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8groups PDF

The document classifies groups of order n ≤ 8 up to isomorphism. For orders 1-7, there is only one group up to isomorphism for each order. For order 4, there are two groups: the cyclic group Z/4Z and the Klein four group Z/2Z × Z/2Z. For order 8, there are five groups up to isomorphism: the cyclic group Z/8Z, the abelian groups Z/4Z × Z/2Z and Z/2Z × Z/2Z × Z/2Z, and the non-abelian groups D4 (the dihedral group) and Q (the quaternion group).

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44 views

8groups PDF

The document classifies groups of order n ≤ 8 up to isomorphism. For orders 1-7, there is only one group up to isomorphism for each order. For order 4, there are two groups: the cyclic group Z/4Z and the Klein four group Z/2Z × Z/2Z. For order 8, there are five groups up to isomorphism: the cyclic group Z/8Z, the abelian groups Z/4Z × Z/2Z and Z/2Z × Z/2Z × Z/2Z, and the non-abelian groups D4 (the dihedral group) and Q (the quaternion group).

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laxmi mahto
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Classification of Groups of Order n ≤ 8

n=1: The trivial group hei is the only group with 1 element.
n=2,3,5,7: These orders are prime, so Lagrange implies that any such group is
cyclic. By the classification of cyclic groups, there is only one group of
each order (up to isomorphism):
Z/2Z, Z/3Z, Z/5Z, Z/7Z.

n=4: Here are two groups of order 4:


Z/4Z and Z/2Z × Z/2Z
(the latter is called the “Klein-four group”). Note that these are not
isomorphic, since the first is cyclic, while every non-identity element
of the Klein-four has order 2. We will now show that any group of
order 4 is either cyclic (hence isomorphic to Z/4Z) or isomorphic to
the Klein-four.
So suppose G is a group of order 4. If G has an element of order 4,
then G is cyclic. Hence, we may assume that G has no element of order
4, and try to prove that G is isomorphic to the Klein-four group. Let’s
give some names to the elements of G:
G = {e, a, b, c}.
Lagrange says that the order of every group element must divide 4, so
by our assumption that G is not cyclic, we see that ord(a) = ord(b) =
ord(c) = 2. I claim that ab = c. Indeed, if ab = e, then a = b−1
contradicting the fact that b = b−1 . Also, ab = a would imply that
b = e, while ab = b would imply that a = e. The same argument shows
that ba = c = ab, ca = b = ac and cb = a = bc. Using these relations,
it is a simple matter (DX) to check that f : G → Z/2Z × Z/2Z is an
isomorphism, where
f (e) = (0, 0) f (a) = (1, 0) f (b) = (0, 1) f (c) = (1, 1).

n=6: You will show for homework that every group of order 6 is isomorphic
to one of the following two groups:
Z/6Z or S3 .

1
n=8: Now let G be a group of order 8. If G has an element of order 8, then
G is cyclic, so G is isomorphic to

Z/8Z.

So assume that G has no element of order 8; by Lagrange, every non-


identity element of G has order 2 or 4.

Case 1: Suppose G has no element of order 4, so every nonidentity element


has order 2. In other words, every element of G is its own inverse.
This means that the function F : G → G defined by F (x) = x−1
is actually the identity function, hence an isomorphism. By a
previous homework problem, this implies that G is abelian. Let
a, b ∈ G be two distinct elements of order 2, and choose c ∈ G
distinct from e, a, b, ab. I claim that

G = {e, a, b, c, ab, ac, bc, abc}.

Indeed, these eight elements are distinct by cancelation in G. For


instance, if ab = bc, then ab = cb since G is abelian. But then
cancelation implies that a = c, contradicting our choice of c. Now
that we know the elements of G, we see (DX) that G can be
described via generators and relations as follows:

G = a, b, c | a2 = b2 = c2 = e, ab = ba, ac = ca, bc = cb .

Using this description, one can check (DX) that

f : G → Z/2Z × Z/2Z × Z/2Z

is an isomorphism, where

f (a) = (1, 0, 0) f (b) = (0, 1, 0) f (c) = (0, 0, 1).

Case 2: Now suppose that a ∈ G has order 4. Define H := hai =


{e, a, a2 , a3 }, the cyclic subgroup of G generated by a. If b is any
element of G − H, then Hb 6= H, since cosets are either equal or
disjoint. Hence, G = H ∪ Hb = {e, a, a2 , a3 , b, ab, a2 b, a3 b}. Note
that this is true for any choice of b 6∈ H. Furthermore, cancelation
implies that ba 6= b and ba 6∈ hai since b 6∈ hai (DX).

2
Subcase 2a: Suppose that there exists an element b ∈ G − H of order 2. Then
I claim that ba 6= a2 b. For if ba = a2 b, then

ba2 b = baab = a2 bab = a2 a2 bb = a4 b2 = ee = e.

But then
a = ea = b2 a = bba = ba2 b = e,
contradicting the fact that a has order 4.
Thus we see that there are two possibilities: either ba = ab or
ba = a3 b.
Subsubcase 2ai: If ba = ab, then G is abelian (DX), and

f : G → Z/4Z × Z/2Z

is an isomorphism, where

f (a) = (1, 0) f (b) = (0, 1).

Subsubcase 2aii: If ba = a3 b, then I claim that G ∼


= D4 , where D4 is the group of
symmetries of a square. Recall (DX) that

D4 = r, f | r4 = e, f r = r3 f ,

where r stands for a counter-clockwise rotation of π2 radians, and


f stands for the flip through the diagonal running from the lower
left corner to the upper right corner. Using this description, check
(DX) that sending a to r and b to f defines an isomorphism

G∼
= D4 .

Subcase 2b: Now suppose that every element of G − H has order 4, and choose
one such element b. Then I claim that b2 = a2 . Indeed, since b
has order 4, it follows (DX) that b2 must have order 2, so that
b2 ∈ H = hai. But since a has order 4, the only element of H with
order 2 is a2 . Hence b2 = a2 as claimed.
Now I claim that G is non-abelian. For if ba = ab, then

(a3 b)2 = a3 ba3 b = a6 b2 = a2 b2 = a2 a2 = a4 = e,

3
contradicting the fact that a3 b has order 4. Also, we can’t have
ba = a2 b, for if this were true then

ba = a2 b = b2 b = b3 =⇒ a = b2 ,

which is impossible since a has order 4 while b2 has order 2. Re-


calling from above that

G = H ∪ Hb = {e, a, a2 , a3 , b, ab, a2 b, a3 b},

we see that the only remaining possibility is ba = a3 b. We now


know enough relations to construct the multiplication table of G,
so
G = a, b | a4 = b4 = e, a2 = b2 , ba = a3 b =: Q.

This is a group that we haven’t met before, called the quaternion


group.
Looking back over our work, we see that up to isomorphism, there
are five groups of order 8 (the first three are abelian, the last two
non-abelian):

Z/8Z, Z/4Z × Z/2Z, Z/2Z × Z/2Z × Z/2Z, D4 , Q.

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