CHAPTER-1

INTRODUCTION

1
1.1 BACKGROUND

Fluid power incorporates the generation, control and application of smooth, effective power
of pumped or compressed fluids, gas or liquid, when this power is used to provide force and
motion to mechanisms. This force and motion may be in the form of pushing, pulling,
rotating, regulating or driving. If the compressed fluid is a gas, it is called pneumatics, while
if the compressed fluid is a liquid, it is called hydraulics.

The word hydraulics is a derivative of the Greek words hydro (meaning water)
and aulis (meaning tube or pipe). Originally, the science of hydraulics covered the physical
behaviour of water at rest and in motion. This dates back several thousand years to when
water wheels, dams and sluice gates were first used to control the flow of water for domestic
use and irrigation. Use has broadened its meaning to include that area of hydraulics in which
confined liquids are used under controlled pressure to do work. Hydraulics can be defined
as the engineering science that pertains to liquid pressure and flow. It includes the manner in
which liquids act in tanks and pipes, dealing with their properties and with ways of utilizing
these properties. It includes the laws of floating bodies and the behaviour of liquids under
various conditions, and ways of directing this flow to useful ends, as well as many other
related subjects and applications.

Several other terms are used to more precisely describe the behaviour of liquids at rest and in
motion. These terms are generally considered separate branches of science and include:
hydrostatics, the branch of science pertaining to the energy of liquid flow and pressure; and
hydrokinetics, which pertains to motions of liquids or the forces that produce or affect such
motions.

Fluid power is one of the three types of power transfer systems commonly used today. The
other systems are mechanical and electrical. Each of the systems transfers power from a
prime move (source) to an actuator that completes the task (work) required of the system.
Fluid power systems use the prime mover to drive a pump that pressurizes a fluid, which is
then transferred through pipes and hoses to an actuator. Mechanical systems transfer power
from the prime mover to the point of use by means of shafts, belts, gears, or other devices.
Electrical systems transfer power using electrical current flowing through conductors.
Typical applications in business, industrial, and consumer products and systems use
combinations of fluid, mechanical, and electrical power transfer methods.

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1.2 BASIC PRINCIPAL

It was not, however, until the 17th century that the branch of hydraulics with which we are to
be concerned first came into use. Based upon a principle discovered by the French scientist
Pascal, it relates to the use of confined fluids in transmitting power, multiplying force and
modifying motions.
Then, in the early stages of the industrial revolution, a British mechanic named Joseph
Bramah utilized Pascal’s discovery in developing a hydraulic press.

1.2.a. Pascal’s Law: - “Pressure applied to a confined fluid at any point is transmitted
undiminished and equally throughout the fluid in all directions and acts upon every part of
the confining vessel at right angles to its interior surfaces.”
p=F/A

p = pressure (lbs/in2 or N/m2);

F = force (lbs or N);

A= πr2 = area (in2 or m2)

1.2.b. Boyle's law: The volume of gas at constant temperature varies inversely with the
pressure exerted on it.

p1(V1) = p2(V2)

V = volume (in3 or m3);

p = pressure (lbs or N)

1.2.c. Charles' law: The volume of gas increases or decreases as the temperature increases
or decreases, provided the amount of gas and pressure remain constant.

(V1/ T1) =( V2/ T2 )

V = volume (in3 or m3);

T = absolute temperature (°R)

3
1.2.d. Gay-Lussac's law: The absolute pressure of a gas increases or decreases as the
temperature increases or decreases, provided the amount of gas and the volume remain
constant.

(p1/ T1) = (p2/ T2)

p = absolute pressure (lbs/in2 or N/m2);

T = absolute temperature (K)

1.2.e.Flow : Flow is what operates the actuators in the cylinders. Flow rates, which
determine actuator speed, are measured in in3 per sec or gallons per minute, and are generated
by a pump. When flow is given, the actuator volume displacement directly affects actuator
speed. The less volume to displace in the cylinder leads to faster actuators. In general,
pressure is the resistance to flow. Pumps produce flow, not pressure!

Q = VA

Q = volumetric flow rate (in3/sec);

V = velocity (in/sec); A = area (in2)

1.2.f. Torque : Torque is a twisting force that is found by multiplying the force times the
distance. It is measured in foot pounds. Hydraulic and pneumatic pumps produce work to be
used within the fluid power system. Given a specific motor torque and motor RPM, specifies
energy usage or horsepower requirement.

Fluid power is all about moving energy from one location to another. Energy is the ability to
do work. Energy transfer is the energy moving from the prime mover, or input source, to an
actuator, an output device.

1.3 FLUID POWER SYSTEMS

Fluid power is a highly versatile power transmission system, as illustrated by the range of
applications . No system, however, is entirely suitable for all applications. All power-
transmission systems have characteristics that are desirable in one application, but turn into
disadvantages in other situations. A system cannot have every desired advantage without
disadvantages. Understanding system characteristics as well as what is needed for a particular

4
result will help in producing an effective and efficient application. The range of applications
that use fluid power makes the development of a simple list of advantages and disadvantages
difficult, since examples that do not “fit” can easily be found. This problem is further
complicated by the inherent differences of the two major divisions of the fluid power field:
hydraulics and pneumatics.

1.3.a. System Characteristics

Although hydraulic and pneumatic systems share the characteristics of energy transfer by
means of fluid pressure and flow, differences affect how and where they are applied.

These differences include:-

 Accuracy of actuator movement

 Operating pressure
 Actuator speed
 Component weight
 Cost

1.4 HYDRAULIC SYSTEM

A hydraulic drive system consists of mainly three parts such as

• 1. Hydraulic pump, driven by an electric motor or an I. C. engine.
• 2. Valves, filters, piping etc. to guide and control the system.
• 3. Hydraulic motor or hydraulic cylinder to drive the machinery.

1.4.a Classification of Hydraulic System

 Open Loop Circuit

Fig-1.1

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  Closed Loop Circuit

Fig-1.2

1.5. INTRODUCTION

Hydraulic systems are widely applied, especially in power, control and execution system of
construction machinery. Hydraulic cylinder is the actuator in hydraulic system, and its status
condition affects system performance. Its working load is usually changing, the vibration and
working speed are also unstable, especially in some special conditions, such as the transient
conversion and the inertial impaction, which lead to the failure of hydraulic cylinder and
account for a large proportion of the maintenance of construction machinery. Leakage is
mostly caused by the seal failure, resulting in crawling of hydraulic cylinder, lack of thrust,
fall of speed or instability of system. Leakage may be internally or externally. Sometimes it is
useful as lubricating.

1.6. PROJECT OBJECTIVE

 In fluid power system , internal leakage may occur in various components such as
gear pump, reversing valve and hydraulic cylinder , and affect the system work
performance. Therefore, component leakage in fluid power system is selected as study
to characterize the leakage and effect of leakage on the system. Effect of leakage on
the system pressure and cylinder displacement can be obtained using pressure sensors
and displacement sensor. The leakage can be varied by changing the orifice using
flow control valve.

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 Hydraulic circuit for leakage experiment will be developed in MATLAB/SIMULINK
environment and simulations will be done by changing different parameters.
 Leakage data collection: - Compared with the external leakage, the internal leakage is
more harmful and more difficult to be detected. analysis tool in Matlab are applied to
analyze the displacement signals of piston rod and the pressure signals of inlet and
outlet of hydraulic cylinder.

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 CHAPTER-2

LITERATURE REVIEW

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2.1. LITERATURE REVIEW

Hydraulic systems are widely applied, especially in power, control and execution system of
construction machinery. Hydraulic cylinder is the actuator in hydraulic system, and its status
condition affects system performance. Its working load is usually changing; the vibration and
working speed are also unstable, especially in some special conditions, such as the transient
conversion and the inertial impaction, which lead to the failure of hydraulic cylinder and
account for a large proportion of the maintenance of construction machinery. Leakage is
mostly caused by the seal failure, resulting in crawling of hydraulic cylinder, lack of thrust,
fall of speed or instability of system. However, leakage is difficult to be diagnosed because of
its concealment. Therefore, it is significant to research the leakage failure mechanism of
hydraulic cylinder and detect the leakage as early as possible in order to take appropriate
actions timely.

Various additional components are needed to join pipe or tube sections, create bends and also
to prevent internal and external leakage in hydraulic systems. Although some amount of
internal leakage is built-in, to provide lubrication, excessive internal leakage causes loss of
pump power since high pressure fluid returns to the tank, without doing useful work. External
leakage, on the other hand, causes loss of fluid and can create fire hazards, as well as fluid
contamination. Various kinds of sealing components are employed in hydraulic systems to
prevent leakage.

Leakage due damage of seal

In practical application, the main reason of hydraulic cylinder leakage is the damage of seal,
which is a progressive failure. This gradually process can be described as a potential failure
mode, i.e. the system performance declines with the fault development. If the features of
leakage can be extracted, it can be diagnosed timely to avoid worse breakdowns of system.
The leakages mainly appear if the seal do not press the housing with high enough force and
between those two components appears a gap. The gap can also appear in a small part of seal
where for example the piston has grooves. The required press force can change because of
material or construction reasons.
Identifying and controlling hydraulic system leakage requires an in-depth approach to record
keeping and surveillance based on monitoring leakage within hydraulic systems. In addition,

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dedication to performing repairs and/or modifications aimed at the root causes of the leaks,
along with a method of monitoring, will ensure that the repairs are effective.
The vast majority of hydraulic systems in operation today have leaks - leaks that are planned.
They are designed with a specific function in mind, and in many cases, are documented by
the original equipment manufacturer (OEM) as the amount of acceptable leakage under
normal operating conditions. Internal planned leakage is typically small orifices or pathways
that allow a fluid from a higher pressurized zone of a system to travel into a lower
pressurized zone to lubricate, clean and cool a specific component or area. These planned
internal leaks do not allow the fluid to exit the hydraulic circuit, so there is no visual
indication of its presence.

Leakage due wear

The most common cause of excessive internal leakage is wear of component surfaces during
normal operation. Leakage can also result from poor system design, incorrect component
selection, poor quality control tolerances during the manufacturing of a component, and
incorrect overhaul of rebuilt components. System performance, reliability and increased
operating temperatures are the first visual signs of excessive internal leakage.

Internal leakage

The major power loss hydraulic systems usually experience is the result of internal leakage
on pumps and motors. This leakage is the result of excessive clearances within the pumping
mechanisms of the pumps and motors resulting in reduced volumetric efficiency. Slippage - a
common term used to describe the volumetric loss of a pump/motor - is typically identified
when the input energy remains the same or higher, except less work can be performed in the
hydraulic circuit.

In hydraulic cylinders, cylinder rod drift or creep and the cylinder’s inability to hold the
designed load would be identified by increased leakage. The excessive leakage is the result of
the fluid bypassing a piston seal either through a worn seal or a worn cylinder barrel .

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Internal leakage in spool/Bore

In spool valves, excessive internal clearances between the spool and the valve body decrease
control and stability of the hydraulic circuits and their functions. Profit-robbing energy loss is
the result of energized fluid that is allowed to escape back to the reservoir through a spool
valve that has an out-of-specification clearance problem. Relief valves or other spring offset
valves with a weak spring or a jammed open condition will have the same effect of fluid
energy loss by allowing the pressurized fluid to bypass the working circuit.

Leakage through Spool and Housing Bore:-

Very often due to excessive clearance between spool land and spool bore, lot of leakage takes
place. Depending on the nature of spool fitting the leakage path may be either (Figs.1 (a) and
(b)) (i) concentric or (ii) eccentric. For a concentric spool with radial clearance (b)the
maximum clearance passage is 2 b.
If the leakage path is eccentric, leakage area of a spool with a given radial clearance is almost
2.5 times larger than when it is concentric.

Fig.2.1 Fig-2.2
Leakage Paths - Concentric leakage Eccentric leakage

Low fluid viscosity or excessive heat (reducing the effective viscosity of a fluid) will also
increase leakage rates. This form of internal leakage reduces system performance and
decreases fluid film strength, which will also result in premature wear of the equipment
surfaces and the fluid’s properties.

All of these conditions will affect hydraulic system performance. Detection of unplanned
internal leakage in most cases would rely on specific tools to examine the location and

11
quantity of the leak. Performance issues or the inability of a circuit to perform its designed
function typically triggers craftsmen to install flow meters in various locations (such as case
drains on pumps) to detect excessive leakage resulting from unacceptable clearances in
mating surfaces. Flow meters are install on the case drains of pumps and motors to determine
when to overhaul these components before performance is severely affected. In critical
automated positioning systems, both the control valves and the hydraulic cylinders could
require periodic bench testing to ensure an acceptable leakage rate is maintained. At this
point, all components that fall outside the acceptable standards would require an overhaul
ensuring that OEM minimum standards are achieved.

Ultrasonic detection has proven to be another effective method of determining high pressure
or high velocity leaks in various locations of valve and cylinder leakage. This method enables
the localization of the internal leakage; but similar to temperature reading, the results are not
quantifiable into the amount of leakage. The only quantifiable method is to measure the flow
or quantity of fluid loss in a given time frame using a flow meter or other related test
equipment.

External leakage

External leakage is the most recognizable type of leakage. Even the untrained eye can easily
spot a broken hose spewing oil like a Texas geyser. These types of leaks will typically be
repaired quickly, because the equipment, production line or process will quickly come to a
halt if the problem is ignored. The constant drip or drop is not always repaired because
system performance and production are usually not affected.
Detection and quantification of the fluid consumption is the first step in external leak control.
Up-to-date reservoir management records must be maintained to determine when, by whom
and how much fluid was required to top-up a reservoir. These records should be used along
with visual inspections to determine the location and the leak rate of any detected anomalies.

Quantification of the leakage rate and location will allow for the opportunity to prioritize the
repairs. In many cases, the source and quantity of the leaks cannot be determined, as they are
difficult to see. The best practice recommends occasionally cleaning an area and fully wiping
down equipment to examine the leaks.

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However, the practicality of performing these actions in an operating production facility
becomes almost an impossible task. To alleviate this problem, dyes sensitive to black light
have been formulated to assist in the location and identification of external of leaks. This
liquid dye is formulated to be compatible with the existing hydraulic fluid and machine
surfaces. The dye is mixed into the reservoir after which the mixture will emit a bright
green/yellow glow when struck by the rays of a black light . This method of visual detection
helps determine whether the fluid being viewed is from an active leak from the system in
question.

Method of checking for hydraulic leakage by change in rpm

Leakage detection method for closed center hydraulic circuit wherein the existence of a leak
within the circuit is indicated by changes in the rpm level of prime mover. [13]
It is method of hydraulic circuit leakage detection which does not require the disruption of
the circuit to identify circuit leakage. This method which produces an audibly discernible
drop in engine revolution should a leak be present in the hydraulic circuit.

The method involves bypassing the governor associated with the fuel delivery system of an
engine and setting the engine to a specific RPM. The circuit pump is then de-stroked. Should
there be present in the circuit a leak between the pump and output side of the control valve,
the engine will experience an increase in RPM. To ascertain whether there is a leak in a
particular circuit branch, the pump is returned to stroke and the engine RPM is reset to
specific level. Each function, e.g. cylinder, having been previously set at maximum or
minimum position, the control valve is then operated to sequentially cause a particular
cylinder to respond to either maximum or minimum position, respectively (i.e. max to max or
min to min). Should a leak be present in that branch of the circuit between the control valve
and a particular cylinder, an audible reduction in engine RPM will result.

Leakage detector with back pressure sensor

Hydraulic dampers of the cylinder-and-piston type used for controlling the lag-lead
movements of helicopter blades, and particularly to means for accurately indicating when a
high pressure seal on the piston rod of the damper has become worn and is leaking oil
excessively. A fluid conduit connects the area between the seals to the area beneath the piston

13
of a cylinder-and-piston type indicator and also through a fluid restriction back into an open
fluid system. A bypass conduit is extended from the fluid conduit on the downstream side of
the restriction to the area above the indicator piston so that any back pressure in the fluid
system which creates a pressure rise of the other side of the restriction also acts on the upper
end of the indicator piston.[14]

A rate-of-leakage indicator for the high pressure seal of a damper which is reliable in
operation even if fluctuations in pressure take place in the hydraulic system to which the
indicator is connected.

A leakage indicator that will respond to leakage pressure only and not to back pressure in
the basic return conduits. Spaced primary and secondary seals are provided on the damper
rods, and the cavities between these seals are connected by a fluid line through a fixed
restriction to the system return line. A leakage indicator, consisting of a cylinder and a fluid
responsive member therein, is connected to the fluid line between the seals and the restriction
with the leakage fluid acting on the bottom of the fluid responsive member. Also in
accordance with this invention a fluid connection is made from the fluid line downstream of
the restriction to the upper, or remote, side of the fluid responsive member of the leakage
indicator. Two dynamic seals for a damper rod having a conduit leading to the fluid
responsive member of a detector and to system return; a fixed restriction in the line on the
other side of the detector from the seals; and a fluid line on the opposite side of the restriction
from the indicator connected to the space above the fluid responsive member of the indicator
so that any back pressure in the system return which reacts back through the restriction to act
on the near side of the fluid responsive member will also act equally on the remote side
thereof.

Tang Hongbin, Yunxin Wu, Ma Changxun, Gao Ming [3] has analysed the Leakage fault
diagnosis of hydraulic chamber (fig.A) using wavelet energy feature.

The leakage of hydraulic cylinder is mainly related with the structural parameters of the
hydraulic cylinder piston rod, seal forms, oil viscosity and wear situation of the piston. It can
be divided into two cases: concentric and eccentric, they have different formula to calculate
leakage flow. If the leakage model is simplified as concentric rings leak gap flow, and the
leakage can be calculated as:

14
Qc=[(𝜋𝑑ℎ3 )/12µl ] p --(1)

where d is the cylinder diameter; h is the height of the gap; l is the gap length; l is the fluid
dynamic viscosity; p is the pressure difference between the high pressure chamber and the
low pressure chamber.

Apparatus for collecting hydraulic leakage fluid

Hydraulic fluid leakage collection apparatus that includes an annular collection chamber that
is carried in a cylindrical member within which a piston member is movable. A seal and
wiper are carried by the clamp cylinder of an injection moulding machine to seal the space
between the clamp piston and the clamp cylinder and also to wipe from the surface of the
clamp piston accumulated hydraulic fluid. Positioned adjacent the wiper ring is a drain
passageway that is adapted to receive the hydraulic leakage fluid that is wiped by the wiper
ring from the piston. A conduit extends from the drain passageway to an air operated vacuum
pump to draw the leakage hydraulic fluid from the drain passageway. A container is
positioned in the conduit between the drain passageway and the vacuum pump to collect the
hydraulic leakage fluid that is collected.

Hydraulic leakage fluid collection apparatus is provided for collecting hydraulic fluid that
leaks past a seal that surrounds and engages the outer surface of a rod member that is
movable relative to a cylindrical housing. The apparatus includes collection means positioned
adjacent to the seal for collecting leakage fluid that is carried by the rod member and that is
wiped there from as the rod member moves into the cylindrical housing. Continuously
operating vacuum pump means provide a reduced pressure level less than atmospheric
pressure to draw the leakage fluid from the collection means. The vacuum pump means and
the collection means are connected by conduit means that provide a closed communication
path between the collection means and the vacuum pump means. Additionally, container
means are positioned in the conduit means between the collection means and the vacuum
pump means for collecting the leakage fluids that are drawn through the conduit means by the
vacuum pump means.[15]

In recent years, diagnosis of leakage of hydraulic cylinder gets more and more attention.
Wenzheng Du proposed the leakage fault diagnosis method based on the wavelet multi-scale

15
edge detection. The features of the pressure transient signals could be extracted by detecting
the maximum in the appropriate scale of wavelet transform. In this way, it provided a
quantitative basis for internal leakage fault diagnosis of the hydraulic cylinder [1]. Yang
found the leakage could be detected accurately by the pressure rise time [2]. Tang applied
wavelet transform and BP neural network to the diagnosis of hydraulic cylinder leakage [3].
Nonlinear self-adaptive robust observer was used by Garimella for the modelling of the
electric hydraulic cylinder system. The impact of unmolded dynamic factors could be
reduced by robust filtering and the uncertainty of the range of model variables could be
reduced by the controllable online self adaptive parameters. The method was suitable for
diagnosing the initial fault of hydraulic cylinder speed sensor failure, oil pollution and
pressure shortage [4]. An, Sepehri applied the extended Kalman filter and serial test method
to diagnose the leakage of fault hydraulic cylinder quantitatively [5]. Werlefors applied the
nonlinear observation model established by static feedback to diagnose the leakage
successfully by measuring the piston position and piston speed [6]. By using the Unscented
Kalman Filter, Sepasi monitored the operation of hydraulic systems online. The method could
quickly and accurately diagnose the hydraulic cylinder internal and external leakage, the
changes of dynamic friction load and transient load of the hydraulic cylinder. Wavelet
analysis showed great advantage in processing fault signals of hydraulic pump and motor [7].
Goharrizi established a wavelet transform based approach to detect internal leakage in
hydraulic actuators caused by seal damage [8]. But the high frequency part of the origin
signal was not well decomposed and analyzed, which contains a lot of detail information.

In practical application, the main reason of hydraulic cylinder leakage is the damage of seal,
which is a progressive failure. This gradually process can be described as a potential failure
mode, i.e. the system performance declines with the fault development[12]. If the features of
leakage can be extracted, it can be diagnosed timely to avoid worse breakdowns of system.
Therefore, this paper focuses on the application of wavelet packet analysis to reveal the
connection between the external fault symptoms and the internal fault mode and to find out
the fault features which can describe their relationships through a theoretical basis to
diagnose and predict the early leakage of hydraulic cylinder.

16
 CHAPTER-3

SIMULATION AND RESULT

17
3.1. INTRODUCTION

Number of experiment is carried out at different load and orifice area to analyse
characteristics of different parameter in hydraulic circuit due to leakage. . Hydraulic circuit
for leakage experiment will be developed in MATLAB SIMULINK R2009a and simulations
will be done by changing different parameters. The experiment analysis done by plotting
different graph and comparing it.

3.2 EXPERIMENTAL MODEL

Fig 3.1-Experimental model

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3.3 LIST OF THE COMPONENT USE IN EXPERIMENTAL MODEL

ITEM NO. NAME OF ITEMS

1 Tank
2 Filter
3 Hydraulic pump
4 Variable frequency motor
5 industrial inverter
6 Pressure gauge
7 Flow control valve
8 Relief valve
9 Manually operated directional valve
10 Orifice
11 Ball valve
12 Pressure sensor
13 Orifice
14 Ball valve
15 Pressure sensor
16 Experiment cylinder
17 Position sensor
18 Connector
19 Load cylinder
20 Pressure gauge
21 Pressure gauge
22 Check valve
23 Relief valve
24 Check valve
25 Check valve
26 Check valve
27 Relief valve
28 Relief valve
29 Hydraulic pump
30 Filter

19
It consist of two parts ; one is the hydraulic power pack unit and the hydraulic test rig unit.
Both the experimental cylinder (16) and load cylinder (19) connected with connector (18) .
The experimental cylinder (16) connected with 4/3-directional control valve (9) and a
position sensor(17) mounted on the piston rod of experimental cylinder (16) to get
displacement value. Port A of experimental cylinder connected to the port A of directional
control valve (9) and a pressure sensor (15) is installed to get pressure value. Port A and B of
experimental cylinder (16) connect along with ball valve (14) and orifice (13).And a orifice
(10) is also installed between outlet port of directional control valve (9) and experimental
cylinder B port along with ball valve (11) to measure the leakage.

The inlet port of directional control valve (9) is sucks the fluid from tank (1) through
hydraulic pump (3) , filter (2) is used to filter the fluid. And a flow control valve (7) is used
between them to control flow . The hydraulic pump supplies(3) flow to the directional
control valve(9) and direct operated pressure relief valve(8). With the operation of the
directional control valve (9) ,the pump flow is returned to hydraulic tank (1) through
proportional pressure relief valve. Pressure gauge (6) is used to measure pressure at
hydraulic pump (3) along with the relief valve (8) to maintain pressure always flow. A Motor
(4) with industrial inverter (5) is to runs the hydraulic pump (3).

Load cylinder (19) is mainly for providing load to the setup. The inlet port and output port
of the cylinder (19) is connected to the hydraulic pump (29) which sucks the fluid from tank.
The hydraulic pump (29) supplies flow to the ball valve (24) to the cylinder (19). With the
operation of ball valve (25) the pump flow is return to tank through pressure relief valve (23).

20
The model of Test set-up created in MATLAB Simulink R2009a software is shown below:-

Fig 3.2.MATLAB simulink model

21
The graph obtained from simulating result is shown below:-

Graph-3.1

22
Graph-3.2

Graph-3.3

Graph-3.4

23
Graph-3.5

Graph-3.6

24
 CHAPTER 4

CONCLUSION AND FUTURE SCOPE

25
4.1.CONCLUSION

This project presents a significant aspect of different parameter in hydraulic circuit due to
leakage. The simulated graph presented here is obtained from the model created in MATLAB
simulink R2009a software.

From the graph it is obtained that ,as the pressure load increase the relative position
(displacement) increases with respect to time at constant orifice area. Whereas the ,relative
position almost same with respect to time ,as the orifice area increases at constant pressure
load.

It is obtained the overlapped graph of velocity as the load increases with respect to time at
same orifice area. And almost same the velocity graph overlapped as the orifice area increase
with respect to time at constant pressure load.

It is obtained the almost same hydraulic force as the pressure load increases with respect to
time at constant orifice area. And as the orifice area increases the hydraulic force decrease
with respect to time at constant load.

Thus, the proposed model can be used for improving the design of the system.

4.2.FUTURE AND SCOPE

The proposed model can be also used to predict the performance and to provide the insights
for improving the design of the system. In the above project conclusion is based on pressure
and area of cylinder ,orifice area ,cylinder relative position, pump load and pressure load.
The efficiency can improve by the checking differential valve ,check valve ,pressure relief
valve, poppet valve ,solver block etc.

26
CHAPTER 5

APPENDICES

27
MATLAB

MATLAB (matrix laboratory) is a multi-paradigm numerical computing environment

and fourth-generation programming language. Developed by Math Works, MATLAB
allows matrix manipulations, plotting of functions and data, implementation of algorithms,
creation of user interfaces, and interfacing with programs written in other languages,
including C, C++, Java, Fortran and Python.

Although MATLAB is intended primarily for numerical computing, an optional toolbox uses
the Mu-PAD symbolic engine, allowing access to symbolic computing capabilities. An
additional package, Simulink, adds graphical multi-domain simulation and Model-Based
Design for dynamic and embedded systems.

Key Features:-

 High-level language for numerical computation, visualization, and application

development.

 Interactive environment for iterative exploration, design, and problem solving.

 Mathematical functions for linear algebra, statistics, Fourier analysis, filtering,

optimization, numerical integration, and solving ordinary differential equations.

 Built-in graphics for visualizing data and tools for creating custom plots.

 Development tools for improving code quality and maintainability and maximizing
performance.

 Tools for building applications with custom graphical interfaces.

 Functions for integrating MATLAB based algorithms with external applications and
languages such as C, Java, .NET, and Microsoft Excel.

MATLAB SIMULINK

Simulink is a graphical extension to MATLAB for modeling and simulation of systems. One
of the main advantages of Simulink is the ability to model a nonlinear system, which a
transfer function is unable to do. Another advantage of Simulink is the ability to take on

28
initial conditions. When a transfer function is built, the initial conditions are assumed to be
zero.

BASIC ELEMENT

There are two major classes of items in Simulink:-

Blocks and lines. Blocks are used to generate, modify, combine, output, and display signals.
Lines are used to transfer signals from one block to another.

Blocks

There are several general classes of blocks within the Simulink library:-

 Sources: used to generate various signals

 Sinks: used to output or display signals
 Continuous: continuous-time system elements (transfer functions, state-space models,
PID controllers, etc.)
 Discrete: linear, discrete-time system elements (discrete transfer functions, discrete
state-space models, etc.)
 Math Operations: contains many common math operations (gain, sum, product,
absolute value, etc.)
 Ports & Subsystems: contains useful blocks to build a system.

Blocks have zero to several input terminals and zero to several output terminals. Unused
input terminals are indicated by a small open triangle. Unused output terminals are indicated
by a small triangular point. The block shown below has an unused input terminal on the left
and an unused output terminal on the right.

Fig5.1-Block

Lines

Lines transmit signals in the direction indicated by the arrow. Lines must always transmit
signals from the output terminal of one block to the input terminal of another block. On

29
exception to this is a line can tap off of another line, splitting the signal to each of two
destination blocks.

Fig5.2-Lines

Lines can never inject a signal into another line; lines must be combined through the use of a
block such as a summing junction.

A signal can be either a scalar signal or a vector signal. For Single-Input, Single-Output
(SISO) systems, scalar signals are generally used. For Multi-Input, Multi-Output (MIMO)
systems, vector signals are often used, consisting of two or more scalar signals. The lines
used to transmit scalar and vector signals are identical. The type of signal carried by a line is
determined by the blocks on either end of the line.

BLOCKS USES IN CIRCUIT

1. Double-Acting Hydraulic Cylinder

Simulate hydraulic actuator exerting force in both directions

Fig-5.3

The Double-Acting Hydraulic Cylinder block models a device that converts hydraulic energy
into mechanical energy in the form of translational motion. Hydraulic fluid pumped under
pressure into one of the two cylinder chambers forces the piston to move and exert force on
the cylinder rod. Double-acting cylinders transfer force and motion in both directions.

Connections R and C are mechanical translational conserving ports corresponding to the

cylinder rod and cylinder clamping structure, respectively. Connections A and B are
hydraulic conserving ports.

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The energy through hydraulic port A or B is directed to the appropriate Translational
Hydro-Mechanical Converter block and Piston Chamber block. The converter transforms
hydraulic energy into mechanical energy, while the chamber accounts for the fluid
hydraulic energy into mechanical energy, while the chamber accounts for the fluid
compressibility in the cylinder chamber. The rod motion is limited with the mechanical
Translational Hard Stop block in such a way that the rod can travel only between cylinder
caps. The Ideal Translational Motion Sensor block in the schematic is introduced to
determine an instantaneous piston position, which is necessary for the Piston Chamber
blocks.

The block directionality is adjustable and can be controlled with the Cylinder orientation
parameter.

Basic Assumptions and Limitations:-

The model is based on the following assumptions:-

i. No leakage, internal or external, is taken into account.

ii. No loading on piston rod, such as inertia, friction, spring, and so on, is taken into
account.

2. 4-Way Directional Valve

hydraulic continuous 4-way directional valve

Fig-5.4

The 4-Way Directional Valve block represents a continuous, symmetrical, 4-way directional
valve. The fluid flow is pumped in the valve through the inlet line and is distributed between
two outside pressure lines (usually connected to a double-acting actuator) and the return
line. The block has four hydraulic connections, corresponding to inlet port (P), actuator ports
(A and B), and return port (T), and one physical signal port connection (S), which controls
the spool position.The block is built of four Variable Orifice blocks.

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The valve simulated by the 4-Way Directional Valve block is assumed to be symmetrical.

Basic Assumptions and Limitations

The model is based on the following assumptions:-

i. Fluid inertia is not taken into account.

ii. Spool loading, such as inertia, spring, hydraulic forces, and so on, is not taken into
account.
iii. Only symmetrical configuration of the valve is considered. In other words, all four
orifices are assumed to have the same shape and size.

3. Constant Area Orifice

hydraulic orifice with constant cross-sectional area

Fig-5.5

The Constant Area Orifice block models a sharp-edged constant-area orifice. The model
distinguishes between the laminar and turbulent flow regimes by comparing the Reynolds
number with its critical value. The flow rate through the orifice is proportional to the pressure
differential across the orifice.

The block positive direction is from port A to port B. This means that the flow rate is positive
if it flows from A to B , and the pressure differential is determined as P=PA-PB

Basic Assumptions and Limitations

The model is based on the following assumptions:-

i. Fluid inertia is not taken into account.

ii. The transition between laminar and turbulent regimes is assumed to be sharp and
taking place exactly at Re=Rcr
4. Poppet Valve

Fig 5.6- hydraulic poppet valve

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The Poppet Valve block models a variable orifice created by a cylindrical sharp-edged stem
and a conical seat.

The flow rate through the valve is proportional to the valve opening and to the pressure
differential across the valve. The model accounts for the laminar and turbulent flow regimes
by monitoring the Reynolds number (Re) and comparing its value with the critical Reynolds
number (Recr).

The block positive direction is from port A to port B. This means that the flow rate is positive
if it flows from A to B and the pressure differential is determined as P=P A-PB. Positive
signal at the physical signal port S opens the valve.

Basic Assumptions and Limitations

The model is based on the following assumptions:-

i. Fluid inertia is not taken into account.

ii. The transition between laminar and turbulent regimes is assumed to be sharp and
taking place exactly at Re=Recr
iii. The flow passage area is assumed to be equal to the frustum side surface area

5. Hydraulic check valve

hydraulic check valve

Fig-5.7

The Check Valve block represents a hydraulic check valve that allows flow in one direction.
The purpose of the check valve is to permit flow in one direction and block it in the opposite
direction.

The valve remains closed while pressure differential across the valve is lower than the valve
cracking pressure. When cracking pressure is reached, the value control member (spool, ball,
poppet, etc.) is forced off its seat, thus creating a passage between the inlet and outlet. If the
flow rate is high enough and pressure continues to rise, the area is further increased until the

33
control member reaches its maximum. At this moment, the valve passage area is at its
maximum. In addition to the maximum area, the leakage area is also required to characterize
the valve.

The block positive direction is from port A to port B. This means that the flow rate is positive
if it flows from A to B, and the pressure differential is determined a P=PA-PB.

Basic Assumptions and Limitations

The model is based on the following assumptions:-

i. Valve opening is linearly proportional to the pressure differential.

ii. No loading on the valve, such as inertia, friction, spring, and so on, is considered.
iv. The transition between laminar and turbulent regimes is assumed to be sharp and
taking place exactly at Re= Recr
v.
6. Ideal Hydraulic Pressure Sensor

ideal pressure sensing device

Fig-5.8

The Ideal Hydraulic Pressure Sensor block represents an ideal hydraulic pressure sensor,
that is, a device that converts hydraulic pressure differential measured between two points
into a control signal proportional to this pressure. The sensor is ideal because it does not
account for inertia, friction, delays, pressure loss, and so on.

Connections A and B are conserving hydraulic ports connecting the sensor to the hydraulic
line. Connection P is a physical signal port that outputs the pressure value. The sensor
positive direction is from A to B. This means that the flow rate is positive if it flows from A
to B.

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 7. Ideal Hydraulic Flow Rate Sensor

ideal flow meter

Fig-5.9

The Ideal Hydraulic Flow Rate Sensor block represents an ideal flow meter, that is, a device
that converts volumetric flow rate through a hydraulic line into a control signal proportional
to this flow rate. The sensor is ideal because it does not account for inertia, friction, delays,
pressure loss, and so on.

Connections A and B are conserving hydraulic ports connecting the sensor to the hydraulic
line. Connection Q is a physical signal port that outputs the flow rate value. The sensor
positive direction is from A to B. This means that the flow rate is positive if it flows from A
to B.

8. Ideal Translational Motion Sensor

motion sensor in mechanical translational systems

Fig-5.10

The Ideal Translational Motion Sensor block represents a device that converts an across
variable measured between two mechanical translational nodes into a control signal
proportional to velocity or position.

The sensor is ideal since it does not account for inertia, friction, delays, energy
consumption, and so on.

Connections R and C are mechanical translational conserving ports that connect the block
to the nodes whose motion is being monitored. Connections V and P are physical signal
output ports for velocity and position, respectively.

35
The block positive direction is from port R to port C. This means that the velocity is
measured as V=VR-VC , where VR , VC are the absolute velocities at ports R and C,
respectively.

9. 2-Position Valve Actuator

actuator for two-position valves

Fig-5.11

The 2-Position Valve Actuator block represents an actuator that you can use with Directional
valves to control their position. This actuator can drive a two-position valve. The key
parameters are the stroke, switch-on, and switch-off times.

The block accepts a physical input signal and produces a physical output signal that can be
associated with a mechanical translational or rotational push-pin motion. Connect the block
output to the directional valve control port.

The actuator is represented as an ideal transducer, where output does not depend on the load
exerted on the push-pin and the push-pin motion profile remains the same under any loading
conditions.

Basic Assumptions and Limitations

The model is based on the following assumptions:-

i. Push-pin loading, such as inertia, spring, hydraulic forces, and so on, is not taken into
account.

36
 10. Pressure Relief Valve

Pressure Relief Valve

Fig-5.12

Pressure Relief Valve is pressure control valve maintaining preset pressure in system. The
Pressure Relief Valve block represents a hydraulic pressure relief valve as a data-sheet-based
model.

The valve remains closed while pressure at the valve inlet is lower than the valve preset
pressure. When the preset pressure is reached, the value control member (spool, ball, poppet,
etc.) is forced off its seat, thus creating a passage between the inlet and outlet. Some fluid is
diverted to a tank through this orifice, thus reducing the pressure at the inlet. If this flow rate
is not enough and pressure continues to rise, the area is further increased until the control
member reaches its maximum. At this moment, the maximum flow rate is passing through the
valve. The value of a maximum flow rate and the pressure increase over the preset level to
pass this flow rate are generally provided in the catalogs. The pressure increase over the
preset level is frequently referred to as valve steady state error, or regulation range. The valve
maximum area and regulation range are the key parameters of the block. In addition to the
maximum area, the leakage area is also required to characterize the valve.

The block positive direction is from port A to port B. This means that the flow rate is positive
if it flows from A to B and the pressure differential is determined as P=PA-PB.

Basic Assumptions and Limitations

The model is based on the following assumptions:-

i. Valve opening is linearly proportional to the pressure differential.

ii. No loading on the valve, such as inertia, friction, spring, and so on, is considered.
iii. The transition between laminar and turbulent regimes is assumed to be sharp and
taking place exactly at Re= Recr

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 11. Fixed-Displacement Pump

fixed-displacement hydraulic pump

Fig-5.13

The Fixed-Displacement Pump block represents a positive, fixed-displacement pump of any

type as a data-sheet-based model. The key parameters required for this block are pump
displacement, volumetric and total efficiencies, nominal pressure, and angular velocity.

The block positive direction is from port T to port P. This means that the pump transfers fluid from T
to P provided that the shaft S rotates in the positive direction. The pressure differential across the
pump is determined as P=PP-PT.

Basic Assumptions and Limitations

The model is based on the following assumptions:-

i. Fluid compressibility is neglected.

ii. No loading on the pump shaft, such as inertia, friction, spring, and so on, is
considered.
iii. Leakage inside the pump is assumed to be linearly proportional to its pressure
differential.

12. Spring-Loaded Accumulator

Hydraulic accumulator with spring used for energy storage

Fig-5.14

This block represents a spring-loaded accumulator, where fluid entering the accumulator
compresses the spring, thus storing hydraulic energy. Since the spring compression increases
38
as fluid enters the chamber and decreases as the accumulator is discharged, the pressure is not
constant. The spring is preloaded. Therefore, fluid starts entering the chamber only after the
inlet pressure crosses over this threshold.

The block positive direction is from port A into the accumulator. This means that the flow
rate is positive if it flows into the accumulator.

Basic Assumptions and Limitations

The model is based on the following assumptions:

i. The spring has linear characteristics.

ii. No loading on the separator, such as inertia, friction, and so on, is considered.
iii. Fluid compressibility is not taken into account.

13. Translational Spring

Translational ideal spring

Fig-5.15
The Translational Spring block represents an ideal mechanical linear spring. The block
positive direction is from port R to port C. This means that the force is positive if it
acts in the direction from R to C.

14. Translational Damper

Translational viscous Damper

Fig-5.16
The Translational Damper block represents an ideal mechanical translational viscous damper.
The block positive direction is from port R to port C. This means that the force is positive if it
acts in the direction from R to C

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 15. Ideal Angular Velocity Source

Ideal angular velocity source in mechanical rotational systems

Fig-5.17

The Ideal Angular Velocity Source block represents an ideal source of angular velocity that
generates velocity differential at its terminals proportional to the input physical signal. The
source is ideal in a sense that it is assumed to be powerful enough to maintain specified
velocity regardless of the torque exerted on the system.

Connections R and C are mechanical rotational conserving ports. Port S is a physical signal
port, through which the control signal that drives the source is applied. The relative velocity
(velocity differential) across the source is directly proportional to the signal at the control port
S. The entire variety of Simulink signal sources can be used to generate the desired velocity
variation profile.

16. Mechanical Translational Reference

Reference for mechanical translational ports

Fig-5.18

The Mechanical Translational Reference block represents a reference point, or frame, for all
mechanical translational ports. All translational ports that are rigidly clamped to the frame
(ground) must be connected to a Mechanical Translational Reference block.

40
 17. Mass

Mass in mechanical translational systems

Fig-5.19

The Mass block represents an ideal mechanical translational mass. The block has one
mechanical translational conserving port. The block positive direction is from its port to the
reference point. This means that the inertia force is positive if mass is accelerated in positive
direction.

18. Solver Configuration

Solver configuration
Fig-5.20

Each physical device represented by a connected Simscape block diagram requires global
environment information for simulation. The Solver Configuration block specifies this global
information and provides parameters for the solver that model needs before begin of
simulation.

Each topologically distinct Simscape block diagram requires exactly one Solver
Configuration block to be connected to it.

The block has one conserving port. This block can add anywhere on a physical network
circuit by creating a branching point and connecting it to the only port of the Solver
Configuration block.

41
 19. PS-Simulink Converter

Simulink Converter
Fig-5.21

The PS-Simulink Converter block converts a physical signal into a Simulink output signal.
Use of this block to connect outputs of a Physical Network diagram to Simulink scopes or
other Simulink blocks.

20. Constant

Constant value
Fig-5.22

The Constant block generates a real or complex constant value. The block generates scalar
(one-element array), vector (1-D array), or matrix (2-D array) output, depending on the
dimensionality of the Constant value parameter and the setting of the Interpret vector
parameters as 1-D parameter. Also, the block can generate either a sample-based or frame-
based signal, depending on the setting of the Sampling mode parameter.

21. Outport

Output port for subsystem or external output

Fig-5.23
Outport blocks are the links from a system to a destination outside the system.
Simulink software assigns Outport block port numbers according to these rules:-

42
 i. It automatically numbers the Outport blocks within a top-level system or subsystem
sequentially, starting with 1.
ii. If Outport block will add an then it assign the next available number.
iii. If Outport block will be deleted then, other port numbers are automatically
renumbered to ensure that the Outport blocks are in sequence and that no numbers are
omitted.

43
CHAPTER 6

REFERENCES

44
References

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wavelet multi-scale edge detection. J Chin Hydraul Pneumat 2003:52–3.

[2] Yang Lizhi. Research of hydraulic jack leakage diagnosis base on wavelet/ AMEsim.
Dissertation of Jilin University; 2007.

[3] Tang Hongbin, Yunxin Wu, Ma Changxun, Gao Ming. Leakage fault diagnosis of
hydraulic chamber using wavelet energy feature. J Comput Eng Appl 2012;05:221–3.

[4] Garimella Phanindra, Yao Bin. Model based fault detection of an electrohydraulic
cylinder. In: Proceedings of 2005 American Control Conference Press; 2005. p. 4841–488.

[5] An L, Sepehri N. Hydraulic actuator leakage quantification Scheme using extended

Kalman filter and sequential test method. In: Proceedings of 2006 American Control
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[6] Werlefors Maria, Medvedev Alexander. Observer-based leakage detection in hydraulic

systems with position and velocity feedback. In: Proceedings of 2006 American Control
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[7] Sepasi Mohammad, Sassani Farrokh. On-line fault diagnosis of hydraulic systems using
unscented Kalman Filter. Int J Control, Automat, Syst 2010;8:149–56.

[8] Goharrizi Amin Yazdanpanah, Sepehri Nariman. A wavelet-based approach to internal

seal damage diagnosis in hydraulic actuators. IEEE Trans Indus Electron 2010;57(5):1755–
63.

[9] General administration of quality supervision, inspection and quarantine, GB/T 15622-
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[10] An L, Sepehri N. Leakage fault identification in a hydraulic positioning system using
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[11] Method of checking for hydraulic leakage: Patent US 4549429 A.

[12]Experimental study of hydraulic cylinder leakage and fault feature

extraction based on wavelet packet analysis
Xiuxu Zhao a, ⇑, Shuanshuan Zhang a, Chuanli Zhou a, Zhemin Hu a, Rui Li b, Jihai Jiang

[12] An L, Sepehri N. Hydraulic actuator leakage fault detection using extended Kalman
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[13] Goharrizi AY, Sepehri N, Wu Y. A wavelet-based approach for diagnosis of internal

leakage in hydraulic actuators using on-line measurements 2010;11(1):61–9.

[14] Goharrizi AY, Sepehri N, Wu Y. A wavelet-based approach for online external leakage
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[15] Tang H et al. Internal leakage fault diagnosis of hydraulic cylinder using PCA
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