Post-mortem stages

Stage 1: Pallor Mortis

The first stage of decomposition “Pallor Mortis” translates to “paleness” [pallor] “of death” [mortis]
and generally occurs 15-25 minutes after death. Post-mortem paleness of the skin is usually
seen more immediately in those who are anaemic and/or have less melanin in their skin and
therefore were paler in life. Pallor Mortis is caused due to lack of capillary circulation within blood
vessels which run throughout our bodies. The constant flow of blood through a living being gives
the skin a good amount of its colour and “lifelike” quality. During Pallor Mortis, blood stops its flow
and begins to sink to lower parts of the body due to gravity. This pooling of blood becomes more
evident in the fourth stage of decomposition, Livor Mortis. Unfortunately, Pallor Mortis is little to
no aid in determining time of death due to its sudden onset and is only able to indicate whether
the death took place more or less than half an hour before discovery of the body. During the
stage of pallor mortis, we also see a thin film appear over the cornea of the deceased if eyes are
open. While this is not caused by lack of blood circulating throughout the body, it occurs within a
few minutes of death. The paleness seen in pallor mortis can also be caused in life by shock,
heart failure, a vitamin D deficiency brought on by lack of sunlight, vasoconstriction (narrowing of
the blood vessels) and homeostasis, which occurs in extreme cold.

Stage 2: Algor Mortis

The second stage of decomposition, Algor Mortis translates to “coldness” [algor] “of death”
[mortis]. Algor Mortis, sometimes referred to as the “death chill”, is marked by a steady decline in
body temperature and continues until the corpse reaches “ambient temperature”, or matches the
temperature of its surroundings. Algor Mortis usually sets in one hour after death, but many
factors have significant influence on this phase of decomposition. Determining the correct time of
death by way of body temperature can be difficult due to stability/fluctuation of ambient
temperature, the thermal conductivity of the surface the corpse is on and what is known as a
“temperature plateau”, a highly variable period of time in which the body does not cool. The rate
of cooling may be increased if the deceased is thin or malnourished or if the body is exposed to
low temperatures and/or a windy environment. On the other hand, if the person was febrile
(running a fever), under the influence, obese or left in a warm environment, the rate of cooling
will decrease. Clothing can also play a major role in speeding up or slowing down Algor Mortis.
The corpse will cool faster if large amounts of skin are exposed or when wearing wet
clothing. Dry, layered, heavy clothing keeps the body warm for a longer period of time after
death. Once the body begins true decomposition, the temperature will rise again, making Algor
Mortis most helpful in determining time of death within the first 24 hours. Temperature readings
can be obtained from the rectum of the deceased or by inserting a meat thermometer under the
ribcage on the right side of the corpse and into the liver. Investigators use the Glaister Equation
to estimate the time of death. While the temperature change can vary anywhere between a 1
degree Fahrenheit drop in temperature per hour to a 12 degree F drop per hour, the average is
1.5 degree F drop per hour, each hour following death. The Glaister Equation uses 98.4 degrees
F (average body temperature) minus the rectal (or internal) temperature in degrees F, divided by
1.5 degrees F, to equate time of death. During this stage of decomposition, we also usually begin
to see full corneal cloudiness in eyes which remained open after death.

Stage 3: Rigor Mortis

The third stage of decomposition known as “Rigor Mortis” translates to “stiffness” [rigor] “of
death” [mortis]. The stiffness in a body during the phase of Rigor Mortis is caused by a build-up
of lactic acid which causes chemical changes within muscles. In life, lactic acid, also known as
“milk acid” plays various roles in a body’s biochemical process. The myosin and actin (proteins
involved in muscle movement) in the body then begin to harden, causing all muscles in the body
to harden for a period of time, as well. At the time of death, “primary flaccidity” occurs and Rigor
Mortis begins within 2-6 hours of death, starting with the eyelids, neck and jaw before spreading
throughout the rest of the body over the following 4-6 hours. Sometimes all the hardening and
contracting of muscles can cause an involuntary post-mortem ejaculation in a male corpse. The
exact onset and rate of completion of this stage is determined by many factors including age,
gender, body type and muscle build; For instance, Rigor Mortis may not be perceivable in infants
and children who lack muscle mass. Rigor Mortis may develop more quickly if cause of death is
an infection, terminal seizure, electrocution or if the deceased has recently engaged in strenuous
exercise or had a higher than average body temperature caused by fever, drugs or intoxication.
Generally, 36-48 hours after death “secondary flaccidity” occurs when bacteria in the body
begins eating away at the deceased from the inside out, causing the body to end Rigor Mortis
and loosen again as muscle tissue begins to deteriorate. Sometimes, it can take 72 hours for the
body to reach secondary flaccidity. In a warm environment, Rigor Mortis tends to
dissipate sooner than average, whereas in a cold climate, the effects may persist longer.

Stage 4: Livor Mortis

The fourth stage of decomposition, Livor Mortis translates to “blueish color” [livor] “of death”
[mortis] although it has many names including “hypostasis”, “suggillation”, “cadaveric lividity”,
“darkening of death” and “postmortem staining”. Livor Mortis begins when circulation stops, blood
vessels become more permeable due to decomposition, and blood settles throughout the
corpse. Red blood cells, which are very dense, travel and pool in the lowest areas
possible, staining the tissue. This means in a hanging death, discoloration would be seen in the
feet, fingertips and ear lobes. Males who die from hanging may also acquire what’s known as a
“Death Erection” (or “Angel Lust”) due to the pooling of blood in their penis.

In someone who died in the supine position (lying face up), lividity would appear on the corpse’s
back. Drowning victims, or bodies found in water show signs of Livor Mortis in the face, upper
parts of the chest, hands, lower arms, feet and calves because they are in constant motion. Livor
Mortis begins within 20 minutes to 2 hours of death and initially causes the skin to appear blue
and blotchy. Blood congeals in the capillaries within 4-5 hours and in 5-6 hours, blotches on the
skin become more fluid. At this time, if pressure is applied to the discolored area(s), skin will turn
white. Maximum lividity can be observed between 6-12 hours, and after 10-12 hours, skin will
retain discoloration even when pressed. The name is slightly misleading as it tends to appear
more of a blueish-purple or purple-ish red in most cases. Certain poisons alter the color of
postmortem staining, which can aid in determining cause of death. In a carbon monoxide
poisoning death, discoloration would be a cherry pink. Hydrocyanic acid poisoning appears bright
red, and nitrates, potassium chlorate, potassium bicarbonate, nitrobenzene and aniline (which
causes methaemoglobinaemia) all manifest as a red-brown or brown discoloration. Phosphorus
poisoning causes dark brown postmortem staining. Discoloration is especially evident on the ear
lobes and underneath fingernails and in fair-skinned people. Intensity of the color depends on the
amount of hemoglobin in the blood of the deceased and hypostastis can be internal as well as
external, often manifesting on the heart, lungs, kidney, spleen and other organs. During later
stages of Livor Mortis, the body may also begin to show “marbling”, which is caused by the
breakdown of hemoglobin.

Corpses in the later stages of Livor Mortis may also develop “Tardieu spots”, which look like
purple liver spots. These dark spots are created by ruptured capillaries. In addition, “vibices” are
often visible on bodies during the stage of Livor Mortis. Vibices look like strips or bands and are
caused by pressure, usually left by tight-fitting clothing such as socks, belts and bras. In hanging
deaths, a noose or other method of hanging may be visible in the form of a vibice. When
pressure is applied to the corpse, it prevents blood from pooling in those areas.
Petechiae, larger haemorrhages or palpable blood blisters may form on patches of discolored
skin. The subtle differences between postmortem staining/haemorrhages and bruising
obtained in a fatal accident or murder is evident to investigators when determining cause of
death. The discoloration caused by pooling of blood in the vessels appears slightly different from
bruises which are formed when blood escapes the vessel. Livor Mortis is incredibly useful in
determining whether a body has been moved after death. For example, if a body is livor on the
back, indicating they died in the supine position but are discovered in prone position (face down),
it is evident someone move the body. Signs of the fourth stage of decomposition are also a tale-
tell sign that resuscitation is futile.

Stage 5: Putrefaction
The fifth stage of decomposition, Putrefaction, is brought on by the early effects of true
decomposition. It is the time that proteins begin to be broken down by bacteria into smaller and
smaller elements until tissues are no longer cohesive and most organs turn to liquid. Putrefaction
is when “rotting flesh” becomes evident both in appearance and smell. Before this stage, most of
the excess gas build up is contained within internal organs. While they may release through the
same avenues they do in life (windpipe, anus, vagina), it is during putrefaction that the body has
softened to the point that these gasses begin seeping through the blood vessels and throughout
the body, causing severe bloating of the torso and limbs. Generally, there is a purge of fluids
which appear similar to blood, through the nose and mouth. Skin will often begin to rupture,
creating a lesion for the bacterial gasses to escape through. Putrefaction causes the tongue to
swell and protrude from the mouth, at this point identification of the body becomes difficult, if not
impossible. When a body is in advanced stages of putrefaction, it is impossible to determine the
cause of death unless there are signs of poisoning, gunshot wounds, or fractures.

During putrefaction there is also quite a bit of postmortem peeing, pooping and farting.
Sometimes, uterine elapse or even a phenomenon known as “Coffin Birth” can occur in which a
deceased, pregnant woman gives birth with the aid of bacterial gases escaping the vaginal canal.
Larval infestations are common during this phase of decomposition if the body is left to the
elements. Putrefaction can take place as long as the temperature is above 50 degrees Farenheit
(10 degrees Celsius) and below 118 degrees F (48 C). It is optimum at 70-100 degrees F (21-38
degrees C). When between 88-100 degrees F (31-48 degrees C) the rate at which putrefaction
takes place will usually double. As with the previous stages of decomposition, there are many
factors that influence putrefaction. Moisture is necessary to the process, and rapid drying can
bring putrefaction nearly to a halt. The body being exposed to air helps the process along, mostly
because it allows microorganism and insects, which are an integral part of the process, to easily
access the cadaver. Clothing will initially speed up the process because it aids in keeping the
body at optimum temperature to produce bacteria for a longer period of time. Tight clothing,
however, will restrict the blood and tissue, preventing the escape of gas and also the entry of
insects and microorganisms. Children tend to putrify more rapidly, while the elderly putrify slowly.
Obese corpses putrify much faster than lean bodies due to the excess tissue which holds in more
moisture and heat, creating and sustaining optimal conditions for bacteria to multiply for longer
periods of time. Eyes slide outwards from the sockets, or “pop out”, causing the facial features to
become distorted. If the deceased is buried in a casket shortly after death, buried in sandy
soil,and/ or buried deeper than 6 1/2 feet (2 meters), where the body is protected from moisture
and insects, less putrefaction will take place. It will be rapid in damp, marshy environments, or if
the body is buried in a shallow grave, without a coffin and/or clothing to protect the corpse from
the elements. This stage of decomposition will begin quickly if the body is exposed to water
contaminated by raw sewage with extremely high levels of bacteria. As in Livor Mortis, a
cadaver in water will begin to show signs of putrefaction on the face, then neck, upper
extremities and chest, abdomen, and finally the lower extremities. Signs of decomposition
consistently appear in this order when a body is floating in water because the corpse is
constantly in motion. Once the body has been removed however, putrefaction will speed up,
being helped along by all the moisture the deceased body has absorbed.
Stage 6: Decomposition
In the 6th stage of decomposition, true decomposition or “biotic decomposition”, takes place.
Biotic decomposition is breakdown of the body’s components into smaller and smaller
components until the organic body is gone. This process is caused by living organisms, usually
microorganisms. When the body is broken down by other, faster means such
as cremation, alkaline hydrolysis/resomation, promessa, or other physical/chemical process, it
is refered to as “abiotic decomposition”. The speed and success of biotic decomposition, as
with most stages of the decomposition process, relies on many factors. Generally speaking,
conditions which aid in the previous stage, Putrefaction also aid in biotic decomposition. The
amount of bacteria in the body at time of death and ability to produce more bacteria postmortem
plays a large role. For instance, if you eat a lot of meat, your corpse will contain and produce
higher levels of bacteria than a vegan. The bodies of deceased newborns who have never been
fed decompose very slowly because in most cases, they are “sterile”, or mostly void of bacteria in
their system. However, if a newborn passes away but has been fed, their body tends to
decompose much faster than average. If a corpse has been mutilated or obtained large, open
wounds decomposition will take place more quickly because it allows easy entry for insects and
microorganisms whereas clothing may slow the process. If a body is buried after beginning to
decompose somewhat, it will complete more quickly than if the body was buried soon after death.
Embalming will delay the process, as is its function, but if the body is left to the elements in open
air with scavengers nearby to help the body breakdown, decomposition will complete very
rapidly.
Decomposition begins and ends slower in water than in open air. Warm, fresh and/or stagnant
water aid slightly in the process, while cold water, salt water and/or running water slow
decomposition. Deep water may cause a delay in the onset of biotic decomposition. Water
contaminated by sewage will speed up the process. When in water, the skin on the hands and
feet of the cadaver may become swollen and bleached. Within 2-4 days, “sleeving” becomes
possible. Sleeving, also called “skin slippage”, refers to the loosening of decaying skin to the
point that it will slough off in one piece, or made able to pull off as though it were a sleeve. After
several weeks in the water, this skin can easily by stripped off, or sleeved, by the current or
contact with objects such as rocks. Once skin slippage begins and the upper layer of epidermis
has been sleeved off, it is incredibly difficult, if not impossible to obtain fingerprints in order to
identify the deceased. Mold can also begin to form on a deceased body in water or a moist area,
but usually only on exposed patches of skin. Generally, bodies left in water do
not remain intact long due to crustaceans, fish, and water rats feeding on the corpse. “Casper’s
Law”, also known as “Casper’s Ratio” suggests that if all other factors (clothing, contents of
digestive system, lesions/abrasions, weather conditions, temperature, etc) is equal, bodies with
free access to open air decompose twice as fast as in water, and eight times as fast as when
buried.

Stage 7: Skeletonization
The 7th and final stage of decomposition, skeletonization, begins when soft tissue has dried and
decayed to the point that parts of the skeleton are visible. Skeletonization is complete once all
tissue has decomposed and all that is left of the corpse is bone. Remains may become reduced
to bone in as little as three weeks but can take up to several years. Factors including
temperature and environment determine the timeline of skeletonization. In a tropical climate the
body may be reduced to bone in just a few weeks, in tundra, the process will take several years.
Skeletonization may never occur if the corpse is in an environment with persistent subzero
temperatures as seen in bodies left behind on Mt. Everest.

Instead of decomposing, remains of climbers who perished have been preserved due to the
extreme cold and now act as trail markers up the treacherous mountainside. The bodies of those
who die on Mt. Everest usually remain because an attempt to reach and recover the corpse
would most likely prove to be unsuccessful, possibly resulting in another fatality. When the
corpse is left in a peat bog or salt desert, skeletonization may be delayed, or natural embalming
or spontaneous mummification can occur. The body may saponify, or become “adipocere” if left
in certain environments, including a peat bog. This is a rare form of spontaneous mummification
seen in the Mutter Museum’s “Soap Lady” who saponified in an alkaline, warm environment
which was lacking air. While it is not common, it is possible for a corpse to undergo
skeletonization in one area of the body, while experiencing some form of natural preservation in
another.

In an area void of scavenging animals, bodies buried in acidic soil will take approximately 20
years to complete skeletonization and for bone to decompose to the point that practically no
evidence of the body is left. In soil with a neutral PH level, a corpse can last as long as 100 years
before bone has decayed almost completely. There is also a possibility bone may not deteriorate
and the skeleton could instead become a fossil or crude oil.