Chapter 2

Forensic Photography

E
vidence photography, videography and other evolving mul-
timedia technologies are indispensable to the evaluation,
interpretation and presentation of physical evidence in court.
Evidence photographs, diagrams, videos and other media must be of
consistently high quality as well as fair and accurate representations
of the depicted subject matter. The following recommendations have
been compiled to produce photographs that meet these recommenda-
tions.

DISCLAIMER: The mention and/or use of any film, software,

hardware, digital camera or other device is based on what was
readily available for illustration purposes and does not constitute
an endorsement or recommendation for any of these items.

Services Provided by the Laboratory

The Forensic Imaging Unit provides analysis of photographic
materials and other multimedia evidence using photographic
and electronic imaging techniques. The analysis and support
services provided to submitters include:
• date of manufacture of Polaroid photographs
• determination of which film camera was used
• determination of which negative was printed
• comparison of objects such as clothing, vehicles, buildings
and weapons to photographs, electronic images or video
images
• forensic video analysis
• demonstrative displays and video for court
• photography of bite marks and other injuries
• photography of vehicles and other physical evidence
submitted to the Laboratory

Requests for photography, multimedia analysis and support

services should be directed to the Forensic Imaging Unit of the
laboratory serving your area.

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Forensic Photography (Imaging) 2
Photographic Procedures and Techniques
I. Digital Imaging Issues
Admissibility and Chain of Custody
The legal requirements for the admissibility of digital
photographs as evidence in court are the same as for film.
Digital photography and digital image enhancement are
accepted as a scientifically valid method of photographing
objects as documented in Resolution 97-9 of the International
Association for Identification.

Chain of custody requirements are the same for both film and
digital photographs.
• When photographs are taken to document what a witness
observed, no chain of custody is required.
• If the photographs were seized as physical evidence, they must
be store in the same manner as other physical evidence and a
chain of custody must be maintained.

Digital to Film Resolution Equivalents

There are wide variations in published tables that list the digital
camera megapixel equivalent to film. The following equivalent
in resolution (ability to record fine details) between digital and
film photography is based on footwear impression photography
research conducted by the Institute for Forensic Imaging which
found that digital cameras in the range of 8 to 14 megapixels
can record the same level of fine details in a footwear
impression as recorded on a 35mm negative.
Table 2-1 Digital Equivalent to Film
Film Size Digital Camera Resolution
35 mm 8 to 14 megapixels
120 medium format 25 to 40 megapixels
4x5” large format 116 to 174 megapixels
NOTE: This table is based in part on footwear impression
photography research conducted by the Institute for Forensic Imaging.
Table 2-2 lists the largest area that may be photographed based on
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 Forensic Photography (Imaging)
the resolution of the digital camera in order to provide enough fine
detail for comparison purposes of latent prints. Photographing a
larger area than what is recommended will record less of the
finer details needed and could reduce the usefulness of the
digital photograph for comparison purposes.

Table 2-2 Digital Photography Requirements for Latent Prints

Digital Camera Resolution Largest Area that can be
Photographed at 1,000 ppi
6 megapixels 2 X 3 inches
8 megapixels 3.25 X 2.5 inches
10 megapixels 2.6 X 3.9 inches
12 megapixels 2.85 X 4.25 inches
16 megapixels 3.3 X 5 inches
22 megapixels 4.1 X 5.4 inches
39 megapixels 5.4 X 7.2 inches
NOTE: This table is based on the SWGFAST standard of 1,000 ppi at

2
1X without resampling.

Digital Photography File Formats
The Camera RAW file format is the preferred file format for
digital photographs of latent prints, blood spatter, and
footwear impressions that are submitted to the Laboratory for
comparison purposes. The three disadvantages of the RAW file
formats are:
• these are usually a proprietary file format,
• a RAW file format is a relatively large file, and
• few if any 1-hour photo labs can print these files without
previously being converted to a current standard file format
(tiff or jpeg).

Some cameras may allow you to simultaneously capture all

images in both a RAW and JPEG file format.

The uncompressed TIFF file format is the next best alternative

to the RAW file format in terms of overall quality. If submitting
a processed TIFF file to the Laboratory, please be sure to
also include an unprocessed copy of the original file. The two
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Forensic Photography (Imaging) 2
disadvantages of the TIFF file format is its relatively large file
size and 1-hour photo labs may not be able to print these files.

The JPEG file format is the least desirable alternative to the RAW
file format in terms of overall quality. Processed images should
not be saved in a JPEG file format except for email purposes and
for printing at 1-hour photo labs. If submitting a processed JPEG
file to the Laboratory, please be sure to include an unprocessed
copy of the original file. Also, the image quality should be set
to the highest quality value. The main disadvantage of this file
format is compression artifacting.

The BMP file format is normally used only for images to be

imported into PowerPoint presentations and word processing
documents. However, there are some digital CCTV systems that
can only export individual still images in this file format.
All digital photography files must be submitted to the Labora-
tory in the same manner as physical evidence and copied onto
physical digital media such as a CD or DVD. Electronic trans-
missions of these files will not be accepted. These files are
treated by the Laboratory as evidence and an electronic submis-
sion does not provide an adequate chain of custody.

Digital Photography Storage

If the original images are saved to a camera card, the original
files should be downloaded to a computer hard drive and a
backup copy should be made on a CD or DVD before the cam-
era card is formatted and reused. If the original images are
saved directly on a computer hard drive, follow the procedures
for making a temporary backup on a CD or DVD.
A procedure should be developed for verifying the integrity of the
copied files. This procedure can range from relying on the error
checking in the computer operating system to the use of hash
values such as MD-5.
The original files should be write-protected and only working
copies of the original files should be processed. All files should
be archived to a long term storage media such as archival grade
20 Physical Evidence Handbook
 Forensic Photography (Imaging)
CDs and DVDs, pairs of external USB hard drives and redundant
secure RAID servers.
The Scientific Working Group for Imaging Technologies (SWGIT)
provides guidelines regarding storage and archiving of electron-
ic and digital images. This information may be found at http://
www.swgit.org and at the website of the International Associa-
tion for Identification (IAI) http://www.theiai.org.

II. Criminal Investigations

General Guidelines
Upon arriving at the scene, the photographer should obtain all avail-
able information from either the first officer on the scene or
the officer in charge. Using this information, the photographer
should decide what photographs are needed and in which order
they are to be produced. Do not move or disturb any evidence,
bodies or items within the boundaries of the scene before they

2
have been photographed, measured, sketched and released for
collection by the officer in charge.
Do not take a suspect or any item of physical evidence that
has been moved or disturbed back to the scene for photo-
graphic or other purposes.
Do not include yourself, other persons or any other object not
part of the scene in the photographs. If positions of evidence
need to be denoted in the photographs, take a photograph
without any alterations and then retake the photograph with
evidence markers in place. Be extremely careful not to disturb
any items of evidence.
A good axiom to follow is: If in doubt, photograph it!

Procedure
1. Determine a photographic starting point and progressively take
photographs working your way into the scene. Photographs
should maintain continuity between each other to present a
“picture story” of the scene.
2. Photograph rooms from each corner with a minimum of four
views. Additional photographs may be required of ceilings,

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Forensic Photography (Imaging) 2
floors, doorways or hallways if not covered in the four mini-
mum views.
3. Photograph bodies from all angles (be careful of distortion
when photographing from head and feet) and overhead if
possible. Do not disturb the body or clothing on the body to
take photographs. The body will be photographed and exam-
ined at autopsy.
4. Scenes should be photographed keeping four basic views in
mind:
OVERALL VIEWS show general locations, conditions and
surroundings.
• Should be done at photographer’s eye level unless
duplicating a witness’s point of view.
• A large outdoor scene, a scene involving several
buildings or a route used may require aerial
photographs.
• All scenes should have 360° overall views looking
toward the scene and looking away from the scene. If
possible, include identifiers like street numbers, fire
numbers, permanent reference points, etc. Structures
should have all sides, surrounding areas and adjacent
buildings photographed.
• Interior overall views using the minimum four corner
technique should be produced of all rooms connected
with the scene.

MEDIUM VIEWS show a significant segment of the scene

that has been previously recorded in the overall views. An
example would be a body lying in the middle of the room.
An overall view would show where the body was in relation
to the room. A medium view would focus attention to the
particulars of that body to give details like type of clothing,
position of extremities, items close to the body, etc.

CLOSE-UP VIEWS are used to specifically show position and

detail. This would include items such as a gun in relation to
the hand, ejected cartridge cases, a bullet lodged in wall,
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 Forensic Photography (Imaging)
ligatures, gags, bindings, entry damage to door jam, etc.
Close-ups of all evidence should be accomplished before
collection, measuring and sketching take place.

SPECIFIC EVIDENCE VIEWS - these are detailed photo-

graphs documenting items of evidentiary value. Some exam-
ples include footwear impressions, fingerprints, footprints,
processed fingerprints before lifting, tool and pry marks,
fabric impressions, bite marks, serial numbers, etc.

• Can be very similar to a close-up view or may have been

taken previously as a close-up view.
• Depending on the type of evidence, photographs may
be more conveniently taken back at the agency after the
item has been collected from the scene or autopsy.

5. As a final step, the photographer should confer with the officer

2
in charge and describe all the photographs that were taken
of the scene. The officer in charge may require additional
photographs be taken.

Photographic Notes
Generally, departmental policies will dictate what type
of information the photographer needs to record. It is
suggested that some type of “running” log be maintained. Log
information that might be considered includes: frame number,
photographer, date, case number, time started/ended, camera
direction (use compass directions) and general description of
item being photographed.
Do not mix cases on a roll of film or a digital camera card, and
do not discard bad negatives or digital image files. Keep them
as part of the photographic record of the scene and include
them in the photo log.
With digital cameras, the date and time are usually found in the
metadata. Therefore, it is important to routinely check the date
and time settings on all digital cameras and on all computers
used to process these files.

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Forensic Photography (Imaging) 2
III. Initial Record Photographs of Vehicles
A systematic approach is recommended when taking the initial
record photographs of a vehicle. These photographs should
include the exterior of the vehicle, all interior compartments,
any obvious damage and anything commonly used to identify
a specific vehicle such as the VIN number, the license plate
number and any other serial numbered window stickers.

Fig. 2-1 Begin at a logical point such Fig. 2-2 This is an example of the
as the front of the vehicle. When foreshortening that will occur when
possible to back up far enough you have to use a wide-angle lens
away from the vehicle, use a normal due to limited space such as in a
to short telephoto lens to obtain a small garage.
normal looking photograph.

Fig. 2-3 Include a standard color Fig. 2-4 Before moving on, photograph
reference for color balancing the front license plate.
purposes. Photograph the card under
the same lighting conditions as the
other objects to be photographed.

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 Forensic Photography (Imaging)
Fig. 2-5 If the VIN plate is mounted on Fig. 2-6 The flash was moved from inside
top of the dash, side light it with the to outside the windshield to side light
flash inside the windshield. Because of the VIN number plate. Compared to
contamination on the windshield, you Figure 2-5, this results in the dust and
may have to manually focus your lens. contamination on the windshield being
The condition of the windshield for Figure more visible.
2-6 was the same.

2
Fig. 2-7 As an alternative to Figures Fig. 2-8 Side lighting with the flash off
2-5 and 2-6, a data plate in the engine camera will usually work for raised letters
compartment with the VIN number on it and numbers.
may be photographed.

Fig. 2-9 As you walk around the vehicle, the next logical photograph
is the overall view of the driver’s side of the vehicle. As a general rule,
if you have to use a shutter speed slower than 1/125 second and for
all close-up photographs, you should use a tripod.

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Forensic Photography (Imaging) 2

Fig. 2-10 This photograph shows Fig. 2-11 This data plate is a second
the interior side of the driver’s alternative to photographing the
side front door. vehicle’s VIN number. If you cannot find
it on the driver’s side door, look on the
door jamb.

Fig. 2-12 This photograph shows Fig. 2-13 This photograph shows
the interior of the front driver’s the interior of the rear driver’s side
side compartment of the vehicle. compartment of the vehicle.
To get more even fill flash, use a
normal focal length lens if you
have enough room to back up.

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 Forensic Photography (Imaging)
Fig. 2-14 Interior of the driver’s side Fig. 2-15 Overall view of the rear of
rear door. the vehicle.

Fig. 2-16 Overall photograph of the Fig. 2-17 Include a photograph of 2

interior of the trunk. Two additional the rear license plate.
photographs of the driver and
passenger sides of the trunk may be
needed.

NOTE: Follow the same photographic approach for the passenger side
of the vehicle.

IV. Autopsy Photographic Procedure

Most photographers will probably not have occasion to
photograph an autopsy. In the event that such a situation
should arise, however, the following guidelines are suggested.

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Forensic Photography (Imaging) 2
A. Seals and identification tags: these may be located on bags
used for transporting bodies, on refrigeration storage units
and/or the body itself. All should be photographed showing
how seal is affixed and any identifiers which may have been
placed on the seal or tag.
B. Identification photographs -- particularly important if person
is unidentified.
1. Overall view of body, both sides.
2. Frontal view of face similar to a “booking” type
photograph.
3. Profile of face, both sides, again similar to a “booking”
type photograph.
4. Scars, tattoos and identifying marks, scaled & unscaled.

C. Overalls showing general condition of body.

1. Body clothed (if found with clothing on), both sides and
back.
2. Body unclothed, both sides and back.
3. Views of affected areas, unwashed, and if wounds, both
scaled and unscaled.
4. Views of affected areas, washed, and if wounds, both
scaled and unscaled.

D. Lividity patterns, especially if conflicting.

E. Areas of special interest, scaled and unscaled.

1. Wounds.
2. Bruises, scratches, lacerations and fractures.
3. Pattern impressions; bite marks, fabric, tool marks, etc.
4. Ligatures, bindings, knots, asphyxial devices, protruding
items, etc.

F. Any additional photographs as directed by attending

pathologist.

G. Copies of x-rays if desired.

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 Forensic Photography (Imaging)
V. Scaling Photographs
In criminal investigations, properly taken, scaled photographs
are indispensable in the evaluation and interpretation of
physical evidence. The location, relative position, appearance,
physical size, depth and shape of any object that possesses
potential evidentiary value should be photographed, both scaled
and unscaled, using the following recommendations.

Required Equipment
1. Single lens reflex (SLR) film camera or digital single lens
reflex (DSLR) camera with manual exposure controls.
2. A sturdy tripod with a sturdy head and the capability to invert
the center column and/or remount the center column at a
90o angle
3. There is also a quadra-pod (four legs) designed for close-up

2
photography.
4. Cable release for camera.
5. Electronic flash with extension cord or other device for off-
camera flash.
6. Thin, rigid, flat, accurate rulers in addition to accurate
adhesive rulers.
a. Accurate paper stick-on type scales are acceptable for
fingerprint photography.
b. An ABFO #2 (American Board of Forensic Odontology)
“L” shaped photomacrographic scale is suggested for
bite mark photography.

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Forensic Photography (Imaging) 2
Fig. 2-18 A typical latent print
photograph received at the
Laboratory that illustrates a common
misunderstanding of what is meant
by filling the viewfinder with the
evidence and the ruler. This photo is
useful to document where the latent
prints are found on an object but is
not good enough for comparison
purposes.

Fig. 2-19 Example of filling the

viewfinder with the evidence (latent
prints) and the ruler when using
film and adequate resolution digital
cameras.

Fig. 2-20 Digital photography may require additional close-up photographs

if the resolution limits listed in Table 2-2 are exceeded. The two photographs
above are examples of additional individual close-up photographs that
would have to be taken of the simultaneous latent prints in Figures 2-18
and 2-19 if an 8 megapixel DSLR was used.

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 Forensic Photography (Imaging)
Fig. 2-21 These are three
enlargements of the same area from
Figures 2-18 (top), 2-19 (middle), and
2-20 (bottom). In the top photograph,
the combination of pixelization and
relatively soft image, make it less
likely that the image can be used for
latent print comparison purposes.
Though the center photograph is
still a little soft, it is often suitable
for comparison purposes. The
bottom photograph shows the slight
increase in image quality that can
further increase the probability that
the resulting photographs will be
suitable for comparison purposes.

General Scaling Recommendations

2
1. Camera must be placed on a sturdy tripod or camera stand
(see Figure 2-22).
2. The evidence and the ruler should fill the viewfinder and be
in sharp focus.
3. Film plane should be placed parallel to object plane with
lens directly over center of object and perpendicular to
object (see Figure 2-22).A scale should be placed on the
same plane as the area of primary interest. If done properly,
the scale will also be parallel to camera’s film plane (see
Figure 2-22).
4. Scale placement should not obscure any detail or
characteristics of the subject (see Figure 2-23).
5. The scale should be as large as possible to provide accuracy
for printing and size determination.
6. Avoid a direct reflection from your light source off of the
scale into the camera lens when lighting the subject.

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Forensic Photography (Imaging) 2
Fig. 2-22 Typical setup for
photographing a footwear
impression.

Fig. 2-23 This is an example of what NOT TO DO. NEVER place a ruler inside a
footwear (or tire track) impression.

VI. Pattern Impression Photography

General Lighting Recommendations
Depending on the depth of the impression and the surface of
material it is in/on, the light should be placed at a low angle
to the impression, from 10 – 45 degrees. On-camera flash is
seldom used for pattern impressions.

Light should be at a distance from the impression to evenly

illuminate the entire length/width of the impression. It is
important to avoid brighter areas at one end of the impression
than the other end. A reflector card may be used to “fill-in” the

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 Forensic Photography (Imaging)
end farthest from the light provided the shadows or detail are
not eliminated.

When the light is placed at a low angle, shadows are created

that highlight individual characteristics as depicted in Figure
2-22. Oblique lighting allows for good delineation but a low
angle also creates shadows that can hide important detail.
To alleviate this problem, at least two photographs should be
taken.

Procedure:
1. For the first photograph, the flash is held out at a low
angle at one end of the impression.
2. Advance the film making sure not to move the camera.
3. Take the second photograph with the flash held out at a
low angle at the other end of the impression.
4. Additional photographs may be taken with the light from
other positions relative to the impression.

Fig 2-24 These three photographs show the effect of the direction of
light on the appearance of the details in a footwear impression. All three
photographs are of the same footwear impression shown in Figure 2-22
and were taken with a black card blocking the sunlight so that the light
from the electronic flash was not overpowered. The photograph on the left
was taken with the flash on camera. (The light from the flash was reflected
from the scale.) The center photograph was taken with the flash placed at
a low angle on the left side of the impression. The right photograph was
taken with the flash at a low angle at the top of the impression.

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Forensic Photography (Imaging) 2

Fig 2-25 For these three photographs, the black card was removed so that
the sunlight did overpower the effects of the electronic flash. Just as in
Figure 2-24, the photograph on the left was photographed with the flash
on camera, the center photograph was taken with the flash at a low angle
on the left side, and the right photograph was taken with the flash at a low
angle from the top of the photograph.

Footwear Impressions
1. Camera must be on tripod! (see Fig 2-22)
2. Scale must be used! (See Section V, Scaling and Fig 2-23).
3. Consider the depth of the impression and scrape away
material along side of impression to provide space for the
scale. Do not disturb the impression. Also, be careful not to
“cave” in the sides of the impression if in soft ground, sand
or snow.
4. Set the scale at the level of the deepest plane of the
impression and on the same plane.
5. If an impression consists of two different levels, such as
the sole level and a deeper heel impression, then three
photographs are called for:
a. at level and plane of sole impression
b. at level and plane of heel impression
c. an overall view (scaled on plane at level of sole
impression) for recording length
6. Each photograph submitted should be labeled indicating the
34 Physical Evidence Handbook
 Forensic Photography (Imaging)
level at which the scale is placed.
7. The back of the camera must be parallel to both the
impression and the scale with the lens directly centered over
both. The image of the impression and scale should fill up
the viewfinder.
8. For lighting, refer to Section VI., A., General Lighting
Recommendations.
9. Digital cameras with a resolution of less than 8 megapixels
are not recommended. For digital cameras with a resolution
of 8 to 16 megapixels, it is recommended that the footwear
impression be photographed in its entirety and then
photographed in overlapping thirds (see Figure 2-26).

Fig. 2-26 This shows the four photographs discussed in paragraph 9 above
when using a digital camera with a resolution of 8 to 16 megapixels.

Tire Impression Photography

1. The camera must be firmly mounted on a sturdy tripod!
2. An accurate, flat scale must be used!
3. If the tire impression is long, markers of some sort with
numbers or letters are suggested. Visually divide the long
impression into smaller sections by placing numbered

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Forensic Photography (Imaging) 2
markers along the side of the impression. Do not place the
markers or the ruler inside the tire track impression.
4. Once the markers have been placed, make an overall
photograph of the impression from a high angle. If a
section of the tire track impression is going to be cast, this
photograph can be taken while the cast is drying to record
both the markers and which part of the tire track impression
was cast. This should also be documented in your notes.
5. Photograph each individually marked section of the tire
track impression. Be sure to indicate in each photograph
which section is being photographed, so that these
individual close-up photographs can be oriented in
sequence relative to the overall photograph and the crime
scene diagram.
6. The back of the camera must be parallel to both the
impression and the scale with the lens directly centered over
both. The image of the impression and scale should fill up
the viewfinder.
7. For lighting, refer to Section VI., A., General Lighting
Recommendations.

NOTE: Digital cameras with a resolution of less than 8 megapixels

are not recommended. For digital cameras with a resolution of 8 to
16 megapixels, each of these overlapping photographs should cover
approx. 10 to 12 inches of the tire track impression with a ½ to 1
inch overlap. For film and digital cameras with a resolution over 16
megapixels, each of these overlapping photographs should cover
approx. 18 to 22 inches (see Fig 2-30 and Fig 2-31). For long sections
of tire track impressions, overlapping photographs of a 12 foot section
of the impression will usually record the entire circumference of the
average passenger car, minivan or light truck tire.

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 Forensic Photography (Imaging)
Fig. 2-27 This is the setup for taking individual close-up photographs of
sections of a tire track impressing using film or digital cameras over 16
megapixels. Cameras with a resolution of lower than 8 megapixels are not

2
recommended.

Fig. 2-28 This is a typical close-up photograph taken with a film camera
or a digital camera with a resolution greater than 16 megapixels. In this
situation, 18 to 22 inch overlapping sections are adequate to record the
fine details needed for comparison purposes.

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Forensic Photography (Imaging) 3
Bite Mark Impressions
1. Camera must be on a tripod!
2. A scale must be used! An ABFO #2 photomacrographic scale
and a thin accurate scale are recommended.
3. When photographing the scaled impression, the camera
back must be parallel to the impression and scale with the
lens directly centered over both.
4. Take an overall view of the person showing the part of the
body where the bite mark impression is located.
5. Take a medium view showing the bite mark and the area
around the bite mark impression.
6. Consider the depth of the impression and the contour of the
area of the bite mark impression. An impression on a curved
portion of the victim’s body may call for more than one
photograph of a specific bite mark.
7. A scale should be placed as much as possible on the
same plane as area of primary interest and parallel with
the impression and film plane. Remember, camera is on
a tripod, camera back is parallel to impression and lens
centered directly over impression. The scale should not
obscure any detail or characteristics.
8. After overall and medium photographs are recorded, take
an unscaled close-up photograph of the bite mark making
sure the entire image fills up the viewfinder using lighting
techniques described in Section VI., A.
9. Place a scale next to the bite mark impression as outlined
in steps 6 and 7 above. Take a scaled color photograph
without changing any of the equipment positions.
10. After the color images have been made, additional close-up,
scaled and unscaled photographs should be produced with
the digital camera set to monochrome or black and white
using the appropriate black and white contrast control filters
such as Kodak Wratten 25 (red), 47 (blue) and 58 or 61
(green) to enhance the bite area.
11. Additional photographs may be taken with the light from
other positions relative to the impression or using a ring light
so as not to create shadows, if appropriate.
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 Forensic Photography (Imaging)
NOTE: Depending on the appearance of the bite mark, photographs
may have to be made over an extended period. This may be a time frame
of several days or more, depending on whether the victim is living or
deceased, the condition of body, storage facilities, etc.

Fig. 2-29: Normal color photograph of a bite mark.

Fig. 2-30: Black and white photograph of the same bite mark with a #47 blue filter.

Swabbing Bite Mark Impressions

After photographing the bite mark impression, the impression
should be swabbed for saliva that may be used in an attempt to
obtain a DNA profile of the individual who made the impression
(see Chapter 7 – Sexual Offenses for the proper procedure).
If swabbing results in uncovering more detail in the bite mark, the
impression should be re-photographed.
Physical Evidence Handbook 39
Photographs of Victim’s or Suspect’s Teeth
Photographs of the teeth require specialized photographic
equipment and procedures as directed by a Forensic
Odontologist who will require a professional fee for services.
For information concerning this service, contact the Forensic
Imaging Unit of the Laboratory serving your area.

40 Physical Evidence Handbook