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IntroToMaple

This document introduces the Maple programming environment. It discusses how to work with empty worksheets, perform calculations, define functions of one or more variables, use piecewise functions and if statements, and work with matrices. Functions in Maple are case sensitive, and it contains most common mathematical functions that can be accessed through the help menu.

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mood8124
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243 views

IntroToMaple

This document introduces the Maple programming environment. It discusses how to work with empty worksheets, perform calculations, define functions of one or more variables, use piecewise functions and if statements, and work with matrices. Functions in Maple are case sensitive, and it contains most common mathematical functions that can be accessed through the help menu.

Uploaded by

mood8124
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
Available Formats
Download as PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
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‫‪1‬‬

‫‪áîy‹Ûa@弋Ûa@a@ái‬‬
‫ﻣﺪﺧﻞ ﻟﱪﻧﺎﻣﺞ ﻣﺎﺑﻞ ‪INTRODUCTION to MAPLE‬‬
‫ﺍﻋﺪﺍﺩ‪ :‬ﺩ‪ .‬ﺣﻨﺎﻥ ﺑﺎﻃﺮﰲ ‪Prepared By: Dr. H. Batarfi‬‬
‫ﻗﺴﻢ ﺍﻟﺮﻳﺎﺿﻴﺎﺕ‪-‬ﺷﻄﺮ ﺍﻟﻄﺎﻟﺒﺎﺕ ﺑﺎﻟﺴﻠﻴﻤﺎﻧﻴﺔ‬
‫ﻛﻠﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﻌﻠﻮﻡ ﲜﺎﻣﻌﺔ ﺍﳌﻠﻚ ﻋﺒﺪﺍﻟﻌﺰﻳﺰ‪-‬ﺟﺪﺓ‪-‬ﺍﳌﻤﻠﻜﺔ ﺍﻟﻌﺮﺑﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﺴﻌﻮﺩﻳﺔ‬
‫‪Mathematics Department, Women's Campus at AlSulaimanya‬‬
‫‪Faculty of Science, King AbdulAziz University‬‬
‫‪Jeddah, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia‬‬
‫ﻋﻨﺪ ﺍﻃﻼﻕ ﺍﻟﱪﻧﺎﻣﺞ ﺳﺘﻈﻬﺮ ﻟﻚ ﻭﺭﻗﺔ ﻋﻤﻞ ﻓﺎﺭﻏﺔ‬

‫ﺍﺑﺪﺃﻱ ﺑﺎﻟﻜﺘﺎﺑﺔ ﰲ ﺳﻄﺮ ﺍﻻﻭﺍﻣﺮ‬


‫ﰒ ﺍﺿﻐﻄﻲ ‪Enter‬‬
‫ﻭﻫﻮ ﻋﺒﺎﺭﺓ ﻋﻦ ﺃﻣﺮ ﻻﻓﺮﺍﻍ ﳏﺘﻮﻳﺎﺕ ﺍﻱ ﺍﻭﺍﻣﺮ ﺳﺎﺑﻘﺔ ﺍﻭ ﻣﻌﻄﻴﺎﺕ ﺍﻭ ﻧﺘﺎﺋﺞ‬
‫ﻣﻼﺣﻈﺔ‪ :‬ﻣﺎﺑﻞ ﺣﺴﺎﺱ ﲡﺎﻩ ﺍﺳﺘﺨﺪﺍﻡ ﺍﳊﺮﻭﻑ ﺍﻟﻜﺒﲑﺓ ﺍﻭ ﺍﻟﺼﻐﲑﺓ ﻓﻤﺜﻼ ‪ a‬ﲣﺘﻠﻒ ﻟﺪﻳﻪ ﻋﻦ ‪A‬‬
‫ﺍﻟﻌﻤﻠﻴﺎﺕ ﺍﳊﺴﺎﺑﻴﺔ‬
‫‪2‬‬
‫ﺍﻟﺪﻭﺍﻝ ﺍﻟﺮﻳﺎﺿﻴﺔ‬
‫ﳛﺘﻮﻱ ﻣﺎﺑﻞ ﻋﻠﻰ ﻏﺎﻟﺒﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﺪﻭﺍﻝ ﺍﻟﺮﻳﺎﺿﻴﺔ ﻭﳝﻜﻨﻚ ﺍﳊﺼﻮﻝ ﻋﻠﻰ ﻛﻴﻔﻴﺔ ﺍﺳﺘﺨﺪﺍﻡ ﻭﻛﺘﺎﺑﺔ ﺍﻱ ﺩﺍﻟﺔ ﻣﻦ‬
‫ﺧﻼﻝ ﺍﺧﺘﻴﺎﺭ ‪ Help‬ﺑﻘﺎﺋﻤﺔ ﺍﻻﻭﺍﻣﺮ ﰲ ﺍﻻﻋﻠﻰ‬

‫ﻗﻮﻣﻲ ﺑﻜﺘﺎﺑﺔ )ﻣﺜﻼ( ‪ sin‬ﰒ ﺃﺿﻐﻄﻲ ‪OK‬‬


‫‪3‬‬
‫ﺗﻌﺮﻳﻒ ﺩﺍﻟﺔ ﰲ ﻣﺘﻐﲑ ﺃﻭ ﺃﻛﺜﺮ]‪[1‬‬
‫ﺑﻜﺘﺎﺑﺔ ﺍﻻﻣﺮ ﺍﻟﺘﺎﱄ‬

‫‪[> expT := 30+40*exp(-0.2*t); # cooling off‬‬


‫ﻓﺎﻧﲏ ﻟﻦ ﺍﲤﻜﻦ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﺘﻌﺎﻣﻞ ﻣﻊ ﺍﳌﺘﻐﲑ ‪ t‬ﺑﺸﻜﻞ ﻣﺒﺎﺷﺮ ﻣﻦ ﺧﻼﻝ ﺩﺍﻟﺔ ‪ expT‬ﻓﻤﺜﻼ ﻟﺪﻯ ﺍﻟﺘﻌﻮﻳﺾ ﻋﻦ‬
‫)‪ *+,-. */,‬ا)(م ' &!‪$%‬ام ا! ‬
‫;)‪[> eva := subs(t=1.5,expT‬‬
‫;)‪[> evalf(eva,30‬‬

‫ﳝﻜﻨﲏ ﺍﺳﺘﺨﺪﺍﻡ ﺍﻣﺮ ﺁﺧﺮ ﻟﺘﻌﺮﻳﻒ ﺍﻟﺪﺍﻟﺔ )ﻧﻔﺴﻬﺎ( ﻛﺪﺍﻟﺔ ﰲ ‪ t‬ﻛﻲ ﺍﲤﻜﻦ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﺘﻌﻮﻳﺾ ﻋﻦ ﻗﻴﻢ‬
‫ﳐﺘﻠﻔﺔ‬

‫ﺍﺫﺍ ﺍﺭﺩﺕ ﺗﻌﺮﻳﻒ ﺩﺍﻟﺔ ﰲ ﺍﻛﺜﺮ ﻣﻦ ﻣﺘﻐﲑ ﻣﺴﺘﻘﻞ ‪ independent variable‬ﳝﻜﻨﻚ ﻃﺒﺎﻋﺔ ﻣﺎﻳﻠﻲ‬
‫‪4‬‬

‫ﻭﳝﻜﻨﻚ ﺗﻌﺮﻳﻒ ﺩﺍﻟﺔ ﺫﺍﺕ ﻣﺘﻐﲑ ﺍﻭ ﻣﺘﻐﲑﻳﻦ ﻭﺑﺎﻟﺘﺎﱄ ﺭﲰﻬﻤﺎ ﻛﺎﻟﺘﺎﱄ‬

‫ﲤﺮﻳﻦ‪ :‬ﺍﻟﺘﻌﺮﻑ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺧﺼﺎﺋﺺ ﻭﺍﺧﺘﻴﺎﺭﺍﺕ ﻋﺮﺽ ﺍﻟﺮﺳﻢ‬


‫‪5‬‬
‫ﺍﻣﺮ "‪ "if‬ﻭﺍﻣﺮ ‪ proc‬ﻟﺘﻌﺮﻳﻒ ﺩﺍﻟﺔ ﻣﺘﻘﻄﻌﺔ‬
‫ﻳﻌﺘﱪ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﻘﻀﺎﻳﺎ ﻭﺍﻻﻭﺍﻣﺮ ﺍﳌﻬﻤﺔ ﻓﻤﺜﻼ ﻟﻮ ﺍﺭﺩﻧﺎ ﺗﻌﺮﻳﻒ ﺩﺍﻟﺔ ﺍﻝ ‪step‬‬

‫ﺃﻣﺮ ‪ piecewise‬ﻟﺘﻌﺮﻳﻒ ﺍﻟﺪﺍﻟﺔ ﺍﳌﺘﻘﻄﻌﺔ‬


‫ﳝﻜﻨﻚ ﺑﺪﻻ ﻣﻦ ﺍﺳﺘﺨﺪﺍﻡ ﺍﻻﻭﺍﻣﺮ ﺍﻟﺴﺎﺑﻘﺔ ﺍﻟﻘﻴﺎﻡ ﺑﺎﺳﺘﺨﺪﺍﻡ‬
‫;)‪step2 := piecewise(x<0,0,x<1,1,2‬‬
‫‪Matrices‬ﺍﳌﺼﻔﻮﻓﺎﺕ‬
‫ﻟﻜﺘﺎﺑﺔ ﻣﺼﻔﻮﻓﺔ ﺍﻭ ﻣﺘﺠﻪ ﰲ ﻣﺎﺑﻞ ﻻﺑﺪ ﻣﻦ ﺍﺳﺘﺨﺪﺍﻡ ﺣﺰﻣﺔ )ﺍﳉﱪ ﺍﳋﻄﻲ( ﰲ ﺍﳌﺎﺑﻞ ﻭﻣﻦ ﺍﻻﻓﻀﻞ ﻣﻦ‬
‫ﺑﺪﺍﻳﺔ ﺍﻟﱪﻧﺎﻣﺞ ﻛﺎﻟﺘﺎﱄ‬
‫ﻭﻣﻦ ﰒ ﺗﻌﺮﻳﻒ‬
‫ﺍﳌﺘﺠﻪ ﺍﻭ‬
‫ﺍﳌﺼﻔﻮﻓﺔ ﺍﻭﻻ‬
‫ﻭ ﺍﺩﺧﺎﻝ‬
‫ﺍﻟﻌﻨﺎﺻﺮ‬
‫ﻓﻤﺜﻼ‬
‫‪6‬‬
‫ﻭﺍﺩﺧﺎﻝ ﺍﳌﺼﻔﻮﻓﺔ ﻳﺘﻢ ﻛﺎﻟﺘﺎﱄ‬

‫ﺍﺫﺍ ﻛﺎﻧﺖ ﺍﻟﻌﻨﺎﺻﺮ ﻏﲑ ﻣﺘﻮﻓﺮﺓ ﻟﺪﻳﻚ ﺑﺴﺒﺐ ﻛﻮ‪‬ﺎ ﻧﺘﻴﺠﺔ ﻟﻌﺪﺓ ﺣﺴﺎﺑﺎﺕ ﳝﻜﻨﻚ ﻛﺘﺎﺑﺔ‬
‫;)][‪[> B:=matrix(3,3,‬‬
‫ﺃﻳﻀﺎ ﳚﺐ ﺍﻻﻧﺘﺒﺎﻩ ﻟﺪﻯ ﺍﺳﺘﺨﺪﺍﻣﻚ ﻟﻠﺘﺮﺗﻴﺐ ﻓﺎﺫﺍ ﺍﺿﻄﺮﺭﺕ ﺍﱃ ﺍﺳﺘﺨﺪﺍﻡ ﺍﻟﺼﻔﺮ ﰲ ﺗﺮﺗﻴﺐ ﻋﻨﺎﺻﺮ‬
‫ﺍﳌﺘﺠﻪ ﺍﻭ ﺍﳌﺼﻔﻮﻓﺔ‬
‫ﻓﺴﻴﺘﻌﺎﻣﻞ ﻣﻌﻬﺎ ﻣﺎﺑﻞ ﻋﻠﻰ‬
‫ﺍﺳﺎﺱ ﺍ‪‬ﺎ ﻧﺴﻖ ‪array‬‬
‫ﻭﻟﻴﺴﺖ ﻣﺘﺠﻪ‪/‬ﻣﺼﻔﻮﻓﺔ‬

‫ﻭﳝﻜﻨﻚ ﺍﺟﺮﺍﺀ ﺍﻟﻌﻤﻠﻴﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﻼﺯﻣﺔ ﻛﺎﳉﻤﻊ ﻭﺍﻟﻄﺮﺡ ﻭﺍﻟﻀﺮﺏ‬

‫ﺍﳌﻌﺎﺩﻻﺕ ﺍﳋﻄﻴﺔ‬
‫ﺑﻌﺾ ﺍﳌﻮﺍﻗﻊ ﺍﻻﻛﺎﺩﳝﻴﺔ ﻭﺿﻌﺖ ﺍﻣﻜﺎﻧﻴﺔ ﺣﻞ ﻧﻈﺎﻡ ﻣﻦ ﺍﳌﻌﺎﺩﻻﺕ ﺍﳋﻄﻴﺔ ‪ 2×2‬ﻣﺜﻞ ]‪ [2‬ﻭﻫﻮ ﳑﺘﻊ ﺍﱃ ﺣﺪ‬
‫ﻣﺎ‪ .‬ﺍﻣﺎ ﰲ ﺣﺎﻟﺔ ﺍﻟﻨﻈﻢ ﺍﳋﻄﻴﺔ ‪ n ×n‬ﻓﻬﻨﺎﻟﻚ ﻛﺘﺐ ﻋﺪﺓ ﺗﺸﺮﺡ ﺍﻟﻄﺮﻕ ﺍﳌﺘﻌﺪﺩﺓ ﻻﳚﺎﺩ ﺣﻠﻬﺎ ﺳﻮﺍﺀ ﻛﺎﻥ‬
‫ﺍﻟﺒﺤﺚ ﻋﻦ ﺍﳊﻠﻮﻝ ﺍﳌﻈﺒﻮﻃﺔ )‪ (exact‬ﺍﻭ ﺍﻟﺘﻘﺮﻳﺒﻴﺔ )‪ (approximated‬ﻭﺑﺎﻟﻄﺒﻊ ﺑﺸﺮﻁ ﺍﻥ ﻳﻜﻮﻥ ﺍﻟﻨﻈﺎﻡ‬
‫‪ Consistent‬ﻭﺍﳊﻞ ﻭﺣﻴﺪ )‪– (unique‬ﳝﻜﻨﻚ ﺍﻻﻃﻼﻉ ﻋﻠﻰ ]‪ [3‬ﻟﻠﺘﻌﺮﻑ ﺑﺘﻠﺨﻴﺺ ﻋﻠﻰ ﻭﺟﻮﺩﻳﺔ ﻭﻭﺣﺪﺍﻧﻴﺔ‬
‫ﺍﳊﻞ )‪.(existence and uniqueness of the solution‬‬
‫ﳊﻞ ﺍﻟﻨﻈﺎﻡ ﺍﳋﻄﻲ ‪ u+v+w=1, 3*u+v=3, u-2*v-w=0‬ﻓﺎﻧﻨﺎ ﳓﺎﻭﻝ ﺍﳚﺎﺩ ﻧﻘﻄﺔ ﺗﻘﺎﻃﻊ ﺛﻼﺙ‬
‫ﺧﻄﻮﻁ ﻣﺴﺘﻘﻴﻤﺔ‬
‫‪7‬‬

‫ﺍﳌﻌﺎﺩﻻﺕ ﺍﻟﺘﻔﺎﺿﻠﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﻌﺎﺩﻳﺔ‬


‫ﻟﻠﺘﻌﺎﻣﻞ ﻣﻊ ﺍﳌﻌﺎﺩﻻﺕ ﺍﻟﺘﻔﺎﺿﻠﻴﺔ ﻳﻨﺒﻐﻲ ﻟﻨﺎ ﺍﻭﻻ ﻣﻌﺮﻓﺔ ﺍﻣﺮ ﻋﻤﻠﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﺘﻔﺎﺿﻞ ﻓﻤﺜﻼ‬
‫‪8‬‬
‫ﻟﺘﻌﺮﻳﻒ ﻣﻌﺎﺩﻟﺔ ﺗﻔﺎﺿﻠﻴﺔ ﻭﺣﻠﻬﺎ ﺟﱪﻳﺎ‬

‫ﺍﻣﺎ ﺍﺫﺍ ﺗﻮﻓﺮﺕ ﻟﺪﻱ ﺍﻟﻘﻴﻤﺔ ﺍﻻﺑﺘﺪﺍﺋﻴﺔ ﻓﺎﺿﻴﻔﻬﺎ‬

‫ﰲ ﺣﺎﻟﺔ ﻭﺟﻮﺩ ﻧﻈﺎﻡ ﻣﻦ ﺍﳌﻌﺎﺩﻻﺕ ﺍﻟﺘﻔﺎﺿﻠﻴﺔ‬


‫‪-1‬ﺍﺳﺘﺨﺪﺍﻡ ﺍﳊﺰﻣﺔ ‪-2 ،DEtools‬ﺗﻌﺮﻳﻒ ﺍﳌﻌﺎﺩﻻﺕ ﻛﻤﺎ ﺳﺒﻖ ﰲ ﻭﻋﺎﺀ‪-3 ،‬ﺗﻌﺮﻳﻒ ﺍﻟﻨﻘﺎﻁ ﺍﻻﺑﺘﺪﺍﺋﻴﺔ ﰲ‬
‫ﻭﻋﺎﺀ‪-4 ،‬ﺍﺳﺘﺨﺪﺍﻡ ﺍﻻﻣﺮ ‪ dsolve‬ﻭﻟﻜﻨﻨﺎ ﰲ ﻫﺬﻩ ﺍﻟﺪﻭﺭﺓ ﺳﻨﻌﺘﻤﺪ ﺍﺳﺘﺨﺪﺍﻡ ﺍﻻﻣﺮ ﻻﳚﺎﺩ ﺍﳊﻞ ﺑﺎﻟﻄﺮﻕ‬

‫ﺍﻟﻌﺪﺩﻳﺔ‪ .‬ﳌﻌﺮﻓﺔ ﺍﻧﻮﺍﻉ ﺍﻟﻄﺮﻕ ﺍﳌﺴﺘﺨﺪﻣﺔ ﺍﺫﻫﱯ ﺍﱃ ‪ [>?dsolve,numeric‬ﰒ ﺍﲝﺜﻲ ﻋﻦ ﺍﻻﺧﺘﻴﺎﺭ ‪method‬‬
‫ﳝﻜﻨﻚ ﺍﻇﻬﺎﺭ ﺍﻟﻘﻴﻢ ﺍﻟﻌﺪﺩﻳﺔ ﻛﻨﻘﺎﻁ ﰲ ﺍﻻﺣﺪﺍﺛﻲ ﺍﻟﺴﻴﲏ ﻭﺍﻟﺼﺎﺩﻱ ﻭ ﺭﲰﻬﺎ‬
‫‪9‬‬

‫ﺍﻟﺮﺟﺎﺀ ﺍﺳﺘﺨﺪﺍﻡ ‪ Help‬ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﻘﺎﺋﻤﺔ ﻟﻠﺤﺼﻮﻝ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺍﳋﻴﺎﺭﺍﺕ ﺍﻻﺧﺮﻯ ﻟﻼﻣﺮ ‪ dsolve‬ﻛﺎﻟﺪﻗﺔ ﻭﻏﲑﻫﺎ‬
‫ﺍﺫﺍ ﻛﺎﻥ ﻟﺪﻳﻚ ﻧﻈﺎﻡ ﻣﻦ ﺍﳌﻌﺎﺩﻻﺕ ﻓﻴﻤﻜﻨﻚ ﺃﻳﻀﺎ ﺭﺳﻢ ﺍﳊﻞ ﻋﺪﺩﻳﺎ ﻭﺍﺧﺘﻴﺎﺭ ﳏﺎﻭﺭ ﺍﻟﺮﺳﻢ‬

‫ﺍﻭ ﺭﲰﻬﺎ ﻣﻊ ﺣﺮﻛﺔ ﻭﺫﻟﻚ ﺑﻮﺿﻊ ‪ 20‬ﺭﺳﻢ ﻓﻮﻕ ﺑﻌﻀﻬﺎ ﻟﻠﻤﻨﺤﻨﻴﲔ‬


‫‪10‬‬

‫ﺃﺿﻐﻄﻲ ﺿﻐﻄﺔ ﻭﺍﺣﺪﺓ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺍﻟﺮﺳﻢ ﻟﺘﻈﻬﺮ ﻟﻚ ﺍﻟﻘﺎﺋﻤﺔ ﺍﻟﺘﺎﻟﻴﺔ ﺃﻋﻼﻩ‬

‫ﻟﺮﺳﻢ ﺍﻟـ ‪ Direction Field‬ﻟﻨﻔﺲ ﺍﳌﻌﺎﺩﻟﺘﲔ ﺍﳋﻄﻴﺔ‬

‫ﺃﻣﺎ ﺍﻟـ ‪ Phase Portrait‬ﻓﻬﻨﺎﻟﻚ ﺃﻣﺮ ﺧﺎﺹ ‪‬ﺎ ﺍﻳﻀﺎ ﻭﻟﻜﻦ ﳚﺐ ﺍﺗﺒﺎﻉ ﻃﺮﻳﻘﺔ ﺍﻟﺘﻌﺒﺌﺔ ﻣﻦ ﺧﻼﻝ ﻗﺎﺋﻤﺔ‬
‫ﺍﳌﺴﺎﻋﺪﺓ ﻟﻼﻣﺮ ﻧﻔﺴﻪ‬
‫‪11‬‬

‫ﻟﻠﺤﺼﻮﻝ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺭﺳﻢ ﺛﻼﺛﻲ ﺍﻻﺣﺪﺍﺛﻴﺎﺕ ‪ t-x-y‬ﳝﻜﻨﻚ ﺫﻟﻚ ﺑﺎﺳﺘﺨﺪﺍﻡ ‪odeplot‬‬

‫ﺃﺿﻐﻄﻲ ﺿﻐﻄﺔ ﻭﺍﺣﺪﺓ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺍﻟﺮﺳﻢ ﻟﻜﻲ ﺗﺴﺘﻄﻴﻌﻲ ﺍﻟﺘﺤﻜﻢ ﺑﺰﺍﻭﻳﺔ ﺍﻟﺮﺅﻳﺔ ﻭﺧﻼﻓﺔ)ﻭ ﻣﻦ‬
‫ﺍﻟﻘﺎﺋﻤﺔ ﺍﻳﻀﺎ(‬
‫‪12‬‬
‫ﲣﺰﻳﻦ ﺍﻟﺒﻴﺎﻧﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﻌﺪﺩﻳﺔ ﰲ ﻣﻠﻒ‬
‫ﻟﻨﻔﺘﺮﺽ ﺑﺎﻧﻚ ﰲ ﺣﺎﺟﺔ‬
‫ﻟﻠﺒﻴﺎﻧﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﻌﺪﺩﻳﺔ‬
‫ﻻﺳﺘﺨﺪﺍﻣﻬﺎ ﰲ ﺑﺮﻧﺎﻣﺞ‬
‫ﺁﺧﺮ ﺳﻮﺍﺀ ﻣﺎﺑﻞ ﺍﻭ ﺍﻛﺴﻞ ﺍﻭ‬
‫ﺍﻭ‪...‬‬

‫ﻭﳝﻜﻨﻚ ﺍﳚﺎﺩ ﺍﳌﻠﻒ ‪ tempfile.dat‬ﰲ ﺍﳌﻮﻗﻊ ‪ C:\Program Files\Maple 9.5\bin.win‬ﺍﻭ‬


‫ﺑﺎﻻﺻﺢ ﰲ ﻣﻠﻒ ‪ bin.win‬ﺍﳌﻮﺟﻮﺩ ﺩﺍﺧﻞ ﻣﻠﻒ ﺑﺮﻧﺎﻣﺞ ‪Maple‬‬
‫ﳝﻜﻦ ﺍﻟﺘﺤﻜﻢ ﰲ ﺍﻟﺮﺳﻢ ﺑﺎﺳﺘﺨﺪﺍﻡ ﺍﻻﺧﺘﻴﺎﺭﺍﺕ ﺍﳌﺨﺘﻠﻔﺔ ﻛﺎﻟﺘﺎﱄ‬

‫‪References‬‬
‫‪[1]. http://homepages.math.uic.edu/~jan/mcs320/Lec15/lec15.pdf‬‬
‫‪[2]. http://www.math.odu.edu/~bogacki/cgi-bin/lat.cgi?c=sys‬‬
‫‪[3]. http://web.cecs.pdx.edu/~gerry/nmm/course/slides/ch08Slides.pdf‬‬

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