Fluid flow measurements

Fluid Flow Measurements

Introduction:
Fluid flow measurements means the measuring the rate of flow of a fluid flowing through a
pipe or through an open channel. An effective way to measure the flowrate through a pipe is
to place some type of restriction within the pipe and to measure the pressure difference
between, (i) the low-velocity, high-pressure upstream section
(ii) The high-velocity, low-pressure downstream section
The rate of flow of fluid through a pipe is measured by four main restriction devices namely,
 Venturimeter
 Orifice meter
 Pitot tube
 Nozzle meter or flow nozzle
Whereas through an open channel the rate of flow is measured by
 Notches
 Weirs
The operation of each is based on the same physical principles— an increase in velocity
causes a decrease in pressure. The difference between them is a matter of cost, accuracy, and
how closely their actual operation obeys the idealized flow assumptions.

Venturi Effect:
The Venturi effect is the reduction in fluid pressure that results when a fluid flows through a
constricted section of pipe. The Venturi effect is named after Giovanni Battista Venturi
(1746–1822), an Italian physicist. Fluid flows through a length of pipe of varying diameter.
The pressure at "1" is higher than at "2" because the fluid speed at "1" is lower than at "2".

Fig. 1 Demonstration of Venturi Effect

The Venturi effect may be observed or used in the following:
 Inspirators that mix air and flammable gas in grills, gas stoves, Bunsen burners and air
brushes.
 Atomizers that disperse perfume or spray paint (i.e. from a spray gun).
 Carburetors that use the effect to suck gasoline into an engine's intake air stream
 The capillaries of the human circulatory system, where it indicates aortic regurgitation
 Aortic insufficiency is a chronic heart condition that occurs when the aortic valve's
initial large stroke volume is released and the Venturi effect draws the walls together,
which obstructs blood flow, which leads to a Pulsus Bisferiens.
 Cargo Eductors on Oil, Product and Chemical ship tankers

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 Protein skimmers (filtration devices for saltwater aquaria)

 Compressed air operated industrial vacuum cleaners
 Venturi scrubbers used to clean flue gas emissions
 Injectors (also called ejectors) used to add chlorine gas to water treatment chlorination
systems
 Sand blasters used to draw fine sand in and mix it with air
 A scuba diving regulator to assist the flow of air once it starts flowing
 In Venturi masks used in medical oxygen therapy
 In recoilless rifles to decrease the recoil of firing
 Wine aerators, to aerate wine, putatively improving the taste.
 Ventilators
 The diffuser on an automobile.

Venturimeter:

Fig. 2 Schematic Representation of Venturimeter.

A venturimeter or (simply referred as venturi) is a device used for measuring fluid flows
through a pipe. It is made up of varying diameter pipe sections and works on Bernoulli’s
principle. It consists of 3 parts: (i) A short converging part, (ii) Throat, (iii) Diverging Part. It
is the most precise and most expensive of the three obstruction-type flow meters. Although
the operating principle for this device is the same as for the orifice or nozzle meters, the
geometry of the Venturi meter is designed to reduce head losses to a minimum. This is
accomplished by providing a relatively streamlined contraction (which eliminates separation
ahead of the throat) and a very gradual expansion downstream of the throat (which eliminates
separation in this decelerating portion of the device). Most of the head loss that occurs in a
well-designed Venturi meter is due to friction losses along the walls rather than losses
associated with separated flows and the inefficient mixing motion that accompanies such
flow.

To avoid undue drag, a Venturi tube typically has an entry cone of 21 to 30 degrees and an
exit cone of 5 to 15 degrees. To account for the assumption of an in viscid fluid a coefficient

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of discharge is often introduced, which generally has a value of 0.98. A Venturi can be used
to measure the volumetric flow rate Q.

The fluid velocity must increase through the constriction to satisfy the equation of continuity,
while its pressure must decrease due to conservation of energy: the gain in kinetic energy is
balanced by a drop in pressure or a pressure gradient force. An equation for the drop in
pressure due to the Venturi effect may be derived from a combination of Bernoulli's principle
and the equation of continuity.

Expression for rate of flow through venturimeter:

Consider a venturimeter fixed in a horizontal pipe through which a fluid is flowing (say
water) as shown in figure 3.

Fig. 3 Schematic of Venturimeter with specifications.

Let, d1 = diameter at inlet or at section 1

p1 =Pressure at section 1
v1 = velocity of fluid at section 1
a1 = area at section 1= (π/4)*d12
And d1, p1, v1, a1 are corresponding values at section 2.
Applying Bernoulli’s equation at section 1 & 2 we get,
(p1 / ρg) + (v12 / 2g) + (z1) = (p2 / ρg) + (v22 / 2g) + (z2)
As pipe is horizontal, hence z1=z2, Therefore, we can write,
(p1 / ρg) + (v12 / 2g) = (p2 / ρg) + (v22 / 2g)
[(p1 - p2) / ρg] = (v22 / 2g) - (v12 / 2g) ------------------ (1)
But, (p1 - p2) / ρg is the difference of pressure head at sections 1& 2 and it is equal to ‘h’
where ,

h
 p1  p2 
g
Substituting this in eq. (1),

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v2 2 v12
h  ---------------------- (2)
2g 2g
Now by applying continuity eq. at sections 1 & 2,
a1 v1 = a2 v2 ==> v1 = (a2 v2) / a1
Substituting this in eq. (2),
2
 a2  v 2
v2  a1  2
2
v2 2  a2 2  v2
2
 a12  a2 2 
h   1    
2g 2g 2g a12  2 g  a1
2

 a2 
 v2 2  2 gh  2 1 2 
 a1  a2 
a1 2 gh
 v2 
a12  a2 2

We know, Discharge, Q = a2 v2
 a 2 gh  a a 2 gh
Q  a2  1  1 2
 a 2 a 2  a12  a2 2
 1 2 
This expression gives theoritical discharge which is possible only at ideal conditions.
a1a2 2 gh
Qth 
a12  a2 2
However, the actual discharge Qact is less than the theoritical discharge Qth such that,
Q
Cd  act
Qth
where, Cd is the ‘coefficient of discharge’
Cd a1a2 2 gh
Thus, Qact = CdQth 
a12  a2 2
The value of Cd is less than 1.

Value of ‘h’ by differential ‘U’ tube manometer:

Case 1:
If the venturimeter is horizontal and the differential manometer is upright, containing a
manometric liquid which is heavier than the liquid flowing through the venturimeter.
Let, Sm = specific gravity of the heavier liquid.
So = specific gravity of the liquid flowing through pipe.
x = difference of the heavier liquid column in U-tube.
Then the pressure head h is given as:

h
 p1  p2   x  Sm  1  x  m  1
   
g  So   o 

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Case 2:
If the venturimeter is horizontal and the differential manometer is inverted, containing a
manometric liquid which is lighter than the liquid flowing through the venturimeter.
through the pipe, the pressure head h is given as:

h
 p1  p2   x 1  Sm   x 1  m 
   
g  So   o 
Where, Sm = sp gravity of lighter liquid in U-tube.
So = sp gravity of the liquid flowing through pipe
x = difference of the lighter liquid column in U-tube.
Case 3:
If the venturimeter is inclined with an upright differential U-tube manometer, containing a
heavier manometric liquid, the piezometric head h is given as:
 p   p  S   
h   1  z1    2  z2   x  m  1  x  m  1
 g   g   So   o 

Case 4:
If the venturimeter is inclined with an inverted differential U-tube manometer, containing a
lighter manometric liquid, the piezometric head h is given as:
 p   p   S    
h   1  z1    2  z2   x 1  m   x 1  m 
 g   g   So   o 

Orifice meter:
Orifice meter or orifice plate is a device (cheaper than a venturimeter) employed for
measuring the discharge of fluid through a pipe. It works on the same principle of a venture
meter. The orifice meter has the simplest design and it occupies minimal space as it consists
of a flat circular plate which has a circular sharp edge hole called orifice, which is concentric
with the pipe. The orifice dia is kept generally 0.5 times the dia of the pipe, though it may
vary from 0.4 to 0.8 times the pipe dia. However, considerable variations in designs are also
available. An hour glass is a form of orifice.
Some orifice meters are sharp-edged, while others are beveled or rounded. Due to the ease of
duplicating and the simple construction, the thin sharp edged orifice has been adopted as a
standard and extensive calibration work has been done so that it is widely accepted as a
standard means of measuring fluids. The sudden change in the flow area in orifice meters
causes considerable swirl and thus significant head loss or permanent pressure loss as shown
in fig. 4. The minimum cross sectional area of the jet is known as the “vena contracta.”

Fig. 4 Schematic of Orifice

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Fig. 5 Typical orifice meter construction

A typical orifice meteris constructed by inserting between two flanges of a pipe a flat plate
with a hole, as shown in Fig. 5. The pressure at point (2) within the vena contracta is less than
that at point (1). Nonideal effects occur for two reasons. First, the vena contracta area, is less
than the area of the hole, by an unknown amount. Thus, A2 = CC A0 where CC is the
coefficient of contraction. Second, the swirling flow and turbulent motion near the orifice
plate introduce a head loss that cannot be calculated theoretically. Thus, an orifice discharge
coefficient, C0 is used to take these effects into account.

Note: Note that the value of C0 depends on the specific construction of the orifice meter (i.e.,
the placement of the pressure taps, whether the orifice plate edge is square or beveled, etc.).
Very precise conditions governing the construction of standard orifice meters have been
established to provide the greatest accuracy possible

Advantages of Orifice Meter Measurement:

 Flow can be accurately determined without the need for actual fluid flow calibration.
Well established procedures convert the differential pressure into flow rate, using
empirically derived coefficients.
 These coefficients are based on accurately measurable dimensions of the orifice plate
and pipe diameters as defined in standards, combined with easily measurable
characteristics of the fluid, rather than on fluid flow calibrations.
 With the exception of the orifice meter, almost all flow meters require a fluid flow
calibration at flow and temperature conditions closely approximating service
operation in order to establish accuracy.
 In addition to not requiring direct fluid flow calibration, orifice meters are simple,
rugged, widely accepted, reliable and relatively inexpensive and no moving parts.

Comparision Between Venturimeter and Orifice:

The main advantages of the Venturimeter over the orifice plate are:
• Low head loss
• Less affected by upstream flow disturbance
• Good performance at higher β
• Even more robust
• Self-cleaning
• Less affected by erosion

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The disadvantages compared to the orifice are

• Occupies longer length of pipe
• More expensive (manufacture and installation)

Expression for rate of flow through orifice meter:

Fig. 6 Typical orifice meter

Let, d1 = diameter at inlet or at section (1)
p1 =Pressure at section (1)
v1 = velocity of fluid at section (1)
a1 = area at section (1) = (π/4)  d12
And d2, p2, v2, a2 are corresponding values at section (2).
Applying Bernoulli’s equation at sections (1) and (2) we get,

This is the theoretical velocity at section (2).

Therefore,
 v2 th  2 gh  v12
Then, the actual velocity at section (2) is given as
 v2 act  Cv 2 gh  v12
 v2 act
Where, Cv  is the Coefficient of velocity. Generally,  v2 act   v2 th
 v2 th

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Now section (2) is at the vena-contracta and ‘a’, represents the area at the vena-contracta. If
‘ao’ is the area of orifice then, we have

where, Cc is the Coefficient of contarction.



By continuity equation we have,

Substituting the value of v1 in the equation of (v2)act above,

 v2 act  Cv 2 gh  v12
2
a 
 v2 act  Cv 2 gh  Cc  o  v2 2
2

 a1 
 2

2  ao 
v2  Cv  2 gh  Cc   v2 2 
2 2
  a1  
 
2
a 
v2  2 ghCv  Cc Cv  o  v2 2
2 2 2 2

 a1 
But Cd = Cc  Cv is the Coefficient of discharge
Actual flow rate Actual velocity  Actual area
Cd    Cv  Cc
Theoretical flow rate Theoretical velocity  Theoretical area
2
a 
 v2  Cv  2 gh  Cd  o  v2 2
2 2 2

 a1 
 2

2  ao 
v2 1  Cd     Cv 2  2 gh
2
  a1  

Cv 2  2 gh
 v2 2 
 2

2  ao 
 1  Cd   
  a1  

2 gh
OR  v2 act  Cv
 2

2  ao 
1  Cd   
  a1  

The actual discharge is
 a2 
Qact  a2  v2 act  Cc a0  v2 act  Cc  
 a0 

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Substituting for (v2)act from above,

2 gh Cd a0 a1 2 gh
Qact  Cc a0  v2 act  Cc a0  Cv   Cd  Cc  Cv 
 a 
2
 a12  Cd 2 ao 2
1  Cd 2  o  
  a1  
 
Cd a0 a1 2 gh
 Qact 
a12  Cd 2 ao 2

But this equation must be converted to a form that is similar to that of the venturimeter for
comparision purpose. This can be done by defining a new Coefficient of discharge, denoted
by C. C is defined as:
2
a 
1  0 
 a1  a12  a0 2
C  Cd  C
a12  Cd 2 a0 2
2 d
2  a0 
1  Cd  
 a1 
2
a 
1  Cd  0 
2

 a1   C a1  Cd a0
2 2 2
 Cd  C
 a0 
2
a12  a0 2
1  
 a1 
Substituting for Cd in the above expression for Qact, we get

Cc a0 a1 2 gh a12  Cd 2 a0 2 a0 a1 2 gh
 Qact  C 
a  Cd ao
1
2 2 2
a  a0
1
2 2
a12  Cd 2 ao 2

Ca0 a1 2 gh
 Qact 
a12  a0 2
Now this equation is similar to that of venturimeter. Where C is coeficient of discharge.
Note:The coefficient of discharge for orifice meter is much smaller than for a venturi meter.

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Pitot Tube:
The Pitot tube (named after the French scientist Pitot) is one of the simplest and most useful
instruments ever devised for flow measurement in pipes. The tube is a small glass tube bent
at right angles and is placed in flow such that lower end, which is bent through 900 is directed
in the upstream direction as shown in figure 7. The liquid rises in the tube due to conversion
of kinetic energy into potential energy. The velocity is determined by measuring the rise
ofliquid in the tube.

Fig. 7 Pitot Tube

Consider two points (1) & (2) at the same level in such a way that the point (2) is just at the
inlet of the pitot tube and point (1) is far away from the tube
Let, p1, v1 & p2, v2 are pressure and velocities at point (1) & (2) respectively.
H = depth of tube in liquid
h = rise of liquid in the tube above the free surface
Applying Bernoulli’s equation at point (1) & (2) we get,
(p1 / ρg) + (v12 / 2g) + (z1) = (p2 / ρg) + (v22 / 2g) + (z2)
Since point (1) and (2) are on same line, hence z1=z2 and v2 = 0.
p1 / ρg = pressure head at (1) = H
p2 / ρg = pressure head at (2) = h + H
Substituting these values in Bernoulli’s eq. we have,
H + v12 / 2g = h + H
h = v12 / 2g
 Theoretical velocity (v1)th = √(2gh)
 Actual Velocity (v1)act = Cv * √(2gh)
Where, Cv =coefficient of pitot tube
Stagnation pressure and dynamic pressure:
Bernoulli's equation leads to some interesting conclusions regarding the variation of pressure
along a streamline. Consider a steady flow impinging on a perpendicular plate (figure 8).

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Fig. 8 Concept of stagnation pressure

There is one streamline that divides the flow in half: above this streamline all the flow goes
over the plate, and below this streamline all the flow goes under the plate. Along this dividing
streamline, the fluid moves towards the plate. Since the flow cannot pass through the plate,
the fluid must come to rest at the point where it meetsthe plate. In other words, it ``stagnates.''
The fluid along the dividing, or ``stagnation streamline'' slows down and eventually comes to
rest without deflection at the stagnation point.
Bernoulli's equation along the stagnation streamline gives,

where the subscript ‘e’ is for upstream and subscript ‘0’ is at the stagnation point. Since the
velocity at the stagnation point is zero,
static pressure + dynamic pressure = stagnation pressure

Pitot-Static Tubes:
The devices for measuring flow velocity directly is the Pitot-static tube. Figure 9 shows the
principle of operation.

Fig. 9 Pitot Static Tube

By applying Bernoulli’s equation to a streamline which meets the tip of the tube. The flow is
steady, so there is no flow in the tube. Thus thereis a stagnation point, so u2 = 0. The pressure
difference p2 - p1 is the difference between the impact or stagnationpressure at the tip of the
tube, p2, and the static pressure in the body of the fluid, p1. From Bernoulli,

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In most common practical uses, a pair of concentric tubes are used: the inner tube measured
the impact pressure, the outer tube has a number of tiny tappings, flush with the tube, to
measure the static pressure. Accuracy is crude, but these devices do provide a very simple
and fastestimate of flow velocity. However, they are not well suited for dirty flows in which
their tappings may become blocked.

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