Process Control, 12/03/2018

Second-Order Systems with Numerator Dynamics

The previous discussion involved pure second-order systems, where the relative order
(difference between the denominator and numerator polynomial orders) was two.
Consider now a second-order system with numerator dynamics with the gain/time constant
form

𝑘𝑘𝑝𝑝 (𝜏𝜏𝑛𝑛 𝑠𝑠 + 1)
𝑔𝑔𝑝𝑝 (𝑠𝑠) =
(𝜏𝜏1 𝑠𝑠 + 1)(𝜏𝜏2 𝑠𝑠 + 1)

which is relative order one. The reader should show that the pole-zero form is

𝑘𝑘𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 (𝑠𝑠 − 𝑧𝑧1 )

𝑔𝑔𝑝𝑝 (𝑠𝑠) =
(𝑠𝑠 − 𝑝𝑝1 )(𝑠𝑠 − 𝑝𝑝2 )
where the parameters are

𝑘𝑘𝜏𝜏𝑛𝑛 1 1 1
𝑘𝑘𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 = , 𝑝𝑝1 = − , 𝑝𝑝2 = − , 𝑧𝑧1 = −
𝜏𝜏1 𝜏𝜏2 𝜏𝜏1 𝜏𝜏2 𝜏𝜏𝑛𝑛
The gain/time constant form has the following time-domain response to a step input

𝜏𝜏 − 𝜏𝜏1 −𝑡𝑡/𝜏𝜏1 𝜏𝜏 − 𝜏𝜏2 −𝑡𝑡/𝜏𝜏2

𝑦𝑦(𝑡𝑡) = 𝑘𝑘𝑝𝑝 Δ𝑢𝑢 �1 + � 𝑛𝑛 � 𝑒𝑒 + � 𝑛𝑛 � 𝑒𝑒 �
𝜏𝜏1 − 𝜏𝜏2 𝜏𝜏1 − 𝜏𝜏2

The reader should show that, if 𝜏𝜏𝑛𝑛 = 𝜏𝜏2 , the response is the same as a first-order process.

Example: Illustration of Numerator Dynamics

Consider the following input-output relationship:

(𝜏𝜏𝑛𝑛 𝑠𝑠 + 1)
𝑦𝑦(𝑠𝑠) = 𝑢𝑢(𝑠𝑠)
(3𝑠𝑠 + 1)(15𝑠𝑠 + 1)

The unit step responses are shown in Figure. Notice that negative numerator time constants
(corresponding to positive zeros) yield a step response which initially decreases before
increasing to the final steady state. This type of response is known as inverse response and
causes tough challenges for process control systems. Positive zeros are often caused by two
first-order transfer functions, with gains of opposite sign, acting in parallel.

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Notice also that a numerator time constant that is greater than the denominator time constant
causes overshoot before settling to the final steady state. Also notice that the inverse response
becomes "deeper" as the numerator zero (−1/𝜏𝜏𝑛𝑛 ) approaches a value of 0 from the positive
side.

Poles and Zeros

There are a number of different ways to represent process transfer functions. The
"polynomial" form is
𝑏𝑏𝑚𝑚 𝑠𝑠𝑚𝑚 + 𝑏𝑏𝑚𝑚−1 𝑠𝑠𝑚𝑚−1 + ⋯ + 𝑏𝑏1 𝑠𝑠 + 𝑏𝑏0
𝑔𝑔(𝑠𝑠) = (3.49)
𝑎𝑎𝑚𝑚 𝑠𝑠𝑚𝑚 + 𝑎𝑎𝑚𝑚−1 𝑠𝑠𝑚𝑚−1 + ⋯ + 𝑎𝑎1 𝑠𝑠 + 𝑎𝑎0

The values of s that cause the numerator of Equation (3.49) to equal zero are known as the
"zeros" of the transfer function. The values of s that cause the denominator of Equation (3.49)
to equal zero are known as the "poles" of the transfer function.

The "pole-zero" form is

𝑘𝑘𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 (𝑠𝑠 − 𝑧𝑧1 )(𝑠𝑠 − 𝑧𝑧2 ) … (𝑠𝑠 − 𝑧𝑧𝑚𝑚 )
𝑔𝑔(𝑠𝑠) =
(𝑠𝑠 − 𝑝𝑝1 )(𝑠𝑠 − 𝑝𝑝2 ) … (𝑠𝑠 − 𝑝𝑝𝑛𝑛 )
and complex poles (or zeros) must occur in complex conjugate pairs.

The "gain-time constant" form is the one that we use most often for control system design.

𝑘𝑘𝑝𝑝 (𝜏𝜏𝑛𝑛1 𝑠𝑠 + 1)(𝜏𝜏𝑛𝑛2 𝑠𝑠 + 1) … (𝜏𝜏𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛 𝑠𝑠 + 1)

𝑔𝑔𝑝𝑝 (𝑠𝑠) =
�𝜏𝜏𝑝𝑝1 𝑠𝑠 + 1�(𝜏𝜏𝜏𝜏2 𝑠𝑠 + 1) … (𝜏𝜏𝜏𝜏𝑛𝑛 𝑠𝑠 + 1)

where 𝜏𝜏𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛 is a numerator time constant and 𝜏𝜏𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 is a denominator time constant. This form is
normally used when the roots (poles) of the denominator polynomial are real.

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Example 3.7: Comparison of Various Transfer Function Forms

Consider a transfer function with the following gain-time constant form

2(−10𝑠𝑠 + 10)
𝑔𝑔(𝑠𝑠) =
(3𝑠𝑠 + 1)(15𝑠𝑠 + 1)

The polynomial form is

20𝑠𝑠 + 2
𝑔𝑔(𝑠𝑠) = −
45𝑠𝑠2+ 18𝑠𝑠 + 1

The gain-polynomial form is

2(−10𝑠𝑠 + 10)
𝑔𝑔(𝑠𝑠) =
(3𝑠𝑠 + 1)(15𝑠𝑠 + 1)
and the pole-zero form is
1�
�𝑠𝑠 − 10
4
𝑔𝑔(𝑠𝑠) = �− �
9 �𝑠𝑠 + 1� �𝑠𝑠 + 1 �
3 15

The zero is 1/10, and the poles are –1/3 and –1/15.

Notice that the zero for Example 3.7 is positive. A positive zero is called a right-half-plane
(RHP) zero, because it appears in the right half of the complex plane (with real and imaginary
axes). RHP zeros have a characteristic inverse response, as shown in Figure 3-11 for n = -
10 (which corresponds to a zero of +0.1).

Also notice that the poles are negative (left-half-plane), indicating a stable process. RHP
(positive) poles are unstable. Recall that complex poles will yield an oscillatory response. A
pole-zero plot of the transfer function in Example 3.7 is shown in Figure 3-13 [the pole
locations are (-1/3,0) and (-1/15,0) and the zero location is (1/10,0), with the coordinates
(real, imaginary)]. For this system, there is no imaginary component and the poles and zeros
lie on the real axis.

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As poles move further to the left they yield a faster response and increasing the magnitude
of the imaginary portion makes the response more oscillatory. This behavior is summarized
in Figure 3- 14. Recall also that a process with a pole at the origin (and none in the RHP) is
known as an integrating system; that is, the system never settles to a steady state when a step
input change

Multiple RHP zeros cause multiple "changes in direction"; for example, with two RHP zeros,
the step response, initially going in one direction, switches direction, then switches back to
the initial direction.

3.10 Processes with Dead Time

Many processes have a delayed response to a process input, either due to transport lags (such
as flow through pipes) or high-order effects. In Section 3.3.4 we found that a time-delay of 𝜃𝜃
time units had a transfer function of 𝑒𝑒−𝜃𝜃𝜃𝜃 .

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A first-order process combined with a time-delay has the transfer function

𝑘𝑘𝑝𝑝 𝑒𝑒−𝜃𝜃𝜃𝜃
𝑔𝑔𝑝𝑝 (𝑠𝑠) =
𝜏𝜏𝑝𝑝 𝑠𝑠 + 1

Consider a process with 𝑘𝑘𝑝𝑝 = 1, 𝜏𝜏𝑝𝑝 = 10, and 𝜃𝜃 = 5. A unit step input change at 𝑡𝑡 =
0 yields the response shown in Figure 3-15. We see that the time-delay shifts the response
of the output.

3.11 Padé Approximation for Dead Time

As discussed in the previous section the transfer function for a pure time delay is 𝑒𝑒−𝜃𝜃𝜃𝜃 , where
𝜃𝜃 is the time delay. Some control system design techniques require a rational transfer
function; the Padé approximation for dead time is often used in this case.

A first-order Padé approximation is

− 2𝜃𝜃 𝑠𝑠 + 1
𝑒𝑒−𝜃𝜃𝜃𝜃 ≈
𝜃𝜃
2 𝑠𝑠 + 1
A second-order Padé approximation is
𝜃𝜃2 𝑠𝑠2 − 𝜃𝜃 𝑠𝑠 + 1
𝑒𝑒−𝜃𝜃𝜃𝜃 ≈ 122 2
𝜃𝜃 𝑠𝑠2 + 𝜃𝜃 𝑠𝑠 + 1
12 2

Example 3.8: Application of the Padé Approximations for Dead Time

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Consider the first-order + dead time transfer function, where the time-delay dominates the
time constant

𝑒𝑒−10𝑠𝑠
𝑔𝑔(𝑠𝑠) =
5𝑠𝑠 + 1

The first-order Padé approximation yields the transfer function

𝑒𝑒−10𝑠𝑠 −5𝑠𝑠 + 1
𝑔𝑔(𝑠𝑠) = ⋅
5𝑠𝑠 + 1 5𝑠𝑠 + 1
and the second-order Padé approximation yields

100 2 10
𝑒𝑒−10𝑠𝑠 12 𝑠𝑠 − 2 𝑠𝑠 + 1 8.3333𝑠𝑠2 − 5𝑠𝑠 + 1
𝑔𝑔(𝑠𝑠) = ⋅ =
5𝑠𝑠 + 1 100 𝑠𝑠2 + 10 𝑠𝑠 + 1 41.667𝑠𝑠3 + 33.333𝑠𝑠2 + 10𝑠𝑠 + 1
12 2

A comparison of the step responses of 𝑔𝑔(𝑠𝑠), 𝑔𝑔1 (𝑠𝑠), and 𝑔𝑔2 (𝑠𝑠) is shown in Figure 3-16. Notice
that the first-order approximation has an inverse response, while the second-order
approximation has a "double inverse response." The reader should find that there is a single
positive zero for 𝑔𝑔1 (𝑠𝑠), and there are two positive, complex-conjugate zeros of the numerator
transfer function of 𝑔𝑔2 (𝑠𝑠).

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Most ordinary differential equation numerical integrators require pure differential equations
(with no time delays). If you have a system of differential equations that has time delays, the
Padé approximation can be used to convert them to delay-free differential equations, which
can then be numerically integrated.

One of the many advantages to using SIMULINK is that time delays are easily handled so
that no approximation is required.

Example

For the following second-order process with numerator dynamics, solve for the time domain
output response to a step input change of magnitude Δ𝑢𝑢 at 𝑡𝑡 = 0.

𝑘𝑘𝑝𝑝 (𝜏𝜏𝑛𝑛 𝑠𝑠 + 1)
𝑔𝑔𝑝𝑝 (𝑠𝑠) =
(𝜏𝜏1 𝑠𝑠 + 1)(𝜏𝜏2 𝑠𝑠 + 1)

For 𝑘𝑘𝑝𝑝 = 1°𝐶𝐶/(𝐿𝐿/𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚), 𝜏𝜏1 = 3 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚, 𝜏𝜏2 = 15 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚, 𝜏𝜏𝑛𝑛 = 20 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 find the peak
temperature and the time that it occurs.

Solution:

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(20𝑠𝑠 + 1) Δ𝑢𝑢
𝑔𝑔𝑝𝑝 (𝑠𝑠) = ⋅
(3𝑠𝑠 + 1)(15𝑠𝑠 + 1) 𝑠𝑠

syms s D
>> g=(20*s+1)/((3*s+1)*(15*s+1))

g=

(20*s + 1)/((3*s + 1)*(15*s + 1))

>> u=D/s

u=

D/s

>> y=ilaplace(g*u)

y=

D - (17*D*exp(-t/3))/12 + (5*D*exp(-t/15))/12

In order to make a plot

>> t=0:0.1:100;
>> D=1;
>> ynew=D - (17*D*exp(-t/3))/12 + (5*D*exp(-t/15))/12;
>> plot(t,ynew)

1.2

0.8

0.6

0.4

0.2

-0.2
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100

To plot directly the transfer function, we use the Matlab convolution function

conv([3 1],[15 1])

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ans =

45 18 1

>> syst=tf([20 1],[45 18 1])

syst =

20 s + 1
-----------------
45 s^2 + 18 s + 1

Continuous-time transfer function.

>> step(syst)

Step Response
1.2

0.8

0.6
Amplitude

0.4

0.2

0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80

Time (seconds)

Note that the Matlab’s step function takes into account a Δ𝑢𝑢 = 1.

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