Symmetries of

an Equilateral
Triangle
What are the symmetries of an equilateral triangle?
C
R1R2

FAFBFC

ID

counting

Composition

Groups

A B

In order to answer this question precisely, we need to agree on

what the word ”symmetry” means.
Symmetries of
an Equilateral
What are the symmetries of an equilateral triangle?
Triangle
C

R1R2

FAFBFC

ID

counting

Composition

Groups

A B

For our purposes, a symmetry of the triangle will be a rigid

motion of the plane (i.e., a motion which preserves distances)
which also maps the triangle to itself.
Note, a symmetry can interchange some of the sides and
vertices.
Symmetries of
an Equilateral
Triangle
So, what are some symmetries? How can we describe them?
R1R2
What is good notation for them?
FAFBFC C

ID

counting

Composition

Groups

A B
Symmetries of
an Equilateral
Triangle

Rotate counterclockise, 120◦ about the center O.

R1R2 C

FAFBFC

ID

counting

Composition

Groups

A B
Symmetries of
an Equilateral
Triangle Note this is the following map (function):
C B
R1R2

FAFBFC

ID

counting
O O
Composition

Groups A B C A

We can think of this as a function on the vertices:

A 7→ B, B 7→ C , C 7→ A.  
A B C
We might denote this by:
B C A
We also may denote this map by R120 .
Symmetries of
an Equilateral
Triangle Rotate counterclockise, 240◦ about the center O. This is the
map (function):
R1R2 C A

FAFBFC

ID

counting

Composition O O

Groups
A B B C

We can think of this as a function on the vertices:

A 7→ C , B 7→ A, C 7→ B.  
A B C
We might denote this by:
C A B
We also may denote this map by R240 .
Symmetries of
an Equilateral
Triangle
Reflect about the perpendicular bisector of AB :
C

R1R2

FAFBFC

ID

counting

Composition

Groups

A B
Symmetries of
an Equilateral Reflect about the perpendicular bisector of AB,
Triangle
This is the map (function):
C C
R1R2

FAFBFC

ID

counting
O O
Composition

Groups
A B B A

We can think of this as a function on the vertices:

A 7→ B, B 7→ A, C 7→ C .  
A B C
We might denote this by:
B A C
We also may denote this map by FC to indicate the reflection is
the one fixing C .
Symmetries of
an Equilateral Reflect about the perpendicular bisector of BC ,
Triangle
This is the map (function):
C B
R1R2

FAFBFC

ID

counting
O O
Composition

Groups
A B A C

We can think of this as a function on the vertices:

A 7→ A, B 7→ C , C 7→ B.  
A B C
We might denote this by:
A C B
We also may denote this map by FA to indicate the reflection is
the one fixing A.
Symmetries of
an Equilateral Reflect about the perpendicular bisector of AC ,
Triangle
This is the map (function):
C A
R1R2

FAFBFC

ID

counting
O O
Composition

Groups
A B C B

We can think of this as a function on the vertices:

A 7→ C , B 7→ B, C 7→ A.  
A B C
We might denote this by:
C B A
We also may denote this map by FB to indicate the reflection is
the one fixing B.
Symmetries of The identity map of the plane: (takes every point to itself).
an Equilateral
Triangle This is the map (function):
C C
R1R2

FAFBFC

ID

counting
O O
Composition

Groups A B A B

We can think of this as a function on the vertices:

A 7→ A, B 7→ B, C 7→ C .  
A B C
We might denote this by:
A B C
We also may denote this map by Id or 1.
Note, we might also denote this as R0 , since it is a rotation
through 0◦ . However – it is NOT a reflection. (WHY NOT??!!)
Symmetries of
an Equilateral
So far we have 6 symmetries – 3 rotations, R0 , R120 , R240 , and
Triangle 3 reflections, FA , FB , FC .
C
R1R2

FAFBFC

ID

counting

Composition

Groups
O

A B

Are there any more??

Why or why not??
Symmetries of
an Equilateral
Triangle

R1R2
In fact these are all the symmetries of the triangle.
FAFBFC
We can see this from our  notation in which we write each of
A B C
ID these maps in the form . Note there are three
counting
X Y Z
Composition
choices for X (i.e., X can be any of A, B, C ,). Having made a
Groups
choice for X there are two choices for Y .
Then Z is the remaining vertex. Thus there are at most
3 · 2 · 1 = 6 possible symmetries. Since we have seen each
possible rearrangement of A, B.C is indeed a symmetry, we see
these are all the symmetries.
Symmetries of
an Equilateral
Triangle

R1R2 Notice these symmetries are maps, i.e., functions, from the
FAFBFC plane to itself, i.e., each has the form f : R2 → R2 . Thus we
ID can compose symmetries as functions: If f1 , f2 are symmetries
counting then f2 ◦ f1 (x) = f2 (f1 (x)), is also a rigid motion. Notice, the
Composition
composition must also be a symmetry of the triangle.
Groups
For example, R120 ◦ FC =?? It must be one of our 6
symmetries. Can we tell, without computing whether it is a
rotation or reflection?? Why?? What about the composition of
two reflections?
Symmetries of R120 ◦ FC , we can view this composition as follows:
an Equilateral
Triangle
C C

R1R2 F
C

FAFBFC

ID O
O
counting
A B B A
Composition

Groups

C A

R
120

O O

B A C B

So, R120 ◦ FC = FB .
Symmetries of
an Equilateral
Triangle

R1R2

FAFBFC

ID
We use our other
 notation:
    
counting
A B C A B C A B C
Composition R120 ◦ FC = ◦ = = FB
B C A B A C C B A
Groups
Symmetries of Is R120 ◦ FC = FC = R120 ? Let’s look: FC ◦ R120 :
an Equilateral
Triangle C B

R
120
R1R2

FAFBFC

ID O O

counting
A B C A
Composition

Groups
B B

F
C

O O

C A A C

So FC ◦ R120 = FA 6= FB = R120 ◦ FC .
Symmetries of So on our set of symmetries S = {R0 , R120 , R240 , FA , FB , FC },
an Equilateral
Triangle we get a way of combining any two to create a third, i.e., we
get an operation on S. (Just like addition is an operation on
R1R2 the integers.) We will call this operation multiplication on S.
FAFBFC We can make a multiplication table, or Cayley Table. So far
ID we have:
counting

Composition
◦ R0 R120 R240 FA FB FC
Groups R0 R0 R120 R240 FA FB FC
R120 R120 FB
R240 R240
FA FA
FB FB
FC FC FA
Notice we have already seen FC ◦ R120 6= R120 ◦ FC , so this
operation is non-commutative.
Symmetries of Now we fill in the rest: (check)
an Equilateral
Triangle
◦ R0 R120 R240 FA FB FC
R0 R0 R120 R240 FA FB FC
R1R2

FAFBFC
R120 R120 R240 R0 FC FA FB
ID
R240 R240 R0 R120 FB FC FA
counting FA FA FB FC R0 R120 R240
Composition FB FB FC FA R240 R0 R120
Groups FC FC FA FB R120 R240 R0
We make note of several things about this table:
(i) Every symmetry appears exactly once in each row and in
each column;
(ii) Every symmetry has an ”opposite” or ”inverse” symmetry;
(iii) Less clear from the table: If f , g , h are symmetries of our
triangle (f ◦ g ) ◦ h = f ◦ (g ◦ h). BUT THIS IS A FACT
ABOUT FUNCTIONS (and we already know it!!).
Symmetries of
an Equilateral
Triangle

R1R2

FAFBFC

ID We learn in High School Algebra, and again in Calculus (and

counting re-learned in Ch. 0)
Composition f (g (h(x))) = f ◦ (g ◦ h)(x) = (f ◦ g ) ◦ h(x). We call this
Groups
”Associativity”.
Symmetries of
an Equilateral
Triangle

R1R2

FAFBFC

ID

counting
Observations
Composition

Groups
Symmetries of
an Equilateral
Triangle

So our set S of symmetries has the following property:

R1R2
(i) There is a binary operation on S, i.e., a way to combine
FAFBFC
two members of S to get another one,(composition) we
ID
write ψϕ instead of ψ ◦ ϕ;
counting

Composition (ii) This operation is associative: ψ(σϕ) = (ψσ)ϕ.

Groups (iii) There is an identity element for the operation, i.e., an
element σ so that σψ = ψσ = ψ, for all ψ; (The identity
is R0 .)
(iv) Every element has an inverse – Given ψ ∈ S there is a
σ ∈ S so that ψσ = σψ = R0 .
Symmetries of
an Equilateral
Triangle

There are other examples of sets, say, G satisfying (i)-(iv)–

R1R2
The integers Z, with the operation + (i), is associative (ii), the
FAFBFC

ID
integer 0 is the additive identity (iii) and for any n we have
counting
n + (−n) = 0. (iv).
Composition

Groups The positive real numbers R with multiplication ·

GL(2, R) the set of all 2 × 2 invertible real matrices with the
operation of matrix multiplication.
A set G with a closed binary operation, ·, satisfying (i)-(iv) is
called a group.