PRACTICAL: -1

AIM: Introduction to RADAR.

THEORY: Radar is an object-detection system that uses radio waves to determine the range,
angle, or velocity of objects. It can be used to detect aircraft, ships, spacecraft, guided
missiles, motor vehicles, weather formations, and terrain. A radar system consists of a
transmitter producing electromagnetic waves in the radio or microwaves domain, a
transmitting antenna, a receiving antenna (often the same antenna is used for transmitting and
receiving) and a receiver and processor to determine properties of the object. Radio waves
(pulsed or continuous) from the transmitter reflect off the object and return to the receiver,
giving information about the object's location and speed.

Radar was developed secretly for military use by several nations in the period before and
during World War II. The term RADAR was coined in 1940 by the United States Navy as an
acronym for Radio Detection And Ranging or Radio Direction And Ranging. The term
radar has since entered English and other languages as a common noun, losing all
capitalization.

The modern uses of radar are highly diverse, including air and terrestrial traffic control, radar
astronomy, air-defence systems, antimissile systems, marine radars to locate landmarks and
other ships, aircraft anti-collision systems, ocean surveillance systems, outer space
surveillance and rendezvous systems, meteorological precipitation monitoring, altimetry and
flight control systems, guided missile target locating systems, ground penetrating radar for
geological observations, and range-controlled radar for public health surveillance.[5] High
tech radar systems are associated with digital signal processing, machine learning and are
capable of extracting useful information from very high noise levels. Other systems similar to
radar make use of other parts of the electromagnetic spectrum. One example is "LIDAR",
which uses ultraviolet, visible, or near infrared light from lasers rather than radio waves.

PRINCIPELS: A radar system has a transmitter that emits radio waves called radar signals
in predetermined directions. When these come into contact with an object they are usually
reflected or scattered in many directions. Radar signals are reflected especially well by
materials of considerable electrical conductivity—especially by most metals, by seawater and
by wet ground. Some of these make the use of radar altimeters possible. The radar signals
that are reflected back towards the transmitter are the desirable ones that make radar work. If
the object is moving either toward or away from the transmitter, there is a slight equivalent
change in the frequency of the radio waves, caused by the Doppler effect. Radar receivers are
usually, but not always, in the same location as the transmitter. Although the reflected radar
signals captured by the receiving antenna are usually very weak, they can be strengthened by
electronic amplifiers. More sophisticated methods of signal processing are also used in order
to recover useful radar signals.

The weak absorption of radio waves by the medium through which it passes is what enables
radar sets to detect objects at relatively long ranges—ranges at which other electromagnetic
wavelengths, such as visible light, infrared light, and ultraviolet light, are too strongly
attenuated. Such weather phenomena as fog, clouds, rain, falling snow, and sleet that block
visible light are usually transparent to radio waves. Certain radio frequencies that are

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absorbed or scattered by water vapour, raindrops, or atmospheric gases (especially oxygen)
are avoided in designing radars, except when their detection is intended.

BLOCK DIAGRAM:

The block diagram given below (Fig.) shows the main components of pulse radar and their
operation. The transmitter may be an oscillator, such as a magnetron, which is pulsed (turned
on and o ff) by the modulator to generate a repetitive train of pulses of the kind shown in Fig.
The waveform generated by the transmitter travels along a transmission line to the antenna,
which is generally used for both transmitting and receiving. The duplexer consists of two
devices, one known as TR (Transmit-Receive) and the other as ATR (Anti-Transmit
Receive). The TR protects the delicate circuits of the receiver from the high power of the
transmitter during transmission and the ATR channels the returned echo signal to the
receiver, and not to the transmitter, during reception. The first stage of the receiver is a low-
noise RF (radio frequency) amplifier. The mixer and the local oscillator convert the RF signal
to an IF (intermediate frequency) signal. This signal is passed through an IF amplifier which
is designed to maximize the signal-to-noise ratio at its output. The pulse modulation of the
echo signal is extracted by the detector and amplified by the video amplifier to a level at
which the signal can be properly displayed on a CRT (Cathode Ray Tube). Timing signals are
also supplied for range reference. Angle information is obtained from the pointing direction
of the antenna.

The most common form of the CRT display is the PPI (Plan Position Indicator), which maps
(in polar coordinates) the location of the target in azimuth and range. This is an intensity-
modulated display in which the amplitude of the receiver output modulates the electron-beam
intensity as the electron beam is made to sweep outward from the center of the tube. The
beam rotates in angle in response to the antenna position.

APPLICATIONS:

The information provided by radar includes the bearing and range (and therefore position) of
the object from the radar scanner. It is thus used in many different fields where the need for
such positioning is crucial. The first use of radar was for military purposes: to locate air,
ground and sea targets. This evolved in the civilian field into applications for aircraft, ships,
and roads.

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In aviation, aircraft are equipped with radar devices that warn of aircraft or other obstacles in
or approaching their path, display weather information, and give accurate altitude readings.
The first commercial device fitted to aircraft was a 1938 Bell Lab unit on some United Air
Lines aircraft. Such aircraft can land in fog at airports equipped with radar assisted ground-
controlled approach systems in which the plane's flight is observed on radar screens while
operators radio landing directions to the pilot.

Marine radars are used to measure the bearing and distance of ships to prevent collision with
other ships, to navigate, and to fix their position at sea when within range of shore or other
fixed references such as islands, buoys, and lightships. In port or in harbour, vessel traffic
service radar systems are used to monitor and regulate ship movements in busy waters.

Meteorologists use radar to monitor precipitation and wind. It has become the primary tool
for short-term weather forecasting and watching for severe weather such as thunderstorms,
tornadoes, winter storms, precipitation types, etc. Geologists use specialized ground-
penetrating radars to map the composition of Earth's crust. Police forces use radar guns to
monitor vehicle speeds on the roads. Smaller radar systems are used to detect human
movement. Examples are breathing pattern detection for sleep monitoring and hand and
finger gesture detection for computer interaction. Automatic door opening, light activation
and intruder sensing are also common.

ADVANTAGES:

 The radar can see through the medium consisting of fog, snow, rain, darkness, etc.
 Radar signal can penetrate and see through insulators.
 It can help find out following parameters of object or target: Velocity of Target

DISADVANTAGES:

 It cannot distinguish and resolve multiple targets which are very close like our eye.
 It cannot recognize colour of the targets.
 It cannot see targets which are placed behind some conducting sheets.
 It is also difficult to recognise short range target types.
 Switching time of radar duplexer is very crucial when targets are very close. In this
situation reflected pulses arrive much earlier than the time required to connect
receiver part with the antenna by the duplexer. This results into "reflected pulse is not
received by the radar".

CONCLUSION :

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 PRACTICAL: -2

AIM : Introduction to RF beam signal viewer software installation.

Signal Viewer Software Installation

RFbeam Signal Viewer is a Windows® 2000/XP/Vista/Win7 program and runs under a Lab
VIEW runtime system. Please use the installation description according to your operating
system. First installation will take some minutes.

Installation description for Windows XP, Windows 7 and Vista

Installing from CD
1. Insert RFbeam Signal Viewer CD and run setup.exe. If your computer does not already
contain a Lab VIEW runtime engine, you will be asked to accept licences of National
Instruments.
2. If possible, accept all default program locations. Troubleshooting will be simplified like
this.
3. Please be patient while Lab VIEW runtime system is being installed.
4. You will find Signal Viewer under START->PROGRAMS->RFbeam->Signal Viewer or
on the Desktop.

Installing from Download

1. Download Signal Viewer Software from www.RFbeam.ch (you must get registered)
2. Extract the zip-archive to your hard disk.
3. If possible, accept all default program locations. Troubleshooting will be simplified like
this.
4. Please be patient while Lab VIEW runtime system is being installed.
5. You will find Signal Viewer under START->PROGRAMS->RFbeam->Signal Viewer or
on the Desktop.

Go!
1. Plug K-LC1 module to connector X1
2. Check DIP switch for position |off|off|off|
3. Connect ST100 to your USB port
4. Start Signal Viewer software
5. Set the Device to “USB Audio CODEC”
6. Play with the settings of Signal Viewer
7. Use context help from menu: move over front panel controls to get explanations

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Remark: K-LC1 module has one channel (I) only. The picture below shows I and Q signals of
a 2 channel K-MC1 module.

Fig.-Signal Viewer showing a person approaching the K-MC1 stereo sensor.

CONCLUSION :

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 PRACTICAL: -3
AIM : To measure Frequency of Pendulum using Doppler RADAR trainer.

OBJECTIVE: The objective of this experiment is to find out time period or frequency of the
moving pendulum at different length.

EQUIPMENTS:

 Radar Trainer system

 PC with RFbeam signal viewer Software
 Experimental manual
 Oscilloscope Pendulum
 USB Cable

PROCEDURE:
1. Do the Experimental setup as shown in Fig 1. Connect radar trainer System to the
computer with USB to USB cable provided.
2. Radar Trainer System does not require external power supply. It gets powered from
Computer
3. The computer will treat radar training system hardware as “USB Sound System” &
thus does not require any driver.
4. When pendulum moves to and fro in front of transceiver antenna it will reflect the
incoming microwave Signal.
5. The reflections can be observed on RFbeam Signal Viewer software or on DSO at
Amplified Radar signal Post.
6. Open the Rfbeam Signal Viewer software and Record the signal for sufficient time
and then playback the recorded file. Playback signal can be observed on DSO at
Playback Signal Post on front plate.
7. Measure the time period between two reflected signals. Measured time is the time
required by pendulum to complete one oscillation.
8. Take the inverse of the measured time; it will give the frequency of oscillation of
pendulum at that length.
9. In another case move the pendulum in a direction perpendicular to the axis of the
radar. Analyze the difference in their reflected signals.

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 10. Move the pendulum at different angles to radar and see if the time Measurement
remains same.
11. Vary length of pendulum, and find out the different Time periods using Radar.
12. Theoretically Time Period of pendulum is given by: T = 2π. √(l/g) where l is
length of pendulum and g is constant 9.8 m/s2.
13. Compare the Practical results to the theoretical time periods.

OBSERVATIONS:
 Time Domain Display of Signal Viewer software
 Amplified Radar Signal on Front panel of System
 Playback Signal on Front panel of System

Result: Snap of software window shows reflections due to movement of pendulum.

CONCLUSION :

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 PRACTICAL: -4
AIM : To Measure the speed of fan using Doppler RADAR trainer.

OBJECTIVE: The objective of this experiment is to measure the Speed of CPU fan in RPM.

EQUIPMENTS:

 Radar Trainer system

 PC with RFbeam signal viewer Software
 Experimental manual
 Oscilloscope
 CPU fan 12V adapter.
 USB Cable

PROCEDURE:

1. Do the experimental setup as shown in Fig.2. Connect radar trainer System to the computer
with USB to USB cable provided.

2. Connect 12 V supply from adapter to CPU fan.

3. Place CPU fan in front of transceiver Antenna of Radar trainer system and Switch ON the
adapter

4. Observe reflected signal due to the rotation of the fan in time domain display of the
software or at Amplified Radar Signal port.

5. Adjust the fan in front of antenna such that proper periodic signal will appear in time
domain display.

6. Measure the frequency of the signal using DSO.

7. Divide this frequency by the number of fan blades. For e.g. If the frequency comes around
350Hz & CPU fan has 7 blades. Then Divide 350Hz by 7, it comes around 50. Take inverse
of 50Hz to get the time required to CPU fan to complete one rotation. It comes around 20mS.

8. Now to calculate rotation per minute (RPM) divide 60 by this 20mS. This gives direct
value of RPM of CPU fan. In above example it comes 3000 rotation per minute.

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9. In this way we can calculate the RPM of CPU fan without physical contact to it using
principles of Doppler radar.

10. Verify the calculated (Practical) RPM with its specified RPM in datasheet or manual.

OBSERVATIONS:

 Time Domain Display of Signal Viewer software

 Amplified radar Signal on Front panel of System
 Playback Signal on Front panel of System

Result: Snap of software window shows reflections due to fan moving in front of antenna.

CONCLUSION :

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 PRACTICAL: -5
AIM : To Measure the frequency of peizo electric buzzer using Doppler RADAR trainer.

OBJECTIVE: The objective of this experiment is to measure the resonant frequency of

peizo electric buzzer.

EQUIPMENTS:

 Radar Trainer system

 PC with RFbeam signal viewer Software
 Experimental manual
 Oscilloscope
 Peizo Electric buzzer.
 12V adapter.
 USB Cable

PROCEDURE:

1. Do the experimental setup as shown in fig.3. Connect radar trainer System to the computer
with USB to USB cable provided.

2. Connect 12 V supply from adapter to Peizo Electric buzzer.

3. Hold Peizo Electric buzzer in front of transceiver Antenna of Radar trainer system as
shown in fig 3 and Switch ON the adapter.

4. Observe reflected signal due to the oscillation of the buzzer in time domain display of the
software or at Amplified Radar Signal port.

5. Measure the frequency of the oscillation of Peizo Electric buzzer using spectrum of
Rfbeam software. Spectrum shows fundamental frequency of oscillation of buzzer and its
harmonics in frequency domain with its magnitude.

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OBSERVATIONS:

 Time Domain Display of Signal Viewer software

 Frequency Domain Display of Signal Viewer software
 Amplified radar Signal on Front panel of System
 Playback Signal on Front panel of System

Result: Snap of software window shows fundamental frequency of oscillation of peizo

electric buzzer at 3.8 KHz & its harmonics.

CONCLUSION :

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 PRACTICAL: -6
AIM : To Measure the frequency of oscillations of Tuning Fork using Doppler RADAR
trainer.

OBJECTIVE: The objective of this experiment is to measure the frequency of oscillation of

Tuning fork & find out the accuracy of the Radar.

EQUIPMENTS:

 Radar Trainer system

 PC with RFbeam signal viewer Software
 Experimental manual
 Oscilloscope
 Tuning fork (256Hz)
 12V adapter.
 USB Cable

PROCEDURE:

1. Do the experimental setup as shown in fig 4. Connect radar trainer System to the computer
with USB to USB cable provided.

2. Hit the tuning fork to rubber pad and hold in front of transreceiving antenna of the radar.
3. Observe reflected signal due to the damped oscillation of the tuning fork in time domain
display of the software or at Amplified Radar Signal port.

4. Measure the frequency of the oscillation of tuning fork using spectrum of RFbeam
software.

5. Compare the practical value of oscillation with the frequency of the tuning fork given on it
and you can find out the accuracy of the radar.

OBSERVATIONS:

 Time Domain Display of Signal Viewer software

 Frequency Domain Display of Signal Viewer software
 Amplified radar Signal on Front panel of System

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  Playback Signal on Front panel of System

Result: Snap of software window shows damped oscillations of tuning fork. Fundamental
Frequency of oscillation of tuning Fork is at around 220Hz.

CONCLUSION :

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 PRACTICAL: -7
AIM : To Measure the transformer Hum & its frequency using Doppler RADAR trainer.

OBJECTIVE: The objective of this experiment is to measure the transformer Hum

frequency.

EQUIPMENTS:

 Radar Trainer system

 PC with RFbeam signal viewer Software
 Experimental manual
 Oscilloscope
 Transformer (230V AC / 50Hz)
 USB Cable

PROCEDURE:

1. Do the experimental setup as shown in fig 5. Connect radar trainer System to the computer
with USB to USB cable provided.

2. Connect transformer to 230V AC mains supply.

3. Place transformer in front of transceiver Antenna of Radar trainer system and Switch ON
the supply.

4. Observe reflected signal due to the transformer in time domain display of the software or at
Amplified Radar Signal port. The reflected signals will be in mili volt range.

5. Measure the frequency of the Hum using RFbeam software or using external DSO at
Amplified Radar Signal port.

OBSERVATIONS:

 Time Domain Display of Signal Viewer software

 Amplified radar Signal on Front panel of System
 Playback Signal on Front panel of System

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Result: Snap of software window shows Hum signal due to transformer in time as well as in
frequency domain. Frequency of Hum Signal is around 50Hz and can be observed in
Frequency domain.

CONCLUSION :

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 PRACTICAL: -8
AIM : Introduction to MTI RADAR

THEORY: Moving target indication (MTI) is a mode of operation of a radar to discriminate

a target against the clutter. It describes a variety of techniques used to find moving objects,
like an aircraft, and filter out unmoving ones, like hills or trees. It contrasts with the
modern stationary target indication (STI) technique, which uses details of the signal to
directly determine the mechanical properties of the reflecting objects and thereby find targets
whether they are moving or not.

Early MTI systems generally used an acoustic delay line to store a single pulse of the
received signal for exactly the time between broadcasts (the pulse repetition frequency). This
stored signal was electrically inverted and then sent into the receiver at the same time as the
next pulse was being received. The result was that the signal from any objects that did not
move mixed with the inverted stored signal and became muted out.

The Doppler frequency shift produced by a moving target may be used in a pulse radar. to
determine the relative velocity of a target or to separate desired moving targets from
undesired stationary objects (clutter). Although there are applications of pulse radar where a
determination of the target's relative velocity is made from the Doppler frequency shift, the
use of Doppler to separate small moving targets in the presence of large clutter has probably
been of far greater interest. Such a pulse radar that utilizes the Doppler frequency shift as a
means for discriminating moving from fixed targets is called an AITI (moving target
indication) or a pulse Doppler radar.

The basic MTI concepts were introduced during World War 1, and most of the signal
processing theory on which MTI (and pulse Doppler) radar depends was formulated during
the mid-1950s. However, the reduction of theory to practice was paced by the availability of
the necessary signal-processing technology. It took almost twenty years for the full
capabilities offered by MTI signal-processing theory to be converted into practical and
economical radar equipment. The chief factor that made this possible was the introduction of
reliable. small, and inexpensive digital processing hardware.

Movirig targets may be distinguished from stationary targets by observing the video output
on an A-scope (amplitude vs. range). A single sweep on an A-scope might appear as in Fig.
This sweep shows several fixed targets and two moving targets indicated by the two arrows.
On the basis of a single sweep, moving targets cannot be distinguished from fixed targets. (It
may be possible to distinguish extended ground targets from point targets by the stretching of
the echo pulse. However, this is not a reliable means of discriminating moving from fixed
targets since some fixed targets can look like point targets, e.g., a water tower. Also, some
moving targets such as aircraft flying in formation can look like extended targets.) Successive
A-scope sweeps (pulse-repetition intervals) are shown in Fig. 4.3h to e. Echoes from fixed
targets remain constant throughout, but echoes from moving targets vary in amplitude from
sweep to sweep at a rate corresponding to the Doppler frequency. The superposition of the
successive A-scopes is shown in figure. The moving targets produce, with time, a "butterfly"
effect on the A scope.

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FIG-Successive sweeps of an MTI radar A-scope display (echo amplitude as a function of
time superposition of many sweeps arrows indicate position of moving targets.)

Although the butterfly effect is suitable for recognizing moving targets on an A-scope, it is
not appropriate for display on the PPI. One method commonly employed to extract Doppler
information in a form suitable for display on the PPI scope is with a delay-line canceller The
delay-line canceller acts as a filter to eliminate the d-c component of fixed targets and to pass
the a-c components of moving targets. The video portion of the receiver is divided into two

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channels. One is a normal video channel. In the other, the video signal experiences a time
delay equal to one pulse-repetition period (equal to the reciprocal of the pulse-repetition
frequency). The outputs from the two channels are subtracted from one another. The fixed
targets with unchanging amplitudes from pulse to pulse are cancelled on subtraction. low
ever, the amplitudes of the moving-target echoes are not constant from pulse and subtraction
results in an uncanceled residue. The output of the subtraction circuit is bipolar vide , just as
was the input. Before bipolar video can intensity-modulate a PPI display, it must be
converted to unipotential voltages (unipolar video) by a full-wave rectifier.

FIG-MTI Receiver

FIG- Block diagram of MTI radar with power-amplifier transmitter.

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Before the development of the klystron amplifier, the only high-power transmitter avail- able
at microwave frequencies for radar application was the magnetron oscillator. In an oscillator
the phase of the RF bears no relationship from pulse to pulse. For this reason the reference
signal cannot be generated by a continuously running oscillator. However, a coherent
reference signal may be readily obtained with the power oscillator by readjusting the phase of
the coho at the beginning of each sweep according to the phase of the transmitted pulse. The
phase of the coho is locked to the phase of the transmitted pulse each time a pulse is
generated.

CONCLUSION :

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 PRACTICAL: -9
AIM : Introduction to different type of navigational Aids.

THEORY:

Navigation is the process of monitoring and controlling the movement of a craft or vehicle
from one place to another. It is also the term of art used for the specialized knowledge used
by navigators to perform navigation tasks. All navigational techniques involve locating the
navigator's position compared to known locations or patterns.

METHODS OF NAVIGATION:

1) DEAD RECKONNING: DR, in which one advances a prior position using the ship's
course and speed. The new position is called a DR position. It is generally accepted that only
course and speed determine the DR position. Correcting the DR position for leeway, current
effects, and steering error result in an estimated position or EP. An inertial navigator develops
an extremely accurate EP. Dead reckoning is the process of estimating present position by
projecting course and speed from a known past position. It is also used to predict a future
position by projecting course and speed from a known present position. The DR position is
only an approximate position because it does not allow for the effect of leeway, current,
helmsman error, compass error, or any other external influences. The most important use of
dead reckoning is to project the position of the ship into the immediate future and avoid
hazards to navigation. Used at all times.

2) PILOTAGE: Involves navigating in restricted waters with frequent determination of

position relative to geographic and hydro graphic features. Used when within sight of land.
Piloting (also called pilot age) involves navigating a vessel in restricted waters and fixing its
position as precisely as possible at frequent intervals. More so than in other phases of
navigation, proper preparation and attention to detail are important. Procedures vary from
vessel to vessel, and between military, commercial, and private vessels. A military navigation
team will nearly always consist of several people. A military navigator might have bearing
takers stationed at the gyro repeaters on the bridge wings for taking simultaneous bearings,
while the civilian navigator must often take and plot them himself. While the military
navigator will have a bearing book and someone to record entries for each fix, the civilian
navigator will simply pilot the bearings on the chart as they are taken and not record them at
all. If the ship is equipped with an ECDIS, it is reasonable for the navigator to simply monitor
the progress of the ship along the chosen track, visually ensuring that the ship is proceeding
as desired, checking the compass, sounder and other indicators only occasionally. If a pilot is
aboard, as is often the case in the most restricted of waters, his judgment can generally be
relied upon, further easing the workload. But should the ECDIS fail; the navigator will have
to rely on his skill in the manual and time-tested procedures.

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3) CELESTIAL NAVIGATION: Involves reducing celestial measurements to lines of
position using tables, spherical trigonometry, and almanacs. Used primarily as a backup to
satellite and other electronic systems in the open ocean. Celestial navigation systems are
based on observation of the positions of the Sun, Moon, Planets and navigational stars. Such
systems are in use as well for terrestrial navigating as for interstellar navigating. By knowing
which point on the rotating earth a celestial object is above and measuring its height above
the observer's horizon, the navigator can determine his distance from that sub point. A
Nautical almanac and a chronometer are used to compute the sub point on earth a celestial
body is over, and a sextant is used to measure the body's angular height above the horizon.
That height can then be used to compute distance from the sub point to create a circular line
of position. A navigator shoots a number of stars in succession to give a series of overlapping
lines of position. Where they intersect is the celestial fix. The moon and sun may also be
used. The sun can also be used by itself to shoot a succession of lines of position (best done
around local noon) to determine a position.

4) RADIO NAVIGATION: Uses radio waves to determine position by either radio direction
finding systems or hyperbolic systems, such as Decca, Omega and LORAN-C.Used when
losing ground to GPS. A radio direction finder or RDF is a device for finding the direction to
a radio source. Due to radio's ability to travel very long distances "over the horizon", it makes
a particularly good navigation system for ships and aircraft that might be flying at a distance
from land. RDFs works by rotating a directional antenna and listening for the direction in
which the signal from a known station comes through most strongly. This sort of system was
widely used in the 1930s and 1940s. RDF antennas are easy to spot on German World War II
aircraft, as loops under the rear section of the fuselage, whereas most US aircraft enclosed the
antenna in a small teardrop-shaped fairing. In navigational applications, RDF signals are
provided in the form of radio beacons, the radio version of a lighthouse. The signal is
typically a simple AM broadcast of a Morse code series of letters, which the RDF can tune in
to see if the beacon is "on the air". Most modern detectors can also tune in any commercial
radio stations, which is particularly useful due to their high power and location near major
cities.

5) RADAR NAVIGATION: Uses radar to determine the distance from or bearing of objects
whose position is known. This process is separate from radar’s use as a collision avoidance
system. Used primarily when within radar range of land. When a vessel is within radar range
of land or special radar aids to navigation, the navigator can take distances and angular
bearings to charted objects and use these to establish arcs of position and lines of position on
a chart. A fix consisting of only radar information is called a radar fix. Types of radar fixes
include "range and bearing to a single object, two or more bearings, tangent bearings," and
"two or more ranges."Parallel indexing is a technique defined by William Burger in the 1957
book The Radar Observer's Handbook. This technique involves creating a line on the screen
that is parallel to the ship's course, but offset to the left or right by some distance. This
parallel line allows the navigator to maintain a given distance away from hazards. Some
techniques have been developed for special situations. One, known as the "contour method,"

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involves marking a transparent plastic template on the radar screen and moving it to the chart
to fix a position. Another special technique, known as the Franklin Continuous Radar Plot
Technique, involves drawing the path a radar object should follow on the radar display if the
ship stays on its planned course.

6) SATELLITE NAVIGATION: uses artificial earth satellite systems, such as GPS, to

determine position. Used in all situations. Global Navigation Satellite System or GNSS is the
term for satellite navigation systems that provide positioning with global coverage. A GNSS
allow small electronic receivers to determine their location (longitude, latitude, and altitude)
to within a few metres using time signals transmitted along a line of sight by radio from
satellites. Receivers on the ground with a fixed position can also be used to calculate the
precise time as a reference for scientific experiments.

CONCLUSION:

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 PRACTICAL: 10

AIM: Introduction to Atmosphere effect on RADAR.

APPARATUS:

 Doppler RADAR
 PC with multimedia
 Water spray

THEORY:

 Doppler radar is extensively used worldwide in weather detection. Air has a dielectric
constant, which is close to 1 for the vacuum. It is because of this that moving air
cannot be detected by weather radar. But when it is laden with moisture, dust etc. it
reflects microwave energy. Our radar does not have sufficient energy that it can detect
moving clouds in real life but the same can be emulated in life.
 Connect the Doppler radar to the PC at the ‘mic in’ input.
 Open the activity log & point water spray away from the radar. The movement of the
water particles will be picked up by the radar. Water is a good reflector because of its
high dielectric constant. The spray can does emulate rain conditions in lab. Propane
driven snow makers can be tried to study their radar signatures.

CONCLUSION:

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 PRACTICAL: 11

AIM: Case study 1.1

APPARTUS:

 PC with MATLAB

THEORY :

PROBLEM STATEMENT: Design a ground based radar that is capable of detecting

aircraft and missiles at 10 Km and 2 Km altitudes, respectively. The maximum detection
range for either target type is 60 Km. Assume that an aircraft average RCS is 6 dBsm, and
that a missile average RCS is -10 dBsm. The radar azimuth and elevation search extents are
respectively ΘA = 360° and ΘE = 10° . The required scan rate is 2 seconds and the range
resolution is 150 meters. Assume a noise figure F = 8 dB, and total receiver noise L = 10 dB.
Use a fan beam with azimuth beam width less than 3 degrees. The SNR is 15 dB.

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OUTPUT :-

CONCLUSION :

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 PRACTICAL: 12

AIM: Case study 1.2

APPARTUS:

 PC with MATLAB

THEORY:

PROBLEM STATEMENT: A MMW radar has the following specifications: Center

frequency f = 94GHz, pulse width τ 50 X 10-9 sec , peak power Pt = 4W, azimuth coverage ∆α =
120° , Pulse repetition frequency PRF = 10KHz, noise figure F = 7dB ; antenna diameter D = 12in;
antenna gain G = 47dB; radar cross section of target is σ 20m2 ; system losses L = 10dB ; radar
scan time TSC = 3sec. Calculate: The wavelength λ; range resolution ∆R; bandwidth B; antenna
half power beam width; antenna scan rate; time on target. Compute the range that
corresponds to 10 dB SNR. Plot the SNR as a function of range. Finally, compute the number
of pulses on the target that can be used for integration and the corresponding new detection
range when pulse integration is used, assuming that the SNR stays unchanged (i.e., the same
as in the case of a single pulse). Assume . Te = 290 Kelvin

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OUTPUT:

CONCLUSION :

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