVAR
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Rgure 6A4.
~io n of feeder with branches.

Because of special considerations relating to capacitor For purposes of our exercise, assume there are no large
pomction, the branch between Nodes 8 and 9 will not be three-phase loads served by this 105 ampere feeder.
D2Jded in the discussions of feeder and branch protection, Therefore, single-phase devices at the head of the feeder,
bd will be covered in a separate section, "Capacitor Fusing." located just down line from Node 2, will provide a higher level
of reliability than would a three-phase device. Multiplying the
-.closer-Sectionallzer Coordination maximum load current, 105 amperes, by 1.25 yields 131
For this case, where the feeder is short and is not expected amperes; therefore, choose a 140 ampere-rated coil. A
b experience a significant number of faults, a three-phase single-phase recloser that satisfies these requirements is the
SI!!Ciionalizer is a good choice for an isolating device at the hydraulically controlled Type 4E (Table 21A3, Section A3).
llread of the feeder (between Nodes 2 and 3, Figure 5A4): Figure 7A4 compares the fast and delayed curves of the 4E
~lly, an electronically controlled Type GW sectionalizer, and upline WVE recloser; the A curve is chosen as the fast
IIIIIch meets the requirements of 24.9 kV and 7100 amperes. curve for the 4E. Comparison of the WVE R response curve
(Representative sectionalizer ratings will be found in Table (560 ampere minimum trip) with the 4E A curve (140 ampere
7A2. in Section A2.) coil) indicates that both reclosers would trip simultaneously
To properly apply the sectionalizer, its activating level on the fast curves. However, the sequence coordination
should be set to 80 percent of the upline device's minimum accessory on the WVE electronically controlled recloser
- . which in this case calculates as .8 x 560 amperes prevents unnecessary fast-curve operations of the WVE R
= 44a amperes. This margin accounts for a plus or minus ten curve for faults down line of the 4E reclosers. Thus, for down-
J!E!~Cef~t tolerance of the sectionalizer and recloser. line faults, only the fast curve of the 4E will operate, so that
The GW sectionalizer also should be equipped with the entire feeder will not be subjected to momentary blinks.
paund-fault sensing to properly coordinate with the ground- Figure 7A4 also compares the WVE recloser B curve (560
IIIJI sensing of the upline WVE recloser. Set it to 80 percent ampere minimum trip) to the 4E recloser B curve (140 ampere
=
fllllhe WVE ground trip, or .8 x 280 amperes 224 amperes. coil) and D curve (140 ampere coil). Both of these delayed
curves will successfully coordinate with the WVE B curve.
llecloser-Recloser Coordination Choose the 4E D curve in this case, however, because it
As stated, a recloser is needed at the head of the feeder allows a greater current range for coordination of downline
dt'lown in Figure 6A4, because the recloser in the main circuit fuses, discussed under "Branch Protection."
llllill not respond to the phase minimum-trip requirements in
lie branches. The WVE recloser will trip for ground faults of
~itudes as low as 280 amperes.

159
A. Overcurrent Protection
4. SUMMARY OF PROTECTION FOR A COMPLETE DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM
Protective Equipment Selections and Applications (Continued)

1000 Figure 7A4 shows the time-current curves for proper coor-
dination. The WVE G8* curve (280 ampere minimum trip) will
allow the 4E A curve (140 ampere coil} to respond first to
ground faults down line of the 4E reclosers. In the same way,
the WVE G3 curve (280 ampere minimum trip) will allow
100~------+-------~-------r------~ operation first of the 4E B curve (140 ampere coil}. For
ground fauHs of magnitudes that exceed the 560 ampere
phase minimum trip of the WVE, either the ground- or phase-
trip curve will respond, depending on which trips faster at that
fault-current magnitude.
If more sensitive ground-fault protection is desired, the
single-phase 4E reclosers can be replaced with a three-
phase, hydraulically controlled WV (Table 20A3, Section A3).
The WV recloser can be equipped with ground-fault sensing
and set as low as circuit unbalances under normal conditions
will allow. It must coordinate with ground-fault sensing at the
upline WVE, although an extremely sensitive ground-fault
protection will make the reclosers prone to nuisance tripping
from transformer inrush. Also, the use of a three-phase
recloser instead of three single-phase units will reduce service
continuity to the single-phase loads. Thus, all aHernatives
must be considered in order to select the protection best suited
to the requirements of the particular distribution system.

BRANCH PROTECTION
100 1000 10000 100000 We now turn our attention to the two branches (Figure 8A4)
CURRENT indicated from Nodes 4 to 5 and Nodes 6 to 7 on the diagram.
The first is a two-phase 40 ampere line, and the second a
Figure 7A4. single-phase 29 ampere line. Each must be equipped with
Comparison of main-circuit and feeder recloser curves. protection/isolating capability.
Temporary fault protection is provided by the 4E recloser at
Node 2. The other two requirements of coordination -lockout
for permanent faults and isolation of the smallest portion of
GROUND-FAULT PROTECTION the affected circuit - can be provided most economically by
Ground-fault sensing of the upline WVE recloser is set at 280
fuses on the branches, which must of course be coordinated
amperes. Its function is to trip for ground faults between the with the upline Type 4E recloser. With the sequence coordi-
WVE and node 3, and to provide back-up protection for nation accessory installed in the WVE recloser at the head of
ground faults down line of the 4E reclosers. Thus, the WVE
the main circuit, any fuse that coordinates properly with the
ground fast curve should respond after the 4E fast curve. 4E reclosers will coordinate properly with the WVE.
Again, the sequence coordination device will prevent simul-
taneous operation of the reclosers' fast curves for ground
faults down line of the 4E units. Also, the WVE ground
delayed curve should respond after the 4E delayed curve.

160
 A4
The largest fuse whose maximum-clear curve does not intersect
VJJJ with the recloser delayed curve is the maximum fuse size that
fYY'[;' will successfully coordinate.

~:
Assuming this first step has already been done, Figure
9A4 shows the results of comparing T links with the A (fast)
~I and D (delayed) curves of the Type 4E, 140 ampere-coil
I recloser. The 65T link is the maximum fuse rating that will
I successfully coordinate. Note that the recloser A curve is
I multiplied by a K factor of 1.35, which corresponds to two fast
I and two delayed operations, and a reclosing interval of one-
and-a-half seconds. (For your convenience, Tables 3A4 and
4A4, listing reclosing intervals for hydraulically controlled
TYPE 4E reclosers and T-link K factors, are reproduced here from
140A 40A Section A3.) Recall that the K-factor shifts the recloser curve to
account for the cumulative heating and cooling effects of fuses
as well as for ambient temperature, fuse preloading, and
predamage. Examination of the intersection of the modified
recloser A curve and the 651 minimum-melt curve yields a
maximum coordination range to 2100 amperes. Since the
I
maximum short-circuit current at the ends of the fused
I
~ I
branches is 1140 amperes at Node 5 and 1215 amperes at
Node 7, using 65T fuse links at both Nodes 4 and 6 will properly
\§7 I coordinate with the upline single-phase recloser. With the
I recloser protecting against temporary faults and the largest-
1800-KVAR I possible fuses functioning only for permanent faults,

i
POLE-MOUNTED
Y CAPACITOR BANK @ I
I i7
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customers at the end of the system are assured a high level
of service continuity.
rYYY'I
TABLE 3A4
Figure 8A4. Reclosing Interval, Hydraulically Controlled Reclosers
Protection of branches. McGraw-Edison Recloslng Interval
Recloser Type (seconds)
H 1.0
Recloser-Fuse Coordination 4H, BH 1.5
When coordinating a recloser with a down line fuse, the object V4H,V6H 1.1
is to choose a fuse whose TCC curves lie between fast and L, V4L, D, DV, E, 4E 2.0
delayed curves of the recloser. Result: the recloser fast curve W, PWVW
provides temporary fault protection, and the fuse should melt PWV, VWV, VWV38, WV 2.0*
and clear for a permanent fault. Typically, a fuse curve shape •Accessory available for 30-cycle reclosmg on f1rst operat1on.
IS chosen, such as a K or T type, and the whole family of ratings
is then overlayed on the recloser curves for consideration.

161
A. Overcurrent Protection
4. SUMMARY OF PROTECTION FOR A COMPLETE DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM
Protective Equipment Selections and Applications (Continued)

TABLE 4A4
"K" Factor for Source-Side and Load-Side Tin Fuse Links
Source-Side Fuse Links Load-Side Fuse Links

For source-side fuse coordination, the X" factor, plotted to For load-side fuse coordination, the "K" factors are used to multi-
average values, is used to multiply the time values of the ply the time values of the recloser fast curve. The intersection
delayed curve (B, C, 0, E, etc.). The intersection of this reference of this reference curve with the fuse minimum-melting time
curve with the fuse minimum-melting time curve determines
the maximum coordinating current. Note that either the fuse or curve determines the maximum coordinating current. These
recloser curves must be shifted so that both are plotted to the factors are based on the recloser fast curve plotted at maximum
same voltage reference. time.
Multipliers for: Multipliers for:
Recloslng Two-Fast, One-Fast Four- Recloslng Time One-Fast Two-Fast,
Time in Two-Delayed Three-Delayed Delayed In Cycles Operation Operations
Cycles Sequence Sequence Sequence 25-30 1.25 1.8
25 2.7 3.2 3.7 60 1.25 1.35
30 2.6 3.1 3.5 90 1.25 1.35
50 2.1 2.5 2.7 120 1.25 1.35
90 1.85 2.1 2.2
120 1.7 1.8 1.9
240 1.4 1.4 1.45
600 1.35 1.35 1.35

60 3600
50
40
' 3000
2400
65T
30 1800
\ 1200
20
\
10
l\ 4E 600
8 140A 480
D
6 360
5 300
4 240
3 180

2
\ 120
4E 1\
140A
1.35A \ en
r/J
1 60~
0 .8 48 tD
z N
0 .6
(.) A
\
36 li:
w .5
r/J
30~
~ .4 24 ~
w
:::!' .3
;:: '"\.!'- 18 r/J
w
.J
\
\ 1\"' '
.2 12 ~
\
.... ~
\ r\ r'\ w
0.1 6.0 ~ ,_
.08 4.8
~
06
.05 ' l'ooo.
3.6
3.0
.04 2.4

.03 1.8

.02 1.2

\
8 88888§ § §§§§~~
CURRENT IN AMPERES

Figure 9A4.
Comparison of fuse-link and recloser curves for coordination of branch protection.

162
 A4

CAPACITOR FUSING to a multiphase fault whose magnitude is 1400 amperes, as

"The capacitor bank located on the branch at Node 8 is a pole- indicated by the maximum short-circuit current notation in
mounted, ungrounded 1800 kvar bank with a rated voltage of Figure 1OA4. Fault currents at this level will be cleared by the
24.9 kV (Figure 10A4). Capacitors are typically protected by fuse before the recloser can respond.
iJses, for which the requirements are supplied by the capacitor
onanufacturer. Capacitor fuses therefore are usually fixed
protective devices, and in this case the recommended fuse is
a 40K tin link.
II is important that the capacitor fuse operate and clear
before any recloser operation, as a capacitor fault resulting
fmrn the failure of a capacitor unit may escalate into a multi-
pllase fault and multiple capacitor-unit failures if not cleared
immediately, or if subjected to a reclosing operation.
F~gure 11 A4 compares the time-current curves of the 40
a'f1)ere K fuse with the Type 4E recloser with 140 ampere
ali, which will serve as back-up protection. For a capacitor-
alii failure, the maximum fault current is three times the rated
C11nent if the bank is ungrounded. In this case, TYPE4E

-
140A
105A /S
kvar 10 = 600 41 _67A
Irated =
kVratedL-N 14.4
Thus, Itault = 3Irated = 3 x 41.67 = 125A
I
Since the recloser has a 280 ampere minimum trip, it will I
u respond for this fault; therefore, the 40 ampere K fuse will I
I
dear it.
Further examination of Figure 11A4 shows that the fuse ~ 40K
GROUP I
'lnaXimum clearing curve and the recloser A (fast) curve intersect ~ FUSED
I
at 290 and 800 amperes. Fault current in this range could I
cause simultaneous fuse and recloser operation, but fault 1800-KVAR I
arrents in this range as a result of capacitor failure are POLE-MOUNTED
~ly. If a fault persists, it more than likely will escalate
.
I
y CAPACITOR BANK
~:
\§7
u )i;
rYYYl

Figure 1OA4.
Group-fused capacitor bank.

163
-------

A. Overcurrent Protection
4. SUMMARY OF PROTECTION FOR A COMPLETE DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM
Protective Equipment Selections and Applications (Continued)

600 36000
500 30000
400 24000
300 18000
200 12000
40K
TIN
100 6000
80 4800
60 3600
50 3000
40 2400
30 1800
20 4E 1200

10
8
6
5
\'
'\
140A
D
600
480
360
300
\ 240
4
3 \ \ 18o en
rn
0
z
2

1
\ '~
\ 1\
1\
120

:c
60 0
Ci5
c(
ID
N

0 48 ~
*
(.) .8
36 ~
z .5 .6 30 d
-.4 \ !\
24 ~
w
::::! .3 \ 18 z
i= .2

.1
\
N~
'' '
12 w

6.0
::::!
i=

.08 4.8
.06 ...... 3.6
.05 1.35A 3.0
.04 2.4
.03 " A 1.8
.02 \. '" 1.2
\
~
'
1\J U) .;. (11 Ol 0
(X) ......
o0 o0 0
ooo
00
8o
0

CURRENT IN AMPERES

Figure 11 A4.
Comparison of fuse-link and recloser curves for coordination of capacitor protection.

164
 A4

controlled reclosers, which inherently provide more versatility

, system is now protected (Figure 12A4), using a minimum than do hydraulic reclosers, and which may be eq uipped with
llllliD!tJer of devices and maintaining complete temporary fault other significant features and options. Current-limiting fuses
pilledion as well as ground-fault protection. Attention also are another option. Also, sectionalizers may be applied in
liB been given to keeping momentary power interruptions to series or with fuses for additional flexibility in isolating
aniniroom. permanently faulted line segments.
is a relatively simple, straightforward protection scheme, Except for the inclusion of transfer and connecting devices,
llllwtone that illustrates the progression of decisions that must designing overcurrent protection even for load transfer and
IIIR l!nade from substation to feeders to branches, and from loop schemes employs basically the same procedure as
IIIIIIDfant three-phase loads to end-of-line single-phase described above for a hypothetical radial system. See the
SBI"IIice. For more complicated system problems, the design appropriate discussions in Section A3.

VJJJ
"11'
@ I
I
I
I

TYPE 4E 65T

~
-
220A
140A
105A 40A
r-.:::-::::...----,;ar-_ _---~.._ _ _ _ _ _ _----. ;&
29A~
65T
'§/ I
LEGEND
TYPEGW I
448A
I
- - - - 3PHASE I
2 PHASE ~ 40K
GROUP I
1 PHASE \§7 FUSED
I
NODE NUMBER
I
MAX. LOAD CURRENT 1800-KVAR
POLE-MOUNTED
I
~:
NAX. SHORT CIRCUIT CURRENT Y CAPACITOR BANK
MIN. SHORT CIRCUIT CURRENT I

GENERATOR
\§lulL
rYYY\
OIL CIRCUIT BREAKER Recloser 2
Three Type 4E hydraulically controlled, single phase, 140
RECLOSER ampere coil, 280 ampere minimum trip. Function: Protection
SECT!ONAUZER
of feeder (/2 to /6) with three branches, none with three-
phase loads. Isolates entire feeder in event of fault not
FUSE cleared by downline device.
Sectionalizer
Type GW electronically controlled; three phase, 448
ampere phase actuating current. Function: In coordination
0\lercurrent protective devices selected and coordinated with Recloser 1, to isolate feeder (/2 to /3) in event of
as described in the accompanying discussion: permanent fault.
65T Fuse Links
Recloser 1 Function: In coordination with Recloser 2, to isolate branch
Type WVE elec~r~mically_ controlled, three phase, 560 served (/4 to /5 or /6 to /7) in event of permanent fault on
~pere phase mmu~um_ tnp, 280 ampere ground minimum that branch.
1rip. S~qu~nc~ coordmat1on accessory. Function: Protection
of mam c1rcu1t (/1 to /2) and feeder (/2 to /3) with three- 40 K Fuse
phase load, plus ground-fault protection of both feeders. Group capacitor fusing - requirements supplied by capacitor
Locks out for permanent fault before breaker relay reaches manufacturer. Function: To isolate capacitor bank in event
trip position. of capacitor fault before any operation of Recloser 2.

Figure 12A4.
Demonstration distribution system with all overcurrent protection devices in place.

165
166
 Section B
OVERVOLTAGE PROTECTION

167
 Table of Contents
Page Page
1. FUNDAMENTALS AND THEORY 2. INSULATION AND SURGE ARRESTER
Introduction .................................. 171 CHARACTERISTICS AND
Principles and Objectives . ...................... 172 GENERAL APPLICATION FACTORS
The Nature of Overvoltages ...................... 172 Introduction ................... . ....... ... .. . . 197
Sources of Surges ..... . . ..................... 172 Overhead Distribution Line Insulation ....... . .. . . 198
Types of Surges .............................. 172 Impulse Withstand: How It Is Determined
Overvoltage Protection Methods and Equipment ...... 172 and Defined .. . ............... . .............. 198
Surge Arresters .............................. 173 Standard Test Waves .......................... 199
Shield Wires .......... . ...................... 173 Impulse Withstand Characteristics of
Terms and Definitions .................... .. ..... 173 Insulation-System Components .................. 199
General Terms ............................... 173 Porcelain Insulators ............. . ...... . ...... 199
Types of Voltage Withstand Tests Applied Air Gaps ....................................199
to Insulation ............................... 173 Wood ......................................199
Surge Arrester Terminology ..... . ....... .. . . .... 174 Fiberglass, Plastics, and Fiber-Reinforced
Lightning Phenomena .......................... 175 Plastics (FRP) ...................... . . . .. . .200
Origin of Lightning: Some Theories .. . .............. 175 Impulse Withstand Characteristics of Materials
Mechanics of a Lightning Flash .................... 176 Combined in Series .. . ........................200
Lightning and Electric Power Systems .......... . ... 177 Porcelain and Wood or Fiberglass ............... 200
Stroke Currents: Magnitude and Shape ........... 177 Air and Wood .................. . .... . . . . . .... 201
Measuring the Incidence of Lightning ............. 178 Fiberglass or FRP and Wood ...................201
Overvoltages of System Origin ............. . .... 180 Air and Porcelain ........................... . .201
Switching Surges ......... . ..................... 180 Example of Insulation Withstand Calculation .........201
Switching Distribution Line and Transformer Role of Wood as a Design Safety Factor .... . ...... .. 201
as a Unit .................................. 180 Extinguishing Flashovers .......................201
Capacitor Switching ........................... 181 Mechanical Damage from Surge Currents .........202
Energization of an Isolated Capacitor Bank ....... 181 Other Wood Characteristics .....................202
Energization of a Charged Capacitor Bank ....... 181 Underground Distribution Circuits .... . .......... .203
Voltage Magnification ........................ 181 Distribution Equipment Insulation ............... .204
Restrike During Capacitor-Bank Interruption .. .. .. 182 Insulation Categories ........................... .204
Prestrike During Capacitor Energization , ....... .183 Basic Impulse Insulation Level (BIL) ............ . .. .204
Inductive Current Chopping ........ . ............ 183 Low-Frequency Voltage Withstand ................. .204
Current-Limiting-Fuse Arc Voltage ................ 184 Atmospheric Factors . . .... . .......... . ......... .204
Summary of Switching Surges . .. ........... . ... 185 Equipment Withstand Levels ..... . ............... .204
Ferroresonant Overvoltages .... .. . . .......... .. .. 185 Transformer Insulation Tests ................... .204
Harmonics ....................................186 Other Equipment Insulation Tests ............... .205
Sources and Characteristics ............... . .... 186 Surge Arresters .............................. .206
Effects and Concerns ... . ................. . ... 186 Basic Design and Operation . . ......... . .... .. ... .206
Power-Factor-Correction Capacitors ............ 187 Surge Arrester Classifications .................. . . .207
Corrective Measures ...... . ........... .. ...... 188 General Arrester Application Factors .............. .. 208
Traveling Waves .. .... .. .. . ........... . ........ 189 Selection of Voltage Rating .............. .. .... .208
Causes and Characteristics .......... . ............ 189 Maximum Continuous Operating Voltage MCOV .. .209
Two Waves: Voltage and Current ................. 189 Temporary Overvoltage . .................... .209
Formulas for Determining Surge Impedance and Margins of Protection ....................... .209
Velocity of Propagation ............ .. ..... . .... 189 Shield Wires ..................................21 1
Inductance ................................ 189 Index of Figures and Tables .....................21 2
Capacitance ............................... 190
Surge Impedance .................... . ...... 190
Velocity of Propagation ........ ... .......... . . 190
Application of Formulas ...................... 190
Wave Behavior at Junctions .. .. ....... .. ......... 190
At a Junction of Dissimilar Lines ................. 190
At a Short Circuit ............... . ............. 191
At an Open Circuit .................... .. ...... 192
At Capacitive and Inductive Terminations .......... 193
At a Termination Equal to
Characteristic Impedance .............. . ..... 193
At an Open Point Terminated by a Silicon-Carbide
Surge Arrester ............................. 194
At an Open Point Terminated by a Gapless
MOV Surge Arrester ......................... 195
Index of Figures and Tables ..................... 196

168
 Section B
OVERVOLTAGE P~

Page Page
1 SURGE ARRESTER APPLICATIONS AND Type Of Arrester .. .. ......... ........ ........ .. .226
OTHER PROTECTION DETAILS Distribution Apparatus Protection . . ..... .... . ... .22.7
llllroduction . . . .. . .. .. . . . . . .. . ................213 Distribution Transformers . . . . . . . . . . . .... . ... . .... .22.7
Arrester Function and Selection ... . . ... . . .. .. .. .214 Grounding . . .. .. ... . .. .. . .. .. . .. . ... ... . ... .22.7
~~~ester Voltage Rating .. . . . . .. ... .. ...... . . ..... 214 Fuse Location . . .. .. .... ...... ..... .. ... .. . ..22.9
System Operating Voltages . ......... ... ... ..... 214 Single Phasing .. . ............... . . .. .........22.9
System Faults and Other Unusual Operating Secondary Surge Protection ........ ..... .. . . ...230
Conditions ...... . . . . . . . . ................. .214 Voltage Regulators .... .... .. ........ . . .. . .. ... .231
Effect of System Grounding During Switchgear .. . .. . .. . . . ................. .. . .....233
Line-to-Ground Faults .... ............... .. 215 Capacitors .. .. . . . .. . . . . . . .. ......... ... . . ... . .233
Coefficient of Grounding and Substation Protection ... . . . . . ......... .. .. ... . .234
Percent Arresters .. . . . . .... . .. ..... . . .. .. 216 Index of Figures and Tables ......... . ... ........235
Distribution Circuit Considerations . .. . ... ....... .216
Conditions Requiring Arrester Selection 4. SUMMARY OF PROTECTION FOR A COMPLETE
by Calculation . ...... .. .... . . . ....... .. ... 216 DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM
Arrester Voltage Rating Recommendations ........ 217 Introduction .... . ..... . ........... .. . . . .. . .... 237
IEUation Coordination ... . . ... . .. . .. . .. ... . .. .. .217 Preliminary Considerations ..... . . .. .. .. ... ..... 238
Equipment Withstand ... .. . ....................218 Review of Principles ...... . ...... . ... . .. ..... ... 238
Comparison of Oil-Filled and Dry-Type System Configuration and Data ...... . . . . . .........239
Equipment ....... ... . . . ............ . ..... 219 Surge Arrester Selections and Application ...... . .240
Margin of Protection . . . . .................... . .219 Overhead Line Protection ........ . .. . .......... . .240
Anester Class . ......... . . . .... ... . . . . . . .... . . .220 Distribution Equipment Protection .... . . . .. ..... .. .. 240
Arrester Location and Connection . ... . . . ..... .. .221 Reclosers and Sectionalizers .. ... . . .... .... ....240
Eslinating Lead-Wire Voltage . ... . .... . ... . ..... . .221 Distribution Transformers .... . ... . ... .. .... . . . .. 241
~of Arrester Lead Length . . .......... .. ...... .221 Capacitor Bank . ... . .... . ... .. . ... .... .. .... .242
Qher Location/Connection Considerations . . . .. . . . . . .222 Summary ... .. . . .. ... ............ . . ..... .. ....242
Ola:head Line Protection .. . . ........... . ..... .. 223
underground Circuit Protection . . .. . .. . .. ... . . .. .224 • • •
Recommended Protection Methods .. . ... . . . .. . .. .. 224 REFERENCES AND CREDITS ....... . .. ...... ... .264

169
170
 Section B
OVERVOLTAGE PROTECTION

1. FUNDAMENTALS AND THEORY

An Introduction
One of the world's best-known signs, "Danger! High Voltage" components. Internal sources include switching operations
ordinarily is used to call attention to both normal and unusual and line-to-ground faults. One common source, capacitor-
tonditions on a distribution system that can be hazardous to bank switching, generally places less stress on components
the public and/or to utility personnel. Once the danger is than does lightning, but it could occur much more frequently.
lleCOgnized, human beings can take appropriate steps to Fortunately, most of the effects of transient overvoltages
protect themselves from harm. are limited to a small portion of the distribution system.
Protection against the potential hazards of overvoltages, Although lightning surges may travel great distances from the
however, requires more than warning signs and physical stroke location, they can be dealt with by local protective
isolation (as by fencing) of the areas involved. Distribution devices. It should be noted that overvoltage problems relating
systems are designed to operate at a particular voltage, and to ferroresonance or harmonics would have the potential for
when the voltage exceeds design level, whether from a surge or affecting large areas of a system.
from more gradual increases in voltage, utility personnel and This section of the manual begins with introductory comments
1he system itself are potentially at risk. Overvoltages are on the principles of overvoltage protection, including a brief
caused by numerous events that occur during normal operation discussion of protection methods, and then turns its attention
ma distribution system, but they frequently are not planned and to the fundamentals and theory of overvoltage phenomena.
are not considered normal conditions. Protection against such The purpose is to provide a thorough understanding of the
hazards, therefore, must involve design criteria and protective sources and related characteristics of overvoltages, and to
measures that are an integral part of the distribution system present some basic corrective measures that can be taken to
and that allow for additions or upgrading as circumstances reduce or eliminate the potential for overvoltage. Sections 82
require. and 83, which follow, contain detailed discussions of the
Most of the causes of overvoltage are transient, lasting specifics of overvoltage protection: the characteristics of
only several microseconds to a few cycles, and their source insulation and protective equipment, and how those tools are
naay be either of system origin or external to the system. The applied in protecting distribution lines and apparatus.
chef external source is lightning, a highly unpredictable nat-
um.l phenomenon that places great stress on power system

Table of Contents, Page 168

Index of Figures and Tables, Page 196

171
B. Overvoltage Protection
1. FUNDAMENTALS AND THEORY

Principles and Objectives

A cursory comparison might easily give the impression that 2. Switching within the system can cause overvoltages to
protecting a distribution system against the hazardous appear at remote points as well as at the switching location.
effects of overvoltage is less complicated than protecting it Switching surges usually are not a concern at the distribution
against overcurrent. It would appear offhand that the sources level, however, since the steps taken to protect against
of overvoltage are relatively few because they do not include lightning-caused overvoltage will usually cover them, too.
such nuisance factors as adventurous wildlife and falling tree 3. Fundamental and near-fundamental frequency-related
limbs. It might appear also that there are few decisions to overvoltages result from such occurrences as voltage
make because the types of equipment specifically designed regulation problems, the amplification of harmonic
for overvoltage protection are so limited. However, in some voltages and currents by resonance within the network,
areas the occurrences of faults are closely related to the and ferroresonance caused by single-pole switching.
occurrences of over-voltages, because a high percentage of Another cause is faults involving ground- an example of
faults are caused by lightning. And the overall subject of over- the interrelationship between overcurrent and overvoltage
voltage is highly complex, involving areas that still are not protection.
completely understood.
Although surges can be produced within the system (as a Types of Surges
result of switching, for example), lightning is by far the principal The form that surges take -transient or temporary/sustained
cause of potentially damaging overvoltage; and while many - is determined by their source.
of the mysteries of this natural phenomenon have been 1. By nature, surge voltages produced by lightning are tran-
unveiled since the days of Benjamin Franklin, there remains sient phenomena. That is, they are of short duration with
much to be discovered. Protection problems are magnified in respect to a particular segment of line and will travel down
some cases because of inability to predict with precision either the line. Thus, the potential for damage from such surges
the magnitude or the results of overvoHage occurrences without is not restricted to the immediate area of the occurrence.
the use of sophisticated analytical techniques and equipment. The surges may cause damage also at discontinuities in
In addition to the obvious safety factors relating to personnel the line, such as at open points, where the voltage wave
and customers, economics provide a strong incentive for the doubles.
highest practical level of overvoltage protection. Higher-than- 2. Voltages related to ferroresonance, capacitive rise, unbal-
normal voltages will cause the insulation of such distribution anced system voltage, and voltage regulation fall into the
apparatus as transformers, regulators, switches, etc., to break temporary/sustained category. That is, their duration is
down, leading to immediate or eventual failure. It also will directly related to their cause and will exist until the cause is
cause line or cable flashovers, resulting in either temporary removed either by automatic controls or human interven-
faults or disruption of service to customers. · tion. This could take from several seconds to a few hours.
Economics play an important part also in determining the 3. Overvoltages caused by switching are generally transient
nature of the protection provided, particularly the respective but can be sustained if the switching results in a resonant
roles of line or system insulation, apparatus insulation, and condition at fundamental frequency or one of the low-
protective equipment (surge arresters and shield wires). order harmonic frequencies.

THE NATURE OF OVERVOLTAGES OVERVOLTAGE PROTECTION METHODS AND

Overvoltages originating from outside the distribution system EQUIPMENT
are mostly due to lightning. There are other possible external Three equally important and interrelated factors are involved
sources, such as transmission lines falling into distribution in overvoltage protection: the design of the overall distribution
lines and the so-called electromagnetic pulse (EMP) resulting system, the basic impulse insulation level (BIL) of the distri-
from nuclear blasts. bution apparatus (transformers, regulators, etc.) on the
Overvoltages originating within the system may be caused system, and protective devices (surge arresters, shield
by circuit-configuration changes as a result of switching or wires).
faults, or by internal events that affect fundamental and near- The insulating capability of the basic system is determined
fundamental frequency, such as an excess of system-driving by the characteristics of the various components used (poles,
voltage. insulators, conductors, etc.) plus configuration, spacing, and
all the other factors that comprise system design. The insulation
Sources of Surges of a system must withstand the continuous power-frequency
1. Lightning, the principal source of damaging overvoltage voltage for many years under a variety of atmospheric condi-
on distribution systems, can produce surges either by tions. To insure the long-term integrity of the system, it
direct strikes or through induction. The resulting voltage naturally is designed to withstand voltages higher than normal
surge may vary from a relatively small increase to many system levels. It is not economically feasible, however, to
times the normal peak line-to-ground voltage, as system build systems that will withstand voltages as high as those
insulation levels permit. associated with transient overvoltages.
As stated previously, the art of protection is complicated Likewise, the insulation level of distribution apparatus is
to a degree by the fact that lightning parameters are not all designed to withstand voltage somewhat higher than normal.
fully understood. Of particular help in planning, however, This method of protection works well up to a point, but it soon
are well-documented studies of the incidence and magni- reaches a stage at which the added cost of a higher BIL is
tude of lightning strokes. not economically feasible.

172
 81
The vital additional level of overvoltage protection is pro- "Sparkover," described below under ·surge Arrester
vided by installing protective equipment designed to limit the Terminology.")
amount of voltage a piece of apparatus (or segment of line)
lsokeraunic Level. A universally accepted measure for
may experience (or "see"). This method actually permits the
determining the incidence of lightning - defined as the num-
BIL of the apparatus to be reduced, since it can be based on
ber of days in a year (or month) that thunder is heard in a par-
1he lower overvoltage potential, and generally results in a
more cost-effective overvoltage protection scheme. Utility ticular location. Abbreviated IKL.
practices vary greatly, of course, and all must take into Traveling Wave. A sudden change in voltage or current that
account the three essential factors of customer service, is not transferred instantaneously to all points of an overhead
potential exposure (particularly to lightning), and economics. line or cable, but rather requires some finite interval for the
surge (traveling wave) to propagate down the line. May be
Surge Arresters caused by a lightning stroke, switching of components, a
A surge arrester, the most commonly used add-on equipment short circuit, or conductor break.
b" overvoltage protection, is defined in industry standards
(ANSI C62.1-1981) as "a protective device for limiting voltage Withstand Voltage (or Withstand Level). The highest value
on equipment by discharging or bypassing surge current; it of applied voltage at which equipment will not flash over.
prevents continued flow of follow current to ground, and is Surge-Wave Description. The wave shape of an impulse
capable of repeating these functions as specified." The three (other than rectangular) of a current or voltage is designated
basic classifications of arresters are distribution, intermedi- by a combination of two numbers. The first, an index of the
ate, and station. wave front, is the virtual duration of the wave front in
For an arrester to prevent the voltage across the protected microseconds. The second, an index of the wave tail, is the
equipment from becoming excessive, its characteristics time in microseconds from virtual zero (see below) to the
nurt, of course, be coordinated with the BIL of that equipment. instant at which one-half of the crest value is reached on the
That is, the arrester selection process must take into account wave tail. Examples are 1.2 x 50 and 8 x 20 waves.
1he ability of the equipment to withstand overvoltage and The wave shape of a rectangular impulse of current or voltage
make certain the arrester functions well within the limits of is designated by two numbers. The first is the minimum value
1he equipment insulation. Note that "insulation coordination" of current or voltage that is sustained for the time in microsec-
as applied to overvoltage protection differs from the "coordi- onds designated by the second number. An example is the 75
nation" of overcurrent devices, since the latter relates to the A x 1000 wave.
relative timing (or responsiveness) of protective devices used
..-. series. VIrtual Zero Point (of an impulse). The intersection with the
zero axis of a straight line drawn through points on the front
Shield Wires of the current wave at ten percent and 90 percent of crest
Transmission and subtransmission lines normally employ value, or through points on the front of the voltage wave at 30
shield wires or static wires located high above the phase con- percent and 90 percent of crest value.
ckJctors to shield the phase conductors from direct lightning
Virtual Duration of Wave Front (of an impulse). The virtual
strokes. The shield wires intercept most direct strokes and
value for the duration of the wave front is as follows:
allow them to be conducted harmlessly to ground. However,
1. For voltage waves with wave-front duration of less than 30
1here remains a small probability of backflashover from the
microseconds, either full or chopped on the front, crest, or
Dtier to the ground that is a function of the tower construction
and footing resistance. tail: 1.67 times the time for the voltage to increase from 30
On distribution systems, the grounded neutral conductor percent to 90 percent of its crest value.
2. For voltage waves with wave-front duration of 30 or more
sometimes is located above the phase conductors to act as
a shield conductor. microseconds: the time required for the voltage to
increase from actual zero to maximum crest value.
TERMS AND DEFINITIONS 3. For current waves: 1.25 times the time for the current to
increase from 10 to 90 percent of crest value.
Folowing are some of the commonly used terms and definitions
the reader will encounter in Section B, Overvoltage BIL. A contracted abbreviation of "Basic Impulse Insulation
Protection. They relate to the various conditions and compo- Level," which is a reference full-wave impulse withstand level
'lents of principal interest in understanding and coping with expressed as crest voltage of a standard 1.2 x 50 microsecond
a.~ervoltage phenomena: voltage surges, line and equipment wave shape (see "Full-Wave Withstand," below). This is the
insulation tests, insulators, and overvoltage protective accepted criterion for the impulse withstand capability of dis-
devices. Many of these terms and definitions are discussed tribution equipment. For effective overvoltage protection, the
..-. detail as they are introduced in appropriate portions of the BIL (withstand level) of the equipment to be protected must
leXt. be coordinated with the characteristics of the protecting
surge arresters.
General Terms
Self-restoring Insulation. Materials such as air and porcelain, Types of Voltage Withstand Tests Applied to
whose insulating properties are completely recovered after a Insulation
cisruptive discharge (flashover). The first three tests described below are impulse-voltage
tests applied to both line and equipment insulation. The other
Nonself-restoring Insulation. Materials such as oil and
test is a low-frequency withstand test applied primarily to dis-
caft paper, which exhibit permanent damage and loss of
tribution equipment.
l'lsulating properties after flashover.
Rashover. A disruptive discharge around or over the surface
of an insulator. (This term may be easily confused with
173
B. Overvoltage Protection
1. FUNDAMENTALS AND THEORY
Principles and Objectives (Continued)

Full-Wave Withstand. The industry-accepted standard test- Arrester Insulation Withstand Voltages. Power-frequency
voltage (or "lightning-impulse") wave shape for all types of withstand voltage and impulse withstand voltage of an
insulation is 1.2 x 50 microseconds with a continued gradual arrester's insulation are, respectively, the highest rms value
decay to zero on the wave tail. The crest value is frequently of the 60 Hz voltage and the highest crest value of the surge
referred to as the BIL (see page 173). voltage that can be applied to an assembled arrester without
flashover. Since arrester insulation withstand levels must nat-
Chopped-Wave Withstand. An applied test voltage that urally be higher than the arrester sparkover level, insulation
begins as a basic 1.2 x 50 microsecond wave but is withstand voltages are determined with internal conducting
"chopped" (caused to decay to zero very rapidly) by the parts removed or otherwise made inoperative. Any external
sparkover of a suitable shunting air gap at or shortly after series-gap electrodes that shunt an insulating member also
crest. Values run approximately 115 percent of full wave. are removed.
Transformer standards - both power and distribution - specify
both chopped-wave and full-wave withstand levels. Arrester VoHage Rating. The rms value of the maximum 60 Hz
Front-of-Wave Withstand. An applied test voltage with a voltage (line to ground) to which an arrester should be
specified (and relatively steep) rate of voltage rise that is subjected even under transient conditions.
chopped at a specified time before the normal wave crest is
reached - usually one-half microsecond. Power transformer Power-Frequency Sparkover. (Not applicable to MOV
standards specify a front-of-wave withstand level in addition arresters.) The rms value of the minimum 60Hz voltage that
to the two withstand levels previously described. will cause sparkover of an arrester when applied between its
line and ground terminals. This sparkover level should be
Low-Frequency Voltage Withstand. In addition to some or high enough to prevent arrester operation on harmless low
all of the above impulse-voltage tests, depending on industry transient voltages. Industry standards state that power-
standards, equipment insulation is required to withstand low- frequency sparkover of an arrester should be at least 1.5
frequency (60 Hz) voltages greater than the maximum rated times rated voltage, except for station arresters rated 60 kV
operating voltage. The test generally consists of a one-minute and above, where the minimum is 1.35 times rating.
application of 60 Hz voltage under dry conditions, and a ten-
second application of a lower 60 Hz voltage under wet con- 1.2 x 50 Impulse Sparkover. (Not applicable to MOV arresters.)
ditions. The highest standard lightning impulse voltage longer than
three microseconds that an arrester will allow without
Surge Arrester Terminology sparkover. This arrester sparkover characteristic is coordinated
Sparkover. A disruptive discharge between the electrodes of with equipment BIL in overvoltage protection applications.
an arrester. (Note that the term is not applicable to metal-
oxide-varistor (MOV) arresters or other devices constructed
without the series gaps found in silicon-carbide arresters.
Also, care should be taken not to confuse "Sparkover" with
"Flashover; described above under "General Terms.")

174
 81

Lightning Phenomena
Since lightning is by far the leading cause of damaging 1. Elster-Geitel: Large water drops falling in the earth's electric
overvoltages on distribution systems, a knowledge of its field are polarized with negative charge on top and posiiNe
characteristics is essential for the student and practitioner of charge on the bottom. When the large falling drops contact
overvoltage protection. similarly polarized smaller ascending drops, chalge is
Although more than two hundred years have passed since transferred, and the larger drops - now net negatively
Benjamin Franklin's famous experiment with a kite proved the charged - fall as rain, and the smaller drops - now net
presence of electricity in lightning, the bulk of our knowledge positively charged - rise to the upper portion of the thun-
regarding the characteristics of lightning was gained after the dercloud.
mid-1940s, following the introduction of radar. Radar can be 2. Wilson: Water drops polarized by the earth's electric field,
used to measure precipitation intensities or the characteristics as in the Elster-Geitel theory, meet positive ions moving
af the lightning discharge channel. Other important measuring toward earth and negative ions moving away from earth.
equipment are antennas for electrostatic field analysis, and The small percentage of drops falling more slowly than
magnetic links and oscillographs for current discharge analysis. positive ions acquire the ions for a net positive charge, and
The following discussion is a combination of widely held the higher percentage of faster-falling drops repel the pos-
theory regarding the origin of lightning and observable, itive ions and acquire the negative ascending ions for a net
recordable fact as to some of the important characteristics of negative charge. Small rising drops become positively
~ing and their effect on electric power lines. charged in a similar fashion.
3. Vonnequt: Negative ions outside the cloud are carried
ORIGIN OF LIGHTNING: SOME THEORIES toward the cloud (conductive current) and become
Alhough the origin and generation of lightning are not attached to cloud particles. Connective currents move the
completely understood, generally accepted theory revolves cloud particles, which become clumped in pockets.
around the separation of positive and negative charges with- Positive ions are released at the earth's surface and are
'il a thundercloud as shown in Figure 181. The general pat- carried by updrafts into the cloud, where they become
tern is for positive charges to be located at the top of the attached to particles and accumulate in the upper portion
hmdercloud, with negative charges in the lower region. The of the cloud. This attracts more negative ions into the cloud
concentration of positive charge where a stroke is thought to -positive feedback- thus increasing the cloud's electrification.
originate is nearoo C to -1ooC isotherm. No matter what the cause of this charge separation may be,
A number of theories have been postulated to account for as the amount of the separation increases, so does the
tis separation of positive and negative charges. Three prin- resulting electric field. When field strength exceeds the critical
cipal ones, and the persons with whom they are associated, breakdown level, thought to be in the range of 500 to 1000
ae: kV/meter, the lightning discharge begins.

10

i'
.-J:~ 6
~ +
I
0°C + + +
+
4 + +

0
POSITIVE
RAIN
- = NEGATIVE
RAIN
:
:

Figure 181.
Ail currents and distribution of electricity in a typical thundercloud.

115
B. Overvoltage Protection
1. FUNDAMENTALS AND THEORY
Lightning Phenomena (Continued)

MECHANICS OF A LIGHTNING FLASH The process may be repeated over and over, so that what
The majority of lightning flashes to or near level ground are appears to the eye as a single flash is really made up of a
initiated from the thundercloud and consist of a "stepped number of strokes. More than 80 percent of flashes are made
leader'' of negative charge advancing downward, from cloud to up of two or more component strokes, and analysis of one
earth, followed by a return stroke from earth to cloud. The exceptional flash showed it to have 54 component strokes.
initiating leader has formed as a result of intercloud dis- Figures 381, 481 and 581 summarize the stroke process
charges that create the necessary field distributions. just described, identified as a negative lightning flash since it
Formation of such a leader is a complex, dynamic process emanates from a negatively charged cloud center. The
of electron acceleration to the ionization potential of gas sequence shown covers the majority of flashes of concern to
molecules, resulting in the release of additional electrons. the power engineer.
These molecules then repeat the process (that is, an electron Positively charged leaders do emanate sometimes from
avalanche is created) and there follows a recombination of tall structures toward negatively charged clouds, and may or
electrons and ions, gas heating, and thermal ionization. may not be followed by return strokes from cloud to earth.
Thus, a highly charged, conductive channel is created. Such strokes also are defined as negative flashes.
The leader "steps" from cloud toward earth traveling at the Although rare, positively charged clouds may initiate positive
rate of 0.1 to 0.8 meters per microsecond, with each step a leaders to earth followed by return strokes, or they may
distance of 10 to 200 meters, the average being about 50 cause negatively charged leaders to emanate from tall
meters. The interval between steps ranges from ten to 100 objects with or without return strokes.
microseconds, with 50 microseconds the average. Figure 281
illustrates the progression and time lapse of a stepped
stroke, which actually would consist of many more steps than
shown within the ten-millisecond time frame indicated.

CLOUD

++++++ +++~+-

2 4 6 8 10 Figure 381.
TIME (MILLISECONDS) Charge along cloud base induces opposite charge on
earth.
Figure 281.
Progression of a stepped stroke from cloud to earth.

When a stepped leader approaches within striking dis-

tance of ground, an upward connecting leader rises to meet
the stepped leader and a return stroke travels toward the
cloud at a rate from 0.1 to 0.5 times the speed of light. The
return stroke neutralizes the charge in the leader channel
and ultimately the charge center in the cloud. Despite this
neutralizing effect, however, the previous charge center may
be recharged by neighboring charge pockets within the
cloud. If this occurs, a "dart leader'' will proceed down the
path of the original "stepped leader," causing another return
stroke to arise from earth to cloud. +++++
+ +
Figure 481.
Lightning leaders propagate toward earth.

176
 81
the voltage of the downward leader. Because such wllage
exceeds the line-to-ground withstand voltage of system ilsUa-
tion, insulation failure can result unless adequate OYeniOiage
protection is provided. It obviously is preferable thai a path to
ground for the lightning stroke be provided by the operation
of surge arresters rather than by insulation failure. When the
path is found, the link between cloud and earth is completed
and the cloud energy is released in the form of surge current.
Since the line-to-ground connecting point may be remote
from the stroke contact point, a portion of the line conductor
may have served as part of the lightning current path.

STROKE CURRENTS: MAGNITUDE AND SHAPE

In order to establish the magnitudes of overvoltages possible
on a distribution system as a result of lightning, it is essential
that the engineer have an understanding of the magnitude
and shape of currents produced by direct strokes. Data has
Figure 581. been collected by many observers, beginning in the 1920s,
Return strokes flash from earth to cloud. on the character of lightning strikes to earth. Most of the data
has been developed from three sources:
1. Lightning strikes to transmission lines.
LIGHTNING AND ELECTRIC POWER SYSTEMS 2. Strikes to tall objects (towers).
Ughtning need not even come in direct contact with power 3. Arrester discharge currents.
lines to cause problems, since induced charges can be Ideally, for our purpose the data would be based on strikes
introduced into the system from nearby lightning strokes to to distribution lines, but except for information on currents
ground. Although the cloud and earth charges are neutralized discharged by distribution-class arresters, such data has not
through the established cloud-to-ground path, a charge will been generally available. Work to determine the characteristics
be trapped on the line as shown in Figure 681 . The magnitude of strokes that actually terminate on distribution lines is now
of this trapped charge depends on the initial cloud-to-earth being conducted in South America and Florida.
gradient and proximity of the stroke to the line. Voltage Some of the data collected by K. Berger and associates is
induced on the line from the remote stroke will propagate summarized in Table 1B 1. This data was collected from
along the line in the form of a traveling wave until dissipated measuring devices mounted on towers of 70 and 90 meters.
by attenuation, leakage, insulation failure, or surge-arrester (References 1 and 2.)
operation. (Traveling waves and the characteristics, function,
and operation of surge arresters are discussed in detail in
later sections.) TABLE 181
Statistical Data for Lightning Strokes Based on Data
from Measuring Devices atop Towers of 70 and 90 Meters
Percent Exceeding
Stroke Characteristic Tabulated Value
95% 50% 5%
Crest Current (kA) (kA) (kA)
Negative First Strokes 14 30 80
Negative Following Strokes 4.6 12 30
Positive Flashes 4.6 35 250
Maximum dYdt (kA/us) (kA/us) (kA/us)
Negative First Strokes 5.5 14 32
Negative Following Strokes 12 40 120
Positive Flashes 0.20 2.4 32
Front Duration (us) (us) (us)
Negative First Strokes 1.8 5.5 18
Negative Following Strokes 0.22 1.1 4.5
Positive Flashes 3.5 22 200
Tail Duration (Time to 112 Crest) (us) (us) (us)
Negative First Strokes 30 75 200
Figure 681. Negative Following Strokes 6.5 32 140
Trapped charge remains on line. Positive Flashes 25 230 2000
Time Interval between Strokes (ms) 7 33 150
Total Flash Charge (C) 1.3 7.5 40

When lightning strikes a line directly, the voltage increases

rapidly at the contact point. This voltage, which also propa-
gates in the form of a traveling wave in both directions from
the stricken point, attempts to raise the potential of the line to
B. Overvoltage Protection
1. FUNDAMENTALS AND THEORY
Lightning Phenomena (Continued)

Measuring the Incidence of Lightning

In addition to understanding the shapes and magnitudes of
voltage surges that can be produced by lightning, utilities
90 must make some determination of the incidence of lightning

80
~ in their respective service areas in order to devise suitable
levels of overvoltage protection.
\r-it\ ~l=13kA A universally accepted measure for this purpose is the
a=0.74
isokeraunic level (IKL) or thunder day (TO) - defined as the
number of days in a year (or month) that thunder is heard in
50 ~
a particular location. Figure 881 is an isokeraunic map of the
United States showing the mean annual numbers of days
""' '- ~ with thunderstorms as reported by the U. S. Weather Bureau.
This is generally regarded as a weak indicator for utilities'
purposes in that it does not establish the number of strokes
' ~
,. SARGENT'S
DISTRIBUTION to ground and does not indicate if more than one lightning
'\0 LEVEL GROUND flash occurred.
' \
~
To overcome this deficiency, various empirical formulas
have been developed to establish the ground flash density,
Ng, as related to IKL. This relationship takes into account that
~\ not all flashes are to ground; in fact, better than 50 percent
are cloud-cloud flashes. Various ratios of cloud-cloud to
cloud-earth flashes have been observed, varying from 0.5 in
~ temperate climates to 9 in tropical climates. The generally
.1 " accepted relationship is:
~
.01 ~ Ng {0.1-0.2) (IKL) [flashes/KM2-year]
5 10 20 50 100 200
Most recent research in U.S. suggests an average value of
STROKE CURRENT: kA

Figure 781.
Ng =0.15 (IKL)
Distribution of strokes to ground level.

Characteristics of lightning strokes to distribution lines,

which· usually have heights of 20 meters or less, also have
been investigated. It has been determined that the response
of distribution lines to lightning can be calculated based on
the stroke distribution to level ground. This will be covered in
Section 83, under "Overhead Line Protection:·
The distribution for strokes to level ground as calculated by
Sargent is shown in Figure 781. This distribution shows high
occurrences of the lower-magnitude negative first stroke. As
the demonstration abscissa indicates, there is a 30 percent
chance that stroke current will exceed 20 kA. (Reference 3.)

178
 81
Other relationships are: 1. Recording thunderstorm hours to differentiate between
short and long storm times.
Ng =2.6 X 10-3 (IKL)1.9 (U.K.) 2. Utilizing lightning-flash counters to get a much more precise
=0.036 (IKL)1.3 (U.S.S.R.) indication of flash occurrence. Most recent counters are
=0.004 (IKL)2 (Sweden) designed to be insensitive to all but cloud to earth flashes,
thereby directly yielding data on ground-flash densities.
To overcome errors created by relying solely on isokeraunic The application of this data requires a sufficiently long
levels, two approaches are being taken: enough record in a particular area to allow for annual
variations.

Figure 881.
lsokeraunic map showing thunderstorm days as reported by U.S. Weather Bureau.

179
B. Overvoltage Protection
1. FUNDAMENTALS AND THEORY

Overvoltages of System Origin

All distribution-system overvoltages other than those caused When the transtormer is energized under such conditions,
by lightning are produced by disturbances or less-than-ideal the resulting magnetizing inrush current is rich in harmonics,
conditions within the system itself. The most common and mainly the second and fourth. These harmonic currents are
troublesome internal sources of overvoltage are switching injected into a parallel L-C circuit which, if tuned in the
operations, ferroresonance, and harmonics. These sources neighborhood of the low, even harmonics, can produce large,
and the characteristics of the surges they produce, plus related sustained overvoltages typically referred to as dynamic
problems, will be examined in this section. Overvoltage overvoltages. Figure 981 shows a system where this
calculations and some of the basic corrective actions also will phenomenon may occur; the equivalent circuit for a simplified
be covered. analysis of the system is shown in Figure 1081. The symbols
used are:
SWITCHING SURGES
Switching surges are overvoltages produced by changes in Ls = system inductance
operating conditions within the network when switching is Lt = transformer inductance
performed. There are several ways in which these overvoltages =
C capacitance between switching device and transformer
can be generated, and all have one thing in common: the
trapping of energy in part of the circuit and the subsequent If the parallel combination of Ls, Lt and C is resonant at the
release of that energy. second or fourth harmonic, overvoltages may develop. The
The two types of switching surges are those produced by formula to determine the resonant frequency for the circuit is
circuit or system conditions, and those produced by inherent
switch action. The first type includes surges caused by the f= - - = = -
switching of line (or cable} and transformer as a unit, by 2rt'l/ Leq C
capacitor switching, and by voltage magnification. The second where
type includes surges caused by restrike during capacitive
current interruption, by prestrike during capacitor (line and
cable} energization, by inductive current chopping, and by
current-limiting-fuse arc voltages.
The voltage levels generated in such circumstances usually
Switching Distribution Line and are 2 per-unit or less and normally are sustained. The energy
Transformer as a Unit involved is enough to damage distribution-and intermediate-
Overvoltages may result when a lightly loaded or unloaded class arresters if sparkover occurs, but it should not damage
transformer is remotely switched through a long run of cable or station-class arresters.
overhead line, or with a large capacitor bank. These situations Some of the corrective measures to avoid this problem are:
are more common on transmission systems, but also may • Detune the circuit by changing the capacitor-bank size.
occur on distribution systems under any of the following • Serve the transformer and capacitor-bank combination
conditions: from a stiffer source.
• Large capacitor banks are located on the primary side of a • Use station-class arresters to protect equipment while also
transformer and both are switched as a unit. being able to withstand the energies developed.
• Economic considerations dictate that relatively large • Modify switching practices to prevent unloaded transformer
transformers have no high-side breaker or switching device. and capacitor bank from being switched as a unit.
• A large transformer is located on an industrial site.
• Reclosing is performed on a line terminated with a large
transformer after a temporary fault has occurred during
light load conditions.
HARMONIC

SOURCE E:J~------LO_N_G__LI_N_E_O_R_C_A_B_L_E-r------~3 f__

Ls c t CURRENT
GENERATOR

SWITCHING I 3t
DEVICE CAPACITOR"! LARGE
BANK TRANSFORMER
Figure 1081.
Equivalent circuit for analysis of system in Figure 981.
Figure 981.
Diagram of system on which transformer energization
may introduce overvoltage-producing harmonics.

180
 81
Capacitor Switching Energization of the first two phases of the bank wi result in
When a capacitor bank is energized or de-energized, over- 0.5 per-unit power-frequency voltage on the neutral of the
voltages are produced that may affect both the capacitor and bank. If the third phase is then energized at a peak voltage of
the system to which it is connected. The switching surges opposite polarity, the resulting maximum transient would be
generally are not high enough to cause arrester sparkover, 2.5 per-unit on that phase. Even higher transients are possille
unless magnified by a system resonance condition. However, on the capacitor-bank neutral and the last phase to close.
some cases of capacitor-bank switching can cause problems
without such magnification. ENERGIZATION OF A CHARGED CAPACITOR BANK
When a capacitor bank is deenergized at its terminals and
ENERGIZATION OF AN ISOLATED CAPACITOR BANK immediately re-energized, a trapped charge is retained. If
Figure 1181 shows an equivalent circuit of an isolated single- the system voltage is at opposite potential at the time of
phase capacitor bank being energized. The following nomen- re-energization , a maximum voltage of 3 per-unit may result.
clature is used: This voltage level may damage capacitors and other equipment.
L =system inductance Since it also could cause arrester sparkover, the arrester
Es = system voltage (L-N) class should be determined based on the capacitive-current
Ec = capacitor voltage discharge capability of the arrester.
C = capacitor bank capacitance Capacitors have a built-in discharge resistor to drain a
trapped charge. Standards specify that the time for decay of
residual voltage to 50 volts or less should not exceed five
minutes for capacitors rated higher than 600 volts. Therefore,
re-energization should be delayed for five minutes to prevent
overvoltages unless special provisions have been made for a
faster discharge.

VOLTAGE MAGNIFICATION
Capacitor switching can become a problem if the transient
voltage is magnified by a resonant condition. Voltage magni-
fication normally occurs when a capacitor is switched on the
high-voltage side of a transformer while there is another,
smaller capacitor connected to the low-voltage side. Figure
1281 shows a one-line diagram of the type of system
Figure 11 81 . susceptible to voltage magnification; the equivalent circuit is
Equivalent circuit of an isolated single-phase capacitor shown in Figure 1381. Note that there are two main loops in
bank being energized. this circuit consisting of two series inductances (ls and LT)
and two shunt capacitors (C1 and C2).
If the resonant frequencies of the two loops are approximately
When the switch is closed, current flows into the capacitor the same (lsC1 = LtC2), voltage magnification results, since
to charge it to the same voltage as the source. The current is the lower-voltage circuit (Lt, C2) is being injected with a voltage
limited to a finite value by the inductance, L, which also source at its own resonant frequency. Voltages as high as
stores energy as the current builds. This causes the capacitor 5 per-unit in the low-voltage circuit have been encountered in
voltage to overshoot the equilibrium value and results in a situations such as this when the switched capacitor is a
transient voltage and current that oscillate at the natural capacitor bank, or as high as 2 per-unit when the switched
frequency of the circuit. The magnitude of the current capacitance is a distribution line or cable. The voltage magnitude
depends on the difference between the system voltage and is intensified when the switched capacitor is much larger than
the capacitor voltage at the time of closing and is given by: the fixed capacitor on the low-voltage system. These voltage
magnitudes are high enough to cause distribution arresters
on the low side to spark over.

If the capacitor is uncharged and the switch closes at the 69kV ~ >-~-12_._47-k_v_--r-----
system voltage peak, the transient voltage could theoretically
I
reach 2 per-unit. The resistance of the system damps the
voltage to a lower level. Fortunately, this transient will seldom
affect a surge arrester because the switching-surge sparkover
level of arresters is typically more than two times nominal
LARGE
SWITCHED
i 1 SMALL
FIXED
system voltage.
Energization of a three-phase grounded-wye capacitor
bank has the same effect as for a single-phase bank, except
that nonsimultaneous pole closing prolongs the total duration
BANK
1 1 BANK

of the voltage and current sources. Figure 1281.

Energizing ungrounded-wye capacitor banks can result in Circuit that may cause magnification of capacitor
transient voltages approaching 2.5 per-unit and greater. switching overvoltages.
B. Overvoltage Protection
1. FUNDAMENTALS AND THEORY
Overvoltages of System Origin (Continued)

Ls Lr
Successful interruption depends on whether the interrupter
can build up sufficient dielectric strength to withstand the
rate-of-rise of the recovery voltage. Figure 1581 shows that,
one-half cycle after interruption, two times system voltage

E C _{ appears across the interrupter contacts. If restrike occurs at

this point, the capacitor attempts to recover to crest voltage
Ct
of the opposite polarity, and in doing so overshoots by the
amount of the attempted correction. The inrush current is
oscillatory at high frequency, and if this current is interrupted
at a high-frequency current zero, as much as 3 per-unit volt-
Figure 1381. age may be trapped on the capacitor, and the restriking
Equivalent circuit of diagram in Figure 1281. process may continue with the subsequent buildup of even
higher voltages.
Ungrounded-wye banks subject the capacitor switching
The reason for concern with regard to this problem is that device to even higher recovery voltages than the 2.0 per-unit
capacitor switching is often a daily event. Repetitive surges observed for grounded-wye banks. The transient recovery
may eventually damage equipment, and the duty on the voltages can attain values of 2.5 per-unit on the first phase to
arresters is relatively severe. Voltage magnification is often open when the other two phases open on the next current
evidenced by failed equipment and arresters at remote loca- zero, 3.0 per-unit on the first phase to open when the other
tions during capacitor switching. two phases open on the second current zero, and 6.4 per-unit
The following steps will usually remedy the problem: if the first phase to clear restrikes at 2.5 per-unit (compared
• Detune the circuit by changing bank sizes or moving to 4.0 per-unit for a grounded-wye bank).
banks. Restriking capacitor-bank switching devices can result in
• Use preinsertion resistors on breakers to limit voltage high system-voltage surges, which may cause equipment
surge magnitudes. damage if not protected adequately. Therefore, it is desirable
• Unground the remote bank. to choose a switching device that will minimize the possibility
• Switch large banks in more than one section. of restrike. Opening resistors are sometimes used to ease
Figure 1481 illustrates representative waveforms of this the duty on the interrupters. At high system-voltage levels,
occurrence for system parameters, with reference to Figure ungrounded-wye banks are not practical, because switching
1281 and 1381, summarized as follows: devices with the required recovery-voltage duty are often not
Ls = 14.3 mh available.
C1 = 10 uf
LT = 350 mh
C2= .41 uf .. ...·....
:-···
•' •• BUS VOLTAGE

...·.. .: ·...
....
\
'••,
......:'
..: ::..
::
·.·
CURRENT
MAX 4 Ec ACROSS SWITCH
CONTACTS Y. CYCLE AFTER
RESTRIKE

4.69pu-

Figure 1481.
Waveforms of overvoltages on 2-mvar, 34.5 kV capacitor CAPACITOR VOLTAGE
bank after energizatlon of nearby 50 mvar, 115 kV bank.

RESTRIKE DURING CAPACITOR-BANK INTERRUPTION

When deenergizing a capacitor bank, a capacitor switching Figure 1581.
device clears the current at a current zero. Since the current Oscillographic representation of recovery voltage
is strictly capacitive, the voltage at the time of interruption is across interrupter contacts after capacitor-bank
at a peak. But since the current magnitude is quite low compared deenergization.
to fault currents, the current may be interrupted when the
contacts have parted only a small amount. When this occurs,
peak voltage is trapped in the capacitor on the load side of
the switch.

182
 81
PRESTRIKE DURING CAPACITOR ENERGIZATION Inductive Current Chopping
When a capacitor bank is energized, an arc is established Some circuit breakers are capable of interrupting low levels
within the interrupter contacts before they physically make of currents prior to a current zero. This action, which is known
contact: a phenomenon known as prestrike. Since the current as current chopping, can give rise to abnormal overvoltages
flowing is of high frequency, it may go through several zeros because of the magnetic energy associated with the current
before metallic contact is finally attained. Interrupters have being trapped in the circuit.
been improved so that they can clear at current zero, regardless Such overvoltages usually are observed when the interrupter
of whether it is a result of high-frequency or power-frequency on an unloaded transformer chops the magnetizing current in
current. If current is interrupted at one of the current zeros the process of an unloaded transformer deenergization.
after prestrike occurs, voltage can be trapped on the When this happens, energy is trapped in the transformer
switched capacitor. When the interrupter again strikes the arc magnetizing inductance, which is subsequently interchanged
or metallic contact is made, switching surges are produced with circuit capacitance, producing a voltage surge. The mag-
similar to those discussed earlier. Multiple re-ignitions have nitude of the voltage surge is conservatively:
been known to occur with vacuum interrupters.
Figure 1681 shows an example of prestrike. The peak tran-
sient voltage increased from 1.80 to 3.65 per-unit, which v~~cfi
should result in an arrester operation. In addition, the capac-
itor inrush current is proportionately higher, which may be where
damaging to the capacitor fuses.
Some of the corrective measures that may be taken: Lc =chopped current level
• Use a switch that does not cause prestrikes with subse- Lm =transformer magnetizing inductance
quent clearing. C =capacitance on the transformer side of the switch
• Use preinsertion resistors.
• Insert current-limiting reactors to limit the overvoltage. As can be seen in the above formula, the voltage surge
• Use arresters to clamp overvoltages. produced is independent of the voltage level; therefore, this
phenomenon is most troublesome on low-voltage, low-BIL
systems. The level of energy discharged is of medium range
BUS VOLTAGE and may damage low-thermal-capacity arresters.
For example, a 1000 kVA transformer's surge impedance
is 5 x 1Q4 ohms. If an interrupter's current-chopping level is
two amperes peak, a voltage surge of 100 kV peak might be
produced. Actually, the voltage surge produced is less than
60 percent of this value due to energy loss in the transformer
core.
One of the corrective measures taken to solve this problem
-3.65pu
is the use of fuii-BIL transformers rated 95 kV and above,
even on lower-voltage systems. Another solution is to add
CAPACITOR VOLTAGE surge capacitors to reduce the surge impedance of the trans-
1.89pu- former, although a significant length of cable between the
breaker and the transformer may be used for the same purpose.

-3.65pu
CAPACITOR CURRENT

PRESTRIK~ \
ARC
EXTINCTION

Figure 1681.
Oscillographic example of prestrike during capacitor
energization.

183
B. Overvoltage Protection
1. FUNDAMENTALS AND THEORY
Overvoltages of System Origin (Continued)

Current-Limiting-Fuse Arc Voltage 100

Current-limiting fuses force the fault current to an early current 34.5
zero by developing a high arc voltage that opposes current
kV/
flow. The rapid change of current through the circuit inductance
can result in an arc voltage that is much higher than normal
operating voltage. The voltage is given by the relationship:
di
90

80
v
E
where
=e + (-L-}
dt
~ 70
/
25kV
E = arc voltage
=
e normal system voltage
w
(.!)
~
:...J
60
/
/
L = total system inductance ~ 20kV
(.)
a:
< 50
J
~! = change in fault current

The magnitude of the arc voltage depends on the fuse-

~
::>
~

~
40
L
l7
~4 .4kV
element construction. For current-limiting fuses that have ele- ~
/ 12.5kV
ments of uniform cross-sectional area (wire-element fuses
30 /
rated 12 amperes or less), the voHage has a definite relation-
ship to available fault current. j_
/ 8.3kV
Figure 1781 shows the maximum arc voltage that could be
generated as a function of available fault current. The maximum
20
If. 7.2 kV
possible arc voHage in a wire-element fuse also depends on
the point in the voltage cycle during which the fault current is
initiated.
·or~···kV 2.4kV
4.8kV
I
For current-limiting fuses that have nonuniform (ribbontype)
elements, the maximum arc voltage that can be produced is o I
constant regardless of available fault current. It is dependent 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35
only on the recovery voltage across the fuse. Figure 1881 CIRCUIT VOLTAGE (kV)
shows the maximum arc voltage for a nonuniform-element
current-limiting fuse as a function of the circuit voltage. Figure 1881.
Maximum arc voltage that can be produced by a ribbon-
element current-limiting fuse.

120

100
38 KV FUSES-6 THRU 12 AMP

~
w 80
(.!)
~
:...J
27 KV FUSES 6THRU 12 AMP
~ I
(.)
60
a;
<
I I I
23 KV FUSES 6 THRU 12 AMP
~ I I I I
:::l
~ 15.5 KV FUSES 1.5 THRU 12 AMP
~ 40
I I I I I
~ 8 3 KV FUSES 1.5 THRU 12 AMP
· I I .~
5.5 KV FUSES 6 THRU 12 AMP
20

0
.1 .2 .3 .4 .5 .7 2 3 4 5 7 10 20 30 40 50 70
AVAILABLE CURRENT (rms symmetrical kiloamperes)

Figure 1781.
Maximum arc voltage that can be produced by a wire-element current-limiting fuse.

184
 81
Arc-voltage magnitudes generally are not high enough to FERRORESONANT OVERVOLTAGES
damage equipment, but may cause arrester sparkover with The term ferroresonance is often used to describe all phenom-
possible damage to low-thermal-capacity arresters. The ena associated with the operation of a capacitor in series Wlitlh
switching surge duty on a surge arrester can be more severe a nonlinear or saturable inductor. During series resonance, a
than the discharge of a short-duration lightning stroke. This is very high voltage can occur across the elements of a se~
so because the arrester must discharge all or part of the LC circuit. Figure 1981 shows a series LC circuit being excited
energy that has been stored in the system inductance ahead at or near its natural frequency by a voltage source E. From
of the fuse. Also, additional energy supplied from the power this figure it is obvious that the voltages Ec and EL add up to
source will be absorbed by the arrester. Tests have shown the applied voltage E. But as shown in Figure 20~1, the pha.sor
that arresters will withstand the thermal duty, provided the diagram for this circuit, the voltage across the mductor leads
arrester has an energy dissipation value of one kjoule/kV of the current by 90 degrees, and the voltage across the capacitor
rating. lags the current by the same amount. Therefore, the magni-
Arc voltage is a low-frequency switching surge phenomenon. tudes of Ec and EL can exceed the magnitude of E.
Therefore, the waveform is comparable to the minimum 60 Hz The most common occurrences of ferroresonance are on
sparkover level of the arrester (peak voltage). Current-limiting grounded systems having lightly loaded transformers with
fuses with nonuniform elements cause arrester sparkover at ungrounded-wye or delta-connected primaries, where single-
approximately ten percent above the minimum 60 Hz sparkover pole switching leaves phase-to-phase or phase-to-ground
level. C-L fuses with uniform elements, however, produce capacitance connected to the load side of the switch.
surges that will cause arrester sparkover at approximately
20 percent above the minimum 60 Hz value. +Ec-
An example will illustrate how to determine if an arrester
will sparkover due to current-limiting-fuse arc voltage. A
15.5 kV, 40° C current-limiting fuse is applied on a 12.47/7.2 kV
grounded-wye system with 9 kV arresters. The maximum arc
voltage is 18 kV, according to Figure 1881, since C-L fuses
rated above 12 amperes have nonuniform elements. For 9 kV +
distribution-class arresters, the power-frequency sparkover
level is 15 kV, which has a peak value of 21.2 kV. Since the E
maximum arc voltage is less than 21.2 kV, sparkover is not
probable.

Summary of Switching Surges

Table 281 summarizes the causes and effects of the distribution-
system switching surges discussed in the preceding pages.

Figure 1981.
TABLE 281 LC circuit for illustration of ferroresonant overvoltages.
Summary of Switching Surges on Distribution System
Cause and Effect
Maximum Ec
Cause Expected Duration
Voltage Energy of of Follow
(pu) Discharge Current
Circuit or System
Conditions:
Switching Capacitance 2pu Medium Prolonged E
and Unloaded
Transformer as a Unit
Capacitor Switching 3pu High Prolonged
i
Voltage Magnification Spu High Prolonged
Inherent Switch or
Interrupter Action:
Restrikes During 3-6pu High Prolonged
Capacitor Switching Figure 2081.
Prestrikes During 6pu Low - Phasor diagram for circuit in Figure 1981.
Capacitor Energization
Inductive Current Independent Medium Prolonged A simple example will help to illustrate this phenom~non.
Chopping of System
Figure 2181 shows single-pole switches used to energiZe a
Voltage
delta-connected transformer. The interconnections are by
Current-Limiting- 2pu Medium -
cable, as is usually the case with pad-mounted transformers..
Fuse Arc Voltage
(non-uniform element) If one of the switches is closed and the other two are open,
- as in the drawing, a current path is provided as ~ ~n
Current-Limiting- Independent Medium
Fuse Arc Voltage of System Figure 2281. If the inductance and capacitance values 1n this
(uniform element) Voltage circuit are such that they can be resonant at power freq~Jei11C"J'.
excessive voltages can appear across the transformer wi"lciinQs
and at the cables on the unenergized phases.

185
B. Overvoltage Protection
1. FUNDAMENTALS AND THEORY
Overvoltages of System Origin (Continued)

Sources and Characteristics

A distribution system has many potential sources of harmonics,
which, in general, are produced by devices with nonlinear
operating characteristics such as transformers, rotating
machinery, arc furnaces and arc welding equipment, and
power electronic devices.
Transformer saturation characteristics result in a non-sinu-
soidal exciting current when a sinusoidal voltage is applied.
The harmonics of consequence are the third, fifth, and seventh.
Also, transformer inrush-current results in saturation on
either the positive or negative half of the fundamental voltage
wave, so some even harmonics, mainly the second and
Figure 21 81.
Switch used to energize a delta-connected transformer.. fourth, are generated.
Harmonics produced by rotating machinery are related
principally to variation in magnetic reluctance caused by slots
in the machine stator and rotor. Second harmonic currents
------------, can be produced due to saturation, mainly in the teeth.
'' I Arc furnaces and arc welding equipment generate
.::r:: .,/ I harmonics because of the nonlinear voltage-current charac-
- ,------/ I teristic of power arcs. The harmonics of concern are usually
I the fifth, which may reach 20 percent of the fundamental voltage,
I and the seventh, which may be five-eighths percent of the
I
I
fundamental.
I Power electronic devices, because of their increasing use,
,-- -
I
-- - - - - -) constitute the most important category of harmonic-generating
equipment.
Line-commutated devices such as DC traction power system,
DC supplies for batteries, and solar cells generate harmonic
Figure 2281. currents whose harmonic numbers are given by:
Path of current produced by closing one phase of h = pn ± 1
switch in Figure 2181. where
h = harmonic number
p = pulse number of device
Although this example illustrates a transformer supplied n =positive integer (1 ,2,3, ... )
through a cable, ferroresonance can also occur on lightly
loaded rural systems with long overhead feeders. It may also The theoretical magnitudes of the currents are given by:
occur with four- and five-legged core transformers with
lh = !.1
grounded-wye-connected primaries fed by a concentric neu- h
tral cable. In this case, resonance may occur with the phase- where
to-ground capacitance and magnetic coupling between ener- Ih = harmonic current magnitude
gized and deenergized primary wind ings. I 1 = fundamental current magnitude
Some of the control procedures used to avoid ferroresonance
The actual magnitudes are somewhat lower due to non-
are:
instantaneous commutation and delay angle if phase control
• Three-phase switching. is used.
• Use of grounded-wye primary transformer connections.
• Use of resistive secondary loads.
Effects and Concems
• Grounding the neutral of wye-connected primaries.
Harmonics are of concern because of their effect on power
• Limiting the lateral length between single-pole devices and
equipment, control, protection, and metering, and because
the transformer bank.
they are a source of telephone interference.
The high voltages involved in ferroresonance have been Harmonics can cause additional losses and heating on
known to cause failure of connected equipment such as capacitor banks. Also, unfavorable phase relationship
surge arresters, transformers, and reclosers. The high current between harmonic voltages and supply voltage may cause
often causes sectionalizing or equipment fuses to blow. peak voltages with amplitudes considerably above the nominal
ten percent overvoltage rating of capacitors. This is important
HARMONICS because corona starting-and-extinction levels are a function
Overvoltages due to harmonic distortion of the voltage wave- of peak-to-peak voltage, and capacitor life is directly related
form are generally not sufficiently high to cause arrester to these levels.
sparkover or immediate insulation failure. However, when the In the case of induction motors, reduced efficiency and
harmonic levels are increased by resonance, accelerated heating, especially as a result of induced rotor currents, are
degradation of insulation may occur, particularly in the the most significant concerns. Also, the interaction between
capacitor banks involved in the resonance. harmonic currents and the fundamental frequency causes an
Following is a brief summary of the harmonics problem oscillating torque, which may result in mechanical oscillations.
and methods of dealing with resonance. For a more detailed
discussion, refer to Electric Power Systems Harmonics
Design Guide, Cooper Power Systems Bulletin No.87011.

186
 81
In transformers, harmonics can increase both iron and current POWER-FACTOR-CORRECTION CAPACITORS
losses. The result is increased heating, but it is not usually Harmonic-current magnification can occur when the system
SV"Iiftcant. is resonant at one or more of the harmonic currents flowing
Inductive coupling between AC distribution lines and through it - a problem that is present when power-factor-
lelephone lines induces harmonic voltages on the telephone correction capacitors are used on a distribution feeder. A paralel
system that may cause interference with message transmittal. resonant circuit and its impedance characteristic are shown
lbis may occur when the same poles are shared by tele- in Figures 2381 and 2481. The impedance irtcreases,
phone and distribution circuits. Factors affecting the severity theoretically to infinity, at the resonant frequency, fo. Injecting
Gl interference are length of exposure, harmonic frequencies, a current through the circuit at this frequency will cause an
capacitor-bank sizes and locations, and system grounding. extremely high voltage.
Noise from harmonics on carrier control systems can
cause erroneous operations if the harmonics generated are
!'leaf a carrier frequency. Protective relays may also be affected,
depending on the type of relay and design features. Relaying
nefligence operating on sampled data or zero crossing of
SV~als is especially susceptible to error from harmonic
dstortion. Although changes in operating characteristics are SYSTEM
Elatively small, relays have a tendency to operate slower IMPEDANCE
and/or at higher pickup values.
Harmonics may cause both positive and negative errors in
electric metering, with the significance of errors varying
greatly with different types of meters. Induction watt meters STEP DOWN
tale been found to have error magnitudes within acceptable TRANSFORMER
llevels of accuracy for realistic levels of harmonics.

l
I
DC DRIVE

I
POWER FACTOR
CORRECTION CAPACITOR

Figure 2581.
ZL ~t
>-
IL Zc ::~lie System with power-factor-correction capacitors located
at a source of harmonics.

l An example will help illustrate the effect of power-factor-

correction capacitors located at a source of harmonics.
Z =ZLI /Zc Figure 2581 shows a system on which compensation is
applied at the same bus where a DC motor drive is connected.
Figure 2381. Figure 2681 shows a simplified circuit of the same system,
A parallel resonant circuit. but with the DC motor drive replaced by a harmonic source.
Xc is the capacitor-bank reactive and Xs is the system reactive
up to the low-voltage bus. The resonant frequency for this circuit
is given by:

fr=...!.-1-= f1
21t "lsC 'J
-/X
Xs
where
fr = resonant frequency
w
u
z
fr =fundamental frequency
i§
w
0..
~

HARMONIC
SOURCE

fo

Agure 2481.
Impedance characteristic of a parallel resonant circuit.
Figure 2681.
Simplified circuit of system in Agure 2581 .

187
B. Overvoltage Protection
1. FUNDAMENTALS AND THEORY
Overvoltages of System Origin (Continued)

If the resonant frequency is close to the frequency of one Tuned filters, Figure 2781, provide a shunt path for current
of the harmonic currents generated by the DC drive, harmonic of one particular frequency, the tuned frequency
magnification may occur, and high currents may circulate being:
between capacitor bank and system, causing fuses to blow.
Also, parallel resonance is a high impedance to harmonic f = 1
currents at the resonant frequency. Therefore, high harmonic 27till
voltages may result, causing damage to capacitors and other
equipment. At the resonant frequency, the impedance of the filter is
Voltage distortion has been used as one criterion to determine reduced theoretically to zero (as plotted in Figure 2881 ),
acceptable system performance when harmonics are present. drawing that particular harmonic current out of the system.
It frequently is expressed in terms of total harmonic distortion High-pass damped filters, Figure 2981, provide a shunt-
(THO), which is the ratio of the effective (rms) value of all har- path for all harmonics above the tuned frequency, which is
monic voltages to the effective value of the fundamental. the same as that indicated above.
Thus, the voltage distortion, VD, may be written:
11
%VD = [ XVh 2 ] 2 X 100%
V 12
According to IEEE guidelines, the voltage distortion should
not be greater than those listed in Table 381.
w
TABLE 381 (.)
Voltage Distortion Limits z
<
System
Voltage
Dedicated
System*
General
System
~~ II
460 Volts 10% 5%
2.4 to 69 kV 8% 5%
115 kV and Above 1.5% 1.5%
*A dedicated system is one servicing only converters or loads not affected by
voltage distortion.

Note that this measure does not reflect the true peak voltage
fo
to which insulation structures are subjected. The peak voltage
must be estimated by arithmetic sum of the components. For Figure 2881.
capacitor banks, the peak should be less than 120 percent of Effect of tuned filter on harmonic current.
rated peak voltage.

Corrective Measures
Corrective measures that may be taken for harmonic resonance
problems include increasing the short-circuit capacity at the
point of connection of a harmonic source, or selecting a
capacitor-bank size to avoid resonance. Both of these measures
will shift the resonant frequency of the circuit to frequencies
I c

other than the ones generated by the harmonic source.

Another corrective measure is the use of filters to provide
a shunt path for harmonic currents, thereby reducing the level
of harmonic currents and voltages in the system. One of the
advantages of filters is that they provide part or all of the
reactive power required by the converter. Two kinds of shunt L R
filters can be used: tuned or high-pass.

1 c
Figure 2981.
Diagram of high-pass damped filter application.
L

One of the problems when applying filters is that they not

only absorb the harmonic current from the nearby source but
also from other parts of the distribution system. They therefore
R should be carefully tailored to the particular installation.
Parallel resonant frequencies between filters and system
should be investigated; a resonance near the third or fourth
Figure 2781. harmonics may cause additional problems.
L----==------' Diagram of tuned filter application.
188
 81

Traveling Waves
CAUSES AND CHARACTERISTICS
Traveling waves frequently occur in power transmission and
distribution systems, and may be caused by short circuits,
conductor breaks, lightning strokes, or switching of compo- +
nents. The sudden change in voltage or current caused by e
one of these events is not transferred instantaneously to all
points on an overhead line or cable. Instead, some finite
interval is required for the surge (traveling wave) to propagate
down the line.
////lll//llllll
R L R L R L

e +i-
e= +zi
;,1"/~$-4@
FORWARD WAVES

Figure 3081. Figure 3181.

Physical representation of a distributed parameter line. Relationship of propagating voltage (e) and current (i)
waveforms.

The characteristics of traveling waves on particular lines or FORMULAS FOR DETERMINING SURGE
cables are due to the distributed nature of the resistance (R), IMPEDANCE AND VELOCITY OF PROPAGATION
inductance (L), and capacitance (C) of the lines. Figure 3081 Surge impedance and velocity of propagation are based on
is a physical representation of a distributed parameter line, the distributed inductance and capacitance of the distribution
which is broken into many small R, L, and C components. If line. The following formulas can be used to determine the
a sharply rising voltage wave is applied to one end of the line impedance values of different kinds of conductors. Note that
during a lightning stroke or a system switching event, the first the discussion has been simplified to consider only the balanced
capacitor becomes charged very quickly, but the first series line mode of propagation for multiphase lines.
inductance prevents the second capacitor from charging
simultaneously with the first one. The surge progresses down Inductance
the line in a fashion analogous to what happens when the
end of a long rope is whipped and the loop travels to the L = .7411 log10 { ~~~) mh/mi (3-phase line)
other end.

Two Waves: Voltage and Current L = .7411 log 10 { G~R) mhlmi (1-phase line)
Although a traveling wave is initiated by a sharp increase in
voltage, a wave of current accompanies the voltage surge. It
is of the same shape and is related to the voltage wave by the L = .7411 log 10 ~ mh/mi (single-conductor cable)
surge impedance (Zs).
where GMD = Geometric Mean Distance between
I =_y_ conductors
z~ fi
z2= ·fc =~ DabDbcDca
=
where L inductance per-unit length = =
GMR Self GMD Geometric Mean Radius of conductor
=
C capacitance per-unit length =
h conductor height
The velocity (v) of the wave propagation is described by the r = line conductor radius
r1 = cable conductor radius
equation: r2 = inner radius of sheath

v = 1/-YIC Dab =distance between phase a and phase b conductors

Figure 3181 shows the relationship of the propagating voltage All parameters must be expressed in the same units.
{e) and current (i) waveforms. Waves are reflected at line or
cable discontinuities and terminations, and the behavior of
the reflected wave depends on the characteristic of the
junction -that is, is it an open circuit or short circuit- and the
surge impedance. A traveling wave will reflect differently if it
encounters a transformer as opposed to a lightning arrester.
Wave behavior at junctions will be discussed in more detail
later.
189
B. Overvoltage Protection
1. FUNDAMENTALS AND THEORY
Traveling Waves (Continued)

Capacitance
L= .74111og 10 ( 2~)=.74111og 10 2x3g;12
C = .0388/log 10 { ~~~) uf/mi (3-phase line)
= 2.636 mh/mi
C = .0388/log10 {G~R) uf/mi (1-phase line)
C = .0388 = .0388 = .011 uflmi
log 10 (2h/r) log 10 (2 x 30 x 12/.2)
C = .0388KIIog10 ~ uf/mi (single-conductor cable)
2
Z8 = 1381og10 { : ) = 1381og10 (2 x 30 x 12/.2)
where K = permittivity
= 490 ohms
Surge Impedance
Recall that surge impedance is expressed as Zs = VDC. If the or
equations for L and C above are substituted for the surge
impedance, the following approximations for surge impedance z8 = '-' UC =[ 2.011 X 1Q·6
3
·636 x 10. ] 1/2= 490 ohms
are valid:
2
Zs = 1381og10 { rh ) ohms (overhead line)
v- _1_ - - - - - ' - - - - -
- --J UC ((2.636 X 10·3)(.011 X 10·6)] 1/2
= ~ log10 { ~ ) ohms (cable)
= 1.86 x 1os mi/sec = Speed of Light
Typical values for the surge impedance of overhead lines and
cables are: WAVE BEHAVIOR AT .JUNCTIONS
Overhead lines, Zs = 500 ohms (typically 400 - 600 ohms) Previously, it has been shown that a traveling wave of voltage
Cables, Zs =50 ohms (typically 20-60 ohms) has an associated traveling wave of current related to it by
the surge impedance Zs. At junctions of distribution lines and
Velocity of Propagation at terminations with R, L, and C components, as well as at
As stated before, the velocity of wave propagation is: short or open circuits, this relationship must still hold valid.
Wave behavior as related to these various line components
V= 1/'-1 LC and conditions are discussed below.
For open-wire lines, the resulting electromagnetic wave is
propagating through air, and therefore travels close to the
speed of light. Velocity in this case is independent of circuit
configuration and can be approximated as:

V = 3 x 1os m/sec = 1000 ft/J!Sec. A

The line merely serves as a wave guide.

Figure 3281.
For cables, the electromagnetic wave is confined to travel Wave behavior at a junction of dissimilar lines.
through the dielectric medium, or insulation. The velocity
therefore is dependent upon the L and C of the cable and can
be approximated as: At a .Junction of Dissimilar Lines
V = _1_ = 3 x 1os rn/sec = 1000 ftl!lsec. To illustrate wave behavior at a junction of dissimilar lines.
'-'LC ~ ~ Figure 3281 shows an incident source wave of voltage traveling
on a distribution line of surge impedance Z1, approaching a
Application of Formulas junction with a distribution line of surge impedance Z2. The
Consider an overhead single-phase line located 30 feet reflected wave produced when the incident wave (V1) reaches
above the ground; conductors are 2/0 copper with a radius of point A is:
0.2 in. Let us determine the surge impedance and the velocity
of propagation.
V2= Z2-Z1 xV1 =aV1
h = conductor height = 30 ft = 12 x 30 in. z2 + z1
r = conductor radius = 0.2 in.
The refracted (continuing) wave is:
Substituting into the formulas for L and C yields

190
 81

v, At a Short Circuit

I. I
I
Using the previously mentioned formulas for reflection
and refraction, waveform behavior at a short circuit,
shown in Figure 3481, is:

z, •
I Z2= %Z1 z1 = 0 for short circuit

I
v, I
- r-- V3 (refracted)=~= 0
v3

+
Z2+ z1

~ v1 SHORT CIRCUIT
I
v2
I
I
... I

-t- I V3
7');
v2
I I I
I
I
I
Figure 3381.
Pn:qession of voltage waveforms: incident (V1), reflected (V2),
and refracted (V3).

Rgure 3381 shows the progression of voltage waveforms:

n:ident (V1), reflected (Y2), and refracted (V3), when Z2 112 Z1.
The following calculations relate to the figure:
=
...
V2 LK
v2 =( z2- z1 ) v1 =( 1/2 z1- z1 )
Z2 + Z 1 112 Z 1 + Z 1

Y1 -- ( --1/2 -z 1 )
z1
v1--1- v1
3
~
3/2
I
Figure 3481.
Wave behavior at a short circuit.

In this case, a voltage wave of two-thirds the incident value

continues on the distribution line with lower impedance, while It is impossible to develop a voltage across the short circuit.
ooe-third of the wave is reflected back toward the source, Therefore, when a traveling wave of voltage reaches the
cancelling a like portion of the incident wave. short circuit, the voltage reflects in a negative direction,
The current waveforms at junctions of dissimilar lines have cancelling the incident voltage wave. The reflected current
1he same relationships: wave augments the incident current wave, doubling the cu rrent
in the line.
11 = V 1 (incident)
z1

12 = - V2 (reflected)
z1

13 = Vs (refracted)
z2

191
B. Overvoltage Protection
1. FUNDAMENTALS AND THEORY
Traveling Waves (Continued)

At an Open Circuit
The current must be zero at all times at an open end of a
distribution line. For determining wave behavior at an open ~ .............
TIME
I -
circuit, use the previous formula, with Z2 ==.Thus, V2 = V1
and V3 = 2V1.
A current of the same magnitude but opposite polarity is ~
v,
~ t=O
I

initiated to cancel the incident current wave. Figure 3581 Vr._

shows the behavior of a square wave at an open circuit. In
this case, the voltage wave "doubles" at the open point.
I c-
-..--
t= 2~t
Uv,
A more realistic picture of the behavior of traveling waves
at an open point is illustrated in Figure 3681. The incident r Vz-.
wave is shown as a series of blocks approximating the volt-
age waves encountered on distribution systems. Vr-
_.--
j
I OPEN CIRCUIT
v, I __.... t= 3~1 -

.. I
I
~ v, Vz~
I
~.a

:--
V, : INCIDENT WAVE

'I
I
2:
V REFLECTED WAVE

Vr:TOTALOF

~t:
REFLECTED AND
INCIDENTWAVES -v,
FINITE TIME INTERVAL
Vr

JV2 .--
,._
I

LJ
r-
~.J
I I= 4~t

r I
I

1"""--

_____.__,!_:__ J -- ---
Vr~
t= 7~1

r--•
-
Vz....,
~.J
____,..,
v1 ~
v,_
~---- r---
Vr--
Vz-
-·
~.J
I
v,_ ~
t=9~t

Figure 3581.
Behavior of a square wave at an open circuit.

~ -~
..... - Vz
~
~ t= 11 ~ t

Figure 3681.
"More realistic" picture of traveling waves at an open
point.

192
 81
At Capacitive and Inductive Terminations As might be expected, an inductive tennination acts ~
figure 3781 shows the behavior of the first reflection on the sitely to a capacitive termination. It first appears as an open
R:ident wave at a capacitive termination. Because the voltage circuit (zero current) to the incident wave and then changes
across the capacitor cannot be changed instantaneously, the in an exponential fashion to appear shorted. FI!Jlre 3881
dage is initially zero and then builds exponentially to twice illustrates the effect, with the reflected wave in<icated in the
lie incident wave. The reflected wave, V2, is shown in a dashed line.
dashed line, and the resultant voltage in a solid line. At both capacitive and inductive terminations, the time con-
Thus, the capacitor initially appears to be a short circuit stant of the exponential change is determined by the surge
and then appears as an open circuit when fully charged. impedance of the line. Obviously, these terminations can
Sometimes the reflected wave will reflect back from another result in very complex waveforms, especially if there are
capacitor and, being reversed in a positive wave, will produce other reflections. Precise determination of the waveforms is
an additional "blip" in the voltage waveform, producing a peak best accomplished by digital computer programs designed
woltage that actually exceeds twice the incident wave., for electromagneteic transients analysis.

At a Termination Equal to
I Characteristic Impedance
There will be no wave reflections if a line is terminated
I with a resistance equal to the surge impedance of the line.
However, this is not practical on distribution systems.
- - - H..~v, I

•
I
I --~-~~.. v,
INDUCTIVE
TERMINATION

~ ----------------~- II
I -
v2~ -~

v, I
I
I
I
Agure 3781.
Wave behavior at a capacitive termination. I

Figure 3881.
""-+-
Wave behavior at an Inductive termination.

193
B. Overvoltage Protection
1. FUNDAMENTALS AND THEORY
Traveling Waves (Continued)

At an Open Point Terminated by a Silicon-Carbide

Surge Arrester
At an open point terminated by a silicon-carbide surge
arrester, voltage builds as previously described for an open
circuit until the arrester reaches sparkover level. When
sparkover occurs, the excess voltage is discharged to ground
as a nonlinear function of the surge current through the
arrester. As shown in Figure 3981, voltage at the surge initiation
point is not cancelled until a negative return wave retravels
the route of the incident wave. Wave cancellation is preceded
by a positive reflected wave with peak value equal to one-half
the sparkover voltage (peak of V2A).

f - - JUST BEFORE
SPAR KOVER
"""" ..........._
~ .........._
-v1
VOLTAGE(E)

~
DISTANCE

"""" .........._
v1

"""
AT SPARKOVER
- =
Vr E SPAR KOVER
v2A- ~
.........
.... ~ i SPARKOVER

Vr

AFTER SPARKOVER i
..............
... ...
I I I ~.... ~
- SURGE ARRESTER RESEMBLES
SHORT CIRCUIT
V2A .. ~ ....
V2a~ 1--'
'\
....
•+-t
MAX DISCHARGE

Vr

f-- V28 PARTIALLY CANCELS V1

-- ~
1/
...
..... .....
=
Vr V2A + V1 PEAK '\
~

V2A- 1-- ... _..

V2a-
1', "1-!-t
..........
MAX DISCHARGE

V2A = REFLECTED WAVE BEFORE SPAR KOVER

f--
V28 =REFLECTED WAVE AFTER SPAR KOVER

Figure 3981.
Wave behavior at an open point terminated by a silicon-carbide surge arrester.

194
 81
At an Open Point Terminated by a Gapless MOV one-half the turn-on voltage. (Note the propagation of the Vr
Surge Arrester peak.) The peak is typically less severe than for a siicorl-<:albKf
The response of a gapless MOV surge arrester at an open arrester of similar rating.
point resembles that of a gapped silicon-carbide arrester,
except that the reflected wave, V2, does not drop off as
abruptly after conduction begins. The arrester appears as an
open point until the turn-on voltage is reached. Assuming the
arrester voltage remains constant, the arrester changes to a
short circuit as the incident wave increases (Figure 4081).
Wave cancellation is again preceded by a positive reflected
wave that actually increases the incident wave by approximately

JUST BEFORE
............
TURN-ON ........... -v1

"' .............
~
............
ATTURN-ON ...... ...... v1
"'- Vr
......... ~
v 2 - f-., ,• TURN-ON
i

AFTER TURN-ON .............

V1-
_~ . Vr
.... ...

~ TURN-ON
v2-
,-,., ~"-- ..... +
Vr

~
PEAK VOLTAGE ~ r-- v1

I I
Vr = V2 + V1 PEAK ~
f--.; ~ TURN -ON
, ..
v2 -
"'' -. j_

' ',

Figure 4081.
Wave behavior at an open point terminated by a gapless MOV surge arrester.

195
B. Overvoltage Protection
1. FUNDAMENTALS AND THEORY

Index of Figures and Tables

FIGURE Page
Fuse-Fuse Coordination
1B1 Air currents and distribution of electricity in a typical thundercloud . .. .. ...... . ..... .. ... . . . . . ... . ...... .175
2B1 Progression of a stepped stroke from cloud to earth .. . . .... . .. .. .. .. .. . . . ... . .. .. .. . ... . . . . .. .. .... . 176
3B1 Charge along cloud base induces opposite charge on earth . ... .. ... . .................... .. ..... . ..... 176
4B1 Lightning leaders propagate toward earth . ... . ...... .. ... . .. . .. .. ............. . .. .. .. .. .. . ... . . ... 176
5B1 Return strokes flash from earth to cloud . . ....... . ..... . ...... . . . . . ... . ..... .. . .. ..... . ... . ....... 177
6B1 Trapped charge remains on line . . ......... ... ..... .. ... . .. . .. . ......... . ..... . .. . ... . ....... . .. . 177
7B1 Distribution of strokes to ground level ... ........ .. ................... . .... .. ................ . ... .178
8B1 lsokeraunic map showing thunderstorm days as reported by U. S. Weather Bureau . ... . .. .. . . . . ... .. .. .. . .179
Overvoltage of System Origin
9B1 Diagram of system on which transformer energization may introduce overvoltage-producing harmonics ... .. .. . 180
10B1 Equivalent circuit for analysis of system in Figure 9B 1 . .. ..... .. .. . . ... . .. . ... . . ..... .. ... .. . . ... . . . . 180
11 B1 Equivalent circuit of an isolated single-phase capacitor bank being energized . .. ... .. . .. ...... . .. .. ...... .181
12B1 Circuit that may cause magnification of capacitor switching overvoltages . .. .. .. ..... .. . . . . ... .. .. . .. . .... 181
13B1 Equivalent circuit of diagram in Figure 12B1 .. . . ....... . . . ... . . .. . .. . ... . ......... .. ............. . .182
14B1 Waveforms of overvoltages on 2-mVAR, 34.5 kV capacitor bank after energization of nearby 50-mVAR,
115-kV bank . . . . . . . .. .... . . . ... . .. . .. . .. . ... .. .. . ...... .. .. . ... . .. . ...... .. . . . .. ...... .. . .182
15B1 Oscillographic representation of recovery voltage across interrupter contacts after capacitor-bank
deenergization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. .. .. . .. . 182
16B1 Oscillographic example of prestrike during capacitor energization . .......... . ...... . ... ... ... .. . ... ... .183
17B1 Maximum arc voltage that can be produced by a wire-element current-limiting fuse . .. . .. .. ..... .. . ... . ... .184
18B1 Maximum arc voltage that can be produced by a ribbon-element current-limiting fuse .. .. . . . . ... .. .. . .. .. . .. 184
19B1 LC circuit for illustration of ferroresonant overvoltages ......... . ........... . .. . .. ... . ... .. .... . ... .. .185
20B1 Phasor diagram for circuit in Figure 19B1 . ...... ... ..... . ... . ........ . ........ . .. .. ...... . ... . . ... 185
21B1 Switch used to energize a delta-connected transformer . ... . . .. .. . . .. . . .. . .. . ... . . .. ..... . ... ... .. . .. 186
22B1 Path of current produced by closing one phase of switch in Figure 21B1 .. . ... . ...... .. .. . ...... . ... .. .. .186
23B1 A parallel resonant circuit .. . .. .. . . ... . . ...... . ... . .. . ........ . .. ..... ... .. ... ... ... . ..... .. ... . 187
24B1 Impedance characteristic of a parallel resonant circuit ..... . ... . . . ......... ... ....... . .... . ...... . .. .187
25B1 System with power-factor-correction capacitors located at a source of harmonics ..... .. . . ... .. . . . . .. ... . .. 187
26B1 Simplified circuit of system in Figure 25B 1 ........ . .... .. ... ... ... .. .... .. ........ . ....... . .. . . . .. 187
27B1 Diagram of tuned filter application ...... . . ... .. . ... . .......... .. .. . .. .. ... . .. . ...... . ... . . ... .. .. 188
28B1 Effect of tuned filter on harmonic current .. .. .. .. ... ..... . ... . ...... ... . .. . . ... . .. ... . . ... . .. . .. ... 188
29B1 Diagram of high-pass damped filter application ....... . . . ... . ... .. ... . .. .. ..... .. .......... . ... . . ... 188
Traveling Waves
30B1 Physical representation of a distributed parameter line . . .... . ..... . .. .. .. .. ..... .. ... .. . . .. . .. . . . .. .. 189
31B1 Relationship of propagating voltage (e) and current (i) waveforms ....... . ... . ...... . .... . .... . ....... .. 189
32B1 Wave behavior at a junction of dissimilar lines . . . . .... . ... . ..... . .. . . . .. . .. .. .. . . . . .... . . . . . . . ... .. .190
33B1 Progression of voltage waveforms: incident (V1 ), reflected (V2), and refracted (V3) ..... . .... .. ... . ... . . . . .. 191
34B1 Wave behavior at a short circuit . . .. . ..... .. .. .. ... . .. .. .. . ... . ... .. ... . . . ...... . ... . ... . . .. . . ... 191
35B1 Behavior of a square wave at an open circuit ........ . .. .. .. . .. .. . . ....... .. ... . . . .... . . . . . ... .... .192
36B1 "More realistic" picture of traveling waves at an open point ..... .. . . . .. .. ... . ..... . ... .. . ..... . .. . . . .. .192
37B1 Wave behavior at a capacitive termination . .. . . . . ... ... ..... . ... . ... . ... . ...... . ...... .. .. . .. .. .. .. 193
38B1 Wave behavior at a inductive termination . ... . . . . ..... . . . .. ... ... . ... . . . . .. . ..... . . ... .. . . . . . .. .... 193
39B1 Wave behavior at an open point terminated by a silicon-carbide surge arrester . ... . ... . . . .. . . . ........ ... .194
40B1 Wave behavior at an open point terminated by a gapless MOV surge arrester . .. .. .... . . ... . ..... . . .. . . ... 195
TABLE
Lightning Phenomena
1B 1 Statistical data for lightning strokes ..... . . . .. ... .. . .. . .. . ..... . .. . ....... . ...... .. .. . ... .. .... . .. 1 n
Overvoltages of System Origin
2B 1 Summary of switching surges on distribution system .. .. .. . .... . . ... . ... ... ....... ....... . . ... .. . ... 185
3B1 Voltage distortion limits ..... .. . .. . . ..... . .... . .............. . ...... .. .. . ... . ... . ...... .. .... .. . 188

196
 Section B
OVERVOLTAGE PfiOTECTI(.')t4

2. INSULATION AND SURGE ARRESTER

CHARACTERISTICS AND
GENERAL APPLICATION FACTORS

An Introduction
lite its counterpart in the overcurrent-protection portion of explained. The overvoltage protection requirements peculiar to
the manual, this second section on overvoltage protection underground circuits also are discussed.
bridges the gap between fundamentals and theory, and applica- Conductor insulation, obviously an important factor in
ton specifics. Here, however, the focus is as much on certain distribution-system design, is determined by the individual
axnponents of the distribution system itself as on protective utility's standards and therefore is beyond the scope of this
devices and measures. The reason, of course, is that surge manual. Our goal is not system design, but rather to assist in
arresters, the only add-on devices designed specifically to evaluating and applying the elements that will contribute to
protect against the hazards of voltage surges on distribution overvoltage protection at various points on any system and to
systems, provide a vital additional margin of protection the protection of specific equipment.
beyond the point at which it is cost effective to increase or Of particular interest in the discussion of surge arresters is
l4lQrade line and equipment insulation. And the degree of the comparison of new-technology (metal-oxide-varistor)
protection provided by line and equipment insulation must be arresters with previous-technology (silicon-carbide) arresters.
known for proper application of surge arresters. This manual is being written while the switch to MOV
The following discussion deals first, therefore, with the arresters, with their superior characteristics, is occurring, but
axnponents, other than the conductors, that contribute to the both types of arresters and their general application factors
l'lsulating effectiveness - that is, to the impulse withstand are described in detail, since the changeover is still very
characteristics- of overhead lines: various types of insulators, much in process.
wood, air gaps, etc. Standard insulation tests and the termi- Although shield wires, a method of reducing the number of
nology and criteria relating to them are described (the principal direct lightning strokes to conductors, are not generally used
test produces a wave shape whose rise time and duration are on distribution lines, they are briefly discussed, along with an
snJilar to those of a lightning surge), and the application of alternative method of shielding.
tests to both line components and distribution equipment is

Table of Contents, Page 168

Index of Figures and Tables, Page 212

197
B. Overvoltage Protection
2. INSULATION AND SURGE ARRESTER CHARACTERISTICS AND GENERAL APPLICATION FACTORS

Overhead Distribution Line Insulation

In order to estimate with a high degree of accuracy the insulation caused by lightning surges are of greater concern than those
withstand characteristics of distribution lines, the impulse caused by switching surges. As a result, the insulation and
withstand characteristics of the insulation-system components insulation coordination requirements for distribution systems
should be studied. For overhead distribution lines, these are based primarily on lightning surge voltages.
components are porcelain, wood, air, fiberglass, plastics, and To describe the capability of insulation to withstand over-
fiber-reinforced plastics (FRP). All of these materials, when voltages caused by lightning surges, the impulse flashover
properly applied, are classified as self-restoring insulation, volt-time characteristic, as shown in Figure 182, is used.
since their insulating properties are completely recovered (Reference 4.) The curve is developed by applying a designated
after a disruptive discharge (flashover). (The other category wave shape and polarity with varying voltage magnitudes,
of insulation, non-self-restoring, is discussed in a following from which the following criteria for insulation effectiveness
section, "Distribution Equipment Insulation.") are established:
Both phase-to-phase and phase-ground withstand charac- 1. Critical flashover (CFO) is the crest voltage of an applied
teristics must be considered, to determine the lower (that is, impulse wave that will cause flashover on the tail of the
the more critical) of the two insulation levels. The insulation wave 50 percent of the time.
withstand characteristics of the pole-top structure are of primary 2. Critical withstand is the highest crest voltage the insulation
concern, since insulation at midspan is through air and therefore can take without flashover under specified conditions. The
its withstand level is usually much higher than at the pole. probability of having flashover for this crest voltage is usually
After describing how withstand levels are established and less than one percent.
defined, the following discussion covers, first, the withstand 3. Rated withstand is the crest voltage that insulation is
characteristics of individual components, and then the required by established standards to withstand without
characteristics of various combinations of components and flashover under specified conditions. It is usually five to ten
materials. Special attention is given the noteworthy insulating percent less than critical withstand.
characteristics of wood. If a large number of impulses of various magnitudes are
applied to self-restoring insulation, the result is a distribution
IMPULSE WITHSTAND: HOW IT IS DETERMINED of flashover voltages about the mean (CFO) very similar to a
AND DEFINED normal distribution.
Distribution lines generally are not shielded and therefore
are susceptible to direct lightning strokes. Transient overvoltages

, FRONT FLASHOVER WAVEFRONT FLASHOVER

VOLTAGE RANGE

CREST FLASHOVER

CRITICAL WITHSTAND

RATED WITHSTAND ,~2111____

1 11__ ..:======:=~~~======~
TIME
OF CREST TIME OF CRITICAL
FLASHOVER FLASHOVER

I TIME RANGE I
_..,. WAVE FRONT...,_
FLASHOVER
TIME RANGE WAVE TAIL FLASHOVER

TIME IN MICROSECONDS -+ TIME RANGE

NO IMPULSE-
FLASHOVER

Figure 182.
Volt-time curve for determining impulse-voltage withstand levels.

198
 Section 18
OVERVOLTAGE PROTECTION

Standard Test Waves TABLE 2B2

hiustry has standardized on a lightning-impulse test wave or Typical Critical Impulse Flashover (CFO) Levels for
'mpulse wave shape of 1.2 x 50 microseconds. Shown in Post-Type Insulators
Figure 282, this wave shape has a rise time and duration CFO {kV)
~ilar to those of a lightning surge. T 1, or the time of the ANSI Class Positive Negative
front, is measured from the virtual zero point established by Polarity Polarity
lhe intersection of a straight line drawn through the 30 and 90 57-1 130 155
percent voltage points and the T axis. The upper limit ofT 1 is 57-2 180 205
determined by the intersection of the mentioned straight line 57-3 210 260
and a horizontal line at crest voltage value. T2, or the time of
lle tail, is measured from the same reference point as T 1 to CFO is the crest voltage of an applied impulse wave that
lte time corresponding to half of the crest value on the wave will cause flashover on the tail of the wave 50 percent of the
tail. Allowable tolerances on the test wave are plus or minus time. If the probability of flashover is assumed to have a normal
20 percent on T1, plus or minus 30 percent on T2, and plus distribution, a voltage surge that is .91 x CFO would have a 0.1
or minus three percent on crest-voltage value. percent probability of causing flashover. Therefore, a reasonable
rule of thumb for porcelain insulators is to consider rated
withstand as 90 percent of CFO.
v As discussed in Section 81, most lightning strokes have
negative polarity. However, both positive and negative polarity
1.0 waves are generally applied to determine which produces the
.9
I
I
lower withstand.
I
I
The withstand characteristic of porcelain is affected by weather
.s I conditions, especially rain. Investigators have determined that
--~-------------------------
'I the wet withstand is approximately 75 percent of the dry with-
.3 stand for negative waves .
Electrically, the porcelain insulator may be modeled as a
capacitor.
!IS
Air Gaps
Figure 2B2. Sparkover characteristics of air gaps between conductors are
Standard 1.2 x 50 microsecond standard test wave. similar to those of standard rod gaps. Table 382 lists repre-
sentative values for wet negative impulse sparkover for air
gaps between conductors, and for rod gaps.
There likewise are standards for a switching-impulse test A conservative rule of thumb is to use 200 kV per foot for
'IICNe.However, this test wave may be applied to power-related impulse insulation of air. Like porcelain insulators, air gaps
equipment in the substation, but it is not generally applicable are also modeled as capacitors.
to distribution systems. TABLE 3B2
The actual surges that occur on distribution systems are Negative Impulse Sparkover Levels for Air Gaps
different from the impulse waves in standard tests. Standard Between Conductors and for Rod Gaps
waves are used to describe a standard insulation strength,
Negative Impulse Sparkover {kV)
not the equipment behavior under actual lightning and
Gap Spacing {in) Air Gap* Rod Gap
switching surges.
12 250 260
IMPULSE WITHSTAND CHARACTERISTICS OF 18 365 360
INSULATION-SYSTEM COMPONENTS 24 480 480
30 600 575
Porcelain Insulators 36 660 675
The two types of insulators most commonly used in overhead ..
* M1mmum voltage at wh1ch sparkover could occur.
distribution lines are pin-type (ANSI Class 55) and post-type
(ANSI Class 57). Typical critical impulse flashover levels Wood
(CFO) for 1.2 X 50 microsecond waves applied to pin- and The impulse withstand characteristics of wood depend on its
post-type insulators are shown in Tables 1 82 and 282, in type, moisture content, treatment, and physical condition. The
which the terms positive and negative polarity refer to the most important single factor is moisture content, which is related
polarity of the test wave.
to the degree of seasoning and the surface moisture absorbed
from rain or humid air. Investigators have found that the values
TABLE 1B2 for insulation withstand of various samples of dry wood vary
Typical Critical Impulse Flashover (CFO) Levels for from 50 to 200 kV per foot. Figure 382 shows the negatNe
Pin-Type Insulators impulse flashover for wet wood crossarms. (Reference 2.)
CFO {kV) A good impulse withstand value for wood for design
ANSI Class Positive Negative purposes is 100 kV per foot. Wood can be modeled eled.l ic:aly
Polarity Polarity as a resistance in parallel with a capacitance; therebe, ils d&-
55-2 70 85 acteristic is not generally additive to other insulation IJpeS
55-3 90 110 when combined in series.
55-4 105 130 Various observers have concluded that the ifT1Jlllse :Aailfllll
55-5 130 150 of wood is not significantly reduced by repor1ed bm+ ••11•
impulses, unless cracks are caused, allowing rnoistUIIe ~
penetrate.
199
B. Overvoltage Protection
2. INSULATION AND SURGE ARRESTER CHARACTERISTICS AND GENERAL APPLICATION FACTORS
Overhead Distribution Line Insulation (Continued)

500
600
tL400
>
:.:300 .........
500
a:
w !"'-..... ~ KV/~ICROSECOND
t;200
J:
Cll
:5LL 100 --- MINIMU~ --- -- WOOD PORCELAIN
COMBINATION~ ''
/ ........
0 /
,' WOOD
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 6 9
LENGTH, FEET / "'
/
Figure 382. 200
Negative Impulse flashover of wet wooden crossarms.
PORCELAIN
/tNSULAlOR
100 ,
Fiberglass, Plastics, and
Fiber-Reinforced Plastics (FRP)
The impulse insulation values of these materials, when
weathered, approach those of wood. A good design value for 5 6
2 3 4
insulation withstand, therefore, is 100 kV per foot. Like wood,
WOOD LENGTH
components of fiberglass, plastics, and FRP can be modeled (FT)
electrically as resistors in parallel with capacitors, and their
characteristics therefore are not generally additive to other Figure 582.
insulation types, except wood, when combined in series. Impulse withstand values of wood-porcelain combination
for different lengths of wood.
IMPULSE WITHSTAND CHARACTERISTICS OF
MATERIALS COMBINED IN SERIES
Investigators have suggested a simple expression for the
Porcelain and Wood or Fiberglass
total flashover voltage of a porcelain-wood combination:
It has been mentioned that wood (or fiberglass) can be modeled
electrically as a resistor in parallel with a capacitor, and that
porcelain can be modeled as a capacitor (Figure 482).
Vt =(Vi2 + Vw2)1/2
Because of this, the impulse withstand levels of the two insulation Vi is the flashover voltage of the porcelain insulator and Vw is
components are not strictly additive. Short lengths of wood, the flashover voltage of the wood. Calculated and measured
with flashover below that of the insulator, will tend to flash values have been found to be within 20 percent of each other
over first, in which case the porcelain insulators predominate for a wide range of wood-porcelain combinations.
in the series combination. However, longer lengths of wood, As a conservative approach, the insulation withstand of the
with flashover greater than that of the porcelain insulator, will porcelain-wood combination can be determined by either the
predominate in the series combination. Therefore, if the wood porcelain alone or the wood , whichever is greater. When
length in the series path is too short to produce a withstand more than one insulator is involved, as in phase-to-phase
greater than that of the porcelain insulator, wood adds little or impulse withstand determination, the impulse withstand of
nothing to the total impulse insulation level, which is determined the insulators alone is the sum of the two.
solely by the level of the porcelain insulator. If, however, the
wood length is enough to produce a withstand greater than
the insulator, the wood alone determines the insulation level.
Figure 582 shows the withstand ratings for a wood-porcelain
combination utilizing different lengths of wood.

II IF>
CAPACITOR
CH T POST-TYPE INSULATORS

___,___,-·]!~JI---
3.5' ANSI CLASS 57-1

RH
PORCELAIN AS
l II IF
WOOD AS CAPACITOR
RESISTOR AND
CAPACITOR IN PARALLEL
Figure 482.
Diagram of Insulation model with wood In series with
porcelain. Figure682.
Pole-top structure with two post-type insulators on wood.

200
 Section B
OVERVOLTAGE PROTECTION

Figure 682 shows an example of a pole-top structure with two 1. Phase-to-phase withstand of conductor A to B:
IINSI Class 57-1 insulators spaced 3.5 feet apart on wood. 1st path: porcelain insulators withstand
"The withstand of the insulators alone is .9 x 155 x 2 = 279 kV = .9 (155) + .9 (150) = 274.5 kV
• 90 percent to be conservative). The withstand of the
IDXI alone is 3.5 x 100 = 350 kV. Therefore, the withstand of
h combination is the larger withstand value, or 350 kV
wood withstand = 100 g~~ = 100 kV
phase-to-phase. 32
2nd path: air withstand = 200 ( ) = 533.3 kV
(12)
» and Wood
Sfnce an air gap, like a porcelain insulator, can be modeled Lowest combination withstand is 274.5 kV phase-to-phase
as a capacitance, the equivalent circuit of the air-wood 2. Phase-to-phase withstand of conductor 8 to C:
mrmination is the same as for porcelain-wood. The withstand
aflle combination is determined by the greater of the individual 1st path: porcelain insulators withstand
-.ilhsta.nds, using 200 kV per foot for air and 100 kV per foot = .9 (155) 2 = 279 kV
b wood.
wood withstand = 100 ~~~~ = 250 kV
Fiberglass or FRP and Wood
1he withstand values of fiberglass or FRP and of wood can be 30
2nd path· air withstand= 200 ( ) = 500 kV
added directly at 100 kV per foot, since they exhibit similar . (12)
.-thstand characteristics. Lowest combination withstand is 279 kV phase-to-phase
Air and Porcelain 3. Phase-to-ground (neutral) withstand, conductor C to N:
1he withstands of these two paths are not directly additive, 1st path: porcelain withstand= .9 (155) = 140 kV
because unequal capacitances result in unequal voltage
lisfribution. Some engineers use whichever value of the two wood withstand = 100 ~~~~ = 500 kV
is larger, while others add the two directly and use 75 percent
of the total.
When there are two or more flashover paths in parallel, the 2nd path : air withstand = 200 ~~~~ = 1000 kV
IISUal recommendation is to calculate the withstand of each
separately and determine the lowest. Lowest combination withstand is 500 kV phase-to-ground.
The minimum phase-to-phase insulation withstand is 274.5 kV
!E XAMPLE OF INSULATION WITHSTAND and the minimum phase-to-ground insulation withstand is
CALCULATION 500 kV.
1he pole-top structure used in this example is shown in
figure 782. The CFO of the post-type insulators is 155 kV, ROLE OF WOOD AS A DESIGN SAFETY FACTOR
and of the pin-type insulator, 150 kV. Remember that the .9 Extinguishing Flashovers
ft.lltiplier is used for porcelain, based on the assumption of It is obvious, given its insulating characteristics, that a s ufficient
90 percent of the CFO as conservative; also, that the recom- amount of wood can increase the impulse insulation level of
mended design CFO value for wood is 100 kV per foot, and a line construction. Another benefit of wood is that it tends to
tJr air, 200 kV per foot. In the calculations below, the length extinguish a flashover, thus producing a lower line outage
or distance for wood and air is stated in inches divided by 12. rate than would otherwise be expected , considering all the
flashovers that could cause outages.
At .8. PIN-TYPE INSULATOR
Investigators have found that flashovers over a wood surface
20"
or through wood can produce considerable residual arc voltage.
This arc voltage is a function of many factors, but it depends
~
12"
primarily on arc length and available fault-current magnitude.
Oscillograms studied reveal that some time after a flashover
Bt ell! occurs, the voltage across the wood collapses to a minimum arc
voltage, which generally increases as the impulse flashover
30" POST-TYPE INSULAlORS
current decreases. Later, when the arc is extinguished, if the
dielectric strength is enough to withstand the applied system
oil I Conductor A to Conductor B
ct 1st Path: Pin-Type Insulator. 12"Wood.
Post-Type Insulator
voltage, little or no follow current will flow.

2nd Path: 32" Air

eo· Conductor B to Conductor C

1st Path: Post-Type Insulator, 30" Wood,

.l
Post-Type Insulator
2nd Path: 30" Air

Conductor C to Ground (N)

0 1st Path: Post-Type Insulator, 60"Wood
2nd Path: 60" Air

Agure 782.
·D iagram of pole-top structure for use In example of
mulation withstand calculation.
B. Overvoltage Protection
2. INSULATION AND SURGE ARRESTER CHARACTERISTICS AND GENERAL APPLICATION FACTORS
Overhead Distribution Line Insulation (Continued)

Some investigators have developed lightning-flashover 24

probability curves based on a determination of the minimum I
I
arc-voltage gradient for a large sample of various hard I I

vi ~I
IL
woods, with and without insulators, and the criterion that 0 20 I

)~
power follow current is unlikely if the instantaneous value of 1-
z
the power-frequency voltage gradient is less than the minimum ~
arc-voltage gradient. Such a curve is shown in Figure 882. ~t; 16
(Reference 6.) This theory is based also on the observation -w
~a: s, til

.§~ff
that flashover with power follow current is independent of wu
available fault current. <!l~
~li 12
~

1.0...-----------------, g~
~~
(tj
Q:'

f J)~
wen 8 ~!'---~
!il~
~IL
a:
w
4
~ I v
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 80
ELECTRODE SEPARATION, INCHES

Figure 982.
Minimum lengths of wood required to prevent follow
current.
0~~~--~--~-~--~-~
0 0.5
PONER FREQUENCY VOLTAGE GRADIENT Mechanical Damage from Surge Currents
KV-RMS PER INCH OF WOOD The use of the arc-quenching properties of wood as a design
Figure 882. safety factor must allow for the possibility of damage when
Calculated probability of lightning flashover with power surge current passes through or over the wood surface, with
arc. greater damage occurring when the flash-over path is internal.
The tendency for surge current to flow internally or externally
is related to the moisture content of the wood, which depends
Other investigators have determined the amount of wood primarily on the seasoning. In tests, seasoned wood exhibits
required to prevent power follow current after flashover is near-surface current flow and unseasoned (green) wood
related to instantaneous system voltage and available fault exhibits internal flow. If unseasoned wood is used in line con-
current. That is, longer lengths of wood are necessary at struction, there is an initial period when the wood is highly
higher voltages and higher available fault currents to prevent susceptible to mechanical damage if involved in the principal
power follow currents - relationships shown in Figure 982. flashover path.
(Reference 5.)
Comparison of this information shows differences in the Other Wood Characteristics
power-frequency voltage gradient versus the probability of Depending on the resistivity of the wood used in line
power follow current as a result of flashover. Until more infor- construction, leakage currents of sufficient magnitude to
mation becomes available, the use of wood should be cause fires or injuries can occur as a result of porcelain or
considered an additional safety factor rather than a design plastic insulator failure. Treatment of wood with creosote or
amount to be used in achieving a desired outage rate. With pentachlorophenol has practically no effect on its resistivity.
no allowance for the arc-quenching properties of wood, 85
percent is an accepted value for the probability that power follow
currents will result from a flashover.

202
 82

Underground Distribution Circuits

In the context of overvoltage protection, the equipment on arresters located on riser poles. Such experience, however,
underground circuits to be protected from the effects of transient cannot necessarily be extrapolated to higher-voltage systems.
overvoltages include the underground cable as well as apparatus (Reference 7.)
found also on overhead systems: transformers, switchgear, Taps extending from the riser pole may be several thousand
capacitors, voltage regulators. Although the cable itself is feet long, with varying numbers of load taps. The ends of the
becoming more of a concern in recent years as a result of radial underground taps are of extreme importance, because
shorter-than-expected life for some cable insulation, the the traveling wave theory of surge propagation indicates a
major problem is the practical difficulty associated with locating worst-case effect of voltage doubling as a surge is reflected
surge arresters as close as possible to the equipment to be from the open end of the circuit. As system voltages are
protected. increased, the required voltage ratings and protective
Typical UD primary circuits consist of radial taps from overhead characteristics (sparkover and discharge voltages) increase
distribution lines, protected with a surge arrester at the tap proportionally, but the basic impulse insulation levels (Bils)
point (that is, at the riser pole, the point of transition from of equipment increase in lesser proportion. Consequently, it
overhead to underground). Lightning strikes, by far the most becomes increasingly difficult to keep surge voltages below
common cause of overvoltages on distribution lines, obviously the equipment Blls.
must originate on the overhead circuit, and some utilities The steps that may be taken to provide the desired protection
report satisfactory experience on 15 kV systems with distribution on underground circuits are discussed in Section 83.

203
B. Overvoltage Protection
2. INSULATION AND SURGE ARRESTER CHARACTERISTICS AND GENERAL APPLICATION FACTORS

Distribution Equipment Insulation

In order to establish the capability of on-line equipment to ATMOSPHERIC FACTORS
withstand overvoltages on the distribution system, it is necessary Flashover levels of external insulation vary with air density,
to know the performance characteristics of the equipment's temperature, humidity, and contamination. "Standard" conditions
insulation. These characteristics are usually specified in are a temperature of 20°C, air pressure of 760 millimeters of
terms of flashover or withstand voltage for a given applied mercury, and 11 grams of water vapor per cubic meter of air.
waveshape, and are broadly classified in two areas for distri- Precipitation tends to reduce the insulation flashover voltage
bution equipment: impulse performance and low-frequency considerably for low-frequency and switching-surge voltages.
performance. but it has little effect on lightning-impulse voltages. It is interesting
to note that although precipitation increases the probability of
INSULATION CATEGORIES flash-over, higher humidity reduces the probability of
The two basic categories of insulation are self-restoring and flashover at a given voltage.
nonself-restoring. Altitude also adversely affects the equipment withstand
Self-restoring insulation includes materials such as air and voltage and is usually accounted for by the use of altitude
porcelain, whose insulating properties are completely recovered correction factors: that is, the equipment withstand rating is
after a disruptive discharge (flashover). Nonself-restoring reduced for higher altitudes.
insulation, on the other hand, exhibits permanent damage
and loss of insulating properties after flashover. This second EQUIPMENT WITHSTAND LEVELS
category, which is used extensively in distribution equipment, As previously mentioned, equipment 81L is the insulation's
includes oil, kraft paper, and other liquid, solid or gaseous impulse withstand capability expressed in terms of the crest
internal insulation. value of a standard impulse wave shape. Typical 81L values
Ideally, each insulation category or specific combination of and related low-frequency withstand voltages for distribution
the two would have an absolute withstand voltage above transformers are shown in Table 482, and for reclosers, in
which flashover would always occur and below which it would Table 582.
never occur. However, as described in the preceding section
on overhead line insulation (see "Impulse Withstand: How It TABLE 4B2
Is Determined and Defined"), established withstand levels Distribution Transformer Withstand Levels
are based on a suitably low probability of flashover under Nominal System BIL Low Frequency
specified conditions. How this concept is applied to distribution Voltage (kV) (kV) (kV RMS)
equipment is described below. 1.2 30 10
2.4 45 15
BASIC IMPULSE INSULATION LEVEL (BIL) 4.8 60 19
After a piece of equipment has been designed and 8.32 75 26
constructed, specific tests are performed on it to verify its rating. 14.4 95 34
23 125 40
One of the parameters so verified is the basic lightning 23 150 50
impulse insulation level (commonly referred to as the 81L), 34.5 200 70
which is the accepted term for describing the impulse with-
stand capability of distribution equipment. That is, the 81L is
TABLE 5B2
the electrical strength of insulation expressed in terms of the Recloser Withstand Levels
crest value of a standard impulse wave shape (1.2 x 50
Nominal System BIL Low Frequency (kV RMS)
microseconds), which has a rise time and duration similar to
Voltage (kV) (kV) 1 min dry 10 sec wet
those of a lightning surge.
There are two types of 81L: statistical and conventional. 14.4 95 35 30
Statistical 81L, used for self-restoring insulation, is the peak 14.4 110 50 45
value of a standard lightning impulse for which the insulation 24.9 150 60 50
has a ten percent probability of failing (resulting in a 34.5 150 70 60
46 250 105 95
flashover) under specified conditions. Conventional 81L, used
for nonself-restoring insulation, is the crest value of a standard
lightning impulse for which the insulation does not fail when Transformer Insulation Tests
subjected to a specific number of applications under specific Transformer insulation is submitted to special tests in addition
conditions. to the tests already mentioned.
The impulse insulation level associated with oil-filled
LOW-FREQUENCY VOLTAGE WITHSTAND transformers is determined by the full-wave test previously
Equipment insulation is also required to withstand low- described plus a chopped-wave voltage application. The full-
frequency (60 Hz) voltages greater than the maximum rated wave test uses 1.2 x 50 microsecond (81L) voltage. The
operating voltage. This ability is generally determined by a chopped-wave test uses a 1.2 x 50 microsecond wave of
one-minute application of 60 Hz voltage under dry conditions, 1.5 x 81L magnitude that is chopped by gap flashover at one
and a ten-second application of a lower 60 Hz voltage under to three microseconds following initiation of the impulse. This
wet conditions. procedure tests the insulation's withstand to a lightning-
caused surge that flashes over the line insulation.

204
 82
Front-of-wave tests may also be specified to show the insu- which the core is excited. Voltage levels for both are 1.6 to
ralion's withstand to severe lightning surges terminating close two times the winding rated voltage, for one minute in the
t» the transformer bushings. Such surges rise very fast until applied test, and for 7200 cycles in the induced test.
'leieved by external-gap flashover prior to the crest of the
!laW. The crest value of applied voltage is equal to or greater Other Equipment Insulation Tests
flan 150 percent of BIL, and the time to flashover is 0.5 Typical tests for full-wave-voltage withstand (BIL) of capacitors,
ftcr'osecond for distribution voltage classes. reclosers, switches, and cutouts specify three consecutive
The usual sequence for distribution-transformer impulse applications of voltage, usually of positive polarity. If no
1ests is one reduced full-wave (50 to 70 percent), two flashover occurs, the sample passes the test. If only one
s:hopped-wave, and one full-wave. If front-of-wave is specified, flashover occurs on external insulation, it is considered random,
1llo tests normally precede the two chopped-wave tests. and the sample passes the test if a second set of three voltage
Transformer low-frequency withstand levels are determined applications produces no failure.
by applied tests at rated frequency in which the core is not Low-frequency withstand for reclosers, switches, and
ar.cited, and induced tests at higher-than-rated frequency in cutouts is determined by one application of specified voltage
for one minute under dry conditions and for ten seconds
under wet conditions, with no flashover occurring.

205
B. Overvoltage Protection
2. INSULATION AND SURGE ARRESTER CHARACTERISTICS AND GENERAL APPLICATION FACTORS

Surge Arresters
In an overvoltage protection scheme, there are two basic
300 SERIES (CORROSTION PROOF)
methods available to protect equipment from the detrimental STAINLESS STEEL
effects of overvoltages: provide greater voltage withstand LI NE TERMINAL
Standard connectors
capability by increasing the equipment's basic impulse insulation accommodate #6 solid
level (81L}, and limit the magnitude of voltage a piece of through 210 stranded
leads.
equ ipment may experience (or "see") by installing protective
equ ipment designed for that purpose.
The first method -increasing the equipment's 81L- works
well up to a point, but it soon reaches a stage at which the
added cost of a higher 81L does not produce a proportional - --UllraSIL
SILICONE
increase in reliability. RUBBER
On the other hand, the alternate method of limiting the HOUSING
overvoltage a piece of equipment can see through the use of
an add-on or separate protective device actually permits the
81L of the equipment to be reduced, since the 81L can be ~----::> METAL OXIDE
VARISTOR (MOV)
based solely on the lower overvoltage potential. This method DISKS
generally results in a more cost-effective overvoltage protection
scheme.
The principal device used to limit overvoltage - the surge £ ,'=""""""--- BONDED SOLID
INTERFACE
arrester- must be capable of performing a number of functions:
• It must withstand the continuous power-frequency voltage
for which it is intended to operate. --!';:-- - - - GLASS REINFCRCED
• It must discharge any transient energy from the system in EPOXY COLLAR

the form of current, while preventing the voltage across the

equipment from becoming excessive.
• It must operate in the same environment as the protected
equipment.
• And, of course, it must provide all of these things at a rea-
sonable cost.
As defined in industry standards (ANSI C62.1-1981 ), a
surge arrester is "a protective device for limiting voltage on 300 SERIES - --t:Y
equipment by discharging or bypassing surge current, it prevents STAINLESS STEEL
GROUND TERMINAL
continued flow of follow current to ground, and it is capable of Standard connectors accommodate
repeating these functions as specified." #6 solid through 2/0 stranded leads.

BASIC DESIGN AND OPERATION Figure 1082.

Cutaway Illustration of UltraSIL Housed VariSTAR
The basic design and ratings of surge arresters have evolved Distribution Arrester.
from the basic spark gap arrester, to the silicon-carbide (SiC)
material with related designs, to the modern day metal-oxide
varistor (MOV) designs. Within the MOV designs there are
both internal non-gapped and gapped designs with housings
made of either porcelain or polymer type materials. Figure
1082 shown a cutaway of a silicon rubber housed, non-
gapped MOV arrester, while Figure 11 82 shows a cutaway of
a silicon rubber housed, gapped MOV arrester.
The MOV arrester is highly nonlinear and has low losses at
normal operating voltage. Valve elements withstand the line
voltage during normal system operation, but go sharply into
conduction at a precise voltage level and cease conducting
when the voltage drops below that level.

206
 82
SURGE ARRESTER CLASSIFICATIONS
D!SORIES (CORROSION PROOF)
Sll~ti..ESS STEEL There are three basic arrester classifications recognized by
1JNE TERMINAL
!iar.m"d conneci(J(S ANSI Standards: distribution, intermediate, and station. The

--
~ale #6 solid
~ 210 stranded
differences in these classifications are in terms of voltage rating,
protective characteristics, and the durability in pressure-relief
or fault-withstand characteristics.
1. Distribution arresters, the most widely used, are specified
by standards as arresters with ratings of 1 through 30 kV.
'<:.;,~- UltraSIL SILICONE In relationship to the other classes of arresters they have
RUB BER HOUSING the highest discharge voltage (that is, they will allow the
highest voltage to appear across equipment) for a given
incoming surge. There is no requirement for pressure relief.
2. Intermediate arresters are specified as having voltage ratings
of 3 through 120 kV. They have better protective characteris-
tics than distribution arresters, but generally not as good as
station-type arresters. Pressure-relief capabilities are
required, although some special type of intermediate
arresters developed for underground system protection do
not have pressure relief.
3. Station-class arresters offer the lowest discharge voltages
(allowing the lowest voltage to appear across equipment)
and therefore provide the highest degree of protection. By
standards they have ratings between 3 and 684 kV and
must have pressure-relief capability.
There obviously is a great deal of overlap between the various
arrester classifications. To further identify their respective
characteristics and capabilities, it is helpful to know something
about the standard tests performed in each classification .
L - - - kVRATING Table 682 lists these test requirements in accordance with
300 SERIES (Visible from ground)
STAINLESS STEEL
ANSI/IEEE Standard C62. 11. Typical arresters in each class
GROUND TERMINAL are shown in Figures 1282 through 1482.
Standard connectors accommodate
#6 solid throu gh 210 stranded leads.

Agure 1182.
Cutaway Illustration of UltraSIL Housed VariGAP
Distribution Arrester,

TABLE 682
Comparison of Standard Requirements for Surge Arrester Classifications
Arrester Class
Characteristic or Feature
Distribution Intermediate Station
Ratings 1-30 kV 3-120 kV 3-684 kV
Approximate Protective
Characteristics (at 10 kA)* 3.5 p.u. 3.0 p.u. 2.7 p.u .
Current Discharge Requirements
High Current, Short Duration 65 kA N.D. 65 kA 65 kA
100 kA H.D.
Duty Cycle 5 kA N.D. 5kA 10 kA (>550 kV)
10 kA H.D. 15 kA (550 kV)
20 kA (800 kV)
Low Current, Long Duration 75 A N.D. Transmission-Line Discharge
250 A H.D. Test Required
Pressure Relief
High Current Not Required 16.1 kA 40-65 kA
Low Current Not Required 400-600 A 400-600 A
• In p.u. of arrester rattng.
K..D. =Normal Duty
H.D. = Heavy Duty

207
B. Overvoltage Protection
2. INSULATION AND SURGE ARRESTER CHARACTERISTICS AND GENERAL APPLICATION FACTORS
Surge Arresters (Continued)

Figure 1282.
Distribution-class surge arresters.

Figure 1482.
Station-class surge arresters.

GENERAL ARRESTER APPLICATION FACTORS

As previously stated, a surge arrester must be able to withstand
the continuous power-frequency voltage, discharge any transient
energy that occurs, and operate in the same environment as
the protected equipment. Some of the factors involved in
satisfying these requirements are discussed below.

Selection of Voltage Rating

When applying an arrester, the voltage rating is compared to
the maximum expected phase-to-ground voltage against
which the arrester will be required to operate. In most cases,
this is considered to be a single line-to-ground fault condition
where the arrester on an unfaulted phase may have to oper-
ate at an elevated voltage. Depending on the type of system
connection, the voltage on an unfaulted phase can vary, as
Figure 1382. explained in Section B3, which covers arrester application in
Intermediate-class surge arresters. more detail. Once this number is available, the arrester rating
for the particular application can be selected.
ANSI Application Guide C62-11 states that the voltage rat-
ing of an arrester should always be equal to or greater than
the maximum expected power-frequency voltage on a given
system.
Commonly used ratings of arresters for various system
conditions are summarized in Table 1B3 in Section B3.

208
 82
MAXIMUM CONTINUOUS OPERATING VOLTAGE MCOV
MOV arresters are given a maximum continuous operating 1.8
r--,. 1.ja II
~Hage (MCOV) rating indicating the voltage at which they
can be energized continuously over their lifetime. Once the 1.7 l l'f. II
r--.1 .69 ~.68
'lOrmal system line-to-ground voltage has been calculated, .60 1.59
1.6
lhe MCOV of a metal-oxide arrester can be selected as being ...... N..J NCll'iMAL DUTY rl. NSI AND
equal to or greater than this voltage. 1.51 1.50 HEAVY DUTY (UHS)

This is the continuous line-to-ground voltage plus any over- li- 'i-ll II I
I!Oitage factor and can be calculated as follows: II ~If 1.42
I
1~
~~":~
1.34
i"
Vmax = VLL X 1.05 ~~·
1.
{3
1.2

1.1
Where VLL =nominal system voltage, line-line 001 0.1 10 100 1000 1000~ 0
1.05 == typical maximum continuous operating
Time Dura1ion in Seconds
voltage factor
Figure 1582.
TABLE 782 Temporary overvoltage curve. No prior duty- 60° C
Protective Characteristics - VariSTAR Heavy Duty Riser ambient.
Pole (URS)

l Arrester
Rating
(kV rms)
MCOV
(kV rms)
A metal-oxide surge arrester will operate successfully and
maintain its protective characteristics provided it is not required
to dissipate more energy than it can tolerate. Thus, an MOV
3 2.55 arrester can operate at voltages above its conduction level for
6 5.10 durations dictated by the energy it must dissipate. When the
9 7. 65 overvoltage is reduced to the arrester's maximum MCOV rating
10 8.40 before its energy dissipation capability is reached, the arrester
12 10.2 will maintain its protective characteristics and will not fail.
15 12.7
18 15.3
MARGINS OF PROTECTION
21 17.0
24 19.5 After it has been determined that an arrester can survive on
27 22.0 the system, its ability to protect a given piece of equipment
30 24.4 can be examined. This is done by comparing the protective
33 27.0 characteristics of the arrester to the insulation level (Btl) of a
36 29.0 given piece of equipment.
The procedure for establishing margins of protection is
discussed in more detail in Section 83, under "Insulation
TEMPORARY OVER VOLTAGE
Coordination."
The next consideration in selecting an MOV arrester is the
possible duration of a temporary overvoltage, such as a fault
condition. There is concern about the continuous heating of
lhe MOV arrester, which may in time affect its efficiency.
There are, therefore, temporary overvoltage curves published
br MOV arresters (Figure 1582). These curves show the max-
inurn overvoltage and the length of time it can be withstood
b" an MOV arrester. Provided the overvoltage condition is
cleared within the limits of the curve, the MOV arrester is
applied properly.

209
210
 82

Shield Wires
As stated in Section 81, the overhead shield wires normally When a shield wire is applied on a distribution circuit, the
employed on transmission and subtransmission lines can be usual practice is to install the common neutral in the shield
effective in reducing outages due to lightning. Although shield wire position , above the phase conductors. An alternative to
wires are not very common on distribution systems, the higher use of a shield wire on urban-type circuits is to raise the middle
lle system voltage, the greater the possibility that they will be phase conductor to provide shielding to the other phases,
used. Even with shield wires, however, it is still necessary to and increase the number of arresters on the middle phase to
nstall surge arresters to protect equipment on a distribution help compensate for its increased susceptibility to lightning
system, as the ability of the shield wire to reduce the number strokes (Reference 7).
of direct strokes to the phase conductors does not prevent
wltages greater than the equipment BIL from appearing on
lhe circuit.

211
B. Overvoltage Protection
2. INSULATION AND SURGE ARRESTER CHARACTERISTICS AND GENERAL APPLICATION FACTORS

Index of Figures and Tables

FIGURE Page
Overhead Distribution Line Insulation
182 Volt-time curve for determining impulse-voltage withstand levels .......................................198
282 Standard 1.2 x 50-microsecond test wave .........................................................199
382 Negative impulse flashover of wet wooden crossarms ...............................................200
482 Diagram of insulation with wood in series with porcelain ..............................................200
582 Impulse withstand values of wood-porcelain combination for different lengths of wood ......................200
682 Pole-top structure with two post-type insulators on wood .............................................200
782 Diagram of pole-top structure for use in example of insulation withstand calculation ........................201
882 Calculated probability of lightning flashover with power arc ............................................202
982 Minimum lengths of wood required to prevent follow current ...........................................202
Surge Arresters
1082 Cutaway illustration of UltraSIL Housed VariSTAR Distribution Arrester ..................................206
1182 Cutaway illustration of UltraSIL Housed VariGAP Distribution Arrester ...................................207
1282 Distribution-class surge arrester .................................................................208
1382 Intermediate-class surge arresters ...............................................................208
1482 Station-class surge arresters ...................................................................208
1582 Temporary overvoltage curve. No prior duty- 60° C ambient. .........................................209
TABLE
Overhead Distribution Line Insulation
182 Typical critical impulse flashover levels (CFO) for pin-type insulators ....................................199
282 Typical critical impulse flashover levels (CFO) for post-type insulators ................................... 199
382 Negative impulse sparkover levels for air gaps between conductors and for rod gaps ....................... 199
Distribution Equipment Insulation
482 Distribution transformer withstand levels ..........................................................204
582 Recloser withstand levels ......................................................................204
Surge Arresters
682 Comparison of standard requirements for surge arrester classifications ..................................208
782 Protective characteristics- VariSTAR heavy duty riser pole (URS) ......................................209

212
 Section B
OVERVOLTAGE PROTECTION

3. SURGE ARRESTER APPLICATIONS AND

OTHER PROTECTION DETAILS

An Introduction
Whereas the equivalent section on overcurrent protection which is accomplished by coordinating arrester protective
deals with a variety of tools, the following discussion of characterisics with the insulating capabilities (BIL) of equipment.
overvoltage protection applications focuses primarily on one The final application details covered relate to specific
type of device: surge arresters. The "other protection details" areas of distribution-system overvoltage protection: overhead
mentioned in the title include the use of shield wires under lines, underground circuits, distribution apparatus, and
some circumstances. System conditions conducive to surges substations. These areas are not necessarily mutually exclusive
that might require corrective measures other than arresters in overvoltage protection schemes, but each involves special
also are listed, but these are discussed in more detail in considerations in the application of arresters. Historically, the
Section 81. emphasis in overvoltage protection has been on protecting
Presented first are factors involved in the selection of equipment from surges, with line protection receiving only
arresters based on system conditions, followed by discussions incidental attention. Growing concerns about reliability in
of the location of arresters in relation to the equipment they recent years, however, have prompted many utilities to
protect, and of the proper connections for optimum protection. broaden their approach to overvoltage protection.
Attention then turns to determining margins of protection,

Table of Contents, Page 169

Index of Figures and Tables, Page 235

213
B. Overvoltage Protection
3. SURGE ARRESTER APPLICATIONS AND OTHER PROTECTION DETAILS

Arrester Function and Selection

As discussed previously, surge arresters are applied to
~ ~
distribution systems to limit high transient overvoltages to
safe values. The vast majority are applied directly to distribution
feeders, with a much smaller percentage being applied in I ~~
VOLTAGE RANGE B

IIOLTAGE RANGE A I I
substations.
In limiting the transient overvoltages on distribution systems,
arresters perform two major functions: protecting equipment
re.
(/')
I.
from failure and minimizing system power interruptions.
These two functions relate, respectively, to the characteristics g.... I.
'
and principal applications of nonselfrestoring and self-restoring
insulation, which are discussed in detail in Section B2. Briefly,
nonself-restoring insulation, which includes kraft paper and
oil and constitutes most of the insulation used in transformers,
~ I
0.. •

reclosers, capacitors, and other distribution equipment,

exhibits permanent damage and must be repaired or
replaced if a dielectric breakdown occurs within the equipment.
In contrast, the insulating properties of self-restoring insulation, VOLTAGE
which includes air plus porcelain and other materials used
primarily in line insulators and equipment bushings, are Figure 183.
completely restored if the disruptive discharge (flashover) is Distribution characteristics of system voltage.
extinguished quickly enough. Such flashovers therefore usually
result in a temporary power interruption rather than an equip-
ment failure. It should be noted, however, that flashovers can All equipment on a power system can operate over a narrow
lead to permanent damage if they persist for too long a peri- range of voltages (voltage range A) and still give excellent
od. performance. Most electrical equipment can operate continu-
The proper use of arresters based on system conditions ously at voltages either above or below nominal (voltage
and coordinated with equipment insulation levels can help to range B), but the performance of equipment at the high and
minimize equipment failures and system interruptions due to low extremes of the voltage range may not be optimum.
transient overvoltage conditions. Arrester selection, the first Since maximum voltages are of primary concern in
step in accomplishing this goal, will be discussed immediately arrester application, the maximum voltage on a system
below, followed by recommendations for arrester location and should be known to achieve precise selection of arrester ratings.
connection, and the specifics of particular applications. If no information is available on the maximum system operating
There are three considerations involved in arrester selection: voltage, then the maximum range B voltage given in ANSI
arrester voltage rating, insulation coordination. and arrester standards must be assumed.
class. Care must be taken to avoid possible arrester misapplication
when maximum system voltages listed in ANSI standards are
ARRESTER VOLTAGE RATING assumed for certain distribution systems. In some voltage
The voltage rating of surge arresters is defined as the highest classes, transformers are equipped with taps above rated
power-frequency voltage at which the arrester is designed to voltage that permit operation of the system at voltages above
operate. (ANSI standards define an operating duty-cycle test range B maximums. On such systems, higher-rated arresters
at this voltage for each class of arrester.) The rating is based than those normally used may be desirable.
not only on the system operating voltage but also must take
into account possible 60 Hz overvoltage conditions, especially System Faults and Other Unusual
those due to system faults, and the characteristics of the Operating Conditions
particular distribution system (new or established, urban or In most cases, consideration of only those overvoltages
rural, etc.). resulting from system faults is sufficient when applying
arresters, and only the effects of system faults will be dealt
System Operating Voltages with in detail here. However, high overvoltages can occur on
Preferred nominal system voltage classifications have been some systems as a result of the following unusual operating
defined in ANSI Standard Voltage Ratings for Electric Power conditions:
Systems and Equipment (60 Hz), C84.1. The standard 1. Generator overspeed following load rejection.
recognizes that no system can operate at its nominal voltage 2. Changes in system grounding conditions due to switching.
at all times over its entire length, as system regulation will 3. Coupling from high-voltage parallel lines.
cause the voltage to vary above and below the nominal 4. Contact with high-voltage circuits.
value. Figure 1B3 illustrates the distribution characteristics of 5. Ferroresonance and other single phasing effects.
system voltage into which the total range of corresponding
operating voltages of the industry may be divided. This figure
takes into account the natural variation between different
systems for any specific nominal voltage.

214
 83
Corrective action {not involving arresters) obviously must depicts actual situations. The neutral impedance may be Otjy
be taken if any of the conditions described occur or seem the resistance of ground, or an intentional resistance or reac-
likely to occur. Note that ferroresonance is discussed in tance placed into the transformer neutral to limit fau QJirenL
Section 81 under "Overvoltages of System Origin." As shown in Figure 383{C), a line-to-ground fault on phase A
System faults, which must be considered when applying causes the neutral of the transformer bank to shift ~ from
arresters, can cause temporary 60 Hz overvoltages until the ground because of the voltage drop in the neutral resistance.
fault is cleared. The arrester must be able to withstand these Note that the voltages from phase 8 and C to ground are now
overvoltages, which are a function of the system grounding higher than during normal system operation.
method. The condition of neutral shift in ungrounded systems is
illustrated in Figure 483. An assumption is made that the
EFFECT OF SYSTEM GROUNDING DURING LINE-TO- capacitance between lines and from line to ground is balanced,
GROUND FAULTS which makes the neutral coincide with ground {F~gure 4B3{BD.
A theoretical circuit with zero ground impedance, shown in In addition to the line-to-ground faults illustrated, other fault
Figure 283, illustrates neutral shift on wye-connected systems. conditions affect the selection of arrester ratings. For exaJ11)1e,
A fault on phase A causes the voltage to collapse completely double line-to-ground faults can result in high voltages from
{Figure 283[C]). Since there is no impedance between the the unfaulted phase to ground. Phase-to-phase and three-
fault and the transformer neutral, phase A and the neutral phase faults generally do not cause the highest overvoHages
remain at ground potential. The voltages from phase-to- from phase-to-ground. When the system sequence impedances
ground of phase 8 and C remain unchanged from the normal are known, these overvoltages can be calculated.
operating condition.
The practical system shown in Figure 383 illustrates neutral
shift on wye-connected systems with ground impedance.
Since resistance will always be in the ground between the
fault and the transformer, this example more accurately

B c B C
FAULT
A B
~ A . N& G

SUBSTATION
A
G

(A) SYSTEM (B) NORMAL VOLTAGES (C) FAULT VOLTAGES

Figure 283.
Line-to-ground voltages on theoretical wye system with no ground resistance.

B c B C
FAULT

~
A B

A&G

SUBSTATION
A
G

(A) SYSTEM (B) NORMAL VOLTAGES (C) FAUIJ ~I..TAGES

Figure 383.
Line-to-ground voltages on wye system with ground resistance.

215
B. Overvoltage Protection
3. SURGE ARRESTER APPLICATIONS AND OTHER PROTECTION DETAILS
Arrester Function and Selection (Continued)

B c
FAULT
A B

SUBSTATION
A A&G

c
(A) SYSTEM (B) NORMAL VOLTAGES (C) FAULT VOLTAGES

Figure 483.
Line-to-ground voltages on ungrounded system.

COEFFICIENT OF GROUNDING AND PERCENT CONDITIONS REQUIRING ARRESTER SELECTION BY

ARRESTER CALCULATION
Coefficient of grounding and percent arrester are two terms The use of neutral impedances on four-wire, multigrounded-
used to define the arrester ratings required for fault conditions. neutral circuits is becoming more common. A few utilities
Coefficient of grounding can be defined as the ratio of the have resorted to neutral impedances on their distribution cir-
maximum line-to-ground voltage at the arrester location, during cuits in order to confine fault currents within the rating of
faults anywhere on the system, to the phase-to-phase voltage available fuses and reclosers. However, neutral impedances
without a fault. The coefficient of grounding of a system, introduce numerous problems in the selection of arrester rat-
multiplied by the phase-to-phase voltage, equals the minimum ings, and the application of arresters on such systems on the
surge-arrester rating suitable for that system. Percent basis of experience is extremely hazardous because of the
arrester is the ratio of an arrester rating to the system phase- wide range of neutral impedances that could be used. The
to-phase voltage expressed as a percentage. only satisfactory method of arrester selection in these cir-
cumstances is by calculating line-to-ground voltages under
Distribution Circuit Considerations fault conditions.
Over years of application, the vast majority of distribution Only the selection of arrester ratings as affected by system
arresters have been selected on the basis of experience a line-to-ground voltages during faults has been discussed.
method that has been entirely satisfactory for well-estab- Equally important is the probability of faults occurring on the
lished circuit voltages and grounding conditions. The selec- circuit. If no arrester operations occur during faults, then the
tion of arresters for new types of systems, however, must be phase-to-ground voltages during faults need not be consid·
based on extrapolation from existing experience and the cal- ered. The following factors affect fault probability:
culation of overvoltages during fault conditions. 1. Phase spacing, pole-top clearances, and line insulation
Urban distribution circuits have a large number of level.
low-resistance grounds on the system neutral, which results 2. Tree trimming.
in the best possible neutral stability during faults. Therefore, 3. Shielding of the line by surrounding objects.
urban-applied arrester ratings in percent-of-system voltages 4. Frequency and intensity of lightning storms.
are the lowest of any circuit. 5. Line maintenance.
Rural distribution circuits, when compared to urban circuits, 6. Atmospheric contamination.
have a smaller number of grounds, with resulting higher neutral- Calculations of arrester rating for distribution circuits differ
to-ground resistance. Rural circuits therefore are subject to a from calculations used when dealing with transmission circuits.
greater neutral shift during faults and require higher percentage Experience indicates that when arrester ratings are based on
arresters. Also, high-voltage distribution circuits generally are Ro1X1 and Xo1X1 ratios for distribution circuits (NEMA UB LA-1),
employed in sparsely populated rural areas, and these circuits they are higher than needed. Investigation reveals that line
tend to have even fewer grounds, and thus greater neutral resistance tends to limit overvoltages, and the positive-
shift, than the lower-voltage circuits used in more densely sequence resistance, R1, must also be included in the deter-
populated rural areas. mination of the overvoltages.

216
 83
Arrester Voltage Rating Recommendations INSULATION COORDINATION
Table 183 provides a general application guide for the selection Insulation coordination is the process of comparing the
of the proper arrester rating for a given system voltage. These impulse withstand strength of insulation with the voltag'e that
recommendations, are determined as follows: can occur across the arrester. This of course is an important
• .1.25 x nominal line-to-ground voltage for four-wire, step in determining the adequacy of insulation, the extent of
multigrounded-neutral systems. additional overvoltage protection that may be required, and
• .0.80 x nominal line-to-line voltage for three-wire, solidly ultimately the margin of protection.
grounded neutral systems. As stated previously, self-restoring insulation, related primari'ly
• Nominal line-to-line voltage for delta and ungrounded-wye to line components and equipment bushings, will flash over
systems. at critical voltages and be restored to its full insulating capability
Although these recommendations are generally applicable, if the discharge has not persisted, whereas the nonsetf-
calculations should be made to insure that the parameters of restoring insulation used in distribution equipment can be
a particular system under consideration are taken into permanently damaged by excessive voltages, necessitating
account. This is especially true when substation transformers repair or replacement. Arrester application for the purpose of
are grounded through an impedance or when spacer cable limiting line flashovers is largely a matter of matching
construction is used. arresters with system characteristics, as discussed above,
and the individual utility's approach to overhead protection.
The following discussion on insulation coordination, therefore,
focuses on the establishment of overvoltage protection margins
for distribution equipment.

TABLE 183
Commonly Applied Surge Arrester Ratings
System Voltage Recommended Arrester Rating per IEEE C62.22
(kV rms) (kV rms)
Four-Wire Wye Three-Wire Wye Solidly Delta and
Nominal Maximum Multi-Grounded Neutral Grounded Neutral Ungrounded Wye
2.4 2.54 - - 3
4.16Y/2.4 4.4Y/2.54 3 6 6
4.16 4.4 - - 6
4.8 5.08 - - 6
6.9 7.26 - - 9
8.32Y/4.8 8.8Y/5.08 6 9 -
12.0Y/6.93 12.7Y/7.33 9 12 -
12.47Y/7.2 13.2Y/7.62 9 15 -
13.2Y/7.62 13.97Y/8.07 10 15 -
13.8Y/7.97 14.52Y/8.38 10 15 -
13.8 14.52 - - 18
20.78Y/12.0 22Y/12.7 15 21 -
22.86Y/13.2 24.2Y/13.87 18 24 -
23 24.34 - - 30
24.94Y/14.4 26.4Y/15.24 18 27 -
27.6Y/15.93 29.3Y/16.89 21 30 -
34.5Y/19.92 36.5Y/21.08 27 36 -
46Y/26.6 48.3Y/28 36 - -

217
B. Overvoltage Protection
3. SURGE ARRESTER APPLICATIONS AND OTHER PROTECTION DETAILS
Arrester Function and Selection (Continued)

Equipment Withstand does, however, undergo low-frequency tests to confirm its

Recalling Section 82, in which insulation characteristics, ability to withstand 60 Hz voltages greater than the maximum
impulse withstand tests, etc., are covered in detail, note that rated operating voltage. For a summary of typical BIL values
the 1.2 x 50 impulse voltages that insulation must withstand and related low-frequency withstand voltages for distribution
are classified into discrete values called Basic Impulse transformers and reclosers, refer to Tables 482 and 582 in
Insulation Levels, abbreviated BIL. One or more BIL levels Section 82.
may be used at a given circuit voltage. In Rgure 583, the complete volt-time withstand characteristics
As also discussed previously, two additional impulse withstand of a transformer are plotted and compared with the discharge
tests that are sometimes applied are the chopped-wave and voltage characteristics of an arrester. The recommended
front-of-wave tests. These tests simulate the conditions that margin of protection - discussed in more detail below - is
can occur when a line is flashed over by a lightning stroke. indicated at three points: {MP1) the chopped-wave test level,
There also are standards for switching-impulse tests, which {MP2) the BIL range, and {MP3) the switching-surge range.
may be applied to substation equipment but are not generally
applicable to distribution systems. Most distribution equipment

CHOPPED WAVE WITHSTAND (CWW)

I
BIL RANGE (BILl

\ SWITCHING SURGE RANGE (BSL)

BIL _I (TRANSF.)
FRONT OF --'-++1-MP2=-LPL -1 BSL
MP3= SPL -1
WAVE
PROTECTIVE
LEVEL ---+--11:...----+-T- (ARRESTER)
(FOW)
(SPL) I
SWITCHING IMPULSE PROTECTIVE LEVEL

LIGHTNING I
IMPULSE CLASSIFYING CURRENT (LPL)

Figure 583.
Insulation coordination: equipment withstand voltage compared with surge arrester protective characteristics.

218
 83
COMPARISON OF OIL-FILLED AND Margin of Protection
DRY-TYPE EQUIPMENT The difference between arrester discharge characteristics
All apparatus that does not have an insulating liquid as part and equipment withstand level at any given instant of time is
of the insulating structure can be considered dry-type equipment. termed the margin of protection, represented by the expression:
Transformers of the lower voltage ratings, all rotating
machines, and metalclad switchgear are examples. MP = Withstand Voltage _1
The insulation strength of dry-type equipment, unlike that Arrester Discharge Voltage
of oil-filled equipment, does not increase significantly as the The margins of protection are calculated as per Table 283.
duration of the applied impulse voltage decreases. For the In performing such calculations for exercise purposes, the
purpose of insulation coordination, therefore, the insulation summary of typical 81L values for transformers and reclosers
strength of the equipment is considered to be equal to the 81L listed in Tables 482 and 582 may be used. (81L and chopped-
for all impulse voltage waves. The arrester discharge voltage wave withstand values for specific equipment are available
is compared directly to the 81L of the equipment. from manufacturers.) The arrester protective characteristics
It is generally not practical to build dry-type equipment to called for in the calculations are listed in Table 383.
have the same 81L as oil-filled equipment for the same system
operating voltage. Thus, the problem of insulation coordination
for dry-type equipment is more difficult than for oil-filled
equipment. Special arresters are available for protecting such
equipment from overvoltages. It also often is desirable to
shield circuits to which dry-type equipment is connected from
direct lightning strokes.

TABLE 2B3
Bases for Calculating Protection Margins Provided by
MOV Arresters
Metal-Oxide-Varistor Arresters
Chopped Wave Withstand -1
Equivalent Front-of-Wave Protection Level
Equipment BIL
-1
Arrester Discharge Voltage
.83 x Transformer BIL
MP3= -1
Equivalent Switching Protection Level

219
B. Overvol Protection
3.SURGE ESTER APPLICATIONS AND OTHER PROTECTION DETAILS
Arrester Function and Selection (Continued)

TABLE 383

........,,.,... ~
Protective Characteristics of Metal-Oxide-Varistor Arresterst
Maximum Discharge Vol~e (kV crest)
Arrester Protective 8/20 IJS Current ave
Rating MCOV Level*
(kV rms) (kV rms) (kV crest) 3 kA 5kA 10 kA 20 k 40kA
3 2.55 11.5 8.60 9.10 9.50 10.4 11.5 13.0
6 5.10 23.0 17.2 18.2 19.1 20.8 23.0 25.9
9 7.65 33.1 24.8 26.3 27.5 30.0 33.2 37.4
10 8.40 34.4 25.8 27.4 28.6 31.2 34.5 38.9
12 10.2 43.3 32.4 34.4 35.9 39.2 43.3 48.8
15 12.7 54.1 40.4 43.0 44.9 49.0 54.2 61.0
18 15.3 64.9 48.5 51.6 53.9 58.8 65.0 73.2
21 17.0 68.9 51.5 54.7 57.2 62.4 69.0 77.7
24 19.5 80.3 60.1 63.9 66.7 72.8 80.5 90.7
27 22.0 90.9 68.0 72.3 75.5 82.4 91.1 103
30 24.4 101 75.8 80.5 84.1 91.8 101 114
33 27.0 113 84.2 89.5 93.5 102 113 127
36 29.0 121 90.8 96.5 101 110 122 137 I
*Based on 10 kA current impulse that results in a discharge voltage cresting in 0.5 IJS.

Minimum margins of protection recommended by ANSI comparing arresters of the same rating produced by different
Application Guide C62.22-1981 are: manufacturers or when comparing different types of arresters.

MP1 (Chopped-Waved Test Level): 20% ARRESTER CLASS

MP2 (BIL Range): 20% The majority of arresters applied on distribution systems are
MPs (Switching Surge Range): 15% distribution class. This is particularly true at 15 kV and below,
since the protection levels are more than adequate. However,
These minimum margins include a safety factor to account in cases where arresters are to be located at riser poles to
for various unknowns such as errors in estimating maximum protect cable-connected equipment or in substations to pro-
surge current, separation of transformer and equipment, and tect larger equipment, intermediate- or even station-class
voltage withstand reduction caused by deterioration of old arresters are used to provide even better protective charac-
equipment. Within the indicated parameters, the specific mar- teristics. Applications requiring pressure-relief capability also
gin of protection is not of significant concern when compar- will often necessitate the use of intermediate or station
ing protection offered by two arresters with adjacent ratings arresters, depending on the available fault current.
produced by the same manufacturer, for the lower rating will
always yield the greater margin of protection. The specific
margin of protection is of significant concern, however, when

220
 83

Arrester Location and Connection

Location is a critical application factor because excessive EFFECT OF ARRESTER LEAD LENGTHS
lead length to the feeder line and to ground, and too much As stated previously, short leads are recommended for all
separation between the arrester and protected equipment, arrester applications. Figures 683 and 783 illustrate the pon
can reduce arrester effectiveness. that considerable distance between an arrester and protecled
Une, ground, and feeder leads offer high impedance paths to equipment can nullify the protection offered by the arrester.
lightning surge current. During lightning surge discharge, Figure 683 shows an arrester connected to the line at a
these paths can develop voltages that place an additional distance S from the transformer it is supposed to protect.
stress on the insulation of protected equipment. Voltage
developed across the leads will add to the arrester discharge
voltage, so that the effect of voltage across long leads can be
to nullify completely the protective characteristics of the arrester.
Short leads are recommended for all arrester applications.
..
r---s--~

ESTIMATING LEAD·WIRE VOLTAGE

The total discharge voltage entering protected equipment will be
the sum of the arrester discharge voltage and the voltage drop
that occurs in the lead wires connecting the arrester between
line and ground i.e., arrester IR + the lead-wire L di/dt drop,
which is referred to as the IX drop. 2000 V/ft is commonly
assumed for estimating purposes for lead-wire voltages. This is ARRESTER TRANSFORMER
a good rule-of-thumb value for lightning currents below 20 kA,
but recent studies have shown that voltages as high as 10 kV1ft
is not uncommon. Futther analysis is provided in the Cooper
Power Systems Optimizer software program.
Lead-wire voltage is a nonlinear function of these parameters
because of the different phase relationship between time of
arrester discharge and voltage crest, and time of lead-wire IX
voltage crest. Of real significance is the lead-wire voltage Figure 683.
produced by highmagnitude, rapidly rising lightning currents. Surge arrester separated from transformer by length of
Although currents of this magnitude (65 kA) have a low prob- conductor.
ability of occurrence, they do occur. More realistically, lightning
current of 10 kA to 20 kA have been shown to occur with
rates of rise much less than four microseconds.

MICROSECONDS

Figure 783.
Voltages occurrin~ on circuit ·Of Figure 683 as result of
lightning-stroke discharge by arrester.

221
B. Overvoltage Protection
3. SURGE ARRESTER APPLICATIONS AND OTHER PROTECTION DETAILS
Arrester Location and Connection (Continued)

As a lightning-generated surge propagating on the line longer the conductor, the greater will be the overshoot. If we
encounters the surge arrester, the voltage is clamped. consider that the arrester discharge voltage may also be
However, the voltage wave prior to clamping continues on to increased by the length of the arresters lead to ground, then
the transformer, where it can be reflected positively if the the importance of keeping the distance between the arrester
transformer is at line voltage, resulting in a higher voltage at and the protected equipment as short as possible becomes
the transformer. even clearer.
In practice, voltage waveforms such as shown in Figure
783 are typical. The overshoot of the transformer voltage, Et, OTHER LOCATION/CONNECTION
is understandable in terms of inductances and capacitances, CONSIDERATIONS
as follows. The lightning-stroke current is discharged through The arrester and the protected equipment should also have
the arrester, yielding a discharge voltage, Ea, which is impre~ a common interconnecting ground. That is, the ground lead
on the line separating the arrester and transformer. The hne of the arrester should be bonded to the ground lead of the
exhibits an inductance to surges of approximately 0.4 micro- equipment at a common point close to both devices. This
henries per foot. Initially, the transformer appears capacitive eliminates extra voltage stress that might be impressed by
and the voltage builds at a slower rate than the arrester the drop across ground impedance.
discharge. The current charging the transformer capacitance Other arrester location issues are addressed in the following
is limited bythe line inductance. Finally, as the voltage across sections. Of particular interest are the location of arresters on
the transformer approaches the peak value of the arrester underground distribution circuits and the location of arresters
voltage, substantial surge current is flowing in the line inductance. with respect to transformer fuses.
It continues to flow for a short time after the transformer voltage It should be noted that most distribution-class arresters are
has surpassed the arrester voltage until all the energy stored equipped with isolators at their bottom terminals. The isolator
in the line inductance is transferred to the winding capacitance helps to remove the arrester from the circuit should the
of the transformer or is dissipated to losses. This causes the arrester fail. (A backup overcurrent device, a fuse or recloser,
voltage overshoot depicted in Figure 783. actually clears the fault current.) It is important to make the
The amount of overshoot depends on the rate of rise of the ground connection such that the isolator can operate and
arrester discharge voltage, the length of conductor, and the move an adequate distance away from the failed arrester.
transformer construction . The higher the rate of rise and the

222
 83

Overhead Line Protection

Historically, the equipment on distribution lines was protected phase only or on all three phases. Although the primary purpose
from high transient voltages by surge arresters, while the is to minimize the number of line interruptions that result from
!lnes themselves were allowed to flash over. If a fault developed, lightning strokes, the arresters will also protect, of course,
reclosing operations of the recloser or circuit breaker against other possible disturbances. It has been shown that
restored service after a momentary outage. the most effective method is to apply arresters on all three
However, reliability has become a very important factor as phases. This is especially effective for spacings of approxi-
more and more loads- such as computers, video equipment, mately every 1200 feet.
and other electronic devices -are highly sensitive to momen- A review of the characteristics of distribution line insulation
tary interruptions. And so it is more important than ever to discussed in Section 82 will be helpful; included are tables
take steps to minimize the number of line flashovers and thus summarizing the critical flashover levels of insulators and the
the number of momentary interruptions. sparkover levels of air and rod gaps. Also, References 811
The protection of overhead lines from lightning-initiated and 812 for overvoltage protection {listing at end of manual)
overvoltages can be achieved by the use of overhead shield contain more details on overhead line protection.
wires, or by placing arresters at selected intervals on the top

223
B. Overvoltage Protection
3. SURGE ARRESTER APPLICATIONS AND OTHER PROTECTION DETAILS

Underground Circuit Protection

The major problem associated with the protection of under- 1. The most basic method (Figure 983) is to place an
ground distribution (UD) circuits is the practical difficulty arrester at the riser pole to limit the magnitude of the surge
involved in locating surge arresters as close as desired to the entering the cable system. This is the primary arrester
equipment being protected. In underground applications, the required for UD circuit protection. If protection dollars are
equipment typically is located in small enclosed spaces with limited, the installation of an appropriate arrester at this
dead-front connections, and so there are far fewer convenient location may provide adequate protective margins for 15 kV
places to connect arresters than there are for pole-top or or lower-voltage systems.
substation equipment. Feed-thru loadbreak inserts are avail- 2. The highest transient voltages will tend to be at the open-
able to acommodate dead-front arrester installation at the ended points on the cable. This occurs because of the
end-points and mid-points of an existing UD circuit. The phenomenon of voltage doubling of a traveling wave at an
equipment involved is the same as in overhead applications open point (see "Traveling Waves" in Section 81).1n cases
- e.g., transformers, switchgear, and capacitors - but also where the margin of protection may not be adequate, the
includes the cable itself. The cable has developed into more of next step is to place arresters at these open-ended points
an issue in recent years as it has become apparent that cable (Figure 1083). The voltage at the open end can reach two
life in many applications is not what it was expected to be. times the protective level of the riser pole arrester for a
Insulation degradation as a result of treeing (limb-like cracks) in lightning surge on the overhead line, but that value will be
the insulating jacket, coupled with high system transient voltages, reduced if there are cable taps in between. The voltage at
is believed to have contributed to shorter cable life. the open end is compared with the 81L or chopped-wave
withstand of the equipment to determine if the protection
RECOMMENDED PROTECTION METHODS is adequate. As the operating voltage increases above 15 kV,
A typical underground system is illustrated in Figure 883. At equipment insulation levels do not increase at the same
a riser pole, the overhead line descends into a cable that rate. For 25 kV systems with 125 kV 81L using 18 kV
goes underground to serve the customers on the UD circuit. arresters, and for 35 kV systems with 150 or 125 kV 81L
The major consideration is to protect equipment on the UD using 27 kV arresters, it generally is necessary to provide
circuit from transient overvoltages initiated on the overhead more than riser pole protection, such as by adding
circuit, especially those due to lightning. There are five gen- arresters at the open-ended points.
erally accepted ways to accomplish this:
OVERHEAD LINE
/\-

m.·-- -~ ~--- ~ ~ -
UNDERGROUND CABLE

---- -_-_-_-I-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-1~

Figure 883.
T T T T
Underground distribution cable system.

OVERHEAD LINE
/\-

T T
Figure 983.
UD circuit protection with arrester at riser pole.
224
 83
OVERHEAD LINE
/\-

T T
Figure 1083.
UD circuit protection with arresters at riser pole and open end.

OVERHEAD LINE
/\-

T T
Figure 11 83.
UD circuit with scout protection scheme.

3. One alternative to placing arresters at the open-ended The arrester remote from the riser pole intercepts the
points when more than riser pole protection is required is propagating traveling voltage wave, operates, and drains
to parallel two arresters at the riser pole. In this case the most of the surge current to ground. If the discharge voltage
arresters share the surge current and consequently is high enough, the riser pole arrester will also operate,
reduce the magnitude of the voltage entering the cable. It thus draining off more of the surge current. A remote pos-
is, of course, important that the arresters have nearly sibility exists that a stroke may terminate on the span
matched characteristics so that they will share the current between the arresters, thereby causing the riser pole
appropriately. arester to share a high-magnitude surge with the scout
4. Another alternative is the use of the "scout scheme", which arrester. To eliminate this possibility, a shield wire is
involves the use of one arrester on either side of the riser pole recommended between the riser pole and scout arresters,
arrester a span away on the overhead line (Figure 11 83). and even a span beyond.

225
B. Overvoltage Protection
3. SURGE ARRESTER APPLICATIONS AND OTHER PROTECTION DETAILS
Underground Circuit Protection (Continued)

5. The ultimate in overvoltage protection on a UD circuit is to discontinuity, margin of protection can usually be sign~
provide arresters at convenient points all along the cable, cantly improved by adding mid-point arresters at one p<>rt
in addition to the riser pole arrester. This is generally done of discontinuity. The most effective location for mid-poirt
at points of discontinuity, such as where transformers are arresters is usually the first point of discontinuity in the UD
tapped from the cable (Figure 1283). Because of their circuit.
ground-level location, these arresters usually have to be
dead-front or under-oil arresters, which are difficult to add TYPE OF ARRESTER
to existing installations. Feed-thru loadbreak inserts are
available to accommodate dead-front arrester installation The method of selecting an arrester voltage rating for UD
at the end-points and mid-points of an existing UD circuit. applications is the same as for overhead applications, but the
This particular method of protection is gaining in popularity margins of protection are much smaller and, therefore, more
primarily because of increasing cable failure problems, critical. The result is that normal distribution class arresters
although it helps to protect the transformers as well. The may not be adequate. Where analysis indicates that this is
cable treeing problem may reduce the cable withstand to the case, special riser pole arresters or intermediate-class
substantially below thewithstand capability at time of arresters may be used. Margin of protection can also be
installation, and providing more overvoltage protection improved by utilizing Copper Power Systems VariGap® stv'e
may help to prolong the cable life. If it is not physically or surge arresters in some or all locations.
financially possible to add arresters at each point of

OVERHEAD LINE
/1-

T T
Figure 1283.
UD circuit protection with arrester at each transformer.

226
 83

Distribution Apparatus Protection

Most of the equipment on distribution systems is located on use of gaps is illustrated in Figure 1583. With either solid or
poles or in enclosures, and each piece of equipment has its gap interconnection, surge current is routed through several
own overvoltage protection, generally provided by one or parallel ground impedances, and danger to insulation damage
more surge arresters. Transformers make up the bulk of this is minimized, even under conditions of high surge current
equipment and the other distribution devices that are individually and high ground impedance.
protected include voltage regulators, reclosers, sectionalizers, As shown in Figure 1683, on a grounded-wye system, one
switches, and capacitors. arrester is necessary across each line to ground for either a
As indicated in the above discussion, "Arrester Leads and three-phase or a single-phase transformer. With the delta
Connections," the best protection is obtained by minimizing system of Figure 1783, the arresters on the ungrounded
the arrester lead length and placing the arrester as close as lines are subjected to full line-to-line voltage if one conductor
possible electrically to the protected equipment. Some of the is accidentally grounded. A single-phase transformer tapped
other details of arrester protection are discussed below for off this system requires two arresters: one connected to
each type of equipment. Note that, if the equipment to be ground on each side of the primary.
protected is dry-type rather than oil-filled, a higher margin of
protection will be necessary, as explained previously under
"Equipment Withstand." ----~------------~~-------N
----+-----'-1---~--------¢
DISTRIBUTION TRANSFORMERS
Grounding
To provide reliable surge protection for the transformer, it is
essential that the arrester ground terminal be interconnected
with the transformer tank and secondary neutral (Figures SURGE
1383 and 1483). ARRESTER

SURGE Figure 1483.

ARRESTER - - - Transformer protection with solid arrester interconnection
on source side of primary fuse link.

SECONDARY
NEUTRAL
SECONDARY ----~------~----~~-------N
LEAD IMPEDANCE
----+-----~.----+--------¢

Figure 1383.
Transformer protection without arrester interconnection. SURGE
ARRESTER

If interconnection is not used (Figure 1383), a surge current

flowing to ground through an impedance causes a drop that
impresses a high voltage on the primary winding of the trans-
former. Because the secondary winding and the tank are
essentially at ground potential, a potential stress exists
between the two windings, and between the primary winding
and the tank. Connection to a common ground point at the
secondary neutral (Figure 1483) reduces the stress to the Figure 1583.
small impedances drop inherent in the arrester, thus eliminating Transformer protection with arrester interconnection
the stress produced by the drop across ground impedance. through gaps.
If solid interconnection between the tank and the common
ground point is not permitted by local code, gaps can be used
between the tank and the common ground point, and
between the ground point and the secondary neutral. The

227
B. Overvoltage Protection
3. SURGE ARRESTER APPLICATIONS AND OTHER PROTECTION DETAILS
Distribution Apparatus Protection (Continued)

SUBSTATION

t
\ LINE-TO-LINE VOLTAGE
+
LINE-TO-NEUTRAL VOLTAGE

+
-=~ t SINGLE-

1
~:,r +
PHASE
" ... BRANCH
T
LINE

~LJ~
nnn
THREE-PHASE TRANSFORMER BANK
SINGLE-PHASE
TRANSFORMER BANKS
-----
~ >-
_.......
~ ..~..._t-+--4

_._

Figure 1683.
Arrester application on grounded-wye system.

SUBSTATION

LINE-TO-LINE VOLTAGE

SINGLE-
PHASE
BRANCH
LINE
SINGLE-PHASE
TRANSFORMER
BANK

nnn
THREE-PHASE
TRANSFORMER
SURGE
/
ARRESTER..__~~__.

BANK

Figure 1783.
Arrester application on delta system.
228
 83
Fuse Location phase as a result of ferroresonance. It can also lead to sustained
Another consideration in the application of arresters to distri- 60 Hz overvoltages appoaching 2.65 per-unit on the open
bution transformers is the proper location of the transformer phase when ungrounded wye-delta transformers are serving
fuse with respect to the arrester. a large single-phase load. Although these overvoltages can
The arrester can be connected on the load side of the primary be excessive for all equipment involved, they are especially
fuse as shown in Figure 1883. This connection may reduce troublesome for arresters, which often are the components
the length of the lead connecting the arrester between line that fail under these circumstances. The problem can be
and transformer ground, but it permits lightning surge current eliminated by placing arresters ahead of the transformer
to flow through the link. If the link is small or the surge of long fuses, but if the transformer is on a fused tap as shown in
duration, the link will be unnecessarily blown or damaged, Figure 1983, there is also a concern for fuse blowing at the
removing a transformer from service. This can be a major tap point. (Again, the arrester is on the open phase and is
source of customer outages during severe storms and, con- subject to the high overvoltage conditions.) Regardless of
sequently, may be intolerable in some instances. arrester location, the problem can be minimized by selecting
arresters which provide increased TOV (Temporary
Overvoltage) and enhanced margin of protection such as the
----~----~------.-------N Cooper Power Systems VariGap® style surge arrester. Of
----+-----~~--~------¢ course the entire problem can be eliminated by not using
three-phase transformer connections in applications where
1------f- PRIMARY single-phase overcurrent devices are used.
FUSE

SURGE
TABLE 683 Advantages and Disadvantages of
ARRESTER Connecting Arrester on Source-Side and Load-Side of
Transformer Fuse
Arrester on Source Side Arrester on Load Side
Advantages Disadvantages Advantages Disadvantages
Surges Fuse cannot If arrester Fuse subjected
·diverted limit energy to fails, to surge
by arrester. failed arrester. fuse may transients.
prevent
porcelain
rupture.
Figure 1883.
Arrester connection on load side of primary fuse link. No Surge arrester Limits
nuisance failure could area of
fuse cause loss of system
blowing . large part of outage.
In addition to shorter leads, an advantage of placing the system.
fuse first is that the fuse can be used to clear a failed arrester Current- Current-
as well as a failed transformer. This usually leads to much limitin~-fuse limiting-
faster clearing times, especially if current-limiting fuses are arc vo tage fuse arc
may cause voltage
used, and it minimizes the possibility of violent arrester failures, arrester to does not
especially in high fault-current applications. operate. appear
Connection of the arrester on the source side of the primary across
fuse link is illustrated in Figure 1483. In this arrangement, the arrester
lightning surge current is drained to ground through the May require
arrester and does not flow through the primary fuse link, thus longer arrester
leads,
minimizing the possibility of unnecessary fuse blowings. The reducing
advantages and disadvantages of both configurations -load- insulation pro-
side and source-side connections - are summarized in Table tection margin.
683. Both schemes are widely used, and the final choice will
depend on the needs and experience of a given area.

Single Phasing s
As mentioned under "Ferroresonant Overvoltages" in Section u
B
81, single-pole switching, or the operation of a fuse or other s
overcurrent device on one phase of a three-phase circuit can T
lead under some circumstances to overvoltages on the open A
T

0
N
I

.,_-<JO--~ '----------,..-'\ y t-
Figure 1983.
System with arrester-protected transformer on fused tap.

229
B. Overvoltage Protection
3. SURGE ARRESTER APPLICATIONS AND OTHER PROTECTION DETAILS
Distribution Apparatus Protection (Continued)

Secondary Surge Protection operates, surge current flows to ground and through the sec-
It has become evident in recent years that many past transformer ondary winding of the transformer due to the ground connection,
failures were the result of secondary surges, which occur as and the current in the secondary winding produces a high-
follows: lightning strikes the distribution circuit, a surge arrester voltage in the transformer, causing the transformer to fail.
Such secondary surges can be controlled, however, by placing
arresters across the secondary windings of the transformer,
as shown on the transformer in Figure 2083 and diagrammed
in Figure 21 83. This practice can have a significant positive
effect on transformer overvoltage protection.
Secondary arresters placed at the customer service
entrance must have the same current discharge capability as
the secondary arresters on the transformer, since they see
the same surge current. For more details on this subject, see
Reference 814 for overvoltage protection.

Figure 2083.
Distribution transformer equipped with primary and
secondary arresters.

LIGHTNING SURGE

OVERHEAD GROUND

H1 X1
1- ":"
CUSTOMER
LOAD

PRIMARY
ARRESTER
METER GAPS

CUSTOMER
SERVICE
GROUND
IMPEDANCE

"TRUE GROUND"

Figure 21 83.
Secondary surge current paths for distribution transformer with secondary arrester.

230
 83
VOLTAGE REGULATORS
SHUNT SURGE ARRESTER
Voltage regulators are protected from transient overvoltages by PROTECTS SHUNT AND SERIES
the use of a low-voltage arrester across the series winding POTENTIAL WINDINGS. SURGE ARRESTER
and a normally rated arrester from the load-side terminal to PROTECTS SERIES MNDING.J
ground (Figure 2283). Regulators can be used in a variety of
configurations such as those shown in Figure 2383, which
also illustrates the different arrester connection requirements
for regulator applications.

BYPASS
SWITCH

SERIES
SURGE
ARRESTER

Regulating a single-phase circuit.

A----------------~~~----e-------A
w BYPASS
U SWITCH 0
~s-------~-rCl_.-----+----Bg
g
c c
SHUNT
SURGE
ARRESTERS
DISCONNECTS

SERIES
SURGE
ARRESTER Figure 2283.
Voltage regulator equipped with low-voltage and nor-
mally rated arresters.

Regulating one phase of a three-phase, three-wire circuit.

BYPASS
SWITCH
A--------~q-------------------------------------A '

SHUNT
SURGE
ARRESTERS

DISCONNECTS

SERIES
SURGE
ARRESTER

2
Regulating a three-phase. three-wirewyeordeltacin:uitwlthtwo111QU1abs.
Figure 2383.
Regulator applications showing arrester connection requirements. {Figure is conlinual a._......_,
B. Overvoltage Protection
3. SURGE ARRESTER APPLICATIONS AND OTHER PROTECTION DETAILS
Distribution Apparatus Protection (Continued)

BYPASS
SWITCH
A A'
w BYPASS
g B
SWITCH
B' ~
::1
@
BYPASS
SWITCH
9
c C'

SHUNT
SURGE
ARRESTERS

I
I
I I
I I
I I
SERIES
SURGE
., I
L
I
'--
•
ARRESTER
• 2 3

Regulating a three-phase. three-wire wye or delta circuit with three regulators.

BYPASS
SWITCH
A
BYPASS
w SWITCH
g B --~~------------------~~~~~~------------------------------B'
BYPASS ~
::1
0
rJ) c --~-r--------------------+-~-------------------<~~S~W~IT~C~H~-----C' 9
N
SHUNT
SURGE
ARRESTERS

SERIES
SURGE
ARRESTER

2 3
Regulating a three-phase, four-wire. multigrounded wye circuit with three regulators.

Figure 2483. (Continued)

Regulator applications showing arrester connection requirements.

232
 83
SWITCHGEAR CAPACITORS
Reclosers, sectionalizers, breakers, switches, and other This application also requires consideration of the previously
switchgear also require surge protecion. Arrester application discussed factors such as short leads and ground intercon-
to these devices involves the same considerations of short nection.
lead lengths and ground interconnections as for transformers. Surge arresters are recommended for all capacitor instal-
In general, for complete protection against lightning- lations, regardless of size. It may be possible to avoid the use
produced surges, arresters are recommended for the source of arresters on large, unswitched, grounded-wye banks, since
side and load side of each phase of each device. If only one these banks are not easily charged to dangerous voltages by
arrester is to be used per recloser phase, it should be lightning surges; however, as was noted in the discussion of
installed on the source side. A lightning surge on the source overvoltages of system origin in Section 81, high voltages
side could flash over the source-side bushing and cause a can occur on one capacitor bank due to the switching of
system line-to-ground fault, which would have to be cleared another. Given the variety of capacitor-bank arrangements
by the backup device. Minimum clearing time is critical in that may occur on a distribution system, it is advisable to
such a case to try to insure that no permanent equipment apply arresters at all banks.
damage occurs; however, because the fault will be near the For switched capacitor banks, the highest energy condition
end of the backup device's zone of protection, it probably will arresters are likely to see, is the restrike of the capacitor-
take a long time to clear, which could result in permanent bank switch when deenergizing the line, but this should be a
equipment damage. An arrester on the source side with min- rare and abnormal occurrence. For most typical bank sizes
imum lead length would handle the surge itself and clear the mounted on poles, distribution-class arresters can dissipate
power-frequency follow current. If the load-side bushing is the energy associated with a single restrike. Multiple switch
arced over by lightning from the load side, the recloser will restrikes, however, are likely to lead to arrester failure. For
function normally to interrupt and clear the resulting power- larger substation banks, station class arresters are typically
frequency follow current. used.
When reclosers or circuit breakers are used in substations, To minimize spurious fuse blowings on capacitor banks,
typically station- or intermediate-class arresters on other arresters are typically applied on the source side of fuse
equipment will protect the source side of each phase; therefore, cutouts and capacitor switches.
only one arrester per phase on the load side may be necessary.
In applications involving three-phase devices, such as
reclosers, it is very tempting to connect the neutral terminals
of the three arresters on one side of the device together by a
single wire, which may not allow the arrester isolators to
operate properly As noted previously, the neutral connection
must be such that an isolator can move an adequate distance
after operating to facilitate isolation of a failed arrester from
the circuit.

233
B. Overvoltage Protection
3. SURGE ARRESTER APPLICATIONS AND OTHER PROTECTION DETAILS

Substation Protection
Because the focus of this manual is distribution systems, this however, to determine if the margin of protection is adequate.
section on substation overvoltage protection is brief. Its purpose If it is, the switchgear can be considered to be protected
is to provide an understanding of the differences in overvoltage when in the closed position. For protection when it is in the
protection in going from distribution feeders to the substation. open position, arresters may be applied to the line side of
The primary reason for the differences is that the relatively each device. In some applications at higher voltages, rod gaps
few pieces of equipment in substations are both quite expensive are employed on the line side or breakers at a significantly
and highly important from a reliability standpoint. In applying lower cost than for arresters. However, the protection quality
surge arresters, the basic principles regarding the determination is poorer, and it is difficult to set the correct gap spacing so
of the voltage rating and maintaining margins of protection in that gaps will flash over when the breaker is open, and yet
insulation coordination are still used. However, because the will not flash over - allowing the bus-connected arresters to
substation has higher fault-current duties than those out on operate - when the breaker is closed. In some cases, it is
the feeder, the arresters are quite often intermediate or station determined through evaluation that the probability of getting
types to assure the best possible protective characteristics a high enough surge to cause a problem when the breaker is
and to provide pressure-relief capabilities. in the open position is very low, and thus no protection is used.
Surge arresters are applied directly at the bushings of The justification is that, if the breaker is open, its disconnects
power transformers. Generally, large substations and all are also open. The only problem arises when a lightning
transformers above 138 kV utilize station-class arresters. strike causes a flashover of the line and the line breaker
Otherwise, either intermediate or station class are used. operates to interrupt the resulting fault current. If the stroke
Distribution arresters are used only on small transformers - has only one component, the surge is transmitted to the station
typically single-phase units and three-phase units below before the breaker opens, and the busconnected arrester can
1500 kVA. protect the breaker. However, if the stroke has more than one
Often the arresters applied for transformer protection also component, the succeeding surge(s) may catch the breaker
protect the substation's circuit breakers and reclosers. The in the process of opening, or in the open position.
effect of the separation distance must be taken into account,

234
 83

Index of Figures and Tables

FIGURE Page
Arrester Function and Selection
193 Distribution characteristics of system voltage .. ...... . .... ... ... .... ............... ....... ...... .... 214
293 Line-to-ground voltages on theoretical wye system with no ground resistance ............. ................215
383 Line-to-ground voltages on wye system with ground resistance ...... . ....... .. . , ......... ............. 215
483 Line-to-ground voltages on ungrounded system .... ... ........... .. ................................216
583 Insulation coordination: equipment withstand voltage compared with surge arrester
protective characteristics .............. . ..... . ....... . ............ ........... . . .. ............. 218
Arrester Location and Connection
683 Surge arrester separated from transformer by length of conductor 221
783 Voltages occurring on circuit of Figure 683 as result of lightning-stroke discharge by arrester 221
Underground Circuit Protection
883 Underground distribution cable system .................................. .............. . . ......... 224
983 UD circuit protection with arrester at riser pole .. . ..... .. . . ... . . . .. .. . . . . ... .. . .... ..... .. ... . .. .... 224
1083 UD circuit protection with arresters at riser pole and open end ...... . .......... ........................ 225
11 83 UD circuit with scout protection scheme . .. .................... .. ...................... ..... ...... 225
1283 UD circuit protection with arrester at each transformer ........................ .. ........ .... ......... 226
Distribution Apparatus Protection
1383 Transformer protection without arrester interconnection ............. . ............ . ..... .... ..... .... .227
1483 Transformer protection with solid arrester interconnection on source side of primary fuse link .. ... . .. ... .. . . .227
1583 Transformer protection with arrester interconnection through gaps . .......... . .................. .... .. . .227
1683 Arrester application on grounded-wye system ........................................... . .. ....... .228
1783 Arrester application on delta system . ............... . ..... .... ..... . ................. ....... ..... 228
1883 Arrester connection on load side of primary fuse link ............. .. .......... ... ....... ........... .. 229
1983 System with arrester-protected transformer on fused tap .................................. ......... .. 229
2083 Distribution transformer equipped with primary and secondary arresters . . .... .. .. . . ... . .. ..... ......... .230
2183 Secondary surge current paths for distribution transformer with secondary arrester ... .. . ..... .... ... ...... 230
2283 Voltage regulator equipped with low-voltage and normally rated arresters . ........... . ...... . ... .. ....... 231
2383 Regulator applications showing arrester connection requirements .... .. ........... .. ...... .... ......... 231
TABLE Page
Arrester Function and Selection
183 Commonly applied surge arrester ratings .......... . ............ ... ......... .. . ..... .... . .. ..... .. 217
283 Bases for calculating protection margins provided by MOV arresters .......... .. ..... . ............... ... 219
383 Protective characteristics of MOV arresters ......... . ............ . ....................... ..... ..... 219
Arrester Location and Connection
583 Lead-wire voltage produced in different lead-wire lengths by various lightning-current magnitudes
and waveshapes ......................................... .. .... . ........ ....... . ....... . ... 221
693 Advantages and disadvantages of connecting arrester on source side and load side of transformer fuse ...... . .229

235
236
 Section B
OVERVOLTAGE PROTECTION

4. SUMMARY OF PROTECTION FOR

A COMPLETE DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM

An Introduction
This section is the overvoltage equivalent of Section A4, reflections, lightning discharge voltages, and shielding coverage
which summarizes overcurrent protection for a complete system. are not included, as these are beyond the scope of the manual.
Using the identical system as in A4, with the over-current Because the subject of overvoltage protection does not
protection equipment selected in the previous exercise lend itself to the kinds of individual exercises invoMng different
included here as 'givens' the discussion focuses on the principal types of equipment found in the overcurrent application sections,
considerations and steps involved in determining and satisfying the following system summary provides the first opportunity
overvoltage protection requirements at critical points on the to demonstrate, with examples, just how arrester application
system. Many of the basic facts utilized (equipment Blls, is accomplished. The specific selections for the demonstration
arrester discharge voltages, etc.) are typically part of the system obviously do not include all available varieties and
manufacturers' ratings. locations, but each component of the system will be provided
The objective is to choose the proper surge arrester ratings a safe margin of protection within the indicated parameters. If
and locations based on sound engineering judgment and the reader, as suggested in the introduction to Section A4,
guidelines, with the final step being evaluation of the margins has tried varying the parameters of the system as an addi-
of protection. Using easily understood terms, the exercise tional overcurrent exercise, that altered system should be
demonstrates how surge arresters work together with - are examined also from the standpoint of overvoltage protection.
coordinated with - the insulation characteristics of conduc-
tors and equipment throughout the system in protecting
against overvoltages. Analyses involving traveling wave

Table of Contents, Page 169

237
B. Overvoltage Protection
4. SUMMARY OF PROTECTION FOR A COMPLETE DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM

Preliminary Considerations
REVIEW OF PRINCIPLES
The basic points expressed previously regarding the surge occur in a controlled manner and, if power current develops,
arrester's role in overvoltage protection are valid in all appli- rely on reclosers or circuit breakers to prevent permanent
cations. While serving as "a protective device for limiting voltage outages. However, the growing sensitivity of loads to system
on equipment by discharging or bypassing surge current," an disturbances may cause protection philosophy to shift more
arrester must perform as follows: towards the prevention of flashovers, which could entail a
• Withstand the continuous power-frequency voltage for more widespread use of shield wires on distribution systems.
which it is intended to operate. An alternative practice in use today is to apply surge
• Discharge any transient energy from the system in the arresters on all three phases (rather than on the top conduc-
form of current, while preventing the voltage across equipment tor only) to eliminate flashovers at poles having arresters and
on the line from becoming excessive. to reduce the total number of flashovers. When so protected,
• Return to a full insulating state after functioning and be in the struck conductor acts like a shield wire. A voltage is
readiness for the next overvoltage occurrence. induced on the neighboring conductors and predischarge
With proper selection and application, surge arresters will currents can flow between conductors.
perform all of these functions satisfactorily on distribution Surge protection of equipment on the distribution system is
systems. Protection of overhead lines as well as equipment achieved primarily by the application of distribution-class
on the system will be covered in the following examples, arresters. Since such arresters are used in great numbers, it is
which use as a basis for discussion the same relatively simple not feasible to make a separate application study each time an
radial system introduced in the summary of overcurrent arrester is to be applied for the protection of, for example, a
protection. pole-type transformer Thus, distribution class arresters are
Surge protection of an overhead line may be designed generally selected for use anywhere within a distribution system.
either to prevent flashovers as a result of lightning strikes or
- as historically has been the case - to allow flashovers to

UJ...)J

jr
~I
\:§71
I

TYPE4E

-
220A
140A

I
LEGEND
TYPEGW I
448A
I
~
----3PHASE 40K
- - - - - 2PHASE GROUP
I
- - - - - 1 PHASE \§7 FUSED I
/1 NODE NUMBER I
2~A MAX. LOAD CURRENT 1800-KVAR I
~:
~ POLE-MOUNTED
~ NAX. SHORT CIRCUIT CURRENT I
~ MIN. SHORT CIRCUIT CURRENT ~ 19 y CAPACITOR BANK
\l!IJ I !7
\§
0 GENERATOR
13 UJ...)J
rYYY\
local OIL CIRCUIT BREAKER

0 RECLOSER
@ SECTIONALIZER
~

-lf...
FUSE
SURGE

Figure 184.
Demonstration system for study of overvoltage protection.
238
 84
SYSTEM CONFIGURATION AND DATA Equipment Ratings
Although ~orne of the factors are not directly applicable, the 1 800 kvar Group-Fused Capacitor Bank
data requ1red for an overcurrent protection study will provide Unit rating: 14.4 kV, 300 kvar. BIL: 125 kV.
most of what is needed for an overvoltage protection study. In
addition, the voltage, BIL, and {for transformers) chopped-wave Type WVE Recloser and Type 4E Recloser
withstand (CWW) ratings of the equipment to be protected Voltage rating: 24.9 kV. BIL: 150 kV.
must be known.
Let us ~tart, then, by reviewing the final system diagram Type GW Sectionalizer
from Sect1on A4, the summary of overcurrent protection for a Voltage rating: 34.5 kV. BIL: 150 kV.
complete system. Reproduced here as Figure 1 84, it shows
all overcurrent protection equipment in place and identified Distribution Transformers
as to type and basic rating. As in the overcurrent exercise 250 kVA, three-phase.
distribution transformers are located at Nodes 5 and 7. Mar~ Voltage rating: 24.9 kV. BIL: 150 kV. CWW: 175 kV.
complete equipment data and details of line construction are
listed below; other information needed for arrester selection Our analysis of overvoltage protection requirements for
and to perform the insulation coordination will be introduced this system will begin with the overhead line, and then proceed
at appropriate points in the discussion. to the requirements for overcurrent protection devices (reclosers
and sectionalizers), capacitors, and distribution transformers.
Line Construction (See Figure 284) The 10 MVA transformer will not be addressed, since it is not
3-phase horizontal construction with 4-ft phase spacing. distribution-class equipment and presumably will be protected
30-ft pole with 3.5-ft spacing between center phase and by arresters at the substation.
ground conductor. Class 55-5 insulator (pin type)

11 )li"

20"

Figure 284.
Overhead line configuration.

239
B. Overvoltage Protection
4. SUMMARY OF PROTECTION FOR A COMPLETE DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM

Surge Arrester Selections and Applications

OVERHEAD LINE PROTECTION DISTRIBUTION EQUIPMENT PROTECTION
The overhead line configuration is shown in Figure 284. Reclosers and Sectionalizer
Although the information that will be obtained is not essential Since the two reclosers and the sectionalizer have the same
for arrester selection in this case, calculation of the phase-to- voltage and BIL ratings, their arrester requirements should
ground insulation withstand of the pole-top structure will coincide so far as protective characteristics are concerned,
contribute to understanding of the total overvoltage protection although the location and number of arresters may differ, as
scheme for the system while also serving as an exercise of will be discussed below.
potential value in other situations. Some of the conditions The circuit conditions that resulted in our choice of the 18 kV
requiring arrester selection by calculation are discussed in distribution-class MOV arrester from Table 483 apply also for
Section 83 under "Arrester Function and Selection." distribution equipment, pending a check on the margin of
Recall from the discussion of overhead line insulation in protection such an arrester will provide. The margin of protection
Section 82 that the critical impulse flashover (CFO) level of the for reclosers and sectionalizers, as discussed in Section 83,
pin-type insulator is 150 kV BIL. To calculate the insulation is calculated (see Table 283} as follows:
withstand, a 0.9 multiplier is used for porcelain, based on the
assumption of 90 percent of the CFO as conservative. Also, the Margin of Protection 2 = Equipment BIL -1
recommended design CFO value for wood is 100 kV per foot, (MP ) Arrester Discharge Voltage
2
and for air, 200 kV per foot. (In the calculations, the length or
distance for wood and air is stated in inches divided by 12.) From Table 483, it can be seen that the maximum
Both paths must be considered. discharge voltage for an 18 kV arrester in response to a 10 kA
surge is 60 kV. (Typical surge currents are 10 kA, 20 kA, and
• First path: porcelain insulator withstand= 0.9 (150 kV) 30 kA.) Substituting 60 kV into the MP2 equation with the
= 135 kV recloser and sectionalizer BIL of 150 kV yields the following:
wood withstand 100 kV (20/12} = 167 kV

The earlier discussion also points out that wood can be MP 2 = 150 -1 =1.5=150%
modeled electrically as a resistor in parallel with a capacitor, 60
and that porcelain can be modeled as a capacitor. Thus, the
effects are not additive. If the wood length is enough to produce This is considerably above the ANSI recommended minimum
a withstand greater than the insulator, as the case here, the margin of 20 percent for MOV surge arresters, but it does not
wood alone determines the insulation level. Therefore, the include an allowance for the effect of voltage drop on the
first-path insulation withstand is 167 kV. arrester connecting lead wires, for which it is common practice
to add a value of 1.6 kV to 2.0 kV per foot of connecting leads
• Second path: air withstand = 200 kV {11.175 + 11.25 + to the arrester discharge voltage. If we assume a typical lead
20}/12 = 707 kV length of five feet and assume 1.8 kV per foot,

The lower withstand of the two paths is 167 kV, which must
MP 2 = 150 -1=1.17=117%
be used in determining the insulation coordination margin.
60 + (5 X 1.8)
The two-phase and single-phase lines of this example would
have the same withstand, because the ground conductor
Having confirmed a 117% margin of protection, let us look now
position would always be located at the same distance below
at the number of arresters required and their recommended
a phase conductor.
connections and locations (Figure 384).
In this case, with no special system conditions to consider,
To assure complete protection for reclosers and sectionalizers,
arrester selection may be based on the recommendation for
the most common practice is for arresters to be connected
a 24.9 kV multigrounded system in Table 183 in Section 83.
from line terminals to ground on both source side and load
The appropriate listing, which allows for the highest expected
side of the equipment. However, series-coil reclosers and
operating voltage on such a system, indicates that an 18 kV
sectionalizers often have internal bypass gap assemblies, in
arrester should be used. A good choice, taking advantage of
which case arresters may be applied on the source side only.
recent developments in arrester technology, is the distribution-
In this example, the Type 4E recloser employs a series coil
class metal-oxide varistor arrester whose protective charac-
with an internal bypass assembly and thus requires a surge
teristics are listed in Table 483. Note that all characteristics of
arrester only on the source side. The Type WVE electronic
the 18 kV arrester are well below the 167 kV withstand level
recloser and Type GW electronic sectionalizer do not have
arrived at by the above calculations, thus confirming correctness
series coils, so arresters must be placed on both source and
of the selection.
load side of both devices.
In accordance with the guidelines for overhead line protection
discussed in Section 83, it is generally recommended that
arresters be placed on all three phases every 1200 feet.
Methods are available for determining optimum arrester location
based on lightning-stroke predischarge voltage and wave
propagation; however, such considerations are beyond the
scope of this manual.

240
 84

OH LINE:
ARRESTERS ON
ALL 3 PHASES TYPE 4E

-
220A
EVERY 1200 FT
/2
71A~
-
140A 105A

~
~ /3

Figure 384.
Protection of reclosers and sectionalizer. (Arresters for overhead line protection, indicated in note, are not shown.)

Distribution Transformers The margins of protection are obviously well above the
Oil-filled transformers exhibit increased insulation strength in recommended minimums. Unless there is a high-surge-capa-
the short-time area. This withstand capability is expressed by bility fuse link utilized or a high available fault current, the
the chopped-wave withstand (CWW), which is no less than arresters will be installed on the source side rather than the
1.15 times the transformers full-wave withstand. The CWW load side of the transformer primary fuses (Figure 484), but
rating corresponds to the transformer's ability to withstand recall that there are advantages and disadvantages to both
close-in lightning strokes and the accompanying backflash, locations, as summarized in Table 683.
while the BIL rating corresponds to the transformer's ability to
withstand strokes at a distance down the line. Therefore, UJ..)J
there are two margins of protection to be considered for the fYYY"\
~:/5
distribution transformers at Nodes 5 and 7: MP1 and MP2, as
shown graphically in Figure 583 in Section 83. Both margins
should be 20 percent or better.
Again, choose the 18 kV MOV arrester, pending examination
of the margins of protection it will provide. From Table 483,
®!I lfl.,.
the maximum equivalent front-of-wave protection level is 66 kV,
I
and the maximum discharge voltage at 10 kA is 60 kV. From I
the manufacturer's ratings, the transformer CWW is 175 kV I
and the BIL is 150 kV. Substituting these values into the MP1
and MP2 formulas (from Table 283) yields:

MP
1
= Chopped Wave Withstand _1 /8
Equivalent Front-of-Wave Protection Level

175
= 66 - 1 =1.65 =165%
I
I
MP2 = BIL -1 I
Arrester Discharge Voltage I
~ 40K
GROUP I
=1 ;g - = 1 1.5 = 150% \§7 FUSED I
I
Assuming five-foot arrester leads decreases the MP2
1800-KVAR
POLE-MOUNTED
L.....
I -
margin to:

MP2 = 60 + 150
(5 X 1.8) - 1 = 1.17 = 117%
/9
Y CAPACITOR BANK

@ •L
I-=
u..uJ-
fYYT\
Figure 484.
Protection of distribution transformers.
B. Overvoltage Protection
4. SUMMARY OF PROTECTION FOR A COMPLETE DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM
Surge Arrester Selections and Applications (Continued)

Capacitor Bank Allowing for five-foot arrester leads at 1.8 kV/ft modifies the
Surge arresters should be used on all capacitor banks and, margin to:
as discussed in Section 83, should be installed with leads as
short as possible and connected to ground. For a switched MP2 = 60 + ~~~ 1.8) - 1 =.81 =81%
bank, the highest energy condition arresters are likely to see
is the restrike of the capacitor bank switch when deenergizing
the line, but this is a rare occurrence. For most typical bank The 81 percent margin of protection, while less than for the
sizes mounted on poles, as in this example, distribution-class other applications cited, is still well above the recommended
arresters can dissipate the energy associated with a single minimum of 20 percent.
restrike. To minimize spurious fuse blowings on the capacitor, the
The selection here also is the 18 kV MOV arrester. Calculate arrester should be located on the source side of the fuse
the margin of protection as before, using the capacitor-bank cutout (Figure 584).
BIL rating of 125 kV.
SUMMARY
The system is now protected, using a minimum number of
MP2 = BIL -1 arresters (Figure 6B4).1n addition to protecting equipment on
Arrester Discharge Voltage
the system, attention has been given to keeping momentary

=1 ;g - = 1 1.08 =108%
interruptions to a minimum without the use of shield wires.
The fact that the same type and rating of distribution-class
arrester has been used for all the applications is not unusual, as
the standard recommendation for a particular type of system
may often serve a variety of needs, particularly if the system
is relatively simple as was the case here. Table 184 summarizes
the margins of protection for all of the distribution equipment
protected by arresters.
For more complicated systems or those operating at higher
voltages, the engineer may want to conduct a rigorous analysis
involving the probability of direct lightning strokes, exact arrester
discharge voltages based upon lead length, arrester location
on overhead lines based upon traveling wave reflections, or
increased protection afforded by shielding.

TABLE 184
Summary of Distribution-Equipment Overvoltage
!8
Protection
Arrester Protection Margin
Equipment BIL cww MP2 MP2
(kV) (kV) w/o leads with leads MP1
% % %
I WVE Recloser 150 150 117
I 4E Recloser 150 150 117
GW Sectionalizer 150 150 117
I Transformers 150 175 150 117 165
I
~
Capacitor Bank 125 108 81
I
~ I
I
1800-KVAR
~ POLE-MOUNTED
I
i9 y CAPACITOR BANK
®il- l
I !7
UJ..JJ"
fYYYl
-

Figure 584.
Protection of capacitor bank.

242
 84

UJJJ
rYYY'\

®f? I
I
~

HO UNE: I

40A

I
LEGEND I
I
- - - - 3PHASE
2 PHASE ~ I
I
1 PHASE ~ I
NODE \IUL-1BER
I
MAX. LOAD CURRENT 1800-KVAR
NAX. SHORT CIRCUIT CURRENT
MIN. SHORT CIRCUIT CURRENT

GENERATOR
~
~ /3
~
!9 I POLE-MOUNTED
y CAPACITOR BANK
®j!
rYYY'\
OIL CIRCUIT BREAKER

RECLOSER

SECTIONALIZER

FUSE

SUFiGE ARRESTER

Figure 684.
Demonstration system with all surge arresters in place or noted for protection lines and equipment against overvoltage.
Table 1 84 summarizes margins of protection for distribution equipment.

243
244
 Section C
SPECIAL SYSTEM CONSIDERATIONS

245
 Table of Contents
Page Page
Introduction ..................................247 Specific Protection Problems ......................257
1. EFFECTS OF INDUSTRIAL LOADS Nuisance Fuse Blowing ........................257
Basic Protection Requirements ....................249 Coordination and Reclosing Practices ............258
System Disturbances and Their Effects ..............249 Islanding ...................................259
Deviations in Voltage and Equipment Overload ..........................259
Other Basic System Conditions ................249 Resonant Overvoltages ........................260
Frequency Deviations .........................251 Harmonics ...... : ...........................260
Harmonics ..................................252 Fluctuating Generation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .260
Shared Responsibility ...........................252 Four Principal Rules for DSG Protection .............260

2. PROTECTION OF SYSTEMS WITH DISPERSED 3. PROTECTION OF SYSTEMS WITH

STORAGE AND GENERATION AUTOMATED DISTRIBUTION
How DSG Affects Distribution-System Operation ......253 Adaptability of Present-Day Switchgear .............261
DSG-Utility Interconnection and Loadbreak Switch for
Monitoring Practices ..........................254 Automated Distribution Systems .................261
Recommendations for Relaying Functions .........254 Application with Reclosers .....................262
Typical Protection Schemes ....................255 Conversion to Automation Blends Old and New .......262
INDEX OF FIGURES AND TABLES ................263
•••
REFERENCES AND CREDITS ....................264

246
 Section C
SPECIAL SYSTEM CONSIDERATIONS

An Introduction
The subjects in this section have been separated from the of special equipment on automated systems while emphasizing
main overcurrent and overvoltage discussions because, as the that existing switchgear is readily adaptable to the requirements
title implies, they involve considerations that are not necessarily of automation. The reader is encouraged to seek current
of universal interest to readers of the manual. Also, the separate information on special equipment from reliable industry sources.
treatment helps avoid repetition, since both overcurrents and Please remember that the protection principles and proce-
overvoltages are of concern in coping with the effects of dures covered in detail in Sections A and B are applicable to
industrial loads and in protecting systems with dispersed all of the conditions discussed here. Any special precautions
generation. or additions are clearly identified.
Because automated distribution is a highly dynamic subject,
the discussion here consists of a single example of the use

247
248
 Section C
SPECIAL SYSTEM CONSIDERATIONS

1. EFFECTS OF INDUSTRIAL LOADS

BASIC PROTECTION REQUIREMENTS Deviations In Voltage and
The application of circuit protection at a substation with Other Basic System Conditions
industrial loads follows the same basic rules as at other utility Electric power service to an industrial load must be able to
locations: to protect all circuits and equipment from abnormal meet the normal peak power demands, and to do so wl'!h
electric disturbances. When this is not attainable, the goal is minimum deviations in both voltage and frequency It aso
to minimize the effects. The primary purpose of substation should be relatively free from voltage surges or cistortioo,
protection, therefore, is to protect the main utility circuit from must maintain normal phase rotation in three-phase systems,
the effects of faults between the utility circuit breaker and and must not subject loads to single phasing.
service entrance equipment. Faults on the feeder should be Voltage deviations and loss of voltage can vary considerably
cleared quickly, so that other consumers served from the in duration, depending on the type of disturbance and the
source bus will not be affected. There also, of course, must method used to restore service. Such disturbances are very
be adequate protection at the industrial service entrance, unpredictable and can cause either a small voltage dip or a
and the utility's protection scheme should provide back-up to permanent fault resulting in isolation of part of the system.
this equipment for further assurance that a disturbance within
the plant will not affect other customers on the utility system. HIGH VOLTAGE UTILITY SOURCE
Figure 1C1 diagrams a protection scheme in which the utility's
circuit breaker provides primary protection to the main utility
circuit and serves as back-up to the breaker or interrupter at
the plant's service entrance. (Not all schemes will include the UTILITY CIRCUIT BREAKER
breaker labeled "Utility," and ownership of the "Plant" breaker UTILITY COMPANY
will vary.) Each feeder within the plant is protected so that
problem areas can be isolated to minimize their effects on t
--------
production.

SYSTEM DISTURBANCES AND THEIR EFFECTS

+
PLANT
PLANT CIRCUIT BREAKER
System disturbances are usually transient in nature and are OR FUSED INTERRUPTER
caused by short circuits. Although service may actually or in
essence be continuous, the resulting dip in voltage
may affect the operation of certain equipment. When the
disturbance is severe enough to cause tripping of the circuit
breaker and subsequent reclosing to restore power, this is
termed an outage, and the effects on equipment can be
much more severe. Complete stoppage of processes may MAIN BUS PLANT UTILIZATION \Ql.JAGE
occur that result in loss of production and considerable loss
to the industrial.
To provide some understanding of the effects of utility system
disturbances on industrial loads and of various related limitations FEEDER
and concerns, several tables are presented here from BREAKER
ANSI/IEEE Standard 242-1986, Recommended Practice for
Protection and Coordination of Industrial and Commercial
Power Systems- a volume often identified as "the IEEE buff PLANT FEEDERS
book." Table 1C1 lists the service deviation tolerances for
load and control equipment, Table 2C1 identifies typical caus- Figure 1C1.
es of some of the most common disturbances, and Table 3C1 Typical protection scheme for utility 'Ieeder .-.:1 induslrial
lists the minimum times required for restoration of service plant.
after loss of voltage and some of the precautions that should
be taken. It is suggested that the tables be studied in detail,
as the following text covers, in general terms, just a few
points of particular interest.

249
C. Special System Considerations
1. EFFECTS OF INDUSTRIAL LOADS (Continued)

TABLE 1C1
Electric Service Deviation Tolerances for Load-and-Control Equipment
Voltage
Distortion:
Device Voltage Level* Frequency Comment
Harmonic
Content
Alarms, systems operating on loss Variable - -
of voltage
Capacitors for power factor
correction +10% to -110% .. +0% to -iOO%
Communication equipment ±5%t Variable -
Computers, data processing +1/~ Hz to
equipment ±10% for 1 eyelet 5% -1 /2Hz
Contactors, motor starters
Alternating-current coil burnout +10% to -15% - -
Alternating-current coil dropout+ -30% to -40% for 2 cycles - -
Direct-current coil dropout -30% to -40% for 5 to
10 cycles
Electronic tubes ±5% Variable -
Lighting
Fluorescent -10% - Uncertain starts, reduced life.
-25% - - Lamp will extinguish.
Incandescent +18% - 10% of normal life.
Mercurv vapor -50% for 2 cvcles - - Lamp will extinauish.
Motors, standard induction(i) ±10% - ±5% Sum of absolute values of
voltage and frequency
deviation shall be no greater
than ±10%.
Resistance loads furnaces heaters Variable - -
Solenoids, shut-off valves for gas or
oil-fired furnaces, magnetic chucks,
-30% to -40% for 112 cycle - -
brakes, clutches
Transformers +5% with rated kVA s0.80 PF - Voltage deviations apply at
+ 10% with no load rated frequency. If frequency
drops, voltage limits must
reduce proportionally.
Inverters (gaseous, thyristor) +5% with full load 2% ±2Hz Firing circuits and transformers
+ 10% with no load general!( determine toler-
-1 0% transient ances. I supply voltage is
+5%, transformer loading
must be reduced by 5%.
Rectifiers
Diode (gaseous) +5% with full load Sensitive® - If supplrc voltage is +5%, trans-
+ 10% with no load former oading must be
-1 0% transient reduced by 5%.
Diode (solid state) ±10% Sensitive® - Some rectifier s~tems are
rated by NEMA 3 for voltage
deviation of +5% to -1 0%.
Phase controlled ±5% with full load 2% ±2Hz Firing circuits and transformers
(gaseous, thyristor) + 10% with no load ~enerally determine tolerances.
-1 0% transient f supply voltage is +5%,
transformer loading must
be reduced by 5%.
Generators ±5% Sensitive\Y -5% Voltage tolerance is generally
a function of ~enerator design.
Surge protecttve devices
should be applied at generator
terminals.

. Turbines (steam) - - -1%

..
It tS assumed that properly selected llghtntng arresters and surge protecttve eqwpment are tnstelled throughout the system. Devtatton tolerance 1s conttnuous
unless specified. Percent 110ltage balance (100 X maximum voltage deviation from average volte~e)/average 110ltage.
•• capacitor ratings are based on a nominal voltage distortion caused by overexcited transformers. Silicone-controlled-rectifier phase-controlled loads may cause
additional and excessive distortion.
! Voltage tolerances may not be applicable for equipment with integral power supply or 110ltege regulator.
+ This type of contactor is not recommended where trip-outs due to voltage dips are undesirable.
<D Phase voltages should be balanced as closely as can be read on the usual commercial voltmeter.
<ll Presence of harmonics may raise or lower direct output IIOitage, balance between phases, or balance between rectllier units operating in parallel. Systems with
rectifiers or Inverters may contain harmonics that cause nonsellent pole generator overheating. Generator load reduction may be required as a function of the
number of phases in the rectifier system as follows: 24 phases - no reduction; 12 phases - 8% reduction; 6 phases - 10% reduction.
®NEMA MG1·1978, Motors and Generators.

250
 C1
Frequency Deviations
Deviations in frequency from the nominal system value may
be undesirable for some loads, particularly computers.
However, frequency deviation usually is associated with
some other system problem and a drop in system voltage. It
usually indicates that the total load connected to the power
source is greater than the capability of the system to supply
the load.

TABLE 2C1
Electric Power-System Disturbances
Disturbance Duration Effect on System Typical Cause•
Voltage level Steady ±10% voltage Normal ~stem voltage variation resulting
change from loa changes.
Voltage swing 10 cycles to ±30% voltage Motor starting, shock loads, furnace loads,
5min welders, planers, chippers, roughing drives.
Voltage transients* Up to 30 +100% to -50% voltage Remote system faults, switching surges
cycles lightning strokes, capacitor switching.**
Voltage flicker Variable Voltage variations Repetitive voltage swings or .transients.
Voltage loss A 1 s maximum Down to 0% voltage Power transmission s~tem or distribution
system faults, networ system faults.t
Voltage loss B 1 min maximum Down to 0% voltage Power system faults or equipment failure
requiring reclosing or resvnchronizing operation.t
Voltage loss C Extended -1 00% voltage Permanent power system faults, equipment failure,
accidental opening of power circuit breaker.
Voltage wave-shape Variable Fundamental or harmonic Arcing faults, ferroresonance, switching,
distortion, harmonics, voltage up to +200% transients, transformer, iron core reactor or
noise ballast magnetizing requirements, controlled
rectifiers, commutators, arc discharge, fluorescent
lamps, motors.
Voltage unbalance Steady Up to 10% voltage variation among Single-phase or unbalanced loads on three-
phases of three-phase svstem phase system. .
Single phasing Extended Down to 0% voltage on one Open conductor, switching with single-pole
phase of three-phase system devices, fuse blowing, circuit breaker or
contactor failure.
Power direction Variable Change of flow of current Supply system faults, loss of transmissloo
change, short circuits or power. lines, synchronizing power surges, switching.
Frequency change Variable +1 to-2Hz Loss of generation or utility supply line.
* It is assumed that properly selected lightning arresters and surge protective equipment are installed throughout the system.
•• Some types of switching transients may be amplified by coincident resonance of power-factor capacitors and transformer inductances at the swildling ~
t Disturbance may be in either the utility or consumer system. Disturbance may be isolated in 3 to 30 cycles by circuit breakers or 35 cycles by netwcn: ~
after which serv1ce may be restored to disturbance-free portion of system.

251
B. Overvolta Protection
1. FUNDA NTALS AND THEORY

Harmonics SHARED RESPONSIBILITY

In this case, the disturbance on the system and related problems It is important that the utility take into consideration the char-
may originate within the industrial plant, as a result of harmonic acteristics and limitations of the industrial loads it is serving,
voltages or waveshape distortions. Voltage levels at the and equally important that the industrial customer be familiar
industrial loads can appear to be normal, and yet there may with and understand the protection schemes for both the sub-
be severe overheating of the generator or interference with station and the supply lines. The utility not only must protect
communication or signal systems. Harmonic voltages can be its own system but also do everything possible, including
amplified if power-factor capacitors are used within an indus- consultation as necessary and the mutual establishment of
trial plant. The shunt capacitance and source inductance standards, to provide quality service, with a minimum of inter-
form a parallel circuit that is an extremely high impedance at ruptions, to the industrial. To accomplish this the utility and
a specific frequency, and often this frequency coincides with the industrial must install circuit protection for their respective
harmonic current generated by some load, such as rectifiers systems that is appropriate to the physical arrangement, ~he
or static motor drives. If supply transformers are not required, equipment and processes to be protected, and th~ serv1?e
harmonics can produce interference at the utility substation. continuity needed. If there is doubt as to how an mdus~nal
system and various loads will behave as a result of poss1ble
system disturbances, a study should be conducted.

TABLE 3C1
Restoration of Service after Loss of Voltage
Minimum Time to Comments
Method Restore Service
Re-energize circuit*
Automatic reclosing after temporary fault 25 to 70 cycles If motor loads exist that support plant voltage after loss
of system voltage, then reclosing must be delayed either
Remote-controlled reclosing Up to 1 min for a definite time or until residual plant voltage has
of circuit breakers or switches decayed to less than 25% of normal, or as recommended
bh manufacturer to prevent dama~e to motors. Reclosing
Manual or remote-controlled Up to 1 hr or longer s ould be in accordance with AN I C50.41-1982
reclosing after manual isolation of cause (i.e., the impressed voltage should not exceed 1.33 V/Hz
of disturbance; replacement of fuses of rated value):
Transfer incoming line to alternate International time delay may eliminate unnecessary
power sourcet transfer under some conditions.
Automatic transfer Up to 30 cycles
Manual transfer Up to 30 min
Start generators in consumer system Variable Standby generation maybe sufficient to supply
emergency or critical loads.
• Reclosing must include resynchronizlng 11 consumer generators are operating 1n parallel With utility system.
t May include transfer of emergency lighting and loads to a battery source or engme-dnven generators. ..
CAUTION: Do not apply automatic or remote reclosing on circuits consisting of cables or transformers where recloslng will relnit1ate the permanent faults
associated with such equipment.

252
 Section C
SPECIAL SYSTEM CONSIDERATIONS

2. PROTECTION OF SYSTEMS WITH

DISPERSED STORAGE AND GENERATION
An increasing number of customer-owned generators is UTILiiY p
being connected to distribution systems as a result of the
Public Utility Regulator Policies Act (PURPA) of 1978. When
~~~----r---------~--------~--
1
the capacity of such dispersed storage and generation (DSG)
becomes significant compared to the feeder load capacity,
several operating problems may arise. Some of the concerns
Itp 1
~
are:
1. Safety of utility personnel.
2. Short-circuit currents and coordination of overcurrent LOAD
protective devices. LOAO
3. Overvoltages.
4. Islanding (the ability of a DSG facility to continue to
provide power to some loads after being isolated from the DSG
utility). Figure 1C2.
5. Harmonics. Utility distribution system with DSG.
6. Fluctuating generation.
These concerns encompass both normal operating conditions Personnel safety is of particular concern. During scheduled
and fault conditions, and in some cases the utility and DSG maintenance and repair as well as during emergencies, utilities
owner may approach them from different, or even conflicting, need to isolate or deenergize appropriate portions of the circuit.
points of view. Both perspectives should be given attention, To assure that this is done, they must know the location of all
of course, in establishing criteria for DSG facilities and operation. the power sources in their system and have visible and lockable
breaks to isolate them.
HOW DSG AFFECTS DISTRIBUTION-SYSTEM To accommodate DSG, many utilities have made changes
OPERATION in their distribution practices: for example, not allowing the
Conventional distribution-system protection schemes and use of single-phase protective devices between the utility
devices are designed for application on a radial system, with transformer and three-phase DSG. Also, recognizing the
power flowing only in one direction and the substation trans- need for more time for DSG breakers to operate after a fault
former serving as the system's only source of power. These (up to one second), utilities may use longer reclosing intervals.
characteristics permit isolation of a fault by interrupting the One condition sometimes overlooked by utilities is the
circuit at only one point. The closer to the cause of the abnormal possibility of resonant overvoltages and the high-energy
condition the circuit is interrupted, the fewer customers will discharge capability required from arresters for this condtion.
be affected, which means that service interruption can be As discussed below under "Resonant Overvoltages,' station-
minimized by careful selection and coordination of protective class arresters may be required for connections irnlotving
devices throughout the distribution system. generators 100 kW or larger.
The addition of dispersed generation changes the distribution In the utility-DSG relationship, protection must be rec4>ro-
system from a passive one to an active one. That is, power cal. The utility system and other loads must be protected
may flow in more than one direction, with loads being supplied against the adverse effects of any undesirable coocil:ions on
by more than one power source as shown in Figure 1C2. This the DSG side, and the DSG facility must be protected against
of course complicates the basic role of electric utilities, which any damage from the utility (Reference 1). As staled earlier,
is to supply safe and reliable electric power to their cus- problems can occur during normaJ operation or t:Uing faults.
tomers. Historically, it has been relatively easy to accomplish The following discussions will ~ protection of the
this, since utilities have had complete control over the gener- utility system from the DSG, altflot.9l DSG concerns wtl be
ation, transmission, and distribution of electric power. With mentioned when appropriate. FirSt, we will 1ake a liook at
the addition of dispersed storage and generation devices, some of the current DSG-uliity inlercol•ledion and monioring
however, utilities no longer can exercise total control over all practices, and then examine speciic proEction problems and
aspects of system operation, but they can and do take steps, recommended solutions.
such as the establishment of minimum interconnection
requirements, to assure that the dispersed sources of electric
power will not adversely affect their systems. These require-
ments must satisfy utilities' criteria regarding personnel safety,
service continuity, and service quality.

253
C. Special System Considerations
2. PROTECTION OF SYSTEM WITH DISPERSED STORAGE AND GENERATION (Continued)

TABLE 1C2
Utility Requirements for Connection of DSG to Distribution System
DSG Type and Rating (All 1 and 3 Phase)
Minimum Requirements* 10kW 100kW 1 MW
·10kW -1 MW
·100 kW
Visible Disconnect - I s T I s T I s T
Dedicated Transformer (at or below 480 V) - - - I s T I s T I s T
Sense Feeder/Fault Outage - - - I s T I s T I s T
Overvoltage (59) - - I s T I s T I s T
Undervoltage (27) -- - I s T I s T I s T
Neg. Phase Sequence IN (46) - - - - - - - I s T
Zero Sequence IN
Directional Overcurrent (67)
- - - - - - - -- - - -
-
-
Overcurrent (50/51) - I s T I s T I s T
Neutral Ground CurrenVGround Fault (50G/51G) - - - - - - I s T I s T
Overfrequency (81/0) - - - s s T - s T
Underfrequency (81/U) - s T - s T - s T - s T
Voltage Restraint Overcurrent (51 V)
Anti-lslandin!) Mean
- -
- -
I s
-
T
-
I
-
s
-
T
-
I
I
s
s
T
T
Power Directional Relay (32) - s - - s - s - s
Power Factor Correction - - - I I - -
Synchronizing (man/auto) (25) - s s s -- - s
Phase Sequence (47) - s - - s - I s I s T
Block Close of DSG Into Dead Feeder - s - - s - - s T I s T
Specify Grade of Relay Equipment
Sense Current Unbalance (60)
- - -
- -
I s
-
T I
I
s
s
T
T
I
I
s
s
T
T
Communications/Telemetry - - - - - - - - I s T
I - Induction generators S- Synchronous generators T- Inverters
• Standard device function numbers are in parentheses; see Table 3C2.

DSG·UTILITY INTERCONNECTION AND Recommendations for Relaying Functions

MONITORING PRACTICES The relay functions recommended for most three-phase DSG
The normal practice in protecting the distribution system from installations - that is, the conditions and characteristics that
DSG facilities is to provide for sensing one or two parameters must be continuously monitored to assure detection of faults
as primary protection and one or more backup parameters as and other abnormalities - are:
secondary protection in case the primary protection malfunc- • Overcurrent.
tions. These requirements vary from utility to utility, and only • Unbalanced voltage.
typical configurations will be discussed here. • Undervoltage/overvoltage.
Protection requirements vary also with the size and type of • Over/under frequency.
DSG device, and the point of connection with the utility. • Synchronism check (for synchronous generators).
Typical size breakpoints for protection requirements are: The monitored conditions and what such relaying accom-
• Below 10 kW. plishes in DSG protective schemes are summarized in Table
• 10 kW to 100 kW. 2C2. With the foot-noted exceptions, the table applies to
• 100 kW to 1 MW. single-phase as well as three-phase generators.
• Above 1 MW.
Table 1C2 shows typical utility-mandated minimum require- TABLE 2C2
ments for connection of the distribution system with DSG Recommended Protective Relay Functions for DSG
facilities involving various sizes of induction and synchronous Installations
generators and inverters. This information is based on the (Single-Phase and Three-Phase Except As Noted)
interface requirements of 17 utilities. Protective Function
Monitored Condition
In general, utility specifications cover all the equipment
needed for fault detection, including possible redundancy, as Overvoltage/Undervoltage Detect Faults
Prevent Accidental
a safeguard, with both voltage sensing and current sensing. Energization of Utility Line
Unbalanced Voltage* Detect Faults and
Abnormal Load Conditions
Over/Under Frequency* Detect Islanding Conditions
Overcurrent Detect Overload, Internal
Faults, and External Faults
(If Generator Supplies Fault
Current)
Synchronism Verifies Frequency, Phase
Angle, or Voltage to Permit
Paralleling of Synchronous
Generator and System
• Small, single-phase generators do not need unbalance detection. Also, 11
feeder penetration is low, islanding should not be a problem with single-
phase generators, so there is no need lor frequency relays.

254
 C2

Typical Protection Schemes A typical protection scheme for a medium-size generator

In general, utility requirements are the least stringent for (between 11 and 99 kW) is shown in Figure 3C2. Note that
installations involving small generators (below 10 kW), unless some schemes may include a utility breaker, indicated by bro-
penetration is considerable on a single feeder. A typical min- ken lines, for duplication of protection and to provide a means for
imum protection configuration is shown in Figure 2C2. The disconnection. The monitored conditions are negative-
conditions/characteristics being monitored are current, by sequence voltage (47), generatorovercurrent (50/51), under-
means of current-sensing molded-case breakers, undervoltage voltage (27), overvoltage (59), and frequency (81). Table 2C2
(27), and overvoltage (59). (Note: Circled numbers in the shows the potential abnormalities and the characteristics
figures and in Table 1C2 are standard identifications for being monitored for their detection. If the generator is synchro-
protective devices and characteristics as listed in ANSI/IEEE nous, a synchronizing relay (25) will be used together with a
037.2-1979. The identifications used in this section are listed second set of PTs on the generator side of breaker 2. With
in Table 3C2.) medium generators, some utilities allow the use of molded-case
breakers for overcurrent protection, as in the small-generator
example (Figure 2C2}, instead of circuit breakers with CT's

~~>--------r:c--
and relays.
For large generators (usually between 100 kW and 1 MW)
the protection requirements may be extensive like the ones
SOURCE shown in Figure 4C2. This scheme not only provides generator
protection but also protects the system. Protection redundancy
assures removal of the generator under various abnormal
conditions. For example, a fault on the utility side of the
dedicated transformer may be detected by the time-overcur-
rent devices (51 /51 N), the undervoltage relay (27), and the
reverse-power relay (32).

UTI LilY

~~~--------_-1~_--um__ Lt_lY_________

I I BREAKER
~

GENERATOR

Figure 2C2.
Minimum protection scheme for a distribution system
with DSG.

TABLE 3C2 LOAD

Standard Device or Relay Identifications*
Number I Function or Monitored Condition
25 Synchronism Check
27 Undervoltage
32 Directional Power
40 Field Failure GENERATOR
46 Reverse Phase Current
47 Phase Sequence Voltage Figure 3C2.
50 Instantaneous Overcurrent Typical DSG protection scheme for a medium-size
51 Time-Delay Overcurrent
generator.
59 Overvoltage
60 Current Balance
67 Directional Overcurrent
81 Frequency
87 Differential Protective
..
* Part1al hst1ng from ANSI-IEEE C37.2-1979

255
C. Special System Considerations
2. PROTECTION OF SYSTEM WITH DISPERSED STORAGE AND GENERATION (Continued)

DEDICATED
TRANSFORMER
I PT

LOADS

* REQUIRED BY UTILITY

Figure 4C2.
Typical DSG protection requirements for a large generation facility.

256
 C2
SPECIFIC PROTECTION PROBLEMS In Figure 6C2, plots of J2t vs. time for a 12.47 kV feeder
As stated previously, the addition of dispersed electric power with three different sizes of dispersed synchronous genernlofs
sources to a distribution system affects utility operation during (100, 1000, and 2000 kW), and a 100 T fuse iink. are
both normal and abnormal conditions. Following are discussions compared with the plot for a 12.47 kV feeder without <ispersed
of some of the specific and most common problems and generation. The available fault current is 2500 amperes.
recommended solutions to those problems. Figure 7C2 makes the same comparisons, assuming 125()
amperes of fault current.
Nuisance Fuse Blowing
Because most distribution systems are radial, their protection A FEEDER WITHOUT DISPERSED GENERATORS
schemes take advantage of the fact that current flows only in (2500 A OF FAULT CURRENT AVAILABLE)
B FEEDER WITH 100 kW GENERATOR
one direction, from the source (substation) towards the fault C FEEDER WITH 1000 kW GENERATOR
(Figure 5C2[A]). The protective devices are time-current D FEEDER WITH 2000 kW GENERATOR
coordinated so that the device closest to the fault is the one 1.5
called upon to operate first and isolate the fault. With fault-
supporting DSG connected to the system, however, faults will D
have additional short-circuit current contributions from the
c
B
substation that may affect the coordination (Figure 52C[B]).
z 1.0
X

0
UTILITY SOURCE CONTRIBUTION ~
g
~~~-----~n b
;i 0.5
u:

(A)

SOURCE CONTRIBUTION
* ~

50 100 150
TIME FROM INSTANT OF FAULT (ms)
200

Figure 6C2.
I2t for three-phase faults on three sizes of synchronous
GENERATOR machines and with available fault current of 2500
CURRENT
CONTRIBUTION
amperes.

A FEEDER WITHOUT DISPERSED GENERATORS

(1250 A OF FAULT CURRENT AVAILABLE)
B FEEDER WITH 100 kW GENERATOR
C FEEDER WITH 1000 kW GENERATOR
D FEEDER WITH 2000 kW GENERATOR
Figure 5C2. 0.4
Short-circuit current contributions during faults for a D
utility alone, and for utility with DSG.

Investigators have made analyses to determine the additional z

0
energy a fuse on the distribution system would experience ~ 0.2
due to the dispersed sources (Reference 1). Instead of using
the traditional time-current characteristic (TCC) approach, 9b
they used the amount of energy accumulated in the fuse for :::>
11:0.1
a given time - the reason being the wide variation in current
contributions of the rotating machines during the first cycles. ~
This energy, often expressed as I2t, is mathematically I2t = J' i2dt.
50 100 1150 ::!IX
TIME FROM INStt.NT ~ FHll ('Dims;

Figure 7C2.
I2t for three-phase fautts on three sizes ol SJ!Ddllr1011101L11S
machines and with available fault cwreRI: af12SO
amperes.

257
C. Special System Considerations
2. PROTECTION OF SYSTEMS WITH DISPERSED STORAGE AND GENERATION (Continued)

The fuse I2t characteristic is nearly constant for the time recloser (or relay) setting for the initial trip operation. Also, the
period considered; melting time is determined from the inter- total fault-current interrupting capability of the fuse should be
section of the fuse I2t withstand curve and the current I2t verified.
curve. As can be seen, nuisance fuse blowing is likely to The utility should either be prepared to handle the grounding
occur on feeders with 1000 kW of dispersed generation. The transformer effect in its protection scheme or should avoid
1000 kW of generating capacity does not have to be the grounded-wye/delta connection for DSG (Reference 2).
concentrated in one site but can be spread over the feeder.
If the generators are connected to the utility through a Coordination and Reclosing Practices
grounded-wye/delta transformer (wye to utility), they would Because most distribution-system faults are temporary, utilities
contribute to a single-line-to-ground fault. This type of installation rely on automatic circuit reclosers or reclosing circuit breakers
affects the fuse melting time enormously, with the generator to allow such faults to clear themselves and thus avoid
contributing only a portion of the extra energy and the rest of unnecessary isolation of the faulted portion from the rest of
it coming from the transformer. It is likely that this transformer the feeder. One of the requisites for this system to work is
will remain energized when the generator is out of service. that the feeder be radial, but of course the addition of DSG
Figure 8C2 shows the I2t for a single-line-to-ground fault on devices to the distribution system makes it a loop system.
three sizes of synchronous generators connected through a Failure to disconnect the DSG before the first utility reclosing
grounded-wye/delta transformer. may result either in temporary faults not clearing because of
infeed from the DSG, or in damage to DSG devices and utility
equipment.
A. D FEEDER WITH 100 kW GENERATOR
B. E FEEDER WITH 1000 kW GENERATOR In normal utility practice, when there is a fault a protective
C, F FEEDER WITH 2000 kW GENERATOR device opens and recloses two or three times so that the fault
A, B, C DISPERSED GENERATOR DE-ENERGIZED
AND TRANSFORMER ENERGIZED
will either clear itself or become isolated on a relatively small
D, E, F BOTH DISPERSED GENERATOR AND portion of the system. To achieve this a combination of fast
TRANSFORMER ENERGIZED and delayed curves is used on relay/ breaker combinations or
2.5
reclosers. For a temporary fault on the system shown in
Figure 9C2, the recloser will open on a fast curve to clear the
~ 2.0 F fault, and if the DSG protective devices do not sense the fault
~ and react to it, the temporary fault will not be isolated and will
appear to be permanent. The recloser will then operate on a
z 1.5
X
E
delayed curve, allowing the fuse to blow.
0
~
g 1.0
~
PROTECTION CHOICES
The problem of generator infeed making a temporary fault
~
:::;) appear permanent can be solved by having a fast, reliable
~ 0.5 method of detecting fault conditions at the utility/generator
';;:
~
interface, such as voltage sensing or current sensing. If
islanding is a possibility, the utility's reclosing scheme should
be modified in order to block reclosing when voltage is pres-
ent on the load side of the breaker.
The elapsed time between the first opening and the first
Figure 8C2.
J2t for a single-line-to-ground fault on three sizes of reclosing operation is usually between one-half and two sec-
synchronous machines. onds. This time span should be enough if the DSG protective
devices are able to detect the fault and function properly. This
may not always be the case, however, and utility engineers
should make a judgment based on specific DSG characteristics,
PROTECTION CHOICES including the number of dispersed facilities on a feeder, their
The problem of nuisance fuse blowing can be solved by size and location and their protective equipment. It is recom-
properly coordinating the protective devices to take into mended that utilities using half-second intervals for the first
consideration the infeed caused by the generator. This can reclosing extend them on feeders with DSG devices.
be accomplished by changing fuse sizes or selecting a faster

RECLOSER
/
SOURCE GENERATOR
CONTRIBUTION CONTRIBUTION

Figure 9C2.
Short-circuit current contributions during temporary faults.

258
 C2
Islanding
"Islanding" is the ability of a DSG facility to provide power to Because of this possibility, to avoid damage !hat I1"'IIJl1 be
some loads after being isolated from the utility. A requisite for caused by closing out of phase, the utility shlOUid blo::X
islanding is that the DSG be capable of self-excitation, such reclosing if voltage is present on the load side of lhe ~
as with a synchronous generator or a self-commutated device.
inverter. Line-commutated inverters and induction machines
are not capable of self-excitation, although a power-factor Equipment Overload
capacitor bank can provide the reactive power for excitation DSG devices connected through delta/delta transforrr:ers
of such equipment and support islanding at least for a short tend to force the unfaulted phase voltage to 1.73 per ll1il dLrirlg
period of time. single-line-to-ground faults. For this reason, some utii:tJies
The utility must be concerned about the possible require that the generator be connected through an ~~
consequences of islanding if there is a chance of its going grounded transformer.
undetected by the protective devices. Personnel safety and There could be high zero-sequence currents present in the
quality of service (voltage level and frequency) are the main grounded-wye/delta bank under normal loading if the gener-
reasons for concern. Islanding alone is not a problem, pro- ator and its transformer are small with respect to the capaci-
vided the DSG facility is reconnected to the distribution system ty of the feeder. For example, Figure 1OC2(A) shows a bank
only after utility service has been restored and synchronization of three-percent-impedance distribution transformers and a
verified. Another concern is that reclosing of the utility breaker zero-sequence voltage of two percent at the transformer con-
may damage DSG devices. nection point. As indicated in Figure 10C2(B), the circulating
current in the bank would be 67 percent of the transformer
PROTECTION CHOICES rated current, which may result in overheating of the trans-
The ideal protection scheme should have a communication former when added to the transformer load current.
link between the utility relays and the DSG device to avoid
islanding: that is, when the utility substation switching device PROTECTION CHOICES
is opened, the DSG will also be disconnected, even if the One way to solve the grounded-wye/delta transformer problem
DSG relays do not detect the islanding situation. In practice, is to use a grounding impedance as shown in Figure 1OC2(C).
however, such communications equipment may not be feasi- This impedance will look high to the system for faults but low
ble, and in lieu of it, voltage and frequency sensing are used from the generator. The reactance of this device should be
to detect islanding. When the generator output does not such that the Xo to X1 ratio at the high-voltage terminals of
match the load at the instant of isolation, both voltage and the generator transformer is at least 3.0 with the generator
frequency or speed, will vary significantly enough to warrant and transformer isolated from the distribution system. The
isolation of the DSG in a short period of time. single-line-to-ground fault-current contribution from the DSG
In theory- and the argument can be made that it may happen with the grounding impedance will be almost the same as
- there could be cases where neither voltage nor frequency when the transformer is connected delta/delta.
change fast enough to be reliably detected.

2%ZERO

~~~--------------s-ea_u_e_Nr~-e-vo_l_~_G_e___
. . I,..3.
b.

DSG
(A)

I= ·~ = 0.67 p.u.
· or
67%
(B)

Figure 1OC2.
Effect of zero-sequence YOftage on grounded-wyefdetta DSG transfoma' Ia*.
259
C. Special System Considerations
2. PRCJTECTION O F SYSTEMS WITH DISPERSED STORAGE AND GENERATION (Contrnued)

Resonant Overvoltages because of all the possible loading conditions. For a better
Another DSG effect of concern to the utility is resonant over- understanding of this highly complex subject, please refer to
voltages resulting from the isolation of a synchronous generator the discussion of harmonics under "Overvoltages of System
with some capacitance (power-factor capacitors or line Origin" in Section 81.
capacitance) during a single-line-to-ground fault. The circuit
in Figure 11 C2 shows a situation in which resonance can be Fluctuating Generation
developed between the generator impedance and the capac- Another problem that may be experienced on distribution
itor bank. If the voltage is allowed to rise unconstrained, it will systems with a large penetration of DSG devices is fluctuating
result in insulation damage. generation, such as that produced by wind generators during
gusting conditions and by photovoltaic devices due to clouds.
UTILITY The circuit used in a studied case involving fluctuating gen-
eration at a wind farm (Reference 1) is shown in Figure 12C2.

~~
Here a voltage regulator is connected at the feeder midpoint
to keep the voltage at the end of the feeder relatively con-
stant, but investigation revealed that the regulator is ineffec-
T tive in achieving that goal. Also, the regulator is subjected to
an excessive number of operations in a short period of time,
resulting in maintenance problems.

DSG I~-~- u>-------11!;----f

Figure 11C2.
Circuit condition conductive to resonance during a Figure 12C2.
slngl&-lin&-to-ground fault. Gusting at a wind generation facility may cause
fluctuation in gereration output.

PROTECTION CHOICES
Some investigators (Reference 1) have found that conven- PROTECTION CHOICES
tional sensing is not fast enough to avoid equipment damage in The ideal - but not necessarily the most practical - solution
the situation just described, and that surge arresters are needed to this problem is an automated system that will detect the
to protect against resonant over-voltages. They recommend undesirable conditions and either limit the maximum output
arrester protection on both primary and secondary sides, of the DSG until the fluctuations cease or disconnect the DSG.
with arresters sized to absorb the energy in the circuit for as In lieu of this, the solution is to use a dedicated feeder for the
much as ten cycles. Small generators may be adequately wind farm. Since the main distribution system is inherently
protected with distribution-class arresters. However, because stiff enough to resist the fluctuations, only the loads on the
of the energy requirements, generators 100 kW and above feeder itself will be affected.
may require station-class arresters.
FOUR PRINCIPAL RULES FOR DSG PROTECTION
Harmonics While some specific problems will obviously require special
DSG devices are sometimes connected to the utility system consideration, the main requirements for adequate protection
through solid-state power converters, whose characteristics of distribution systems with DSG facilities can be summarized
are such that they result in substantial harmonics on the utility in these four rules:
side. Harmonic currents flowing in the system cause voltage 1. Do not use single-phase interrupting devices between a
drops that distort the 60 Hz line voltage, and the magnitude three-phase generator and the utility transformer.
of these currents is largely influenced by the frequency char- 2. Locate interrupting devices between the DSG and feeder
acteristics of the feeder. capacitor banks to minimize concerns regarding reso-
Harmonic current magnification also may occur as a result nance and self-excitation of induction generators.
of resonance when small capacitor banks are placed on DSG 3. Recoordinate branch fuses with upline reclosers if the total
devices. For this reason, the utility must be cautious before DSG generating capacity on a feeder exceeds 1000 kW.
requiring power-factor correction to DSGs that are large VAR 4. Check for harmonic distortion if the DSG is a lin~ommutated
consumers, unless harmonic filters are part of the power- inverter. Power-factor-correction capacitors may be needed
factor correction scheme. and may be applied in conjunction with a harmonic filter.
PROTECTION CHOICES This somewhat simplified summary presupposes that the
A simple harmonic filter is a series resonant combination of an interconnection requirements and transformer recommendations
inductor and a capacitor tuned at a particular frequency. One discussed above have been satisfied.
of the problems with the application of filters is that they not
only absorb the harmonic current from the nearby source but
also from other parts of the distribution system. Therefore, filter
design should be carefully tailored to the particular DSG
installation.
Regardless of the source of harmonics, a single suppres-
sion scheme is difficult to design for distribution feeders

260
 Section C
SPECIAL SYSTEM CONSIDERATIONS

3. PROTECTION OF SYSTEMS WITH

AUTOMATED DISTRIBUTION
In relating automation to system protection, the area of LOADBREAK SWITCH FOR AUTOMATED
concern is overcurrent protection, since surge arresters, the DISTRIBUTION SYSTEMS
principal means of achieving overvoltage protection, are Regardless of the specifics of system design, most switching
essentially passive devices that function only in response to operations on automated systems are generally for the purpose
excessive voltage and therefore cannot themselves be of achieving fault isolation or circuit reconfiguration. Tests and
subjected to controls. The overcurrent devices of interest experimental installations of systems using automated
include all types of switchgear, such as breakers, reclosers, switchgear control have shown a common need for line current
sectionalizers, and switches. Fusing equipment, on the other information (fault presence), often during the absence of aux-
hand, is not applicable to automated systems because of the iliary power. One switchgear device that has been developed
manual attention it requires. in response to this need is the McGraw-Edison Type F loadbreak
switch. It is discussed below to demonstrate how a specially
ADAPTABILITY OF PRESENT-DAY SWITCHGEAR designed device can be blended with conventional fault-
Since the focus here is on distribution-system protection, we protection operations to provide effective system operation
will not discuss such aspects of automation as master controls under supervisory or automated control.
and methods of communication (radio, powerline carrier, ripple, The three-phase, gang-operated, loadbreak switch -
telephone, etc.). These do not affect the basic principles of designed for operation on supervisory-controlled or automated
distribution protection, which apply regardless of the degree distribution systems - is shown in Figure 1C3. It employs
or method of automation. The switchgear devices discussed vacuum interruption, with the three-pole interrupter structure
in Section A as well as other switching devices can all be enclosed in an oil-filled tank and coupled to a stored-energy
used, with presumably enhanced effectiveness as a result of spring operating mechanism. Electrical ratings are listed in
properly designed automation. Table 1C3.
As the component that actually does the work of fault inter- Two salient features equip this device to provide the
ruption and isolation in overcurrent protection, switch-gear switching operations needed on an automated distribution
plays an important role in automated systems. Conventional feeder:
switchgear is readily adaptable to automation, because the • A fault-sensing-and-indicating system permits the system
requirements generally involve a capability most of these control to recognize the passage of fault-level current.
devices already contain: that of being remotely tripped and • Energy stored for multiple switching operations pennits
closed. However with control equipment becoming more ver- tripping and closing without the presence of auxiliary
satile to satisfy increasingly more complex system operating power.
requirements, it is obvious that switchgear capabilities must
also expand. To fully utilize present and future control equip- TABLE 1C3
ment, switchgear is being called upon to provide more than Ratings of Loadbreak Switch for Automated Distribution
basic remote trip-and-close operations. Systems
For example, recently Introduced microprocessor controls
Nominal Voltage ........... . ..... . ........34.5 kV
for reclosers and other switchgear are capable of performing
Rated Maximum Voltage ............. . ... . .38.0 kV
a variety of arithmetic, logic, and timing functions. Dispersed
Continuous Current .. . ..... . ...............600 A
throughout a system with communication to and from a sub-
Loadbreak Current ........ . ...............600 A
station master computer, such controls, utilizing system soft-
ware in concert with similar controls on voltage regulators Momentary Current, Asymmetrical (RMS) ... 25000 A
Masking Current, Asymmetrical (RMS) ..... 25000 A
and capacitor banks, can help provide a readily modified and
expandable system with a high degree of automation.

F"lgUJ"8 1C3.
I...Lwb .... ..-ell tar ""'• A 11 on aubr rte dl distriM.Jtion
systems.
261
C. Special System Considerations
3. PROTECTION OF SYSTEMS WITH AUTOMATED DISTRIBUTION (Continued)

Application with Reclosers

Using switches with fault-indication capability along with
fault-interrupting reclosers, an automated radial feeder can
function as follows for rapid fault isolation and to minimize the
extent of the outage:
F
1. During normal operating conditions, all reclosers, section-
alizers, and switches are closed and are sensing line )(
current (Figure 2C3).

Figure 5C3.
System control commands switch 81 to open and
recloser B to close.

With this method of operation, utilizing fault-sensing load-

break switches in conjunction with reclosers, service is
restored to the unfaulted sections in minutes - perhaps
Figure2C3. seconds - rather than the longer time required to travel to the
Radial feeder with all reclosers and switches closed. area, locate the fault, and then open the proper switch.

CONVERSION TO AUTOMATION BLENDS

2. When a persistent fault occurs at F, recloser B operates to OLDANDNEW
lockout, clearing the fault (Figure 3C3).
As the example just cited illustrates, extending sophisticated
controls - or even full automation - to distribution systems
does not involve wholesale replacement of existing switchgear.
Special equipment can be applied with great effectiveness in
conjunction with conventional reclosers and breakers. The
F three-phase loadbreak switch and other devices with charac-
teristics and capabilities particularly suited to automated sys-
tems are available and will be further expanded as needs are
identified and addressed. This is an extremely dynamic subject
Figure 3C3. that requires up-to-the-minute examination of information
Fault occurs at F and is cleared by recloser B. from reliable industry sources.
One area receiving considerable attention is the use of
3. Feeder control recognizes that recloser B is open and microprocessor controls with existing breakers, reclosers,
interrogates switch 81 (Figure 4C3). sectionalizers, and switches. The controls need not necessarily
be limited to protection-related functions, but rather - along
with similar controls at voltage regulators, capacitor banks,
etc.- can serve as components in a data-acquisition complex
that generates the information needed for automated control
of all aspects of power distribution, based on continuous
F
monitoring of conditions throughout the system.
It must be remembered, however, that the basic principles
of overcurrent protection, including all the requirements for
SYSTEM INTERROGATES YES
SWITCHB1 ~.;;;.;....-.._. coordinating protection devices installed in series, still apply.
Please refer to the appropriate subjects in Section A.
Figure 4C3.
Fault indicator in switch 81 responds to system
interrogation.

4. Because switch 81 indicates a fault, control recognizes

that the fault must lie beyond switch B 1, and opens B 1 to
remove the faulted portion from the feeder (Figure 5C3).
Recloser B is then closed to restore service up to 81.

262
 C1, C2, C3

Index of Figures and Tables

FIGURE Page
Effects of Industrial Loads
1C1 Typical protection scheme for utility feeder and industrial plant ................. .. ......................249
Protection of Systems with Dispersed Storage and Generation
1C2 Utility distribution system with DSG ... ... . ...... . .. . . ... ... ................ . . .. .. .... .... . ...... .253
2C2 Minimum protection scheme for a distribution system with DSG .. . ..... . ........... . .................. .255
3C2 Typical DSG protection scheme for a medium-size generator . ... . ..... ... . . .. .. .. .......... ...... . .. . .255
4C2 Typical DSG protection requirements for a large generation facility . ..... .. . ......... . .... . .......... . ... 256
5C2 Short-circuit current contributions during faults for a utility alone, and for utility with DSG .... . ...... . ........257
6C2 I2t for three-phase faults on three sizes of synchronous machines and with
available fault current of 2500 amperes . . ........................................ . .............. 257
7C2 I2t for three-phase faults on three sizes of synchronous machines and with
available fault current of 1250 amperes . . . .. ......... . .. . .... . . .. ..... . . . ... .. ... . ........ . .....257
8C2 I2t for a single-line-to-ground fault on three sizes of synchronous machines ...............................258
9C2 Short-circuit current contributions during temporary faults ...... . ...... . ..... ............. .............258
10C2 Effect of zero-sequence voltage on grounded-wye/delta DSG transformer bank . .. . .. . ..... . . ..... . ........259
11C2 Circuit conditions conducive to resonance during a single line-to-ground fault .. . ... . .... ..... .......... ...260
12C2 Gusting at a wind generation facility may cause fluctuation in generation output ................ ....... ....260
Protection of Systems with Automated Distribution
1C3 Loadbreak switch for automated distribution-system application .... .. . .................................261
2C3 Radial feeder with all reclosers and switches closed . ... .. ... . ..... . . . ...... . .... ... . ... . . .. . . ... .. . .262
3C3 Fault occurs at F and is cleared by recloser 8 ......... . ........................................ ....262
4C3 Fault indicator in switch 81 responds to system interrogation ......................... .. .. . . . ..........262
5C3 System control commands switch 81 to open and recloser B to close . . . . . . . . . ..........................262
TABLE Page
Effects of Industrial Loads
1C1 Electric service deviation tolerances for load-and-control equipment .............. . .. . . . ........ ....... 250
2C1 Electric power-system disturbances .................................. . .... .... .. ..... . ... . .. •.•• 251
3C1 Restoration of service after loss of voltage ....................................... .. ...... ...••.••• 252
Protection of Systems with Dispersed Storage and Generation
1C2 Utility requirements for connection of DSG to distribution system ........................ •.•••• ____ ••• - .254
2C2 Recommended protective relay functions for DSG installations ................... . .. . . .. _••••• ____ •• _• .254
3C2 Standard device or relay identifications ......... .. ......................... .... ...••••••••••••••• .255
Protection of Systems with Automated Distribution
1C3 Ratings of loadbreak switch for automated distribution systems ..... .......... . . .•. _•• __ •••••••••• _••• .261

263
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264