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LE.S., tical fields, along with Teaching, made him = j r future generation of {or the past 5 years, at of producing a 1st ‘outstanding result in highly dedicated and in mind to provide ourselves to aspiring wwe provide all study books and question .0 guide students via qwentional Questions builds their problem 1 o the actual exam- 10 clear their doubts re lot; we've chosen sir vast knowledge 0 ppersof LE.S/GATE - New Pattern vars in their lds of A : ag vast experience in for plitude, Engineering UPSC ESE Exam §ngineering Aptitude J an exam oriented sssured that you're in what you deserve - i UNDER : 1 guidance ; fam for ESE. sete & 5. etacvonie, Wb : wwnesmasterpubleation erg [Phone : 011-2652206] Mobile: 6130900220, 9711853608 yer with . 7 rosecutad(i | ae: IES MASTER PUBLICATION Materials F-126, (Lower Basement), Katwaria Sarai, New Dethi-110016 a pee Phone : 011-26522064, Mobile : 8130909220, 9711853908 i ee E-mail : [email protected], [email protected] i This unc Web : iesmasterpublication.org material : extractio On acco of Engin All rights reserved. ' We at I! Copyright © 2016, by IES MASTER Publications. No part of this booklet may be reproduced, or ar distributed in any form or by any means electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise or stored ina database or retrieval system without the prior perssion of IES MASTER, could pr Now Delhi. Violates are liable to be legatly prosecuted. Hope th — Examine First Edition: 2016 ‘Typeset at : IES Master Publication, New Delhi-110095duced, or ording,_or MASTER, lailge laa Materials are the spinal chord of technology. An Engineer, regardiess of which discipline he/she belongs to, must have sound understanding of tffe basic concepts of material science. This understanding of materials enables the engineers to select the most appropriate materials and use them with greatest efficiency whilst causing minimum pollution in thefr extraction, refinement and rhanufacturing ’ (On account of the above UPSE has introduced basics of material science in its syllabus of Engineering Services Examination. We at IES Master have tried to present the subject matter in simple, lucid and exam oriented-manner. At the end of each chapter exercises have been given, so that students. could practice the questions and check their understanding of the topic. Hope this will suffice the need of students who are preparing for Engineering Services Examination, Mr. Kanchan Kumar Thakur Director Ex-IESPreface in | 1. Atomic Structure and Interatomic Bonding 1-8 i 1.4 Atomic Structure ~ Ot | 1.2 Fundamental Components of Atoms, w= 02 I 1.3. Thomson's Atomic Model ' 03, | 1.4 Rutherford’s Atomic Model 03 i 1.5 Bohr's Atomic Model 04 | 1.6 Atomic Bonding in Solids 06 : j Questions : or ; ~ Answers 08 2. Crystal Structure 09-32 4 24° Introduction, = 09 | 2.2 Unit Cells = 09 2.3. FCC Crystal Structure (Face Centred Cubic) .. 10 : 2.4 — BCC Structure (Body Centred Cubic) 1" 2.5 Hexagonal Closed Packing (HCP) 12 2.6 Polymorphism 12 2.7 Lattice Parameter Relationships and Figures Showing Unit Cell Geometries: for the Seven Crystal Systems 13 2.8 Crystallographic Directions wa \ 2.9 Crystallographic Planes 15 ' 2.10 Anisotropy . 19 2.11. Imperfections in Solids ea 20 2.42 Measurement of Grain Size 23 2.13 Plastic Deformation of Polyerytalline Materials 24 2.14 Recovery 25 } 2.18 Recrystallization 5 ee(vi) Contents 2.16 Grain Growth 26 5 Questions 27 5 Answers 32 5 3. Phase Diagrams 33-60 6 3.1 Solid Solution 33 3.2 Solubility Unit 7 as 3.3 Phase 35 3.4 — Various Type of Phase Diagram Reaction a 3.5 Congruent Phase Transformations MA, 6. 3.6 Relationship Between the Phase Diagram and Properties of Material... 44 6 3.7 Alllotropy of tron a : 3.8 Irontron Carbide Phase Diagram 46 . 3.9 Transformation Rate Effects and TTT Diagrams, e Microstructure and Property Changes in Fe-C Alloys ' 49 6 3.40 Influence of Alloying Elements on Phase Diagram 54 ce) 3.11 Effect of Alloying Element on Fe 54 Questions : 56 “Answers 60 a 4. Physical, Mechanical Properties and Testing of Material 61-91 7 4.1 Physical Properties of Materials . 61 7 4.2 Mechanical Properties of Materials 64 i 4.3 Fracture 69 z 4.4 Material Testing ma z Questions . 87 i Answers on : 5. Alloys and its Various Types 92-414 5.1 Introduction 2 5.2 Ferrous Alloys 92 5.3 Copper 99 5.4 Aluminium and its Alloys - 101 5.5 Nickel 102Contents (vii) 6 \ 5.6 Super Alloys 104 ar i 5.7 Tin Alloys vo 105 a | 58 — Refractory Metats 105 ya 5.9 Zine 2. 106 2. 38 | Questions 107 Answers : 114 35 ; ey 6. Heat Treatment 115-190 43 | 6.1 Introduction’ 18 1 ad 62 Annealing < a 63 Nomnalizing A 1" 1. 45 | 64 — Hardening 7 “ 46 \ 65 Tempering 1 ' 66 Case Hardening 4 4 \ 6.7 Induction Hardening ; we th « | 68 Fame Hardening 54 Questions fl 56 i Answers 1 ee ee : Magnetic Properties of Materials } 61-91 | 7.4 — Properties of Magnetic Material 61 i -_7.2. “Bob Magnetron 64 i 7.3. Magnetization (Mj 69 | 7.4 — Origin of Permanent Magnetic Dipole 134 4 7.5 Classification of Magnetic Materials . 184 87 7.6 Curie Temperature 142 ot : 7.7 Magnetization Curve 144 =—- 7.8 Magnetic Hysteresis Loop (or Cycle Magetization) 444 peeatit ; 7.9 Cold Working . 145 % i 7.10. Magnetic Annealing 145 a 7.11 Magnetic Quenching 145 cs | 7.12 Magnetostriction 146 wy i 7.13. Soft Magnetic Materials 148 102 7.14 Hard Magnetic Materials (Permanent Magnet Materials) o 148(viii) Contents 5 7.45 High Energy (Product) Hard Magnetic Materials (HEHMMs) wa 180 st Questions 152 { out Answers 155) 8, The Conductivity of Metals 156-179 _ 8.1 Ohm's Law (Point Form) .. 156 18. Op 8&2 Mean Free Path (1) on 188 10. 83 Relaxation Time wo 188 10. 84 — Factors Affecting Resistivity of Metals 158 10. 85 Superconductivity wo 188 10. 86 Silsbee Rule o 160 10. 8.7 Meissner Effect 161 Aa 8.8 Types of Super-Conductor vn 162 on 8.9 Low Resistivity Conducting Material vn 164 ia 8.10 High Resistivity Conducting Material 165 10 8.11 Insulating Materials 165 7 8.12 Application of Conductors 166 8.13 Types of Conducting Materials . 167 De 8.14 Modem Ceramic Superconductors -. 169 bes 8.15. Superconiicuting Magnet 170 10 Questions 172 2 Answers 179 | 10. 9, The Mechanism of Conduction in Semiconductors 180-204 ie 9.1 Introduction 180 10. 9.2 Classification of Materials in Terms of Energy Bands 181 a 9.3. Type of Semiconducting Materials 181 10. 9.4 Classification of Elemental Semiconductors 183, 10. 9.5 Position of Fermi Level in Extrinsic Semiconductors =. 185 10. 9.6 Conductivity of Semiconductor 186 10. 9.7 Hall Effect in Semiconductors 187 10. 9.8 Merits of Semiconductor Materials 190 89 Formulated (Compound and Alloyed) Semiconducting Materials... 191 9.10 Applications of Semiconductor Devices 192Contents (ix) 192 150 \ 9.11 Microelectronics 2. 195 152 | 9.12 Fabrication of Thin Film Microelectronic Circuit 195 155 1 Questions 197 pears | Answers _ 208 158 } 40. Optical and Thermal Properties of Materials 205-223 158 \ 40.1 Introduction ‘ - 205 158 | 10.2 Refraction 205 158 | 10.3 Reflection 206 168 10.4 Absorption , 206 160 10.5 Rayleigh Scattering 206 aed | 10.6 Transmission . 206 162 | 40.7 Thermal Emission 207 aad | 10.8 Electro-Oplic Effect ; 200 . | 109 Photoelectic Exfect 201 166 i 10.10 Photoemissivity . 20 467 \ 10.11. Brightness : + 203 169 i 10,12 Optical Properties 6f Non-metals 207 a | 10.13 Optical Properties of Metals 1 208 A ! 10.14 Optical Properties of Semiconductors 2. 208 179 i 10.15. Visibility Range of Light Spectrum 0 innone i 10.16 Optical Properties of Insulators aa i 10.17 Optical Absorption in tonic Crystals 181 ! 10.18 Luminescence : 25 181 | 10.19. OPTO-Electronic Devices 21 183, | 10.20. Solar Cells 2 185 | 10.21. Light Emitting Diodes a an 186 | 10.22 Optical Fibres Be 187 | 40.23. Thermal Properties 218 aa | Questions a Answers 2 8(0) Contents - 11, Polymers a 224-245 3.6 11.1. Introduction .. 224 1 11.2 Chemitry of Polymer Molecules 226 1 14.3 Molecular Weight . 225 1 11.4 Molecular Shape . 226 11.5 Molecular Structure 227 u 14.6 Copolymers 28 1 11.8 Characteristics and Typical Applications of Few Plastic Materials... 229, 4 41.9 Behaviour of Polymers under Different Situations 232 Fi 41.10 Fibres 233 | 4 11.11. General Applications of Polymers 235 | A 11.12 Addition Polymerization +236 | 11.13 Polymer Additions 238 | 11.14 Thermoplastic Elastomers 238 | —_ 11.15. Vuleanization vs 240 i uae ‘Questions : 242 | > —4 Answers 245 | t 2. Covamics mea | ; 12.4 Introduction 246 | 4 12.2 Structure of Ceramics 246 | i 42.3. Mechanical Properties 247 | 4 12.4 Electrical Behaviour of Ceramics .. 247 i 12.5 Fabrication and Processing of Ceramics 250 | 4 126 Glasses and Glass Ceramics 23 1 12.7 Clay Products 258 i 12.8 Reinforced Cement Concrete (RCC) 7... 259 i 129 Refractories 261 | 15. A 12.10. Recent Advances in ceramics 263 | 4 Questions 264 ‘i Answers 266 | A224-245, 224 . 225 225 226 pa22n . 228 228 229 232 . 233 235 . 236 238 one 239 wes 240 2. 242 245 "246-266 248 246. 247 247 250 253 258 259 261 263 264 , 266 Contents_ ( 13. Composites = 267-283 13.1 Introduction : . 267 13.2 Partical Reinforced Composites 268 13.3 influence of Fibre Orientation and Concentration . 270 13.4 Fibre Phase amt 13.5 Polymer Matrix Composites t 272 13.6 Various Matrix Materials . 278 13.7 Natural Fibres wn 278 13.8 High Performance Fibres 279 13.9 Aspect Ratio and Fibres , 280 13.10 Glass Fibres 281 13.11 Stress-Strain Behaviour of Fibres, Matrix and Composites . 281 13.12 Bulk molding compounds (BMCs) 282 Questions 283 > Answers 283 14, Corrosion 784-295 14.1 Introduction, - 284 14.2 Porous Non-porous corrosion on 284 14.3 Wet Corrosion (Occurs in Presence of a Liquid or Weter) 285 14.4 Dry Cortosion 1 288 14.5 Laws of Corrosion 288 14.8 “Corrosion of Ceramics .- 288 14.7 Degradation of Polymers .- 288 14.8 Oxidation 289 14.9 Various Method to Avoid Cor‘osion 230 Questions 204 Answers ~ .. 295 45, Advance in Material Science 296-206 15.1. Smart Materials (or inteligent Materials) 296 45.2 Shape Memory Alloys 297 15.3 Different Type of Smart Materials 297(xii) Contents_ 15.4 155 156 Nanotechnology Functionally Graded Materials (FGMs) Biomedical Materials Questions Answers 299 301 303 306 306Atomic Structure and 1.1 ATOMIC STRUCTURE Interatomic Bonding Atomic Structure Fundamental Compononts of Atoms ‘Thomson's Atomic Mode! Rutherford's Atomic Model Bobr's Atom Model Atomic Bonding in Solids Ionic Banding Covalent Bonding Metalie Bonding Fuctuating Induced Dipole Bonds Polar Molecule-Induced Dipole Bonds ‘Atoms are made of electrons, protons, and neutrons. Electrons and protons are negative and positive charged particles respectively. The magnitude of each charged particle in an atom is 1.6 x 10°® Coulombs. The mass of the electron is negligible with respect proton and the neutron (constitute the nucleus of the atom). The unit of mass is an atomic mass unit (amu) = 1.66 « 10” kg, and equal 1/12 the mass of a carbon atom. The Carbon nucleus has Z = 6, and A=6, where Z is the number of protons, and A the number of neutrons. Neutrons and protons have very similar masses, equal to 1 amu each. A electrically neutral atom has thé same number of electrons and protons, Z. A mole is the amount of matter that has a mass in grams equal to the atomic mass in amu of the atoms. Thus, a mole of oxygen has a mass of 32 grams, The number of atoms ina mole is called the Avogadro number;N,, = 6.023 * 102 N gram/1 amu, Most solids have atomic densities around 6 * 10% atoms/em?, ‘The mean distance between atoms is 0.25 nm. ‘This gives the scale of atomic structures in solids.2 Chapter-1 1.2 FUNDAMENTAL COMPONENTS GF ATOMS Matier is composed of tiny particles called atoms. These particles can be divided in three groups 4. Stable particles - electron, proton and neutron 2. Unstable particles ~ Position, neutrino, anti-neutrino and meson 3. Composite particles — Deutron and a-particles > Electron : It carries a very small negative electrical charge. It has negligible mass ie, its mass is 1/850th of the mass of hydrogen atom. Electrons are present in all the atoms, they revolve around the nucleus in orbitals of definite energy levels fat of hydrogen atom. Protons are also present in all the atoms. It is identical with hydrogen atom from which single electron has been removed, ee + It carries small positive electrical charge. Mass of each proton is same as » Neutron : It does not carry any electrical charge. Its mass is equivalent to that of proton. ~ > Positron ot positive electron : During studies on the effects of magnetié field upon the particles ejected trom atomic nucleus by absorption of cosmic rays, Anderson found fog tracks exactly like those given electrons but deflected in opposite directions. Those particles-which are responsible for such tracks-are called positron. Thus, they are the positive counterpart of the electrons. - > Neutrino and antisneutrino : They have no electrical charge and have small mass. During the radidactive emission of electrons and positrons, a change in energy is observed, ‘The neutrino the radioactive emission of electrons and positrons, a change in energy is observed. ‘The neutrino shares the energy of electron while the antineutrino occupies the same Position with respect to positron, > Meson’: The mass of meson particles is in-between the mass of electron and proton, Mesons were discovered during cosmic ray studies. They are of two types : (i) p-meson which is heavier, (ji) m-meson which is light. Both types of mesons may be either negatively or positively charged. z > Deutron : tis positivety charged. It is heavy hydrogen nucleus. Deutron bears same relation with heavy hydrogen as proton bears with ordinary hydrogen. It does not play any role in ultimate composition of matter. It is useful as bombarding particle. > Alpha particles : They are double charged helium nucleus. They appear as product of radioactive decay. hel Q>ed in three imassie., the atoms, 's same as intical with, to that of field upon son found ans. Those ey are the nall mass, observed. energy is the same iad proton, ) p-meson be either zars. same snot play as product Atomic Structure and interatomic Bonding 3 1.3 THOMSON’S ATOMIC MODEL * Atom is a sphere filled with positively charged, matter. The positive charge is distributed uniformly, with sufficient electrons embedded in it to balance positive charge. Eteatre 6 Postively chive ‘+ The radius-of the sphere of an atom is about 10 m, © Anatom is electrically neutral, so that total positive charge on it is equal to the total negative charge on it + The electrons posses vibratory, motion about their equilibrium, position and cei emission of light. 1.3.1 Drawbacks of the Model Thomson's model did not explain, +The scattering of a-partcies incident on metal oi ¢ “The emission of spectral lines by the atoms This model of atom had, therefore, to be superseaded. 1.4RUTHERFORD’S ATOMIC MODEL On-the-basis of a-particles scattering through large angle, Nucleus Rutherford: proposed the following structure of atom : + Anatom have small central part called the nucleus, in which"the whole mass and positive charge are concentrated. The nucleus size is about 10-*m. + As tthe atom is electrically neutral, so an equal number of electrons (negatively charged partictes) are distributed Sy in the space around nucleus: to balance the positive a charge of nucleus. (shown in figure) ‘central nucleus ‘+ Electrons are not stationary. The revolve around the nucleus in circular path in the same way as planets go around the sun. By this way Rutherford explained the stability of atom. He assumed that the electrons are revolving at a high speed around the nucleus in close circular orbits. The force of attraction between nucleus and electrons are balanced by the centrifugal force acting on the electron. 1.4.1 Drawbacks of Rutherford’s Atomic Model + Avevolving electron around the nucleus must be continuously accelerating due to the change in direction of motion at every point. According to electromagnetic theory, an4 Chapter-4 accelerating charge particle (a revolving around the nucleus possesses centripetal f acceleration and there would be continuous loss in energy of the revolving electron. | Thus, the electron must move along a spiral path of decreasing radius and ultimately falls into the nucleus (Shown in Figure) when its whole rotational energy is exhausted. ov This would result in annihitation of atom. | ° ‘© Acasrding to electromagnetic theory the revolving os ig ‘electron must radiate continuous radiations of all ie increasing frequencies. But it is observed that ; | Z elements emit spectral lines of fixed frequencies Nucleus j and not all the frequencies. | * In Rutherford model, there is no discussion of Spraipathof distribution of electrons. ira path 1.5 BOHR’S ATOMIC MODEL v Bhor’s extended the above model further by applying Planck's quantum theory. He made ; the following assumptions in his theory t * Anatom consists of 2 small heavy central part called nucleus in | t Which whole of the mass and positive charge of the atom are Nucleus . concentrated. The negatively charged electrons revolve around eo; 2 ; the nucteus in close circular orbits (Shown in Figure). The I ( centripetal force required for rotation is provided by-electrostatic —— giose arCatar 7 force-of attraction between positively charged nucleus and-the orbits ; negatively charged electrons. t Let m = mass of electron revolving around the nucleus L Z_= atomic number i @ = charge on electron | V_ = orbital velocity of electron : 6 = radius of the orbit Ze = charge on the nucleus 1.5. f= permitivity of free space = 8.854 x 10- Fim The electrostatic force of attraction between nucleus and the electron, 1 2, 1 reg? | Any constant | my’ ‘The necessary centripetal force Hence, according to Bohr’s theoryes centripetal ving electron. and ultimately is exhausted. |—Nucieus ‘ory. He made stron, Atomic Structure and Interatomic Bonding 5 my? 1 Ze TT dnp The electrons revolve only in certain specific non-radiating orbits defined ag stationary orbits. When the electrons revolve in these orbits there is no loss of eriergy. Bohr found that electron can only occupy an orbit for which the angular momentum of moving electron is an integral multiple of h/2x, where h is Planck's constant. Thus, for any given orbit, ¢ Momentum of electron = my Angular momentum of electron = mv r According to the above posiutate of Bohr's theory, we have h , nt nvr = ng where n is any positive integer having values (n = 1, 2, 3 sn. ete.) and is calles principal quantum number. n = 1, for innermost oribt. ‘When an atom jumps from one orbit of higher energy to anather orbit of lower energy, the energy is released in Poy the form of radiations, The amount of energy released is 14 Phat the difference of energies of electron in the two orbits (Shown in figure). Thus, an atom may emit or absorb energy photons only when one electron of atom jumps from higher to lower orbit or from lower to higher orbit “Reus respectively. Orbits of electrons Let, E, = energy of electron in inner or lower orbit E, = energy of electron in outer or higher orbit = frequency of radiation emitted, when electron jumps from higher orbit to lower orbit. Now, according to this postulate of Bohr's theory, we have ty = E,-E, 1.5.1 Drawback of Bohr’s Theory It gives no information regarding the arrangement of distribution of electrons in the atom. This theory does not explain wave nature of electrons. The thoery does not expiain why only circular orbits have been considered where as elliptical orbits are also possible. This theory does not explain the fine structural lines even for hydrogen. It does not give any information about the relative intensities of spectral lines. This theory expalins the atomic specira only for simple atoms like hydrogen, ete.6 Chapter-1 1.6 ATOMIC BONDING IN SOLIDS lonic Bonding : This bond exists between two atoms when one of the atoms is negative (has an extra electron) and another is positive (has lost an electron}, Then there exist a strong, direct Coulomb attraction. Jonic bonds are non-directionall in nature. CaCl, in this, there are more electrons around Cl, forming Cl- and fewer electrons around Ca, forming Ca’*. Ionic bonds are the strongest bonds. Covalent Bonding : In covalent bonding, electrons are shared between’ the atoms, to saturate the valency. The simplest example is the H, molecule. Each bond is between a specific pair of atoms, which share a pair of electrons (of opposite magnetic spins). Typically, covalent bonds are very strong, and directional in nature. Metallic Bonding : Metals are characterized by high thermal and electrical conductivities. Thus, neithed covalent nor ionic bonwings are realized because both types of bonding localize thd valence electrons and stop conduction. However, strong bonding does occur in metals. The valence electrons of metals also are delocalized. ‘Thus surrounded by a sea of delocalized electrons. It is non-directional Fluctuating Induced Dipole Bonds : As the electrons may be on one side of the atom or the other, a dipole is formed : the positive nucleus at the center, and the electron outside. Since the electron moves, the dipole fluctuates. This fluctuation in atom A produces @ fluctuating electric field that is felt by the electrons of an adjacent atom, B. Atom B then polarizes so that is outer electrons are on the side of atom clasest to the positive side (or opposite to the negative side) of the dipole in-A. Polar Molecule-Induced Dipole Bond: type of secondary bond “exists with asymmetric molecules, also termed as polar molecules because of positively and negatively charged regions. A permanent dipole moment arises from net positive and negative charges that are respecitvely associated with the hydrogen and chlorine ends of the HCL molecule; formed the bonding. The magnitude of this bond will be greater than for fluctuating induced dipoles. This two kinds of bonds ate also called van der Waals bonds. Third type of secondary bond is the hydrogen bond. It produces the strongest forces of attraction in this categories. Permanent Dipole Bonds/Hydrogen Bonding : It occurs betwoen molecules as covalently bonded hydrogen atoms - for example C-H, F-H — share single electrons with other atom essentially resulting in positively charged proton that is not shielded any electrons. This highly positively charged end of the molecule is capable of strong attractive force with the negative end of an adjacent molecule. (b) () @ of foi @ ) © () isc ® (e)> atoms is ron). Then setional in and fewer the atoms, 2h bond is 3 magnetic e. electrical :ause both ver, strong slocalized, side of the sf, and the Jelt_by the “electrons alive side) secondary on in this lecules as + electrons ot shielded 3 of strong Atomic Structure and interatomic Bonding 7 ——(aiestions }—___— 7. According to Thomson's plum pudding model, ant atom consists of (2) A nuclous of negative charge with protons around (b) A sphere of negative charge sea- soned with enough number of pro- ton plums. (c) Aheavy sphere of positive charge seasoned with enough number of electron plums to make it electri- cally neutral 42) None ofthese 2. Rutherford's experiment of Bombardent of a-particles by striking on a thin gold {oil showed that (@) Allthe a-particles passed straight through the foil (b) All the a-particles were deflected back (©) Some particles passed through the {oil and some were deflected back. (4) Most of the a-particies went straight through the oil while very few were doflected the foi! white very few were deflected back by various angles The energy (E) of an electron in an atom is equal to mZ?e” mZ’e* @gegn® ——() Gegne? m’*Z’e* m’*Ze* © gop? cena? Mesone carries... {a) Negatively (b) Positively (c) Eithernegatively or positively (4) None of the above Neutron carties a «nu. Charged (@) Positive electrical (b) Negative electrical {c) Either negative or positive (4) None of the above The weight of an electron is .. the weight of a proton or neutron charged a 4 () 1850 ) 2000 1 1 (°) F936 © 3050 Hydrogen bonds are stronger than (a) Van der Waals bonds- (b) Metallic bonds. (6) onic bonds (4) Covatent ‘The atomic number of a certain element is 83. Anatom ofthis element must con- tain {@) 42 protons and 44 electrons (b) 83 neutrons (c) 1 néutron, 41 electrons and 41 protons (6) 83 electrons Avogadro number, N (a) 6.023% 108 (6) 6.02 10" (c) 6.023 x 10% (d) 6.023 x 108 Chapter-1 - What is the atomic or ionic characteris- tic that determines the elements of the which the atom or ions representative? {@) The number of protons (0) The number of neutrons (€) The number of electrons (d) The mass 13, (a) 250m (6) 0.25 nm (©) 250m (4) 0.025 nm Which one of the following is not a strong bond? (@) Van der Waals bond (b) Covalent bond (©) Metallic bond 11. Particles that most effects material | (4) lonic bond Propertis 14, Bond strength of seconedary bonds is (@) Nuetrons inthe range of (©) Protons (@) 1kd/mol ——(b) 10 ks/mo! (©) Electrons (6) 100ks/mol (4) 1000 k/mo! (@) Valence electrons 45. Electron seaexistsin + P ic bon 42, Mean distance between atoms in the | __{@) Pelar bonds (b) lope bond range of (©) Covalent bond (4) Metallic bond aug ~ ANSWERS - | 7. (a) ® | & @)] &® @) % wm] m4 © @) 6 ©) 9 @l] 12 @ | % .@)Bc is nota y bonds is Jimol kulmol ic bond tic bond S95 RRR ee RE Erystal Structures 2.1 INTRODUCTION Introduction Unit colts ECC Crystal Sop “Cube Coordination Number ‘ASoms Porn Cat Alonit Packing Factor (APP) BCC Structure (Body Contred Cubic} Hoxzaonal Closed Packing (HCP! Polumonphism Lattice Parameter Relationshios and Figuros-Showing Unit Cell Geometries for the Seven Crystal Systoms crystallographic Directions ‘aisotrooy Importeetions in Solids Pont Detects Linear Defects Interface Defects Plastic Deformation of Polyervstaline Materiats Bauschinger Etlect Recovery Recrystalization Grain Growth + A crystalline material is one in which atoms are arranged in a regular pattem dver targe atomic, distances. Thus, a long range order exists and upon solidiciation, atoms will positioned themselves in a regular 3-D pattern + Atoms are considered to.be as solid spheres having well defined diameters Lattice in a 3-0 array of atoms arranged in ce. + Basic crystal structure govern by fracture strenct of material 2.2 UNIT CELLS These are the smaltest unit of a structure which when repeated in all 3demensions produces the crystal structure. + Unit cells for most crystals are parallelopiped as parallelopipe having 3 sets of paralle! planes. + It represents the symmetry of crystal structure + Its the basic structural unit or building block of the crystal structure and defines the crystal structure by virtue ofits geometty and the atoms position within. + Space lattice + Basis = Unit cell + Way of filing.ap of points in space lattice in atom __18 known a5 basis.40 Chapter-2 © Space lattice : Infinite array of points in 3-D space in which each point located with + FCC respect to other, + AllsE sheile 2.3 FCC CRYSTAL STRUCTURE (FACE CENTRED CUBIC} Exar + The unit cell has @ cubic geometry, with atom located at the comers and Centers of a) all the cubic faces. an Note : / =e ! a F — et ' Fe structure So, from figure : g 24 a= (Al zy a? + a? = (ARF | or ? = BRE a a? = BR’ 7 : or a= oR tL 1 io 9 at 2.3.1 Coordination Number a It is eque! to the number of nearest neighbour to an atom and number of atom touching t it, For FCC the coordination number is 12. a 2.3.2 Atoms Perunit Cell or ‘As each comer atom is shared by eight unit cells thus, its contribution is 1/8%, while each | on face atom is shared by two unit cells and its contribution is 1/2. Thus, total no. of atoms per unit cell are = 18x 8+ 12 6= 4 2.3.3 Atomic Packing Factor (APP) Pe * itis the ratio of volume of atoms per unit cell to total unit cell volume. | Ax 43x a xR? a = = (ADF pce a = 6_ak? \ "3 (avery = “=07404 * a2cated with centers of 4s touching ile each Crystal Structures 14 + FCC structure has the maximum packing possible for spheres. ‘+All sphere having the same diameter. Metals typically have large APP to maximize sheilding provided by free electron clous. © Examples of Metals having FCC structure > Aluminum > Copper >» Gold > Lead > Nickel > Platinum > Silver ¢ 2.4 BCC STRUCTURE (BODY CENTRED CUBIC} , ‘= Atoms are locate at eight comet and a single atom at the centre of cube. © There are two atoms per unit edil of a BCC structure. '* Coordination number of BCC erystal structure is 8. and its atomic packing factor is 0.68, 8 atoms at the corner * 1/8 = 1 atom 1 centre atom = 1 atom Total = 2 atoms per unit cell Here, a? + a? + a? = (diagonal of cube}? = (AR)? or 3a? = 16R? BCC structure 5) or a eB Volume of atoms perunit cell Volume of unit cell 24 /3nR?12 Chapter-2 - + Example of BCC structure are > Chominum — > fron ta) > Molybdenum > Tantalum » Tungstun > Potassium (k) 2.5 HEXAGONAL CLOSED PACKING (HCP) + The third type of crystal is HCP. Here one dimension is greater than dfher two. ©The coordination number of HCP crystal is 12 and APF 0.74 same as FCC structure. ‘+ Density computations: Density = ensity = yy re n= a ratio of where, no, of atoms perunit cell efoto ot A= Atweight pense V = Voiume of unit coll N eg. : graphite, Cd, Zn, Mg, Be, Ti, Mg, Zr Avogadro's rlamber (6.023 * 10% atoms!mol). 2.6 POLYMORPHISM Some meials as well as non metals have more than one crystal structure, this phenomenon is called polymorphism and when found in elemental solids the condition is termed as allotropy. eg., graphite and diamond, a-iron, §-iron, iron, These material have different structure at different temperature Crystal Systems The unit coll geometry is completly defined in terms of the @ Three edges are a, b and c. (il) Three inter axial angle a, fi and y. Based on different possible combinations of (a, b & c) and (a, B and ¥). There are seven diff. possible crystal steuctures called crystal system, 2.7 LAT UNI Crys. Cubi Hex: Tete Rho ont MotCrystal Structures 13, 2.7 LATTICE PARAMETER RELATIONSHIPS AND FIGURES SHOWING __UNIT CELL GEOMETRIES FOR THE SEVEN CRYSTAL SYSTEMS | Crystal system Axial Tatorand Angles ‘Unit cell Geometry Relationship Cubic =e 7= 90%, ©.9. Au, Po, Li, Na, Ag. Al ote ob Hexagonal a=bee a=B= y= 120° e.g. La, Pr, Nd, Am, Se, Te, AgC| | I \ Tetragonal bee ¢| t eg. Pa, in, white Sn, KH,PO,, U(668°C to 774°C) i Rhombohedrat a =B=74 90° jo | €.9. B, Si0,, CaCO,, LINDO,, LiTaO, “hy { Orthorhombic avbec a y= 90° i e.g. As, Sb, Bi, BaSO,, KNO,, MaSO, | — 1 i Monoclinic aebec a=y= 9048 ; ' re | o 3 i 9. Na,SO,, Li,SO,, CaSO,, Rochelle salt, FeSO,, S | = j Triclinic atbee aepeys 90 eg. K,Cr,0,, CuSO, 414 Chapter.2 2.8 CRYSTALLOGRAPHIC DIRECTIONS 1. A vector of convinient tength is positioned such that it passes through the origin of the coordinate systems. 2. The lenght of this vector projections on each of 3 axis is determined in term of unit, cell dimentions a, b, ¢ 3. The three number oblained are multiplied or divided by a common fagko them to smallest integer values « to reduce 4, The direction are represented as fuvwl, Le. nol seperated by commas. Q Determins the indices for direction shown in the figure Ex foc aaa } ‘y | ya (100), £010}, (001) & (114) L . aredton | ction inaices | 410 . . | + Multpying al the co-ordinate by 2 ! Hence the direction indices is[120} j 7 Q.2: Draw [710] direction within a cubic unit coll j . i 5 | 7 y+ ~ Sol. When several number of ‘n’ parallel directions with different indices are equivalent \ they are called family of indices. { | 7 _.Crystal Structures 15 corigin of 1 of unit educe Examples In crystal all direction represented by an indices [100}, {010}, [010], {001}, {001] constitute a family. For hexagonal crystal instead of z axes we have four axes, 2.9 CRYSTALLOGRAPHIC PLANES + The layers of atoms or the planes along which atoms are arranged are known as crystallographic planes. The relation of 2 set of planes to the axes of the unit coll is desginated by Miller indices. One comer of the unit cell is assumed to be the origin of the space coordinates and any set of planes is identified by the reciprocals of its intersections with these coordinates. + The unit of the coordinates is the lattice parameter of the crystal + Ifa plane is parallel to an axis, intersects it at infinity, + In figure (b), or the cubic system, the crosshatched plane BCHG intersects the Y axis ial at one unit from the origin and is parallel to the [Intersection | > [4 | » he] X and_Z axes or intersects them at infinity Therefore, Reciprocal | 2 | cal + The shown plane has Miller indices of (010). + If 2 plane cuts any axis on the negative side of the origin + The index will be negative and is indicated by placing a minus sign above the ioe as (hk) + For example, the Miller indices of the plane ADEF which goes through the origin (point A) cannot be determined without changing the location of the origin = Any point in the cube may be selected as the origin + For convenience, take point B. The plane ADEF is parallel to the X-axis (BC) and Z-axis (BG) but intersects the Y-axis at —1. + The plane has Miller indices of (6 70). + As another example, the Miler indices of the | a e s plane BDJ (Haure) may be determinedsasfolows: | intersection | 1 | 1 | 2 { 7 + Hence this plane has Miller indices of (112). f t/a | Resiorocat | 515 | Mie + If the Miller indices of a plane resutt in fractions, HEIBI these fractions must be cleared. Miller indices [1 [4 | 216 Chapter-2 ~y : (110) Determination of Miller indices : the (010) plane, the (111) plane, and the (112) plane. , Figure (b) Consider a plane thatliniersects the x-axis at 1, the y-axis at 3, and the +° Taking reciprocals gives indices of 1, 1/3, and 1 : © Multiplys.g th-ougl: by plane. + All parailet planes have the sane indices, + Parenth« planes. (hkl) around Miller inatees signity 2 specific plane or set of paratle! + Braces signify a family of planes of the same “form” (which are equivatent in the crystal), such as the cube faces of a cubic crystal: {100} = (100) + (010) + (0017 + (400)+(070)+ (007) + Reciprocals are not used to determine the indices of @ direction * In order to arrive at a point on a given direction, consider that starting at the origin + It is necessary to move a distance u times the ‘unit distance along the x-axis, v times the unit distance b along the y-axis, and w times the unit distance ¢ along the z-axis, + If u,v and w are the smallest integers to meet the desired motion, they are the indices of the direction and are enclosed in square brackets (uvw). = A group of sitnilar directions are enclosed in an angular brackets Example : In figure to determine the direction AC starting at the origin (point A), it is necessary to move one unit along x-axis to point D and one unit in the direction of y- axis to reach the point C. The direction AC would have indices of [110]‘or the origin. along are the Crystal Structures 17 + Ina cubic crystal the direction has the same Piang [bos [foo indices as the plane to which itis perpendicular, | Gant] 5 ¢ | © An aproximate idea of the packing of atoms dn a (0) /5 16] particular plane may be obtained by visualizing a single unit cell of the bec. and fc.c. structure. yt Considering the atoms as the lattice points, the | (120) | 2 number of atoms on a particular plane would be :¢ = L221) 1 [1 (i Ee 3 Linear and Planer Densities For a particular material, equivalent directions have equal linear doi ity. No.ofatomscente \athof direction vebtor Linear density (LD) = ae Lengthof the direction vector | Consider an eg. of FCC unit cell and the [110] direction, therei No of atoms centered on direction vector are 1/2 + 1 + 1/2 = 2 atoms Length of Direction vectors R + 2R + R= 4R a 204 2° aR OR LD, = x oD (110) direction (ii) Planer density: Equivalent erystallographic planer have equal planer density. No.of atoms centered ona plane Area of the plane PD = for the same case of (110) plane with an FCC unit cell. No. of atoms centered on plane ABCD = 1/2 + 1/2 + 42+ 112 Area of plane ABCD = 4R x a = 4R x 2/2 R = 8V2R. 2 1 PD. = a BYaR? 4J2R?18 Chapter-2 rystallographic pianes, an in those planes. along directions having greatest atomic D and P.D are important considerations as slip taken place on most dense packed iacking, Ctose-Packed Crystal Structures HCP ~- AB AB AB AB. ~ FCC - ABC ABC ABC. For HCP let A be first plane of closed packed atoms. The second plane atoms(B plane) are placed is the voids made by atoms of first plane,’ while atoms of next A plane are directly above the (A) atoms of first plane. Thus forming AB AB AB... structure, For FCC structure B plane atoms also rest in triangular voids of A plane atoms while C plare atoms rest in triangular voids of B plane atoms. This sequence is repeated, Single crystals ~ ‘When the periodic and repeated arrangement of atoms is perfect and extends throughtout entire specimens without interuption. The result is single crystal. All unit cells have the same orientation. Single crystals exist as nucles grows at the expense of surrounding liquid. Grains formed have different orientations and boudaries seperating these different orientations are called grain boundaries. 2.10 AN The physit in which and refract of properti ionic spac = Form granis of agg repres + Some or gross0 packed est aiomic s(B plane) plane are se. as while C cated. hroughtout shave the urrounding ‘e different Crystal Structures 19 8 | ne | a - a i ; pm 2.40 ANISOTROPY ‘The physical properties of some substances depend upon the crfstallographic direction in which measurements are taken For eg: The elastic modules, the electrical conductivity and refraction index may have aren values in [100] & [111] directions. This directionality of properties is termed as ‘Anisotropy’ and it is associated with variance of atomic and ionic spacing with crystallographic direction + STibstances for which physical properties are independent of direction of measurment are isoxopic materials. + “The extent of anistropic effects Le. degree of anisotropy i a function of symmetry of the crystal structure -ases with decreasing structure symmetry. ‘+ Thus monoclinic, trictinic structure are highly anisotropic. ‘+ For many polycrystalline materials, the crystallographic orieintations of individual granis are random. Each grain is anisotropic a nature but the specimen composed of aggregates of grains behaves isotropically. Also the magnitude of measured value represents some average of the directional values. + Sometimes the grain in polycrystalline materials have preferential direction of orientation: oF growth, in which case the material is said to have a “Texture” Crystalline Materials (etal ete) Non crystalline material (polymer, glass ete.)20 Chapter-2 2.11 IMPERFECTIONS IN SOLIDS 2.11.1 Point Defects Those associated with one or {wo atomic positions. They are (Vacancies. Gi) Settintersttiats Gi) Sabstiutional impurity (iv) Interstitial impurity Equilibrium, no. of vacancies are given as — (72) Nu = Nexp [57 |. Qv = energy required for vacancy formation, Uke J T = temperature — : Thus, as temperature increases vacancies increases exponentially 'sNo. Xp ones n __Avogadro'sNo. Xp ‘Atomic weight ofvacanceyatoms. Nev Crystal imperfection causes change in yield point, semiconductivity and ductility. Frankel Defect When the atom in the lattice point goes and occupies the inierstitial void of other atom then it is called Frenkel defect. Schottky Defect In the combination of cation and anion if there is a vacancy defect it is called schottky defect, Mechanical & electrical properties of metals such as yield, fracture strength electrical conductivity are adversly affected by these defects, they are known as “structure sensitive properties Where properties such as metting point, specific heat, coctficient of thermel expansion are structure insensitive properties.Hii and other atom 2d schattky h electrical g ceconsitive expansion Crystal Structures 24 ogopo oO oO wea © O iersta Spoye ob Po (a) t (e) Vacancy and interstitial crystal defects Substutionat impurity 2.11.2 Linear Defects 1. Edge Disiocation : This defect occurs when an extra half plane of atoms is Burger vector introduced into the orystal strucrure, This fou defect centers around the dislocation i that is defined along the end of the ex half plane of atoms. Edge dislocation ‘: perpendicular to the plane of the page. Around edge dislocation there is some lattics distortion Extremely plane of atoms (1) Atoms above the dislocation lines are squeezed togethers and these below are pulled apart. Magnitude of this distortion decreases at distances away from the dislocation fine. For extra half plane of atoms included on bottom portion of the crystal, the symbol is (T) Screw Dislocation : This Dislocation is formed by shear stress, the upper front region of the crystal is shifted one atomic distances to the right relative to the bottom portion, The screw dislocation derives its name from the spiral or helical path traced by the atomic planes around the dislocation fine.22 Chapter-2 oS ee forges vector) ay) The magnitude and direction of the distortion associated with a dislocation is expressed in terms of “Burgers Vectors’, (b) For an edge dislocation burgers vector are perpendicular to dislocation fine and are parallel to dislocation line for sérew dislocation, They are neither perpendicular nor parallel to mixed location. For metalic materials, the burgers vector for a dislocation will point in a close packed crytallographic direction, and its magnitude equal to interatomic setting 2.11.3 Interfacial Defects , ! ™ These are following tvoes External surfaces : !t is the boundary at which the crystal structure terminates, Atoms at the surface are not bonded to maximum. Number of nearest neighbours ind therefore are in a higher energy state. To reduces this energy they tend to inimize the Surface area e.g,, liquid droplet become spherical rain Boundaries : Grains boundaries are boundaries seperating two crystals, have Bu ferent crystallographic orientation within a polycrystalline material, When the match in orientation between adjacent boundaries is small then they are called Po tangle grain boundary or tiit boundary. fat VW \ |] \ | | IgE enaton aan \ Nh | bp - W + When the angle of misorientation parallel to the boundery (grain) it is called a “Twist Boundary’. ‘The atoms are bonded less regularly along a grain boundary and thus boundaries are in a high energy state, The magnitude of this energy is a function of degrees of misorientation (being larger for high angle boundaries).expressed rector are for serew or mettali tlographic erminates. eighbours y tend to tals, have Vhen the are called + galled a oundaries. F degrees Crystal Structures 23 + Grain boundaries. are chemically more reactive than the grain themselves. Further more, the impurity atoms preferentially seareaate along these boundaries because of their high energy ‘+ The total interfacial energy is lower for coarse grain material as compared to fine ‘grained ones because of Jess total boundary area, (ii) Twin Boundaries : + Itis a special type of grain boundary such that atoris on one side of the boundary are mirror images of atoms on the other side of the boundary. The region of material between these boundaries is called ‘twin’ * Twins are produced by atomic displacements by mechanical shear force (mechanical twins) and aiso during annealing heat treatment following deformation (Annealing twin) ‘+ Annealing twins are typically found in FCC crystal structure, while mechanical twins are found in BCC and HCP metal (iv) Stacking faults : These are found in ECC metals when there is interuption in the ABC ABC ABC—stacking sequences of closed packed atoms. (v) Phase Boundaries : Boundaries seperating two different oh mechanical properties and chemical characteristics. Jes having, differns (vi) Ferromagnetic Domain walls : Boundary that seperates region having different directions of magnetization is termed as domain wall Bulk or Volume Defects Pores, cracks foreign inclusicn. they are normally introduced during processing and fabrication sieps. 2.12 MEASUREMENT OF GRAIN SIZE (Straight lines of same length are drawn on micropictagraph that show the grain structures. The grain intersected by each line segment are counted, and the lenght of line is divided by an average of the number of grains intersected over all the line segments. The average grain is then found by divided this result by linear magnification of the photomicrographs. (ii) Another way is through ASTM size number charts, Which has grain size number from 1-10 (Higher number indicates fines grain). Grain structure is photographed at a magni fication of 100, The grain size is expressed as grain size number of the chart that most nearly matches the grain in the micrograph. Average number of grains per inch at magnification of 100, [N= 2] where n= given size number.24 Chapter-2 a 2.13 PLASTIC DEFORMATION OF POLYCRYTALLINE MATERIALS _ + In polycrystalline material there are many preferred planes and direction for different grains due to their random orientation. + Thus, in case of poly-crystalline materials “gross plastic deformation" take place, where in individual grains undergo comparable distortion and the grain boundaries do not come apart or open up. ¢ + Before deformation the grains are equiaxed but after deformation they get elongated in the irection of applied forces. © Polycrystalline materials are stronger than single crystal material because they fequire more stresses to initiate slip and yielding + These higher stresses are consequences of constraints that are imposed on the grains during deformation |e 2.43.1 Bauschinger Effect «_ Elongated grains ° after defermation , Equioxed grain When the specimen unioad the strength of material got increase due to work hardening and if reloading it in opposite direction then back stress now support the movement of dislocation. As a resutt-of that yield points in opposite direction appears prematurely. This, phenomenon called Bauschinger effect. t Tensile |\ wes ductility ‘yield siren g Hooke’s: follomon equation % Cold work ‘Strain + Attemperature = 0.4 melting temperature, upon cold working the number of-distocation in the material increases. ‘+ The amount of distocation multiplication takes place, is the property of material and it is expressed by work hardening exponent (n) in the flow curve equations o, = Ke® where, k = strength coefficient, o, = true stress and © = true strain. Higher the value of ‘n', creation of dislocation is increased by cold working. Finally these dislocation gather at the grain boundary and created dislocation forest. © Dunir dislo enha + Ther asel 2.15 Ri is the + Exte reer © Reet alu ecry « TheRIALS or different ake place, aoundaries {elongated vause they sed on the werent of turely. This dstocation aterial and 1g. Finally, orest Crystal Structures 25 * These dislocation are repulsive in nature, which results in creation of ba the movement of dislocation * This is finally results in increase in strength of material upon unloading the spacimen from the region of work hardening and reloading in opposite direction. 2.14 RECOVERY + During recovery, some of the stored internal strain nergy is relieved By virtue of distocation motion in the absence of an extemally applied stress, as a result of ‘enhanced atomic diffusion at an elevated temperature. + There is some reduction in the number of dislocation also. Physical properties such as electical and thermal conductivities are recovered to their pre cold worked states. 2.15 RECRYSTALLIZATION * Even after recovery the grains are still in a high strain energy state. Recrystallization is the formation of new set of strain free grains that are required. Dislocation densities are reduced and properties are restored to pre cold work conditions. “The driving force-is the difference in the internal energy of strained and unstrained material The new graine onus initially as a sm: material ‘* Mt also refines the grain structure. ‘+ Extent of recrystallization depends upon both time and temperature. The degree of recrystallization increases with time. ‘+ Recrystallization temperature is the temperature at which recrystallization just reaches completion in 1 hour. It typically ranges between 0.3Tm-0.5Tm for most materials, and alloy, where T,, = melting point temperature. * As the amount of cold work increases, the degree of recrystallization is enhanced and thus the secrystallization temperature is lowered and approaches a constan! value at high deformation. There is some critical degree of cold work below which recrystallization wil not take place + The recrystallization rate increases exponentially with temperature. ‘+ A larger the initiat grain size, the greater degree of deformation is required to produce an equivalent recrystallization temperature. 2 + Aminimum amount of deformation is needed to cause recrystalization temperature. * Smaller the degree of deformation, higher will be recrystalization temperature, * Greater the degree of deformation and lower the annealing temperature, the smatler will be the recrystallization grain size, + Alloying raises the recrystallization upto 0.7 T,,26 Chapter-2 6007 —r T ' t 5 500 40 Tensile strength ‘Duectty (4 elongation) (pa) 0 Tso Tensilestrength ace Recovered _-f Grain grout erain Average grain Size (nm) 2.16 GRAIN GROWTH * After recrystallization is complete, the grains ‘will continue to grow if the metal specimen is left at elevated temperature, this phenomenan is called grain growth ‘= Grains boundaries are asociated with higher energies, and as the grain size increases the total grain boundary area decrease resulting in reduction of total energy. This is the driving force for, grain growth. + Here large grains grown at the expense of smailer grains which further shrink in size. Average grain size increases «This is done by short range diffusion of atoms from one side of boundary to the other. The direction of boundary movement and atomic-motion are opposite to each other. Time dependences of grain growth is where k,n ar constants and ‘do’ is initial grain size, Grain growth proceeds more rapidly at higher temperature as diffusion rate increases with temperature. ‘aag—_———ation) 24mm) Al specimen > increases ray. This is ink in size. » the other. zach other. >increases In metals subjected to cold working, strain hardening effect is due to (2) Slip mechanism (6) Twining mechanism (6) Dislocation mechanism (@) Fracture mechanism Which of the following properties of solid are dependent on crystal imperfections? 1. Yield stress 2. Melting point 3, Semiconductivity © Ductility Select the correct answer using the codes given below: (a) 1 and 3 (b) 1, Sand 4 (2). 2,3and4 (a) 2 and 4 A.unit cell of a crystal is shown in given figure. The miller indices of the direction {arrow} shown in the figure is, () (01.2) (b) (02 1] (© 210) () (201) () 120) Crystal Structures. 27 —————_(_ questions }—____—_ Match List (Material) with Listat (Structure) and select the correct answergusing the codes given below the lists: List-t List-t FCC. HCP. ‘Amorphous B.c.c. Charcoat Graphite Chromium Copper Codes: ABC @'3 2 ooR> 20 (o) 2 23 a8 DIRECTIONS: The following items consists of two ‘statements; one labelled as ‘Assertion (A)’ and the other as ‘Reason (RY’. You are to examine these two statements carefully and select the answers to these items using the codes given below: Codes: (2) Both A and R are true and R is the correct explanation of A (b) Both A and R are true but R is not a comrect explanation of A (©) Ais true but R is false (2) Ais faise but R is true 7. Assertion (A): Carbon would form an interstitial solid solution with iron. Reason (R}: The atomic radius of iron is smaller than that of carbon.28 —Chapter-2 8. Match List-1 (Crystal structure) with (a,B.7) represents the tetragonal Listl (Atomic packing factor) and select the correct answer using the codes given below the lists: List Listat A. Simple cubic 1. 74% B. Body-Centred cubic 2. 74% ©. Face-Centred cubic 3. 52% D. Hexagonal close 4. 68% packed Codes: ABCD @) 3 424 (Gy aisha (3412 (4.342, 9. The set of Miller indices of the plane shown in the given figure is | oy (@) (1.00) (©) (ion © (01) (0 10) 40. Atomic packing factor (APF) in the case of copper crystal is (a) 0.52 (b) 0.68 (©) 0.74 (d) 1.633, 11. Which one of the following pairs of axis lengths (a, b, ¢) and interaxial angles 12, 13, 14. 15, crystal system? (a) (b) ()azbecia=f (d) a= £ Fera=Pp=y 290° tn the grain-size determination using standard charts, the relation between the given size number n and, the average number of grains. 'N” per square}inch at a magnification of 100 Xis (a) N=2" (b)N = 28-1 () N=2041) @)N= 2008 Chemicals attack atoms within grain Loundaries preieesiially vecause Ley have (a) lower energy than those in the grains (b) higher energy than those in the grains (©) .higher number of atoms than in tne grains (d) lower number of atoms than in the grains The coordination number for FCC crystal structure is (a) 4 (b)8 (©) 12 4a) 18 Match List (Crystal Structure) with List-II (Example) and select the correct, answer using the codes given below the lists: List A. Simple Cubic B. Body-centred Cubic 16. 17,