GAS COMPRESSION

CONTROL SYSTEMS

Oil & Gas

CONTROL SYSTEMS
Contents
1 Control System Overview .................................................................................................................... 1
1.1 PRODUCT DESCRIPTION .......................................................................................................... 1
1.2 ADVANTAGES OF INTEGRATED CONTROL ............................................................................ 2
1.3 OPEN ENVIRONMENT ................................................................................................................ 2
1.4 DISPLAY / OPERATOR INTERFACE .......................................................................................... 2
1.5 COMPONENT DEVELOPMENT .................................................................................................. 2
1.6 VARIED COMPRESSOR CONFIGURATIONS............................................................................ 3
2 Control System - Old versus New....................................................................................................... 4
2.1 OVERVIEW................................................................................................................................... 4
2.2 SURGE LIMIT MODEL ................................................................................................................. 4
2.3 UNITIZATION FOR TUNING AND DISPLAY............................................................................... 5
2.4 CURVE FIT ................................................................................................................................... 5
2.5 COMPRESSOR OPERATION...................................................................................................... 5
2.6 TURNDOWN CALCULATOR ....................................................................................................... 6
2.7 SURGE MARGIN.......................................................................................................................... 7
2.8 TURNDOWN (RANGEABILITY)................................................................................................... 7
2.9 PROPORTIONAL AND INTEGRAL CONTROL ALGORITHM .................................................... 7
2.10 POSITIONED VALVES................................................................................................................. 8
3 Piping and Instrumentation ................................................................................................................. 9
3.1 TIME CONSTANT OF THE SYSTEM .......................................................................................... 9
3.2 COMPRESSOR DECELERATION............................................................................................. 10
3.3 HEAT BUILDUP IN UNCOOLED RECYCLE SYSTEMS ........................................................... 10
3.4 RECYCLE LINE PIPING............................................................................................................. 11
3.5 FLOW-MEASURING ELEMENTS .............................................................................................. 11
3.6 COMPRESSOR INSTRUMENTATION ...................................................................................... 11
3.7 CHECK VALVES ........................................................................................................................ 12
3.8 RECYCLE VALVES .................................................................................................................... 12
3.9 RECYCLE VALVE TYPES ......................................................................................................... 13
3.10 MULTIPLE RECYCLE VALVE ARRANGEMENTS .................................................................... 14
3.11 RECYCLE VALVE CONTROL.................................................................................................... 14
3.12 COMPRESSORS IN SERIES..................................................................................................... 15
3.13 GAS COMPOSITION CONSIDERATIONS ................................................................................ 15
4 Valves and Associated Components................................................................................................ 16
4.1 SIZE AND CHARACTERISTIC................................................................................................... 16
4.2 TYPICAL VALVE ARRANGEMENTS......................................................................................... 17
4.3 SURGE CONTROL VALVE ACCESSORIES............................................................................. 17
4.4 POSITIONED VERSUS DIRECT CONTROLLED VALVES....................................................... 21
4.5 RECYCLING FOR PROCESS CONTROL ................................................................................. 22
4.6 INTERACTION BETWEEN SURGE AND PROCESS CONTROL............................................. 22
5 Flow-Measuring Elements and Transmitters................................................................................... 23
5.1 GENERAL SELECTION CRITERIA ........................................................................................... 23
5.2 COMPARISON OF COMMONLY USED FLOW-MEASURING ELEMENTS............................. 23

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Contents, Contd
6 Process Control .................................................................................................................................. 25
6.1 PRODUCT DESCRIPTION ........................................................................................................ 25
6.2 SUCTION PRESSURE ............................................................................................................... 25
6.3 DISCHARGE PRESSURE.......................................................................................................... 25
6.4 FLOW CALCULATOR ................................................................................................................ 25
6.5 FLOW CONTROL ....................................................................................................................... 26
6.6 SPEED CONTROL ..................................................................................................................... 26
6.7 PROCESS CONTROL USING ANTI-SURGE CONTROL VALVE ............................................ 27
6.8 SUCTION PRESSURE ............................................................................................................... 27
6.9 DISCHARGE PRESSURE.......................................................................................................... 28
6.10 COMMAND TO ANTI-SURGE VALVE ....................................................................................... 28
6.11 MULTIPLE UNIT LOAD SHARE CONTROLLER AND SURGE MARGIN EQUALIZER ........... 28
Appendix A – Yard Valve Sequencing .................................................................................................... 30
A-1 MILESTONES............................................................................................................................. 30
A-2 SEQUENCING MATRIX ............................................................................................................. 31
A-3 VALVE OUT OF POSITION ....................................................................................................... 31
Appendix B – Recycle System Design Check List ................................................................................ 34
B-1 RECYCLE SYSTEM DYNAMICS ............................................................................................... 34
B-2 RECYCLE LINE PIPING............................................................................................................. 34
B-3 FLOW-MEASURING ELEMENTS .............................................................................................. 34
B-4 COMPRESSOR INSTRUMENTATION ...................................................................................... 34
B-5 CHECK VALVES ........................................................................................................................ 35
B-6 RECYCLE VALVES .................................................................................................................... 35
B-7 PROCESS CONTROL VALVES................................................................................................. 35
B-8 COMPRESSORS IN SERIES..................................................................................................... 35
B-9 GAS COMPOSITION CONSIDERATIONS ................................................................................ 35
Appendix C – K-Value Definitions ........................................................................................................... 36

Appendix D – Compressor Data Requirements ..................................................................................... 37

D-1 EXAMPLE OF ACCEPTABLE COMPRESSOR DATA .............................................................. 37
Appendix E - Surge Control Valve Accessories .................................................................................... 39

Appendix F – Glossary of Definitions ..................................................................................................... 40

Caterpillar is a registered trademark of Caterpillar Inc.

Solar, Titan, Mars, Taurus, Mercury, Centaur, Saturn, SoLoNOx, and Turbotronic are trademarks of Solar Turbines Incorporated.
Specifications subject to change without notice. Printed in U.S.A. © 2003 Solar Turbines Incorporated. All rights reserved.
SPGCCS/203

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 Anti-Surge and Process Control
for Gas Compressor Applications

1. Control System Overview

1.1 PRODUCT DESCRIPTION · Engineering to specify the flow-meter type
Solar Turbines Incorporated offers a control sys- and size
tem for the avoidance of surge in turbine driven · Evaluation of purchaser's piping and in-
centrifugal compressors. The system creates a strumentation diagram and physical layout
mathematical model of the compressor perform- · Documentation, including all surge control
ance and monitors the actual operating point of
calculations and program constants
the compressor against the model on a real-time
basis. It establishes a “surge line” that indicates · Modified head-versus-flow control
where surge is expected to occur and a “control · Automatic override of manual control mode
line” that is at a fixed margin, typically 10%, from
the surge line. If the compressor’s operating point · Speed set point decoupling
reaches the control line, the system initiates cor- · Surge detection with step valve opening
rective action.
The hardware required includes a recycle · On-screen, real-time graphic display
piping loop with an anti-surge valve, the neces- · On-screen, real-time control parameter
sary valve accessories, and instrumentation to setting
measure the flow through the compressor and
· Availability of all surge control parameters
the suction and discharge pressures and tem-
via serial communications link for remote
peratures. Proper valve and instrumentation se-
monitoring
lection, coupled with a suitable piping layout, is
critical to the successful operation of the system. · Suction flow transmitter *
The corrective action taken by the system is · Suction pressure transmitter *
to open the anti-surge valve. This causes recy-
cling of some of the process gas to increase the · Discharge gas temperature RTD
flow on the suction side of the compressor. This (100-ohm platinum) *
moves the operating point away from the surge · Discharge pressure transmitter
line. Once the operating point is to the right of a
"deadband" line (typically 12% from the surge * Shipped separately for installation
line), the system instructs the anti-surge valve to by purchaser
close. Operation of the valve is asymmetrical in
that it opens rapidly, but closes slowly. The following components and information
Solar’s system scope typically includes the are typically required from the purchaser in order
following: to facilitate the surge control system design and
onsite operation:
· Engineering to determine the optimum
control algorithms for the specific applica- · Expected compressor operating condition
tion ranges for suction pressure (P1), suction
· Software programmed and tested for the temperature (T1), discharge pressure (P2),
selected compressor staging flow, and gas specific gravity

· Engineering to specify the anti-surge con- · Flow-meter specification sheet

trol valve and accessories, including valve · Purchaser piping and instrumentation dia-
performance evaluation over the compres- gram (P&ID) and physical layout drawing,
sor performance map at varying valve po- including suction and recycle pipe sizes
sitions and schedule

1
 · Anti-surge control valve and its specifica- 1.5 COMPONENT DEVELOPMENT
tion sheet, unless included in Solar's scope Solar has made and continues to make a signifi-
· Suction gas temperature signal (100-ohm cant investment in the development of surge
platinum RTD preferred) control components.

1.2 ADVANTAGES OF INTEGRATED 1.5.1 Control Processor

CONTROL Solar uses control processor hardware and soft-
Solar’s anti-surge control system is fully inte- ware produced by Allen-Bradley. Solar works
grated in the turbine unit control panel (UCP). closely with Allen-Bradley on the development of
This integration allows for better interface with the hardware and software specifically for turbo-
capacity and/or fuel control loops for optimum machinery control. This has enabled the surge
performance and compressor safety. control algorithms to become faster, more accu-
All unit parameters are available to the sta- rate, and more sophisticated.
tion process control system for station optimiza-
tion based on compressor performance and op- 1.5.2 Instrumentation
timum envelopes. Because the anti-surge control Solar works continuously with instrumentation
is part of the control processor program, all pa- manufacturers to improve the performance of the
rameters and status indications are available via instrumentation components. In flow measure-
a serial link, e.g., transmitters, control parame- ment, Solar’s primary focus is on the low delta-P
ters, PV, SP, OUTPUT, SM and status variables. transmitters used with orifice plates and venturis,
Integration of the process control, anti-surge since the speed of response of these devices
control, and the unit control minimizes interaction tends to be inversely proportional to their range.
complications. A seamless process provides
control from a reactive mode to a coordinated 1.5.3 Control Valves
mode of surge and process control.
With an integrated control system, the anti- Solar works continuously with valve manufactur-
surge, process and station control valves can all ers to improve the performance of anti-surge
be used to avoid surge. This results in superior control valves. Solar-specified anti-surge control
performance through better resolution, faster re- valves employ asymmetrical stroking operation.
sponse (reduced risk of surge), and significantly This enables the valve opening response to be
less noise. Also, redundant components are tuned beyond critical damping without producing
eliminated, reducing cost. instability. Solar currently supplies valves with
opening speeds of less than 100 milliseconds per
1.3 OPEN ENVIRONMENT inch of port size. Future plans call for doubling
that performance; i.e., reducing the time to 50
Solar's anti-surge control system is easy to mod- ms.
ify by changing the source code (changing as-
signed K-values). This feature is important when 1.5.4 Flow Measurement Elements
gas conditions are expected to change or if the
compressor is restaged. Solar has worked with a wide variety of flow-
measuring elements, such as orifice plates, flow
1.4 DISPLAY / OPERATOR INTERFACE tubes, and venturis. Solar has also worked with
compressor impeller eye flow measurement with
Solar’s system provides real-time indication of all both Solar's compressors and other manufactur-
variables associated with anti-surge control on ers' compressors. Solar is currently working on
one screen. The anti-surge control screen also error correction schemes based on compressor
provides indication of the compressor operating speed and pressure ratio when using impeller
point relative to the recycle and surge lines. This eye flow measurement.
feature allows the operator to see how close the
compressor is operating to the unstable region.
1.5.5 Tailored Algorithm
The system has a manual mode, enabling the
operator to operate the recycle valve manually. Solar provides anti-surge control in many differ-
However, the system will automatically override ent forms. The anti-surge control algorithm is of-
the manual mode if the operating point reaches ten tailored to the application. This provides uni-
the control line. formity with other compressor anti-surge control

2
systems at the site, changes in gas conditions, 1.6.1 Surge Detection
and changes in compressor configurations. Solar In addition to the primary anti-surge control, a
regularly examines several anti-surge control al-
surge detection algorithm is included. This soft-
gorithms to identify which one best suits the ap-
ware detects changes in flow that would indicate
plication and minimizes gas recycle.
that a surge event has occurred. This algorithm
provides a backup to the primary anti-surge con-
1.6 VARIED COMPRESSOR trol and as such is seldom activated. This feature
CONFIGURATIONS will protect the compressor against a faulty or
Anti-surge controls from Solar Turbines Incorpo- incorrectly calibrated transmitter where the
rated are easily adapted to various arrangements transmitter is functioning, but providing incorrect
of compressors (series, parallel, and combina- data.
tions of both), varied piping arrangements, and
process control schemes. The integrated control 1.6.1 Service
is clearly well suited to these applications due to Solar provides worldwide service and technical
the large number of potential control conflicts and support for all of its turbomachinery, compressors
interactions. and controls.

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2. Control System - Old versus New
Solar's enhanced anti-surge control system pro- where:
vides fast system response without sacrificing
controllability. Brief descriptions of several en- T = Temperature
hancements follow. Z = Gas compressibility
SG = Gas specific gravity
2.1 OVERVIEW
Solar's anti-surge control system determines the The resulting terms are as follows:
compressor operating point using pressure and
temperature monitored at the suction and dis- Reduced Head
charge sides of the compressor, along with flow s
monitored by a flow-measuring element and æ P2 ö
transmitter. In the earlier algorithm, only flow (Q) çç ÷÷ - 1
P
through the compressor and compressor head HR = è 1 ø
(P2 - P1) defined the compressor operating point. s
The new system compares the compressor
operating point to a third-order polynomial model
of the compressor's surge limit (theoretical surge and
line). The difference between the operating point
and the surge limit model, minus the protection Reduced Flow
margin, is the control error. A proportional and
integral (P+I) algorithm adjusts this difference, or
hW
“error,” to provide a control signal to the recycle QR =
valve. In the earlier system, the compressor P1
surge limit was defined by a straight line (y = mx +
b), as opposed to a polynomial equation.
where:
2.2 SURGE LIMIT MODEL
hW = Flow element pressure differential
The surge limit of the compressor can be ex-
pressed in terms of mathematically reduced
polytropic head and volumetric flow. The full ex- and, for ideal gases
pressions for polytropic head (Hp) and flow (Q)
are as follows: æT ö
lnçç 2 ÷÷
ìïæ P ö s üï T
s = è 1ø
íçç ÷÷ - 1ý × T × Z
2
æP ö
ïè P1 ø ïþ lnçç 2 ÷÷
Hp = k1 × î è P1 ø
s × SG

Since the reduced terms have an equal im-

hW × T × Z pact on both head and flow, a model of the surge
Q 2 = k2 ×
P1 × SG limit, in terms of reduced head and reduced flow,
is insensitive to changes in these parameters.
Since measured P1 is used in both terms, chang-
Since a number of terms are common to both ing compressor suction pressure is accounted
the head and flow equations, they can be re- for.
duced by: Prior to 1999, the surge limit model was
based on DP versus hW, where DP is the pressure
differential across the compressor and hW is the
T ×Z pressure differential across the flow-measuring
SG device. While simpler and usually suitable for

4
pipeline applications, this was inadequate in an 2.5 COMPRESSOR OPERATION
environment of changing gas conditions. Pres- The operation of a compressor can be described
sure, temperature, or specific gravity compensa- in terms of three parameters: head, flow, and
tion was difficult and made the algorithm com- speed. The operating point is often defined in
plex.
terms of its relationship to surge, typically as the
ratio of any of these parameters to that parameter
2.3 UNITIZATION FOR TUNING
at surge, holding any of the other parameters
AND DISPLAY
constant. The three most commonly used values
The data ranges for reduced head and reduced are turndown, surge margin, and head rise to
flow are unitized; that is, they are expressed as surge.
percentages (0 to 100%) instead of dimensioned Turndown is the ratio of flow greater than
values for both the X and Y axes. This approach surge to flow at the operating point, at a constant
produces similar surge lines for a wide range of head (Figure 2.) It is often used to describe the
compressors. The gains for anti-surge control are margin of safety of operation of a compressor
similar for different installations and onsite tuning especially where only head and flow are moni-
is simpler. With a dimensioned system, however, tored. It is typically expressed as a percentage.
the gains for different installations can vary by Another definition of turndown is used to de-
orders of magnitude. scribe the rangeability of a compressor; that is,
the distance between surge and choke. In this
2.4 CURVE FIT case, turndown is often expressed as a ratio; i.e.,
For a single-stage compressor moving light natu- 2:1.
ral gas (pipeline, sales quality gas), a straight-line Surge margin is the ratio of flow greater than
surge model was usually sufficient. However, surge to flow at the operating point, at a constant
multi-stage compressors running heavy gas pro- speed (Figure 3.) This is the most common de-
duce a more complex curve. When surge limits scription of the margin of safety of operation of a
for these complex curves are modeled with a compressor. It is usually expressed as a percent-
straight line, the protection margin can be two age.
times the actual requirement near the center of Head rise to surge is the ratio of operating
the curve. This causes unnecessary recycling. head to head at surge, at a constant speed.
The new, third-order polynomial-based system Again, this describes the margin of safety of op-
models compressor surge limits accurately and eration of a compressor. It is usually expressed
does not recycle gas unnecessarily. as a percentage.
From the compressor manufacturer’s surge Speed loss to surge, at constant head, de-
limit data, coefficients for a third-order polynomial fines how far speed can be reduced, at constant
are developed for the operating range of the head, before the compressor surges. This rela-
compressor using the equation listed below: tionship is useful in explaining the problem of
avoiding surge during a shutdown. If the volume
x = Ay3 + By2 + Cy + D in either side of the compressor is maintaining the
head across the compressor, reducing speed will
where: induce surge.
The remaining two relationships are head
x = Reduced flow (Q) element rise to surge at constant flow and speed fall to
y = Reduced head (H) element of the surge at constant flow. Neither of these relation-
surge control algorithm ships is very useful. Head across an operating
compressor is set by the upstream and down-
stream system. Head changes slowly in direct
The constants, A, B, C, and D are the con- proportion to the flow. Flow is only constant when
stants or “K-values” defining the polynomial (see speed, upstream and downstream resistances
Appendix C). are held constant and the system has reached
For display purposes (Figure 1), the surge equilibrium. Relating a change in any parameter
line and the accompanying control and deadband to a constant flow does not reflect an operating
lines are shown as straight lines. The surge line scenario.
is a tangent to the actual curve defined by the Solar’s control system uses the calculated
polynomial, corresponding to the value of re- value of turndown to protect the compressor
duced head at the compressor’s operating point. against surge.

5
 hW
QR =
SRG
P1 SRG

hW
QR OP =
P1 OP

Figure 1. Anti-Surge Control Display

2.6 TURNDOWN CALCULATOR

REDUCED
The turndown (TD) calculator takes inputs of HEAD
pressure, temperature, and flow to calculate the FACTOR
turndown. Turndown is defined as the horizontal
distance (i.e., at constant reduced head factor)
between the reduced flow factor at the operating
point and the reduced flow factor at the surge
limit line, expressed as a percentage, shown
graphically in Figure 2 and mathematically as:

QR OP - QR SRG
TD = 100 ´
QR SRG

where:
REDUCED
hW FLOW
QR = FACTOR
SRG
P1 SRG
QR SRG
QR OP

and: Figure 2. Turndown

6
 hW
QR OP = HEAD
P1 OP

2.7 SURGE MARGIN

The surge margin is calculated in the same way
except that the value of QRsrg is derived from the
intersection of the constant speed line and the
surge line, as shown in Figure 3:

QR - QR
SM = 100 ´ OP SRG

QR
OP

FLOW
REDUCED
HEAD
FACTOR Q SRG Q MAXSPEED

Figure 4. Turndown (Rangeability)

2.9 PROPORTIONAL AND INTEGRAL

CONTROL ALGORITHM
In any control system, the maximum control gain
is limited by the time constant or system resonant
frequency. If gains are continually increased to
improve response, the system oscillates. Since
many system components respond non-linearly,
the system time constant changes. Even if the
REDUCED
FLOW system is initially optimally tuned, process condi-
FACTOR tions and/or the equipment change over time, and
the system can oscillate.
QR QR OP An anti-surge control system must 1) avoid
SRG surge with severe process changes and 2) con-
trol continuous recycle without oscillation or
Figure 3. Surge Margin hunting. Off-the-shelf valves and transmitters
must be used in a piping system where flow-
meter runs are not ideal and control volumes can
2.8 TURNDOWN (RANGEABILITY) be large.
When describing rangeability, turndown is Often, performance requirements cannot be
defined as: met with a conventional single gain system. To
ensure surge avoidance, valve opening speeds
QMAXSPEED far in excess of the system time constant can be
TD = required. To return to the normal process
QSRG smoothly, a much slower closure rate is required.
To achieve these conflicting objectives, Solar
where: uses two gains: high gains for opening the recy-
cle valve and low gains for closing the valve.
QMAXSPEED = Flow at maximum speed Solar's anti-surge controller uses conven-
(See Figure 4.) tional proportional plus integral control with gains

7
modified, depending on the location of the com- sponse to commands from the control processor.
pressor operating point relative to the control line. However, improvements in valve technology and
Variable gains allow the recycle valve to open or the use of ancillary components in the system,
close appropriately, depending upon process re- including for example, a one-way volume booster
quirements. and a needle valve, now permit the successful
application of positioned valves. Therefore, Solar
2.10 POSITIONED VALVES now recommends the use of positioned valves.
Until recently, Solar used only direct-acting Solar’s anti-surge system responds faster
than most, if not all, competing systems and pro-
valves; i.e., valves controlled via a current / pres-
vides precise control that allows continuous op-
sure (I/P) transmitter, for anti-surge control. Ear-
eration at the surge control line.
lier valve assemblies that included positioners
were not judged acceptable due to their poor re-

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3. Piping and Instrumentation
Design of the piping and the selection and 3.1 TIME CONSTANT OF THE SYSTEM
placement of instruments will significantly affect For surge avoidance, the system time constant
the performance of an anti-surge control system. can be defined as a volume and a valve. In the
The benefits of a good piping and instrument de-
simplest system, the volume is bounded by the
sign cannot be overemphasized. The cost of cor-
compressor, discharge check valve, and recycle
recting a poor design once the equipment is in
valve. The suction volume is typically several or-
operation can be extremely high. The following
ders of magnitude larger than the discharge vol-
guidelines are provided to help ensure proper ume and, therefore, is ignored (considered infi-
operation of the anti-surge control system.
nite, constant pressure). The time constant t of a
The typical simple recycle system is shown in
volume / valve system can be estimated by the
Figure 5. The system includes a flow-measuring
formula:
element in the compressor suction, a compres-
sor, an aftercooler, a discharge check valve, and
a recycle line and valve connected upstream of VP1 SG
t » 35 ´
the discharge check valve and upstream of the CV P2 ZT
compressor flow-measuring element. The control
monitors the compressor’s operating parameters where:
and compares them to the surge limit and opens
the recycle valve as necessary to ensure the de- t = Time constant in seconds
sired surge margin is maintained. (63.2% decay in pressure)

ENGINE COMPRESSOR
VV

SV AFTERCOOLER DV

FT PT TT PT TT
LV

SCRUBBER

ANTI-SURGE SV = SUCTION VALVE

CONTROLLER LV = LOADING VALVE
VV = VENT VALVE
DV = DISCHARGE VALVE
LIMIT
SWITCH
TT = TEMPERATURE
4 - 20mA
TRANSMITTER
POSITION
FT = FLOW TRANSMITTER
TRANSMITTER
SOLENOID PT = PRESSURE
4 - 20mA
ENABLE TRANSMITTER
24VDC

FAIL OPEN

ANTI-SURGE
CONTROL VALVE

Figure 5. Typical Piping and Instrumentation Outline

9
 CV = ISA flow coefficient for position). At some point, this becomes impractical
the recycle valve in both size and cost. An alternative is a valve
P1 = Inlet pressure of the recycle valve boosted only to open. This provides high opening
speeds for surge avoidance, while avoiding os-
P2 = Outlet pressure of the recycle valve cillation by very slow closing.
SG = Specific gravity of the gas If the discharge volume / recycle valve can-
not be designed to ensure surge is avoided, a
T = Absolute temperature of the gas short recycle loop (hot recycle valve) may be
upstream of the recycle valve considered. If only a single recycle valve can be
V = Volume bounded by the compressor, used, a rotary valve typically has 50% more turn-
the check valve, and the recycle valve down than a globe valve. Subsequently, use of a
ball valve can cut the depressurization time by
Z = Compressibility of the gas 50% over a globe valve.

In a surge avoidance system, half of the 3.3 HEAT BUILDUP IN UNCOOLED

valve’s capacity will be consumed recycling the RECYCLE SYSTEMS
compressor. Only the remainder can be used for Virtually all of the energy put into the compressor
depressurizing the discharge volume. Therefore, is reflected as heat in the discharged gas. In an
in the equation above, only that portion (CV) of uncooled recycle system, this heat is recycled
the valve not consumed in recycling the com- into the compressor suction and then more en-
pressor can be considered for depressurizing the ergy added to it. At 100% recycle, eventually this
discharge. Ultimately, this time constant will de- will lead to overheating at the compressor dis-
termine the fastest rate at which the surge avoid- charge. Low pressure ratio compressors often do
ance system can operate. not require aftercoolers. Compressors with only
hot recycle systems are not intended to recycle at
3.2 COMPRESSOR DECELERATION all during normal operation. The problem usually
The worst-case scenario is when the compressor occurs when there is a long period between the
is operating near surge, without any recycle, and initial rotation of the compressor and overcoming
an engine shutdown occurs. With the initiation of the pressure downstream of the check valve.
a shutdown, the compressor can be expected to A cubic foot of natural gas at 600 psi weighs
decelerate approximately 30% in the first second. about 2 lb (depending on composition). The spe-
With a 30% loss in speed, the compressor's head cific heat of natural gas is about 0.5 Btu/lb (again
capability at its surge limit will drop by approxi- depending on composition). 1 Btu/sec equals
mately 50% (Fan Law). The surge control valve 1.416 hp. If the recycle system contains 1000
must, therefore, reduce the pressure across the cubic feet, there is a ton of gas in it. 1416 hp will
compressor by one-half in that first second. To do raise the temperature of the gas about 1 degree
this, the surge control valve must move a propor- per second. This approximates what happens
tional amount of gas out of the discharge into the with 100% recycle.
suction. This is in addition to the flow required The analysis of the partial recycle scenario is
through the compressor to avoid surge. more complicated. The compressor discharge
The larger the volumes in the system, the temperature will rise asymptotically until the en-
longer it will take to equalize the pressures, the ergy of the gas leaving the system equals the
more sluggish will be the response of the surge energy input to the compressor.
control system, and the more likely the compres- Extending the length of the recycle line
sor will surge. The larger the valve, the better the downstream of the recycle valve increases the
potential of avoiding surge. However, the larger total volume of gas in the recycle system, thus
the valve, the poorer the controllability will be at reducing the heat buildup rate. Some heat will be
partial recycle. The faster the valve, the quicker it lost through the pipe walls. If the outlet is far up-
can get to the position where the required flow stream into a flowing suction header, dilution will
can be achieved and the more likely surge will be occur.
avoided. However, the speed of a valve cannot For start-up, a relatively small control valve
simply be turned up infinitely. Increasing the gain can be placed across the discharge check valve.
of the valve positioning system will at some point As compressor discharge temperature increases,
produce instability. This can be overcome by in- this valve can be opened, pushing some of the
creasing the power of the actuator (improving the hot recycled gas into the suction header tempo-
relationship between the command and the valve rarily.

10
3.4 RECYCLE LINE PIPING Flow-measuring elements that create an abrupt
3.4.1 Compressor Suction Side restriction or expansion to the gas, such as ori-
fices, cause turbulence and, subsequently, create
The suction side of the recycle system is noise.
bounded by the compressor suction, the suction
block valve or inter-stage check valve, and the 3.5.2 Placement
outlet of the recycle control valve. The connection
of the recycle line outlet should be as far away It is preferable to place the flow-measuring ele-
from the compressor as possible. Conversely, the ment in the suction side of the compressor. Typi-
flow-measuring element should be as close to the cally, variations in pressures, temperatures and
compressor suction as possible. With this ar- turbulence of the gas are fewer upstream of the
rangement, the introduction of recycle flows will compressor. Also, the flow-measuring element
not overly adversely affect flow measurement. must be inside the innermost recycle loop (Figure
6).
3.4.2 Compressor Discharge Side
3.5.3 Reliability
The discharge side of the recycle system is
bounded by the compressor discharge, the dis- Failure of the flow-measuring element will at least
charge check valve, and the inlet of the recycle cause the compressor set to be shutdown until it
control valve. This volume is critical to the per- can be replaced. If the failure results in pieces
formance of the surge control system and should being ingested by the compressor, it will cause
be kept to a minimum. an expensive overhaul. Devices cantilevered into
the gas stream are not recommended. Low cost
3.4.3 Recycle Line Sizing flow-measuring elements do not always result in
cost savings in the long run.
The recycle valve should have greater than 90%
of the total pressure drop across the recycle 3.5.4 Permanent Pressure Loss
system under maximum throttling conditions
(maximum head and speed). The power cost of operating a flow-measuring
For short recycle systems (<100 diameters), element is often highlighted by manufacturers of
1:1 line sizing (valve to pipe) should be adequate. low permanent pressure loss (PPL) flow-
For longer recycle systems (downstream of the measuring elements. In some cases, this is over-
recycle valve), larger pipe sizes may need to be stated. The cost impact of operating a flow-
considered. measuring element can be calculated. For exam-
ple, a flow meter developing a 100 in. H2O signal
3.4.4 Suction Strainers and a 50% PPL flowing 100 MMSCFD (50 lb/sec)
is equivalent to about 20 hp.
Strainers are often installed upstream of a com-
pressor for obvious reasons. Often, since the
3.6 COMPRESSOR INSTRUMENTATION
compressor flow-measuring element is installed
very close to the compressor, there will be a ten- Optimal performance of any control system is
dency to install only one pressure transmitter. If dependent on the speed, accuracy, and resolu-
the strainer is installed between the flow- tion of the instrumented process conditions. To
measuring element and the compressor, and achieve optimal performance, the instruments
there is only one pressure transmitter, the pres- should have performance specifications an order
sure drop across the strainer will impact the mar- of magnitude better than the requirements for the
gin of surge protection. Monitoring the pressure system. Typical gas compressor systems have a
across the strainer will alleviate this problem and first-time constant of about one second; hence,
help avoid the possibility of collapsing the no instrument should have a first-time constant of
strainer. greater than 100 ms. The surge control system is
expected to discriminate between single-digit
3.5 FLOW-MEASURING ELEMENTS percentages of surge margin; hence, measure-
ment of the process parameters should be accu-
3.5.1 Performance
rate to 0.1%. The final control elements (recycle
Flow-measuring elements that develop high DP valves) probably can resolve 1% changes in their
signals are desirable. Flow-measuring elements command signals; hence, the process variables
with low signal levels will often have low signal- should be resolved to at least 0.1% (10 bits) of
to-noise ratios. Pressure transmitters for low DP their normal operating range. Over-ranging
signal ranges typically have slow response times. transmitters degrade resolution.

11
 ENGINE COMPRESSOR
VV
SV FM AFTERCOOLER DV

HBP

LV SCRUBBER

ASC

ENGINE COMPRESSOR
VV
SV FM AFTERCOOLER DV

HBP
LV SCRUBBER

ASC

SRV

HBP = Hot Bypass Valve SRV = Station Recycle Valve

ASC = Anti-Surge Control Valve FM = Flow Measuring Device

Figure 6. Typical Recycle Valve Configurations

3.7 CHECK VALVES control system, with a minimized discharge

volume, cannot maintain enough energy to
A surge control system must contain at least one
backspin the compressor.
check valve. Typically, it is located in the dis-
Premature compressor bearing failures have
charge immediately downstream of the entrance
to the recycle line. When hot and cooled recycle been attributed to a check valve being placed too
close to the compressor’s discharge. If a check
control valves are used, a second check valve
valve is to be placed at the discharge of the com-
may be added immediately downstream of the
pressor, it should be at least 10 pipe diameters
inlet to the hot recycle line. This second check
downstream of the compressor.
valve serves to reduce the effective discharge
volume for the hot recycle valve. Reducing the
3.8 RECYCLE VALVES
volume to be depressurized improves the re-
sponsiveness of the surge avoidance system. Recycle valves are used to allow the operation of
Check valves at the discharge of the com- a compressor at delivered flows lower than those
pressor do not lessen the impact of surge on the within the operational boundaries of the com-
compressor. A check valve at the discharge of pressor.
the compressor may actually increase the A compressor driven by a two-shaft gas tur-
damaging effects of surge by decreasing the bines can decelerate very quickly with a loss of
recovery time, subsequently increasing the power. The compressor’s ability to develop head
repetition rate. A check valve at the discharge of varies with the square of speed (Fan Law). Loss
the compressor will prevent backspin of the of compressor speed will cause a very rapid
compressor. However, a properly designed surge approach to the compressor’s surge limit. To

12
avoid surge, the valve(s) must be able to respond The Joule-Thomson coefficient can be de-
accordingly. Conversely, when there is a gradual rived from the gas composition and characteris-
approach to the surge limit (line packing), the tics. For typical natural gas compositions, the
valve must be able to smoothly and precisely temperature can be expected to drop 1°F for
throttle recycle to maintain the desired margin. every 20 psi.
These demands push the valve size and posi-
tioning system in opposite directions. 3.9 RECYCLE VALVE TYPES
The valve(s) responsible for surge avoidance 3.9.1 Start Bypass Valves (on / off)
must meet two sizing requirements:
The start bypass valve is an on / off valve con-
1. Capacity to recycle the compressor nected across the compressor inside the block
valves and upstream of the check valve. It is
2. Capacity to depressurize the discharge in open during start-up and shutdown. It is fail open.
less than one second It is configured for fast opening so that it can
bleed down the discharge to prevent surges in
If the capacity required to depressurize the the event of unscheduled shutdowns. A start by-
discharge exceeds three times the size required pass valve is seldom used alone. It is usually
to recycle the compressor, two valves should be used in conjunction with a surge control valve.
used. If only one valve is to be used, an equal
percentage characteristic will expand the throt- 3.9.2 Surge Control Valves – Modulating
tling range. For equal percentage, characteristic
globe valve capacity (Cv) is approximately equal The surge control valve is a modulating valve
to travel squared. Noise-attenuating ball valves connected across the compressor inside the
have a characteristic where capacity (Cv) is ap- block valves and upstream of the check valve. It
proximately equal to travel cubed. As such, is open during start-up and shutdown. It is fail
noise-attenuating ball valves are a superior single open. It is configured for fast opening so that it
valve choice. can bleed down the discharge to prevent surges
in the event of unscheduled shutdowns. A surge
Valves specified or supplied by Solar will be
able to open in less than 50 ms per inch of port control valve is often used alone. When the surge
control valve is used alone, its sizing becomes a
size. If the enable solenoid is de-energized, the
compromise between an appropriate size for
valve should reach 63.2% open (first-time con-
throttling recycle around the compressor and de-
stant) in less than 50 ms per inch of port size.
With a 50% step change in the input to the posi- pressurizing the head across the compressor. As
tioner (20 to 12 mA), the valve will reach 50% such, the noise-attenuating ball valve should be
the first choice. With its exaggerated equal per-
open in less than 50 ms per inch of port size.
centage characteristic (70% travel is only 1/3 of
Throttling with large pressure drops across a the fully open flow), it can best address both ap-
valve can result in significant temperature drops. proaches to surge problems.
This can cause freezing both inside and outside
the valve, if sufficient water vapor is present. 3.9.3 Capacity Control Valves
Freezing can render the recycle valve inoperable.
These conditions most often occur with capacity Capacity control valves are in parallel with the
or station control valves around multiple com- surge control valves. They are fail open. The ca-
pressors in series with aftercoolers. pacity control valve typically utilizes noise-
In most cases, the throttling process takes attenuating trim. If they are to be used to aid the
place so rapidly and in such a small space that surge control valve and vice versa, the capacity
there is neither sufficient time nor a large enough control valve must also have fast open capability.
area for much heat to transfer. Therefore, we as- This approach will reduce the size of both valves,
sume the process to be adiabatic. Since h = f(T) improve controllability, and reduce valve re-
for an ideal gas, we could expect no temperature sponse time in the event of a shutdown.
change during this constant h process. However,
even for nearly ideal gases, T2 will differ from T1. 3.9.4 Station Recycle Control Valves
This is known as the Joule-Thomson effect. The Station control valves are connected outside the
Joule-Thomson coefficient (Uj) is defined as: unit check valves and block valves. They are fail
closed. The station control valve typically utilizes
noise-attenuating trim. The flow capacity of the
dT
Uj = station control valve cannot be considered for
dP surge protection.

13
3.10 MULTIPLE RECYCLE VALVE 3.11.2 Cooled Recycle Control Valve (CRCV)
ARRANGEMENTS
The valve will begin opening at less than 11%
3.10.1 Parallel Valves, One Control Valve, surge margin (control line) and begin closing with
One On / Off greater than 11% surge margin.
This combination (valves properly sized) provides
good protection for the compressor along with 3.11.3 Station Recycle Control Valve (SRCV)
good controllability at partial recycle. This is typi- The valve will begin opening at less than 12%
cally a rotary valve for the on / off and a globe as surge margin (control line) and begin closing with
the control valve. The control valve is sized to greater than 14% surge margin. Between the
flow at least the surge conditions. The on / off control line and the deadband line, the valve
valve is sized for discharge volume depressuriza- control signal will not change.
tion. The on / off valve is often grossly oversized,
since it is not used for throttling. Both valves must 3.11.4 Deadband
be configured for fast opening.
Valves, as with all mechanical devices, have fric-
3.10.2 Parallel Control Valves (Globe) tion, sticktion, and inertia. As such, there is a
minimum control signal change that will cause
This arrangement strives to achieve the turn- any movement at all (resolution). In any control
down and noise control of a noise-attenuating system, there is always some error. With an inte-
rotary valve. This combination (valves properly grating control system, this will be reflected as a
sized) provides good protection for the compres- continuous change in the control output. This will
sor along with good controllability at partial recy- result in hunting of the valve. If rather than the
cle. The two valves are sized to flow at least the control responding to the sign and magnitude of
surge conditions. A piping analysis may show the error it responds to <10% for opening and
that the capacity needs to be larger. Optimally, >12%, there will be a 2% region or deadband
the valves should be cascaded by the control, where the control system does nothing at all.
one having a slightly higher surge protection With cascaded recycle valves, it is desirable to
margin (set point) than the other. This enables have only one valve throttling at steady state. To
both valves to open with large movements of the ensure this, a deadband is only incorporated into
process. the outermost loop (the valve that will be in con-
trol at steady state). This allows the difference
3.10.3 Station Control Valve between the set points of the cascaded valves to
The station control valve is placed across multiple be infinitely close together and ensures that two
compressors in parallel. It enables the operator to valves will not be open in steady state.
continue operation of the current number of com-
pressors on line during periods of reduced de- 3.11.5 Ramp for Initial Closure
mand or supply. The arrangement of multiple Oftentimes, valves are ramped closed initially
units with on / off surge avoidance valves (see rather than simply operating on the piping and
Section 6) at the unit level and a station control instrumentation diagram (P&ID). This provides for
valve will provide maximum protection for the much smoother onloading of the equipment. With
compressors, along with excellent controllability cascaded valves, the valves should be ramped
at partial recycle with minimum piping and in- closed individually rather than simultaneously.
struments. This can be accomplished as simply as ensuring
the next innermost valve is completely closed
3.11 RECYCLE VALVE CONTROL before the ramp for a valve is released. In the
3.11.1 Anti-Surge Control Valve (ASCV) case of a system with hot and cooled recycle
valves, it may be desirable to close the hot recy-
The valve will begin opening at less than 10% cle valve much earlier in the start sequence to
surge margin (control line) and begin closing with avoid unnecessarily heating the compressor.
greater than 12% surge margin. High gains would
be employed if the operating point is to the left of
3.11.6 Cascaded Recycle Control Valves
the control line. Low gains would be employed if
the operating point is to the right of the control Compressor recycle valves are operated in cas-
line. cade to optimize various aspects of the compres-

14
sor control that would be a compromise using a ments, recycling one compressor drives the oth-
single valve. Additionally, properly cascading the ers into surge before their controls can react.
control of the valves can significantly reduce the A single control valve can be used around
sizes of the individual valves. the entire series. By cascading this valve with the
Hot recycle valves (directly around the com- unit surge control valves, interaction between
pressor) will provide the control system with very units is avoided as long as the unit valves are
fast response, since the controlled volume can be kept from opening. This approach works well, as
very small. (A check valve must be installed im- long as there are no side streams. The control of
mediately downstream of the hot recycle loop). the single valve is much simpler than controlling
However, continuous operation at significant per- the unit valves. The valve will be smaller than any
centages of recycle will overheat the compressor. of the unit control valves due to the increased
Cooled recycle valves allow continuous operation pressure drop. The increased pressure drop
at 100% recycle, but the impact to the process leads to an increased temperature drop at the
variable lags behind the valve position due to the outlet of the valve. If the inlet to the recycle valve
size of the control volume (discharge piping and is downstream of an aftercooler, freezing may
cooler). Station control valves typically provide occur downstream of the recycle valve. To en-
recycle for several compressors (either series or sure this does not happen, a heater line may be
parallel). Station control valves are used to avoid added between the inlet of the valve and the dis-
interaction between the unit recycle control sys- charge of the compressor.
tems. Again, the compressors can be recycled The other approach is some form of control
continuously and the impact to the process vari- anticipation. If any unit in the series begins recy-
able lags behind the valve position due to the cling, the outputs to the other recycle valves can
size of the control volume. be forced open in some proportion to the amount
Cascading is accomplished by slightly in- and speed at which the initial valve was opened.
creasing the set points for the control of each This is not a form of feed-forward control since
succeeding outer loop. The gains for each suc- the processes are interactive. An improperly de-
ceeding outer loop should be significantly lower signed anticipation system will drive all the valves
than the preceding inner loop. This occurs natu- fully open due to wrap around.
rally because the time constant of each suc-
ceeding outer loop is greater since the volume of 3.13 GAS COMPOSITION
its system is larger. CONSIDERATIONS
At steady state, the outer loop will integrate
out its entire error, causing the error of the inner 3.13.1 Corrosives
loop to become positive and, subsequently, clos- The presence of various chemicals in the gas
ing its valve completely. may attack the piping and components. Gener-
ally, the recycle system is designed and fabri-
3.11.7 Cooled Recycle Valves with a Hot cated to the same requirements as the main pip-
Bypass (on / off) ing. However, since the recycle system is only
In this arrangement, the cooled recycle valve used intermittently, it may not need to meet the
provides all the modulating control and the by- same requirements as the piping for continuously
pass valve is used only during start-up and shut- flowing gas.
down.
This combination (valves properly sized) pro- 3.13.2 Hydrate Formation and Temperature
vides the maximum protection for the compressor Drop at the Outlet of the Surge Valve
along with good controllability at partial recycle.
In cases where the pressure differential across a
This approach does not require a control as com-
recycle valve is sufficiently high, hydrates (forma-
plex as the cascaded valve arrangement; how-
tion of water vapor) may drop out of the gas. If
ever, the size of the valves cannot be reduced
this occurs and the outlet temperature of the gas
since the valves operate independently (one does
is too low, ice may form at the outlet of the valve,
not aid the other).
restricting recycle flow back to the compressor.
For these cases (usually occurring in multi-body
3.12 COMPRESSORS IN SERIES
compressor sets), a temperature control valve
Compressors in series can be treated just as may be necessary to heat the recycle valve’s inlet
though they were individual compressors. How- gas to levels high enough to prevent ice forma-
ever, due to the close coupling and slow instru- tion at the outlet of the valve.

15
4. Valves and Associated Components
Surge control valves are primarily sized to fit the ability at partial recycle throttling. In order to avoid
compressor. During steady-state recycling, the surge during a shutdown, the valve must open to
required capacity of the recycle valve can be di- the required capacity in significantly less than one
rectly derived from the compressor map. To han- second.
dle transient conditions, the required capacity Solar recommends surge control valves that
must be greater to allow for the volumes on either meet the following:
side of the compressor. With the initiation of a
shutdown, the compressor can be expected to 4.1 SIZE AND CHARACTERISTIC
decelerate approximately 30% in the first second.
Surge control valves are sized to meet two di-
With a 30% loss in speed, the head the compres-
verse objectives. During steady-state recycling,
sor can develop at its surge limit will drop by ap-
the required capacity of the recycle valve can be
proximately 50%. The recycle control valve must,
directly derived from the compressor map: the
therefore, reduce the pressure ratio across the smaller the valve, the smoother the control. Dur-
compressor by one-half in that first second to ing transient conditions, the required capacity
avoid surge.
increases due to the volumes on either side of
The following guidelines pertain to a typical the compressor. Therefore, to avoid surge during
one valve, one compressor arrangement. More a shutdown, the bigger the valve, the better.
complex systems of cascaded valves or valves To facilitate both smooth throttling at partial
around multiple compressors require a more de- recycle and the need to reduce the pressure dif-
tailed analysis. ferential (DP) across the compressor quickly
To facilitate both precise throttling at partial during a shutdown, control valves with an equal
recycle and the need to reduce the DP across the percentage characteristic are recommended.
compressor quickly during a shutdown, Solar With an equal percentage characteristic, the
recommends surge control valves with an equal more the valve is opened, the greater the in-
percentage characteristic (Figure 7). The equal crease in flow for the same travel. Solar recom-
percentage characteristic spreads the first 2 of mends two types of valves for surge control:
the valve's fully open capacity over the first b of globe valves and noise-attenuating ball valves.
the valve’s travel. This greatly improves control- The globe valve’s capacity (Cv) varies with the

GLOBE VALVE EVALUATION

EQUAL PERCENTAGE CHARACTERISTIC
(Percentage Open)
3.5

60% 70%
3.0
RATIO, P2/P1

2.5
100%

2.0

1.5

1.0
0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500

FLOW, acfm

Figure 7. Typical Globe Valve Flow Characteristics (% Open) versus Compressor Map

16
square of the percentage travel. The noise- · Rotary valves with noise-attenuation trims
attenuating ball valve’s capacity (Cv) varies with that are within the rotating element and that
the cube of the percentage travel. Both valves rotate out of the flow path are unlikely to
are sized to be throttling at about two-thirds open become clogged.
at surge conditions. As such, the noise- · Globe valves with noise-attenuation cages
attenuating ball valve will have 50% more capac- can have full-size ports for the last 50% of
ity to depressurize the discharge volume than the the plug travel. This way, the cage should
globe valve. This additional capacity makes the
not become completely clogged.
noise-attenuating ball valve the better choice in
installations where there is a single surge control · Inverted construction globe valves (push
valve, which means there is no hot bypass and down to open) allow access to the trim for
the discharge volumes are large; e.g., the dis- cleaning and inspection without removing
charge system includes an aftercooler. the actuator.

4.1.1 Operation 4.2 TYPICAL VALVE ARRANGEMENTS

The surge control valve assembly should be in- The following figures illustrate typical valve and
creasing signal to close. The surge control valve accessory instrumentation arrangements that
assembly should be fail open. The valve should Solar recommends for accurate control of:
open with loss of either electrical signal or control
air supply. · Globe valve (Figure 8)
4.1.2 Interface Definition · Ball valve with single spring and piston ac-
tuator (Figure 9)
The surge control valve closure should be en-
abled by supplying 24 volts to a three-way sole- · Ball valve with double spring and piston
noid. Removal of the 24 volts should cause the actuator, which may be used with larger
valve to open. Solenoid valves with opening ball valves (Figure 10)
speeds of less than 20 ms and a Cv of greater
than 0.6 are recommended. 4.3 SURGE CONTROL VALVE
The surge control valve assembly should ACCESSORIES
transmit a 4-to-20 mA signal corresponding to the
The accessories required for these instrumenta-
position of the valve, ranging from fully open to
tion arrangements include:
fully closed.
The surge control valve assembly should · Electro-pneumatic positioner, yoke
provide isolated contact closures, representing
mounted
fully open (contact closure >2% travel, contact
open <7% travel) to fully closed (contact closure · Pressure regulator (for globe valves only)
<98% travel, contact open >93% travel). · Three-way 24-Vdc solenoid valve
Noise attenuation should not be employed
unnecessarily. Where high noise levels are pre- · Exhaust booster
dicted, conditions should be realistic; i.e., 100% · Position transmitter, 4 to 20 mA, propor-
recycle at full speed of the compressor is not very tional to percent closed with fully open and
likely. Noise-attenuating trims typically consist of fully closed relay outputs
small holes that can collect deposits and, subse-
· Needle valves
quently, block the flow path. Since this will nullify
surge protection, they are not recommended. If
noise-attenuation trims must be used, the follow- For current recommended part numbers, re-
ing are suggested: fer to Appendix E.

17
 24 VDC
EXHAUST
BOOSTER THREE-WAY 24-VDC
SOLENOID VALVE

NEEDLE VALVE AND

CHECK VALVE

POSITION
TRANSMITTER
4-20 mA
4-20 mA

LIMIT SWITCH CLOSED

ELECTRO-PNEUMATIC
LIMIT SWITCH OPEN
POSITIONER
YOKE-MOUNTED
4-20 mA, 6-30 psig
4-20 mA

INSTRUMENT
AIR SUPPLY
PRESSURE REGULATOR
(AIRSET 35-50 psig)

Figure 8. Instrumentation for Globe Anti-Surge Valve

18
 4-20 mA
POSITION
CLOSED LIMIT SWITCH TRANSMITTER 24 VDC
OPEN LIMIT SWITCH 4-20 mA

F5
THREE-WAY 24-VDC
SOLENOID VALVE
4-20 mA
EP5
80-100 psig EXHAUST
BOOSTER

ELECTRO-PNEUMATIC POSITIONER
YOKE-MOUNTED 4-20 mA, 6-30 psig
NEEDLE VALVE AND
CHECK VALVE

Figure 9. Instrumentation for Ball Anti-Surge Valve with Single Spring and Piston Actuator

19
 ELECTRO-PNEUMATIC
POSITIONER THREE-WAY 24-VDC
YOKE-MOUNTED SOLENOID VALVE
4-20 mA, 6-30 psig
POSITION TRANSMITTER
4-20 MA

4-20 mA
24 VDC
CLOSED LIMIT SWITCH 80-100 psig
OPEN LIMIT SWITCH VOLUME
BOOSTER
F5

4-20 mA

EP5
80-100 psig
NEEDLE VALVE AND
CHECK VALVE

EXHAUST EXHAUST
BOOSTER BOOSTER

Figure 10. Instrumentation for Ball Anti-Surge Valve with Double Spring and Piston Actuator

20
4.3.1 Performance
20 0
The following minimum requirements apply to the
opening of the valve. Valve closing performance

VALVE POSITION, % open

should not exceed 10 times slower than the
opening time under positioner control.

CURRENT, mA
With the valve command at 20 mA, removal
of power from the solenoid should cause the 12 50
valve to reach 63.2% of full open in less than 50
ms per inch of port size (Figure 11).
With a step change from 20 to 12 mA, the Opening Time
valve should reach 50% open in less than 50 ms
per inch of port size (Figure 12). 4 100
The exhaust booster or quick exhaust should
be tuned to minimize opening time without ex-
cessive overshoot. Responding to a step change TIME
to half open (20 mA to 12 mA), the valve should
not overshoot its ultimate position by more than Figure 12. Valve Response to 50%
10% of the total valve travel. Step Change Command
The valve's minimum resolvable position
(stick and slip) should not exceed 2% of the total
travel. 4.4 POSITIONED VERSUS DIRECT
Shutoff classifications are per ANSI / FCI 70- CONTROLLED VALVES
2-1991, Class V for soft seated valves and Class
With a direct controlled valve, a change in the
IV for metal seats.
control signal is converted into a pressure change
at the actuator. This does not necessarily corre-
4.3.2 Testing
late with a change in the position of the valve.
All surge control valves provided by Solar are With a globe valve, a significant percentage of
tested to ensure performance requirements are the pressure to the actuator is consumed driving
met. Solar recommends periodic testing of surge the plug into the seat to achieve the desired shut-
control valves to ensure required performance is off. This introduces a significant lag in the re-
maintained. sponse of the process variable to a control output
change when the valve is fully closed. In a dy-
namic situation, the error continues to increase
0 while the valve plug has not lifted off its seat and
24 the control system output increases at a progres-
sively higher rate. When the valve plug finally lifts
off its seat, it will begin moving at an inappropri-
VALVE POSITION, % open

ately high rate. With cascaded valves, there is the

potential of two valve systems operating out of
VOLTAGE, VDC

phase with lag and then overshoot. If this occurs,

Opening Time compensating valve control schemes can be in-
corporated to suppress the interaction.
63.2 Positioned valves employ a second control at
the valve to cause the valve position to corre-
spond to the control signal. Selection of the posi-
tioner is critical where high-speed actuation of the
0
valve is required. Most valve positioners will not
100 provide the performance required for surge con-
trol applications. Excellent performance has been
TIME achieved with PMV EP5 positioners. Certain
Fisher and Neles-Jamesbury electro-pneumatic
positioners have also provided satisfactory per-
Figure 11. Valve Response to formance. No manufacturer has demonstrated
De-Energization of Solenoid satisfactory performance with smart positioners.

21
 Solar recommends positioned valves for all be opened to ensure this distance from the set
recycle applications. point is not further exceeded. If the engine power
reaches the point where the compressor can
meet the process conditions, the recycle valve
4.5 RECYCLING FOR PROCESS will close.
CONTROL
4.6 INTERACTION BETWEEN SURGE
The majority of process control is managed by
AND PROCESS CONTROL
manipulating the power from the engine. When
the process conditions change more rapidly than Surge and process controls operate continuously
the engine can respond, recycling can be em- within the turbo-compressor control processor.
ployed to ensure the minimum suction pressure is The control demanding the recycle valve(s) to be
maintained, maximum discharge pressure is not the least closed will be in control. Each process
exceeded, or the flow set point is not exceeded. If control has gains best suited for that control
the process demands conditions below the mini- mode. Surge control has different gains for
mum speed for the compressor, recycling can opening and closing the recycle control valve(s)
also be employed. This is achieved in the same to ensure maximum protection for the compres-
way as cascading the valves. When the differ- sor without the risk of control oscillation. Hand-off
ence between the set point and the process vari- between any of the controls requiring recycle is
able exceeds some value, the recycle valve will bumpless.

22
5. Flow-Measuring Elements and Transmitters
5.1 GENERAL SELECTION CRITERIA an abrupt reduction in the flow area. The fluid
5.1.1 Cost velocity increases to pass through its bore; sub-
sequently, the pressure at the orifice is reduced.
The total life cost of the instrument should always The orifice is the most commonly used device for
be the deciding factor. Low acquisition costs may measuring compressor flow. It is probably more
result in higher operating cost and low reliability. commonly used than all other types combined.
In a control system, slower response or poorer
accuracy may increase costs due to their impact Advantages
on the overall process controlled.
Well documented, standardized, well understood,
5.1.2 Permanent Pressure Loss low initial cost, low cost to change.
(operating cost)
Disadvantages
Ideally, the differential developed across a flow
meter would be totally recovered downstream. High permanent pressure loss. Deviation from
With the best flow tubes, the pressure recovery is typical Q is proportional to the square root of
greater than 90%; with orifice plates, the pressure pressure differential.
recovery is more likely to be about 50%. For
comparison purposes, permanent pressure loss 5.2.2 Nozzles
should always be expressed as a ratio. A nozzle is a horn-shaped device that produces a
gradual acceleration of the fluid. Flow nozzles
5.1.3 Signal Level have gradual reductions in the flow area. As the
High signal levels typically produce higher signal- fluid is accelerated, it remains attached to the
to-noise ratios. High signal levels are read by walls of the flow-measurement device.
higher range transmitters, which typically have
shorter time constants. Advantages
Well documented, standardized, understood.
5.1.4 Reliability More accurate than an orifice when characterized
Devices installed perpendicular to the flow path by a single coefficient,
may resonate at certain flow conditions, eventu-
0 .5
ally leading to failure. Devices with ports facing æh ö
into the flow path rather than perpendicular to it Q = C ' çç w ÷÷
may be susceptible to clogging. Devices with è P1 ø
fragile parts or moving parts in the flow stream
are more likely to fail compared to those without when used over a wide range of flows.
such parts.
Disadvantages
5.1.5 Characteristic
High permanent pressure loss. Higher initial cost
Typically, flow is proportional to the square root of than an orifice.
the differential pressure. Devices with more com-
plex characteristics will produce a more inaccu- 5.2.3 Compressor Suction to Impeller Eye
rate flow prediction or require complex compen-
sation when used over a wide range of flows. The issue of "compressor suction-to-eye flow
measurement" has been confused by its names,
5.2 COMPARISON OF COMMONLY USED including "impeller eye" and "eye of the volute." It
FLOW-MEASURING ELEMENTS is only a nozzle. In single overhung wheel com-
pressors where the shaft does not extend through
5.2.1 Orifice Plates the impeller, this is easier to visualize. The pres-
An orifice plate is a plate mounted perpendicular sures obey the same laws as those for a nozzle.
to the flow path with a hole bored in it (typically in The differential pressure is directly proportional to
the center). The bore is sometimes chamfered the increase in velocity resulting from the de-
from the downstream side, producing a sharp creased flow area between the compressor suc-
edge at the upstream face. An orifice produces tion flange and the pressure tap in the inlet

23
shroud near the impeller inlet: V2 = 2GH. Pre- coefficient, {Q = C’(hw/P1)0.5}, when used over a
dicting the differential pressure across an orifice wide range of flows.
is much more complicated, although there are
many inexpensive computer programs available Disadvantages
to do it.
High initial cost.
Advantages
5.2.5 Venturi, ISO 5167 (Classical)
"Suction-to-eye" is lower in initial cost. It is pro-
As with nozzles with divergence cones (flow
vided as standard on all of Solar’s compressors tubes), the fluid is gradually accelerated to its
that have it available. It is not an option; there is maximum velocity in the throat and gradually de-
no additional cost. The cost of providing an addi-
celerated back to its original velocity. The fluid
tional compressor flow-measuring device is
flow remains attached to the walls of the flow-
avoided along with the cost of the additional per-
measurement device. Subsequently, permanent
manent pressure loss (horsepower). pressure losses are often less than 20%.
"Suction-to-eye" provides a much higher sig-
nal level, typically four times that of an orifice. Advantages
With the higher signal level, the signal response
time is reduced. This is especially important in Low permanent pressure loss. More accurate
surge avoidance. With the higher signal level, the than an orifice when characterized by a single
signal-to-noise ratio is often increased, reducing coefficient, {Q = C’(hw/P1)0.5}, when used over a
the need for filtering the flow signal. wide range of flows.
Solar's Surge Control Engineering has
worked with "suction-to-eye" flow measurement Disadvantages
on both Solar's compressors and compressors
High initial cost.
from other manufacturers. Solar's Surge Control
Engineering recommends "suction-to-eye" flow 5.2.6 Averaging Pitot Devices
whenever it is available. (Annubars and Verabars)
Disadvantages In the pitot flow-measuring system, the static and
velocity heads are measured. The pressure dif-
The compressor must be properly calibrated. This ferential between the pitot and static is propor-
may require special testing. Deviation from typical tional to the square of the flow. The same form of
Q is proportional to the square root of pressure equation is used for pitot devices as is used for
differential. Often more difficult to calibrate ini- orifices and venturis. A flow coefficient (K) re-
tially. places the discharge coefficient and a pipe
blockage factor replaces the d/D ratio (b).
5.2.4 Nozzles with Divergence Cones
(Flow Tubes) Advantages
In these devices, the fluid is gradually acceler-
Low initial cost.
ated to its maximum velocity in the throat and
gradually decelerated back to its original velocity.
Disadvantages
The fluid flow remains attached to the walls of the
flow-measurement device. Subsequently, perma- Low differential pressure. Potential for failure es-
nent pressure losses are often less than 10%. pecially if misapplied. Ports facing flow path
rather than perpendicular to it may be susceptible
Advantages to clogging.
Low permanent pressure loss. More accurate
than an orifice when characterized by a single

24
6. Process Control
6.1 PRODUCT DESCRIPTION PIC-6102KP

Solar offers a control system to control the proc-

ess for gas compressors. The system maintains a PIC-6102KI
desired process variable by automatically adjust- R GAINS
E
ing the speed of the turbine. For single turbine PIC-6102RSP
M
compressor packages, depending on the options - SP PI
NGP
PIC-6102OP
SP
chosen, control is available based on: PIC-6102LSP
L
O
C PV
· Suction pressure PT-6102
· Discharge pressure
· Suction or discharge flow Figure 13. Suction Pressure Control I/O
· A combination of any two of the
above variables
NGP is modulated to control the PV of the com-
· All three of the above variables pressor train to the desired set point. The PIC de-
creases the NGP when the pressure is above the
For multiple identical turbine compressor set point. The PIC increases the NGP when the
packages operating in parallel, the same types of pressure is below the set point.
control are available, including equal load sharing PIC uses a PI algorithm to modulate NGP.
between compressor trains. KP and KI can be adjusted at the operator inter-
Set points for the process variables may be face. The pressure set point can be adjusted lo-
entered at the unit control panel (UCP) or pro- cally at the operator interface. Alternatively, a
vided to the UCP from a remote location via serial remote pressure set point can be used by the
link or hard wire connection. PIC. The LSP or RSP can be selected at the op-
erator interface.
6.2 SUCTION PRESSURE Figure 14 shows the specific I/O used with
the PIC.
A pressure-indicating controller (PIC) controls the
suction pressure of the compressor train. Under
PIC-6104 KP
this control mode, the gas turbine speed (NGP) is
modulated to control the suction pressure (PV) of PIC-6104 KI
the compressor train to the desired set point. The R GAINS
PIC increases the NGP when the pressure is PIC-6104 RSP
E
M
above the set point. The PIC decreases the NGP - SP PI
NGP
PIC-6104 OP
SP
when the pressure is below the set point. PIC-6104 LSP L
O
The PIC uses a proportional-integral (PI) al- C PV
gorithm to modulate NGP. The gains (KP and KI) PT-6104

for the PI algorithm can be adjusted at the op-

erator interface. The pressure set point can be
adjusted locally at the operator interface. Alterna- Figure 14. Discharge Pressure Control I/O
tively, a remote pressure set point can be used
by the PIC. The local set point (LSP) or remote
set point (RSP) can be selected at the operator 6.4 FLOW CALCULATOR
interface. A flow calculator (FC) generates a volumetric flow
Figure 13 shows the specific input / output (Q) based on inputs of pressure (P), temperature
(I/O) used with the PIC. (T), pressure differential across the flow meter
(hW), gas specific gravity (SG), gas compressibility
(Z), and design pressure (PD), design tempera-
6.3 DISCHARGE PRESSURE
ture (TD), design gas specific gravity (SGD), and
A PIC controls the discharge pressure of the design gas compressibility (ZD). The following
compressor train. Under this control mode, the equation is based on AGA Report 3:

25
 hW ´ P ´ TD ´ SG ´ Z D 6.6 SPEED CONTROL
Q = C' The speed-indicating controller (SIC) selects the
T ´ SG D ´ Z NGP set point that will be used to control the fuel
actuator. The SIC has two operating modes:
auto and manual. The output of these two modes
are inputs to the SIC fuel control.
Figure 15 shows the specific I/O used with
the FC. The units for Q are MMSCFD.
6.6.1 Auto Mode

FT-6104 hw
In auto mode, the NGP set point output from the
process controller described above is input to a
PT-6104 P
rate limiter. If the compressor surge margin drops
TT-6711 T
below an operator adjustable set point (typically
SG-6104 SG
12 to 15%), then the rate limiter reduces the NGP
Z-6104 Z FC Q FC-6104 acceleration and deceleration. The rate limiting
TO-6711 TD prevents any interaction between the NGP con-
SG0-6104 SG D trol and recycle valve that will be modulating to
Z0-6711 ZD keep the compressor away from the surge limit
C-6711 C' line. If the surge margin is greater than the set
point, then NGP is allowed to accelerate or de-
celerate at its maximum rate of 0.5% per second.
Figure 15. Flow Calculator I/O The NGP set point output of the rate limiter is
an input to the load share controller (LSC) and
surge margin equalizer (SME). Refer to Sections
6.5 FLOW CONTROL 6.11.1 and 6.11.2 for descriptions of these func-
A flow-indicating controller (FIC) controls the flow tions. If the LSC is off, then the NGP set point is
of the compressor train. Under this control mode, input to the fuel control algorithm. If the LSC is
the NGP is modulated to control the flow PV of on, then the NGP set point is compared with
the compressor train to the desired set point. The other units in the same group and the maximum
FIC decreases the NGP when the flow is above value is selected. This base NGP set point is in-
the set point. The FIC increases the NGP when put to the SME. If the SME is off, then the base
the flow is below the set point. NGP set point is input to the fuel control algo-
FIC uses a PI algorithm to modulate NGP. rithm. If the SME is on, then the surge margin
KP and KI can be adjusted at the operator inter- equalization speed bias is added to the base
face. The flow set point can be adjusted locally at NGP set point and is then input to the fuel control
the operator interface. Alternatively, a remote algorithm.
flow set point can be used by the FIC. The LSP
or RSP can be selected at the operator interface. 6.6.2 Manual Mode
Figure 16 shows the specific I/O used with In manual mode, the NGP set point is adjusted
the FIC. directly by the operator (LSP) or by an RSP into
the control system. If the compressor surge mar-
gin drops below an operator adjustable set point
FIC-6104 KP
(typically 12 to 15%), then a rate limiter reduces
FIC-6104 KI
the NGP RSP acceleration and deceleration. The
R GAINS rate limiting prevents any interaction between the
FIC-6104 RSP
E
M
NGP control and recycle valve that will be modu-
- SP PI
NGP
SP
FIC-6104 OP lating to keep the compressor away from the
L
FIC-6104 LSP
O
surge limit line. If the surge margin is greater than
C PV the set point, then NGP RSP is allowed to accel-
FC-6104
erate or decelerate at its maximum rate of 0.5%
per second.
The manual mode NGP set point output is an
Figure 16. Flow Control I/O input to the LSC. If the LSC is off, then the NGP

26
set point is input to the fuel control algorithm. If The ASC can be coupled with up to two
the LSC is on, the other units in the group follow PICs: one for suction pressure and one for dis-
the unit's NGP set point. Note that in NGP Master charge pressure. The set point for the ASC suc-
mode, the SME is automatically disabled. The tion pressure controller is the set point of the
NGP set point is then input to the fuel control al- standard suction pressure controller subtracted
gorithm. by an operator-adjustable pressure offset. In turn,
the set point for the ASC discharge pressure
6.6.3 Fuel Control controller is the set point of the standard dis-
charge pressure controller added to an operator
In the fuel control algorithm, the NGP set point is
adjustable pressure offset. Staggering the set
compared with the maximum NGP limit based on
points eliminates interaction between the speed
T5, the minimum power turbine speed (NPT), and
and valve control loops.
the minimum NGP limit. The SIC selects the low-
est set point from this group and generates the
appropriate output signal to the fuel actuator 6.8 SUCTION PRESSURE
controller. The ASC suction PIC (designated here as PIC-
Figure 17 shows the specific I/O used with 6102A) will modulate the anti-surge valve (ASV) if
the SIC. the suction pressure drops below its set point.
When PIC-6102A is in control of the suction pres-
6.7 PROCESS CONTROL USING sure, standard suction pressure control (PIC-
ANTI-SURGE CONTROL VALVE 6102) will continue to reduce speed because its
In addition to anti-surge control duty, the anti- set point has not been achieved. As PIC-6102
surge control (ASC) can control the compressor reduces speed, PIC-6102A will detect a rise in
train suction and discharge pressures as well. suction pressure and begin to close the ASV.

DH+ FROM
OTHER UNTS

UNIT
UNIT
SM-6511 2 SM
SM A
V UNIT
E 3 SM
R
A UNIT
DH+ TO
PV SME SP G n SM
OTHER UNTS
E
PIC-6102OP UNIT
LSC
10 SM
PIC-6103OP A
O
U
F
FIC-6104OP T
F
-
- DH+ TO
M
O OTHER
R A
RS N UNTS FUEL
SIC-6000RSP E N
UNIT VALVE
P
M SPD SP + FUEL
-
L
+ CONT

XXXX.X LSP O
C UNIT 2
SPD SP SME
MAX T5
O
UNIT 3
N
SPD SP
- MAX NGP
> O
UNIT n
F
SPD SP MIN NGP
F
DH+ FROM UNIT 10
OTHER UNTS SPD SP MIN NPT

Figure 17. Speed Control I/O

27
PIC-6102 will continue to reduce speed until it 6.10 COMMAND TO ANTI-SURGE VALVE
satisfies its set point, which will cause PIC-6102A The outputs of ASC suction PIC, ASC discharge
to close the ASV because the pressure will be
PIC, and the ASC are, in turn, inputs to a mini-
above its own set point. At this point, the control
mum function that selects the most open valve
system has recovered from the process transient.
command of the three controllers. This ensures
However, if PIC-6102 reaches the minimum NGP
that the ASV will open as necessary to satisfy
limit before achieving its set point, then PIC- any pressure or ASC requirements. The ASV will
6102A will continue to recycle gas to maintain its close if the pressure and ASC requirements are
pressure set point.
met. The final valve command is used as a reset
Figure 18 shows the specific I/O used with
for the three controllers to prevent wind-up.
the suction PIC.
Figure 20 shows the specific I/O used with
the min. function.
PIC-6102AKP

PIC-6102AKI PIC-6102AOP
GAINS
PIC-6102OFS
PIC-6104AOP < ASV-6511CMD
- ASV
PIC-6102SP + SP PI PIC-6102AOP
OP
ASC-6511OP
PV
PT-6102

Figure 20. Minimum Function I/O

Figure 18. Suction Pressure Control I/O
6.11 MULTIPLE UNIT LOAD SHARE
CONTROLLER AND SURGE
6.9 DISCHARGE PRESSURE
MARGIN EQUALIZER
The ASC discharge PIC (designated here as PIC-
A load share controller (LSC) and a surge margin
6104A) will modulate the ASV if the discharge
equalizer (SME) manage the operation of multiple
pressure exceeds its set point. When PIC-6104A
units to ensure stable load sharing of the proc-
is in control of the discharge pressure, standard
ess. One LSC and one SME reside in each of the
discharge pressure control (PIC-6104) will still
UCPs. A dedicated link is used for communica-
reduce speed because its set point has not been
tion of selected control variables.
achieved. As PIC-6104 reduces speed, PIC-
Units can be organized into load share
6104A will detect a fall in discharge pressure and
groups. Each unit is assigned a load share group
begin to close the ASV. PIC-6104 will continue to
number. This number identifies which group the
reduce speed until it satisfies its set point, which
unit is currently configured to operate in a load-
will cause PIC-6104A to close the ASV because
sharing scheme. For example, in a five-unit sta-
the pressure will be below its own set point. At
tion, two units share the same suction and dis-
this point, the control system has recovered from
charge headers. These two units are defined to
the process transient. However, if PIC-6104
be Group 1 and they load share. The remaining
reaches the minimum NGP limit before achieving
three units share the same suction and discharge
its set point, then PIC-6104A will continue to re-
headers, different from the first two. These three
cycle gas to maintain its pressure set point.
units are defined to be Group 2 and they load
Figure 19 shows the specific I/O used with
share as a group. Later on, the two units are
the discharge PIC.
switched over to operate in parallel with the other
three. In this case, all the units' group numbers
PIC-6104AKP are set to "2" and they load share as a group.
PIC-6104AKI
The group numbers are defined by the operator.
GAINS Up to four groups can be used.
PIC-6104OFS
+
PIC-6104SP + SP PI
ASV
PIC-6104AOP 6.11.1 Load Share Controller
OP
The LSC has three modes of operation: off, on,
PV
PT-6104
and NGP master.

Off. When the LSC is off, the UCP ignores the

Figure 19. Discharge Pressure I/O actions of the other units. Likewise, the other

28
units ignore the actions of the UCP. There is no Off. When the LSC is off, the SME is automati-
load sharing. cally turned off. When the LSC is on, the SME
can be turned on or off. When the SME is off, the
On. When the unit is under automatic control bias added to the LSC base speed set point is
(under the control of a PIC or FIC) and the LSC is zero.
turned on, then the unit load shares with other
units in the group. The units communicate their On. When both the LSC and SME are on, then
respective speed set point to the rest of the individual biases are added to the base speed set
group. The highest of these is selected as the points of each unit to equalize the group's com-
group's base speed set point. All the units in the pressor surge margins. The units communicate
group control on this base speed set point. Note their respective surge margin to the rest of the
that as process conditions vary, the base speed group. In the case of multiple compressors, the
set point will change to keep the process variable lowest surge margin is used. An average of all
in line with its process set point. the surge margins is calculated and used as the
group's surge margin set point. Units operating
NGP Master. When the unit is under manual below the surge margin set point automatically
speed control and the LSC is turned on, then the have their speed set point biased up to 2%, which
unit becomes an NGP master. The other units in increases the surge margin. Note that the speed
the group will follow the speed of the NGP master set point communicated to the LSC above does
unit. not include the speed bias generated by the
SME. Units above the surge margin set point
have a bias of zero. A PI algorithm is used to
6.11.2 Surge Margin Equalizer generate the speed bias of each unit. KP and KI
The SME has two modes of operation: off and for the PI algorithm can be adjusted at the op-
on. erator interface.

29
Appendix A – Yard Valve Sequencing
The control system will sequence the yard valves Engine Lube Oil System OK. The UCP acti-
during start-up, normal operation, and shut- vates and checks the engine lube oil system. A
downs. successful check allows the start sequence to
continue.
A-1 MILESTONES
A-1.5 Compressor Purge
Sequencing of the yard valves is associated with
certain milestones, which are defined below and The process piping and compressor are purged
used in Table A-1. through their respective loading valve and vent or
blowdown valve for a period of five minutes (ad-
A-1.1 Manual Yard Valve Sequence justable).
The operator has manual control of the yard
A-1.6 Pressurize Compressor
valves from the UCP. Manual operation of the
yard valves is permitted only during pre-start. Process gas upstream of the suction valve is
Manual operation of the suction and discharge used to pressurize the process piping and com-
valves is permitted only when the compressor is pressor through their respective loading valve
pressurized. upstream of the compressor. If during the com-
pressor pressurization sequence, the pressurized
A-1.2 Compressor Pressurized state is not reached within five minutes (adjust-
able), then the start is aborted and the unit is fast
The process piping and compressor are pressur-
stopped pressurized.
ized and the yard valves are positioned as shown
in Table A-1.
A-1.7 Depressurize Compressor
A-1.3 Compressor Depressurized Process gas is vented through the vent or blow-
The process piping and compressor are not down valve(s) with the suction and discharge
pressurized and the yard valves are positioned as valves closed.
shown in Table A-1.
A-1.8 Idle
A-1.4 Start The unit is operating at the NPT idle set point (50
A unit start is initiated when the following condi- to 60% typical) or the NGP idle set point (72 to
78% typical), whichever is greater.
tions have been met:
NPT Idle Set Point. The lowest operating speed
Start Command. The command to start the unit
required to avoid power turbine and driven
is given at the UCP or from a remote input.
equipment critical speeds.
Permissives OK. Interlocks from other systems,
NGP Idle Set Point. The operating speed for
such as emergency shutdown (ESD) and fire and
idling the gas producer.
gas, must be OK to allow a UCP start.

Automatic Yard Valve Sequence. The UCP A-1.9 On Load Speed

has automatic control of the yard valves. Selec- The unit is operating above both the NPT load set
tion of automatic and manual yard valve se- point and the NGP load set point.
quence modes is performed at the operator in-
terface. When a start is initiated, the UCP places NPT Load Set Point. The lowest normal oper-
the yard valves under automatic control. ating speed for the driven equipment. For com-
pressors, the set point is the last speed line of the
Compressor Seal System OK. The UCP acti- performance map.
vates and checks the compressor seal system. A
successful check allows the start sequence to NGP Load Set Point. The lowest speed re-
continue. quired for normal operation of the gas producer.

30
A-1.10 Cooldown Lockout / Non-Lockout · Fire detected
Shutdown
· Manual fast stop
A shutdown that causes the UCP to ramp the unit
down to idle speed. The unit remains at idle for
A-2 SEQUENCING MATRIX
an operator-defined time period (typically 10 min-
utes) before the UCP automatically fast stops the The yard valves are sequenced as in Table A-1.
unit. If during the cooldown idle time the operator
acknowledges and resets the shutdown, then the A-3 VALVE OUT OF POSITION
cooldown timer is reset to its full period. If during
The control system verifies the correct position of
the cooldown idle time the shutdown condition
all the valves described above with their respec-
goes away and the operator acknowledges and
tive commands. If a valve fails to transfer or hold
resets the shutdown, then the unit may be re-
its position, then the valve is considered out of
loaded. A lockout type shutdown does not allow
position (OOP). Valve out of position logic is
remote acknowledge or reset of the shutdown. A
given in Table A-2.
non-lockout type shutdown allows remote ac-
knowledge and reset of the shutdown.
A-3.1 Valve Out of Position Checks
A-1.11 Fast Stop Lockout / Non-Lockout There are three types of possible valve checks
Shutdown that are performed:
A shutdown that causes the UCP to close the fuel
valve to stop the unit. A lockout type shutdown Both Limit Switches On (ZSC & ZSO On)
does not allow remote acknowledge or reset of If the valve's open and closed limit switches are
the shutdown. A non-lockout type shutdown al- both on, then the specified action is initiated.
lows remote acknowledge and reset of the shut-
down. Command versus Limit Switches
(Cmd vs ZSC/ZSO)
A-1.12 Fast Stop Pressurized Shutdown
If the valve's open or closed limit switch is incon-
The unit is stopped with the compressor pressur- sistent with the fully open or fully closed com-
ized (the vent and/or blowdown valves remain mand for the specified time delay, then the speci-
closed). The unit remains pressurized during the fied action is initiated. After the specified time
pressurization hold time period (field adjustable). delay, if a valve falls out of position when its re-
When the timer expires, the unit is depressurized. spective command is static at fully open or fully
closed, then the specified action is executed im-
A-1.13 Fast Stop Depressurized Shutdown mediately (without the time delay).
After the suction and discharge valves have
closed, the vent and/or blowdown valves open. Command versus Position (Cmd vs Pos)
To minimize the flaring of gas, only the following
This criterion applies to valves with position
fast stop shutdowns will cause depressurization:
transmitters. If the valve position feedback is in-
consistent with the command (± the hysteresis)
· Compressor seal system failure
for the specified time delay, then the specified
· Engine lube oil system failure action is initiated.

31
Table A-1. Yard Valve Sequencing

LV SV DV LPVV HPVV ASV

Suction Suction Discharge Low High Anti-
Loading Valve Valve Pressure Pressure Surge
Valve Vent Valve Vent Valve Valve
SDV- SDV- SDV- SDV- SDV- ASV-
Sequencing Description
6211 6212 6217 6214 6215 6511
Manual Yard Valve Sequence
Compressor Pressurized O/C O/C O/C O/C O/C O/C
Compressor Depressurized O/C C O/C O/C O/C O/C
Compressor Depressurized + Start
Compressor Purge O C C O C O
Compressor Purge O C C C O C
Pressurize Compressor O C C C C O
Compressor Pressurized C O O C C O
On Load C O O C C A/M
Compressor Pressurized + Start
Pressurize Compressor O C C C C O
Compressor Pressurized C O O C C O
On Load C O O C C A/M
Cool Down Shutdown
Not on Load C O O C C A
On Load C O O C C O
Idle C O O C C O
Fast Stop Pressurized Shutdown
Shutdown Initiated C C C C C O
SV and DV Confirmed Closed C C C C O O
Depressurize Compressor C C C C O O
Compressor Depressurized C C C O C O
Fast Stop Pressurized Shutdown
Shutdown Initiated C C C C C O
O = Open
C = Close
O/C = Open or close
A = Automatic mode
M = Manual mode
A/M = Automatic or manual mode

32
Table A-2. Valve Out of Position Logic

Valve Tag No ZSC & ZSO On Cmd vs ZSC/ZSO Cmd vs Pos OOP Criteria
N/A N/A N/A Hysteresis (±%)
N/A 15 N/A Time Delay (sec)
LV SDV-6211
Always Armed Always Armed N/A Arming Point
FS-LO FS-LO N/A Action
N/A N/A N/A Hysteresis (±%)
N/A 20 N/A Time Delay (sec)
SV SDV-6212
Always Armed Always Armed N/A Arming Point
FS-LO FS-LO N/A Action
N/A N/A 10 Hysteresis (±%)
N/A 5 5 Time Delay (sec)
ASV ASV-6511 NGP<Load Speed NGP>Load Speed
Always Armed Arming Point
SP SP
FS-LO FS-LO Alarm Action
N/A N/A N/A Hysteresis (±%)
N/A 20 N/A Time Delay (sec)
DV SDV-6217
Always Armed Always Armed N/A Arming Point
FS-LO FS-LO N/A Action
N/A N/A N/A Hysteresis (±%)
N/A 15 N/A Time Delay (sec)
LPVV SDV-6215
Always Armed Always Armed N/A Arming Point
FS-LO FS-LO N/A Action
N/A N/A N/A Hysteresis (±%)
N/A 15 N/A Time Delay (sec)
HPVV SDV-6214
Always Armed Always Armed N/A Arming Point
FS-LO FS-LO N/A Action
N/A N/A 10 Hysteresis (±%)
N/A 15 5 Time Delay (sec)
LCV LCV-6611
Always Armed Always Armed Always Armed Arming Point
FS-LO FS-LO FS-LO Action

33
Appendix B – Recycle System Design Check List
B-1 RECYCLE SYSTEM DYNAMICS
· Determine the discharge pressure decay time for the over-capacity of the recycle valve and the dis-
charge pipe volume.
· If there is no aftercooler, determine the discharge temperature build up time at minimum compres-
sor speed and the desired surge protection margin (nominally 10%).
· Determine the potential temperature drop across all recycle valves.

B-2 RECYCLE LINE PIPING

Compressor Suction Side Volume (if determinable):
Suction Side Recycle Line Gas Velocity:
Compressor Discharge Side Volume:
Discharge Side Recycle Line Gas Velocity:

B-3 FLOW-MEASURING ELEMENTS

Description (orifice, venturi, or other):
Location (suction, discharge):
Signal Level at Minimum Compressor Flow
(minimum speed at surge):

· If there is a strainer between the flow-measuring element and the compressor (not recommended),
ensure the suction pressure transmitter for the compressor is downstream of it.

Model Response Time

Instrumentation Manufacturer Number Location Range (Damping)
Flow Transmitter

B-4 COMPRESSOR INSTRUMENTATION

Model Response Time
Instrumentation Manufacturer Number Location Range (Damping)
Suction Pressure
Transmitter
Discharge
Pressure
Transmitter
Suction
Temperature
Transmitter
Discharge
Temperature
Transmitter

34
B-5 CHECK VALVES
· Identify the purpose of each check valve within the compressor’s recycle system.
· Ensure that no check valve is within 10 pipe diameters of the compressor

B-6 RECYCLE VALVES

Specification Start Bypass Valve Surge Control Valve
ANSI Class
Flange Size
Style (globe, ball, other)
CV
Characteristic
Fail Position (open, closed)
Noise Attenuating?

B-7 PROCESS CONTROL VALVES

Specification Capacity Control Valves Station Recycle Control Valves
ANSI Class
Flange Size
Style (globe, ball, other)
CV
Characteristic
Fail Position (open, closed)
Noise attenuating?

B-8 COMPRESSORS IN SERIES

· Are there side streams?
· Does the gas composition change significantly in the process?
· Are there common coolers?
· Is there a flow-measuring element for each compressor?
· Are there pressure and temperature instruments at the suction and discharge of each compressor?
· Is there a surge control valve for each compressor?

B-9 GAS COMPOSITION CONSIDERATIONS

· Is a detailed gas composition available?
· Are there significant quantities of water, CO2, or H2S in the gas?
· Are there pressures high enough or temperatures low enough for hydrates to form?
· Will any components of the gas makeup liquefy at process temperatures and conditions?
· Is there a potential for ice formation in or on recycle valves?

35
Appendix C – K-Value Definitions
K-Value Definition
These are gain values for the proportional and integral control. Fast gains
are used when the operating point is to the left of the control line (yellow).
HPC KPFAST Slow gains are used when the operating point is to the right of the deadband
HPC KIFAST line (green). These gains are a reflection of the customer’s discharge piping
HPC KPSLOW volume and the size of the surge control valve. The larger the volume, the
HPC KISLOW slower the system will be and the smaller the slow gains will need to be. The
larger the surge control valve, the smaller the fast gains will need to be. In all
cases, the fast gains should be at least 10 times larger than the slow gains.
HPC_KCLFCT These are the set points for the control line and the deadband line. The con-
trol line is normally set at 10 (10% more flow than at surge) and the dead-
HPC_KDBFCT band line at 2 (2% more flow than at the control line).
HPC_SCVOPN These K-values set the rate of opening and closing of the surge control
HPC_SCVCLS valve in manual operation.
HPC_QXMTR These are the ranges for the compressor flow transmitter, the compressor
suction pressure transmitter, and compressor discharge pressure transmit-
HPC_SCVCLS
ter. It is imperative that these values match the values of the scaled ranges
HPCDISPXMTR of the transmitters in English units (in. H2O and psig).
These are the coefficients for the third-order polynomial that models the
HPCASC_A
surge control line:
HPCASC_B
x = Ay3 + By2 + Cy + D
HPCASC_C
where x is % reduced flow and y is % reduced head.
HPCASC_D
These values are not field adjustable.
This is the actual maximum value of reduced flow. Reduced flow values are
HPCASCXMAX divided by this number to unitize (reduce range to 0 to 1 or 0 to 100%) the
values. This value is not field adjustable.
HPCASCYMIN This is the unitized minimum value of reduced head. It is expressed in %.
This is the actual maximum value of reduced head. Reduced head values
HPCASCYMAX are divided by this number to unitize (reduce range to 0 to 1 or 0 to 100%)
the values. This value is not field adjustable.
This K-value controls the filter for the flow signal. It determines the weight of
the incoming sample of the flow signal in the value being averaged. The K-
value must be greater than 0 and less than or equal to 1. If the K-value = 1,
HPCASC_KF
no filtering takes place. Filtering the flow signal increases the response time
of the surge control. This number should only be reduced from 1 if the flow
signal is excessively noisy.

36
Appendix D – Compressor Data Requirements
Compressor data are typically provided at constant suction conditions (typically normal operating condi-
tions). Constant discharge pressure and discharge flow data are acceptable.
The compressor data should contain at least six approximately evenly distributed speed lines be-
tween the minimum and maximum compressor operating speed. Each speed line should consist of at
least six approximately evenly distributed data points. Each data point should provide the actual volumet-
ric flow, head, and efficiency.
The compressor data should contain at least three pairs of approximately evenly distributed constant
efficiency lines intersecting the previously defined speed lines. Each constant efficiency line should con-
sist of at least six approximately evenly distributed data points. Each data point should provide the actual
volumetric flow, head, and speed.
NOTE: If any paired efficiency lines fall to the left of the surge line, their corresponding data would not
be listed.
The surge line should span the minimum and maximum compressor operating speed. The surge line
should consist of at least six approximately evenly distributed data points. Each data point should provide
the actual volumetric flow, head, efficiency, discharge pressure, and discharge temperature.

D-1 EXAMPLE OF ACCEPTABLE COMPRESSOR DATA

Design Conditions
SG 0.6000 Q HEAD ETA
K1 1.295 (ACFM) (FT-LBF/LBM)
K2 1.283
PCP 671.4 PSIA CONSTANT RPM = 14000
PCT 359.5 DEG R 2049.1 6570.8 0.75369
2287.3 6445.0 0.77418
EMCH 0.980
2525.4 6264.7 0.79023
K50 1.301
2763.5 5984.8 0.79698
K300 1.238
3001.6 5594.9 0.79326
P1 1012.00 PSIA
P2 1307.00 PSIA 3239.7 5093.4 0.77790
H IS 10700.6 FT-LBF/LBM 3477.8 4450.3 0.74390
Q 2742.27 ACFM 3715.9 3285.6 0.61005
SQ 310.03 MMSCFD
PWR 3865 HP CONSTANT RPM = 13000
RPM 9544 1785.5 5680.1 0.75535
Z1 0.8609 2006.7 5563.3 0.77637
Z2 0.8707 2227.9 5391.9 0.79189
P/P 1.292 2449.2 5146.3 0.79863
DEL T 38.3 2670.4 4812.0 0.79572
T2 108.3 DEG F 2891.7 4382.9 0.78077
ETA 0.846 3112.9 3797.4 0.73867
S MAR 0.355 3334.1 2840.1 0.60928
T1 70.0 DEG F CONSTANT RPM = 12000
MN 0.481 1573.3 4840.0 0.75997
1773.4 4729.2 0.78033
Q HEAD ETA 1973.4 4564.6 0.79359
(ACFM) (FT-LBF/LBM) 2173.4 4349.9 0.79949
2373.5 4065.9 0.79639
CONSTANT MAX RPM = 14300 2573.5 3707.5 0.78210
2157.8 6838.9 0.75519 2773.6 3187.2 0.73118
2397.4 6707.9 0.77503 2973.6 2420.0 0.60759
2637.0 6522.7 0.79055
2876.6 6225.8 0.79643
3116.3 5817.1 0.79180
3355.9 5300.4 0.77627
3595.5 4639.3 0.74382
3835.1 3419.8 0.60958

37
 Q HEAD ETA Q HEAD ETA
(ACFM) (FT-LBF/LBM) (ACFM) (FT-LBF/LBM)
CONSTANT RPM = 11000 CONSTANT ETA =0.80000
1407.1 4049.4 0.76710 2589.6 5235.3 13396
1582.5 3942.1 0.78509 2597.6 5177.3 13230
1757.9 3792.8 0.79586 2580.5 5064.2 13222
1933.3 3607.8 0.80075 2562.1 4986.2 13000
2108.7 3370.6 0.79677 2300.8 4180.3 12000
2284.1 3077.0 0.78235 2047.2 3488.3 11000
2459.5 2627.3 0.72195 1793.4 2864.0 10000
2634.9 2024.7 0.60405 1543.2 2311.2 9000
CONSTANT RPM = 10000 CONSTANT ETA =0.79000
1247.2 3331.5 0.77344 3144.1 5757.1 14300
1399.7 3233.0 0.78916 3052.2 5488.3 14000
1552.1 3099.0 0.79727 2755.1 4647.8 13000
1704.5 2943.2 0.80090 2462.9 3905.6 12000
1856.9 2750.2 0.79647 2191.0 3232.8 11000
2009.3 2495.0 0.77463 1902.0 2674.6 10000
2161.7 2140.4 0.71480 1646.3 2156.9 9000
2314.1 1665.7 0.60019
CONSTANT ETA =0.77000
CONSTANT MIN RPM = 9000.0 3402.2 5172.6 14300
1093.8 2684.3 0.77842 3295.0 4943.9 14000
1225.4 2596.6 0.79175 2948.2 4233.1 13000
1357.0 2484.0 0.79874 2621.1 3583.8 12000
1488.7 2354.9 0.80091 2319.9 2985.1 11000
1620.3 2200.3 0.79603 2021.1 2467.6 10000
1751.9 1980.5 0.76548 1732.5 2013.0 9000
1883.6 1707.6 0.70695
2015.2 1342.2 0.59639 CONSTANT ETA =0.74000
3602.3 4604.5 14300
CONSTANT ETA =0.77000 3484.7 4416.4 14000
2336.7 6741.1 14300 3105.9 3815.9 13000
2238.7 6470.6 14000 2738.9 3277.3 12000
1939.7 5598.7 13000 2407.1 2761.7 11000
1671.9 4785.4 12000 2097.5 2289.8 10000
1435.4 4032.1 11000 1809.2 1861.7 9000
1334.0 3721.1 10543
CONSTANT ETA =0.69000
CONSTANT ETA =0.79000 3691.5 4150.3 14300
2628.5 6529.4 14300 3573.7 3981.3 14000
2522.0 6267.2 14000 3196.1 3437.3 13000
2201.0 5412.8 13000 2840.2 2931.5 12000
1919.3 4609.2 12000 2507.0 2464.0 11000
1662.4 3874.1 11000 2194.7 2037.7 10000
1415.4 3219.2 10000 1903.8 1651.6 9000
1208.1 2608.2 9000
CONSTANT ETA =0.80000 Q HEAD ETA P2 T2
2589.6 5235.3 13396 (ACFM) (FT-LF/LBM) (PSIA) (DEG F)
2576.2 5242.9 13230
2556.6 5236.3 13200 CONSTANT SURGE
2498.9 5178.9 13118
2472.0 5120.0 13000 2157.8 6838.9 0.75519 1283.4 302.6
2090.1 4425.3 12000 2049.1 6570.8 0.75369 1229.4 294.9
1816.5 3736.1 11000 1785.5 5680.1 0.75535 1062.4 267.4
1556.7 3100.8 10000 1573.3 4840.0 0.75997 921.3 240.5
1293.7 2528.8 9000 1407.1 4049.4 0.76710 802.1 214.6
1247.2 3331.5 0.77344 704.4 190.9
1093.8 2684.3 0.77842 624.5 169.6

38
Appendix E - Surge Control Valve Accessories
The following accessories have been found to provide fully satisfactory performance when used in con-
junction with a correctly specified anti-surge valve and Solar’s anti-surge control system. This information
is provided for guidance and is subject to change. Users should consult Solar to confirm its validity.

Supplier Solar Turbines

Description Supplier
Part No. Drawing No.
Electro-Pneumatic Positioner; Yoke Mounted, 4-20 mA,
PMV EP5 1032456
6-30 psig
Pressure Regulator (globe valves only) Fisher 67CFR
Three-Way 24-Vdc Solenoid Valve ASCO EF8327G2 221784
Exhaust Booster Fisher 289RC 1033516
Position Transmitter, 4-20 mA, Proportional to % Close
PMV F5 1032456
with Fully Open and Fully Closed Relay Outputs
Needle Valve Swagelok
Check Valve Swagelok

NOTES
· For larger actuators, a larger capacity regulator may be required to achieve desired closing speeds,
e.g., Fisher part number 64R /1041930.
· For larger actuators, a needle valve with greater free flowing capacity may be required to achieve
desired closing speeds.

Supplier Company Name Internet Site

PMV Palmstiernas Mekaniska Verstad http://www.pmvusa.com
Fisher Fisher (Emerson Electric Co.) http://www.emersonprocess.com/fisher/index.html
Automatic Switch Co. (Emerson http://www.ascoswitch.com
ASCO
Electric Co.)

39
Appendix F – Glossary of Definitions
Absolute Pressure. Arithmetic sum of gauge Corrosive Gas. Gas that attacks normal materi-
and atmospheric pressures. It must be used in all als of construction. Water vapor when mixed with
calculations involving the basic gas laws. most gases does not make them corrosive within
the sense of the above definition. In other gases,
Absolute Temperature. Temperature of a body CO2, for example, it makes them corrosive.
referred to the absolute zero, at which point the
volume of an ideal gas theoretically becomes Note: The words "corrosive" and "noncorro-
zero. On the Fahrenheit scale, this is -459.67°F; sive" are of the relative type. They do not de-
on the Celsius scale, it is -273.15°C. (Engineering fine with exactness and there are differences
values of -460°F and -273°C are used herein.) of degree in the application of these terms.
Specifications must make clear what is
Adiabatic Process. Process during which there meant by these terms if they are used.
is no heat added to or removed from the system.
Critical Pressure. Saturation pressure at the
Aftercooling. Cooling of gas in a heat exchanger critical temperature. It is the highest vapor pres-
following the completion of compression to re- sure that the liquid can exert.
duce the temperature and liquefy condensable
vapors. Critical Temperature. Highest temperature at
which a gas can be liquefied.
Compressibility. Property of a gas or a gas
mixture that causes it to differ in volume from that Discharge Pressure. Total gas pressure (static
of a perfect gas when each is under the same plus velocity) at the discharge flange of the com-
pressure and temperature conditions. Occasion- pressor.
ally, it is called deviation. It must be experimen-
tally determined. Note: Pressure may be expressed as gauge
or absolute pressures: psig plus atmospheric
Compressibility Factor (Z). Ratio of the actual pressure equals psia.
volume of the gas to the volume determined ac-
cording to the perfect gas law. It is a multiplier of Note: psig does not define a pressure unless
perfect gas volume. the barometric pressure (atmospheric) is also
stated.
Compression Efficiency. Ratio of the theoretical
work (using a stated process, e.g., polytropic or Discharge Temperature. Temperature existing
isentropic) to the actual work required to be done at the discharge flange of the compressor.
on the gas for compression and delivery. Ex-
pressed as a %, compression efficiency accounts Note: In a multi-body compressor, the vari-
for leakage and fluid friction losses and for ther- ous bodies will have differing discharge pres-
modynamic variations from the theoretical proc- sures and temperatures.
ess.
Inlet Pressure. Total pressure (static plus veloc-
Compression Ratio. Ratio of the absolute dis- ity) at the inlet flange of the compressor.
charge to the absolute intake pressure.
Note: Pressure may be expressed as gauge
Compressor Capacity. Quantity of gas actually or absolute pressures: psig plus atmospheric
delivered when operating between specified inlet pressure equals psia.
and discharge pressures. Capacity is a volume
measured at the conditions of pressure, tem- Note: psig does not define a pressure unless
perature, gas composition, and moisture content the barometric pressure (atmospheric) is also
existing at the compressor inlet flange. stated.

40
Inlet Temperature. Temperature at the inlet Reversible Process. Ideal process that may be
flange of the compressor. stopped and made to retrace its steps and re-
store to the system or surroundings all work and
Note: In a multi-body compressor, the vari- heat previously removed. It is frictionless.
ous bodies may have differing inlet tempera-
tures. Specific Gravity. Ratio of the density of a given
gas to the density of dry air, both measured at the
Irreversible Process. Process in which a portion same specified conditions of temperature and
of the original system energy is dissipated and pressure, usually 14.696 psia and 60°F. It should
cannot be returned to the system through its own also take into account any compressibility devia-
operation. The system and/or surroundings can- tion from a perfect gas.
not be returned to their original state.
Note: Deviation is not accurately known for
Isentropic Head. The work required to com- all gases, particularly certain hydrocarbons.
press a unit mass of gas in an isentropic com-
pression process from the inlet pressure and Specific Heat (Heat Capacity). Rate of change in
temperature to the discharge pressure. enthalpy with temperature. It is commonly meas-
ured at constant pressure or at constant volume.
Isentropic Process. Process wherein the en- The values are different and are known as Cp
tropy remains constant. This is a reversible proc- and Cv, respectively.
ess.
Standard Conditions. Unless specifically stated
Isothermal Process. Process in which there is otherwise, standard conditions are:
no change in temperature.
Pressure. 14.696 psia
Polytropic Head. The reversible work required Temperature: 60°F
to compress a unit mass of the gas in a polytropic
compression process. Suction Pressure. Absolute static pressure pre-
vailing at the suction of the ejector.
Polytropic Process. Process in which changes
in gas characteristics during compression are Super Compressibility. Used with various
considered. meanings, most frequently the same as com-
pressibility, although this is not assured. A current
Process. Occurs whenever the system under- ASME Power Test Code uses it as a ratio of gas
goes either a change in state or an energy densities rather than volumes; in this case,
transfer at a steady state. therefore, it is 1/Z. Super compressibility should
never be used unless its meaning is clarified
Psychrometry. Study of the properties of air- completely. Compressibility is much to be pre-
water vapor mixtures in the atmosphere. ferred and is used herein.

Ratio of Specific Heats. Ratio of the specific Surge. Reversal of flow within a dynamic com-
heat at constant pressure to the specific heat at pressor that takes place when the capacity being
constant volume. It may vary considerably with handled is reduced to a point where insufficient
pressure and temperature. pressure is being generated to maintain flow.

Reduced Pressure. Ratio of the actual absolute Turndown. Also referred to as rangeability. A
gas pressure to the absolute critical pressure. measure of the range of flows through a device,
expressed as a ratio.
Reduced Temperature. Ratio in absolute units
of the actual gas temperature to the critical tem-
perature.

41
FOR MORE INFORMATION
Telephone: (+1) 619-544-5352
Telefax: (+1) 619-544-2633
Internet: www.solarturbines.com

Solar Turbines Incorporated

P.O. Box 85376
San Diego, CA 92186-5376 U.S.A.

SPGCCS/203