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The Meaning of Student-Athlete Under Review, a Qualitative Research Paper

Jack W. Morrissey

Spring Hill College

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Abstract

This paper analyzes the concept of “student-athlete” and how the evolution of the

word has changed. The research question is: how has the meaning of the word “student-

athlete” changed over time? The purpose of the research is to discover how we as society

perceive student-athletes as opposed to their actual experiences of being student-athletes.

Five areas of focus included, youth experience with sports, scholarship/recruiting aspect

of their experience, viewing their sport as a job, mentally balancing out academics and

athletics and lastly, stating if they believe in the concept of student-athlete. From

primary research including qualitative interviews from eights Spring Hill College

student-athletes, four out of the five themes matched with the secondary research in their

student-athlete experiences. The youth sports theme was the only topic that did not

match the secondary research. None of the Respondents stated they were ever forced to

continue playing their sport if they did not enjoy it. All of the student-athletes admitted

to developing a passion for their sport at some point.

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It is important to study the “student-athlete” and what it means today because

sports and education are constantly changing and continue to have impact on society.

Oberteuffer (1936) states, presidents of the Southern Conference hold that any athlete

shall be declared ineligible for competition if he “as a consideration for his athletic ability

… receives … preferential consideration in the matter of tuition, fees, room, board,

clothes, books, charge accounts, job, loan, scholarship or any other financial aid or

whatever (Oberteuffer, 1936, p. 437).

In researching college athletics, Allen Sanderson and John Siegfried mentioned

some interesting facts from their book, The Case For Paying College Athletes. According

to Sanderson (2015), the financial health of athletic departments rests on four elements:

1) the demand for television broadcast rights for live programming, 2) large, stable game

attendance, 3) the desire of many universities to maintain ties with alumni and other

constituents, and 4) a cartel agreement among universities to limit compensation for the

essential input required to stage the names, namely the players. The first three elements

boost athletic department revenues, while the fourth contains costs (Sanderson and

Siegfried, 2015, p. 119).

The main points Sanderson makes that sports have a great deal of power when it

comes to bringing in money for a school. Using critical theory, it is easy to identify the

power athletics have for their colleges because of the amount of money they bring in for

the school. According to Sanderson (2015), the incremental cost of televising a college

sports event that was going to be played regardless of broadcast status is modest, making

these broadcasts especially profitable, leading to fierce competition for broadcasting

rights. Hyman (2003) states: Men’s football – and to a lesser degree basketball – are the
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economic engines that drive college athletics (Hyman, 2003, p. 1). CBS paid about $800

million to the NCAA to revise the three-week 2014 men’s basketball tournament; for

comparison as recently as 1984 that figure was just $12 million (Sanderson and Siegfried,

2015, p. 120). This indicates how the money has grown significantly over time in the

demand for college sports to be showcased on national television. The amount of money

is just off of television revenue. Contracts of professional athletes have skyrocketed as

well (Gerdy, 2002). Perhaps we have simply become numb to the business of sports

(Gerdy, 2002, p.122). The numbers have become so outlandish, almost surreal, so large

that they no longer mean anything, as if it were Monopoly money (Gerdy, 2002, p.143).

The reporting of the signing of the first $100-million-per-year player will likely be

greeted with not much more than a yawn at most breakfast tables across the country

(Gerdy, 2002). The fact is professional sports have always been about business

(Sanderson and Siegfried, 2015, p. 149). Professional sports relate to collegiate sports

more now than ever due to the amount of money involved. Gerdy (2002) explains how

the media portrays college athletes as superheroes and the money college teams bring are

essential in bringing in more money and applications for the school. Krumme (2006)

elaborates more on the amount of money involved with college athletics and how it has

caused more harm than good. Krumme (2006) states while the NCAA does not allow the

payment of players, the amount of money up for grabs has promoted unethical behavior

among a majority of college athletic programs (Krumme 2006, p. 2). According to

Krumme(2006), corruption is now an everyday affair. Every good season that concludes

in a bowl bid or tournament appearance equals more money for schools. This leads to

temptation and wrong moves made by many high-ranking college administrators, coaches
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and boosters (Krumme, 2006, p. 2). Krumme’s main point is that colleges now more

than ever will do whatever it takes to win. Winning means more money. According to

Krumme (2006) the eight teams representing their schools in last year’s Bowl

Championship Series games, were paid close to $15 million each for making it to college

football’s promised land. For a school like The University of Louisville has recorded

about $6 million from the athletic department since 2000-2001, that extra money is a

huge boost to the program (Krumme, 2006, p. 1). Biden (2006) describes college sports

as, “It looks like a rigged deal” (Krumme, 2006, p. 1). Biden was just reflecting on the

recent investigations and findings in college sports. Krumme (2006) elaborates on how

college sports have become big business and schools bend the rules every year to get

paid. Money, the wellness of the school and the school’s reputation is built upon

winning. Krumme (2006) emphasizes the importance of winning in college athletics

today as the purpose to bring in money and make the school more attractive to the outside

viewer. Former Nebraska head coach Tom Osborne spoke upon the impact of money in

college athletics, “Unfortunately as far as I’m concerned it seems like everything in

athletics is about money, and it’s not always aimed at the student-athlete or what’s best

for the game” (Krumme, 2006, p. 1). The interesting part about this quote is that Osborne

mentions the word “student-athlete” and describes the money as a harmful effect relating

to the commercialization of sports. Krumme (2006) informs that with the popularity of

college athletics always on the rise and the amount of money up for the taking, dishonest

and crooked actions are taken on a regular basis every year. The actions driven by the

power of money as explained by Krumme have been unethical and provided a false

representation of athletics in general.

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Critical theory asserts that economic factors drive institutional behaviors and this

belief is being represented more often recently. Sanderson mentions some ways in which

successful athletic teams attract more students. Sanderson and Siegfried (2015) give

three reasons why this is true. Their first point is that success at intercollegiate athletics

might attract larger appropriations from state legislators concerned about their

constituents’ perceptions of the public universities in their states, especially considering

the fact that the median voter in every state is not a college graduate and might be more

interested in the flagship state university’s football team than its library. Critical theory

would compare the power of athletics to education in this specific case. Krumme (2006)

found that those institutions fielding Division 1 football teams among a sample of 570

public universities receive about 8 percent more taxpayer funding than otherwise

comparable universities without Division 1 football (p.1). Their second point is

university athletics may increase private donations. Participation in bowl football games

seem to result in the most contributions (Sanderson and Siegfreid, 2015, p. 120). Lastly,

Sanderson and Siegfried write that the presence of high-profile sports programs, like

various other campus features, may attract additional applicants and enrollment. An

example includes when North Carolina State enjoyed a forty percent rise in applications

after winning the NCAA men’s basketball championship in 1983 under legendary coach

Jim Valvano. Boston College enjoyed their own surge in applications when quarterback

Doug Flutie threw his famous “Hail Mary” pass to win a nationally televised regular

season game against the then-dominant University of Miami in 1984 (Sanderson and

Siegfried, 2015, p.122).

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The question of whether as a society we are losing the value of sports is brought

about by Gerdy (2002). Gerdy goes into depth about how sports have lost their meaning.

Gerdy (2002) states the purpose of his book, Sports: The All-American Addiction is not to

dwell on the negative impact of a failed system. Rather, it is to address what has been the

most significant factor preventing meaningful reform of that system: specifically, the

belief that truly significant reform is simply not possible because our addiction to big-

time sports has become complete; because the culture of elite sports in America has

become so ingrained into societal and educational institutions, it will never change,

regardless of the growing evidence of its negative impact (Gerdy, 2002, p.9). Gerdy

emphasizes the need for sports in today’s society along with how sports are being

misused. An example of sports becoming out of control is when Pat Dye of Auburn and

Gene Stallings of Alabama both wanted to move their football teams into their own

separate dorms. Gerdy (2006) elaborates on how there are too many coaches and

athletics administrators acting as if their athletic department is bigger, better, and more

important than their educational institution, conference, and even the NCAA. The

situation involving Stallings and Dye is an example of how the athletic departments had

become completely divorced from the academic community. Gerdy (2006) elaborates on

the lost art of the multi-sport athlete. He writes that there used to be many great multi-

sport athletes because the idea of playing multiple sports was encouraged. Recently that

belief has been non-existent. An example of this would be AAU. The AAU stands for

Amateur Athletic Union. Many young basketball players continue to play basketball

even when their season is over with an AAU team. The problem is that many coaches

attend these AAU games in high school so that if a basketball player is looking to play at
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the next level it’s highly encouraged to play AAU. This takes away opportunities for

young adults to try and play a different sport or develop other interests besides their

specific sport. Gerdy (2006) states a major problem with AAU is that it often showcases

one player and not the team, which is a major difference from previous values of athletics

(Gerdy, 2006, p. 110). Athletics used to be about a team coming together, developing

relationships and working together to accomplish a goal (Gerdy, 2006, p. 110). Gerdy

(2006) writes about how sports has blinded society into thinking that it is more than a

game. Sports used to be a secondary tool towards education but now it has become a way

of life. The amount of money being made has a part to do with this belief but an even

bigger topic is the sacrifice people make to allow sports to use them (Gerdy 2006, p.

115). The amount of travel teams and club teams being put together is out of control. A

top notch baseball player from Michigan may travel three hours a day to practice or play

with a team in Illinois just to be noticed a little more by college scouts. The thought of

this activity thirty years ago would be considered insane (Gerdy 2006, p. 120). Looking

at sports being controlled by money, Zimbalist (2001) says it should surprise no one that

star athletes are leaving college after a year or two, or skipping college altogether to play

pro ball (Zimbalist, 2001, p. 4). The number of basketball players who left college before

their NCAA eligibility elapsed increased from 16 in 1995 to 35 in 1996. Some notable

players that left college early include Kevin Garnett, Kobe Bryant, LeBron James, Tracy

McGrady, Jamal Crawford and many more. These are some of the greatest players to

ever play resulting in attention from young stars looking to play in the NBA. There are

professional athletes who do struggle keeping their money once they are done playing

their sport. According to (Wachter, 2010), Sports Illustrated, however, has reported that
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60 percent of professional athletes are in serious financial trouble within five years of

retirement (Wachter, 2010). Gerdy (2002) writes about the meaning of being a true

sports fan in today’s society. Like a drug addiction, being a sports fan offers little of

long-term substance or meaning. It allows us to escape our problems and ignore the

issues we face, and it undermines our attempts to solve them. We invest our effort and

emotion in sports stars and teams rather than improving our own lives by reading,

writing, learning a new skill or how to play a musical instrument, or simply engaging in

some meaningful conversation with a friend or family member (p. 22). The idea of being

obsessed with sports is constantly brought up by Gerdy. He believes the value of sports

is being lost. Gerdy (2002) explains cheating is rampant in sports. For example,

newspapers have sports pages that promote the idea of a win-at-any-cost mentality that

drives our sports culture. Cheating is very common. For example, thousands of athletes

use steroids to enhance their performance, despite the likelihood of their use causing

sterility, damaging the heart and liver, and causing psychological and emotional

instability (Gerdy, 2002, p. 30). Athletics, according to Gerdy have become obsessed

with the fame of winning and the money involved. This idea represents the

commercialization of sports Gerdy writes about the large amounts of money

professionals are making and how players more often are just concerned about making

money rather than playing for the love of the game. Gerdy (2002) states the culture of

sport undermines academic institutions and intellectual values. In the locker room and on

the sidelines, signing a pro contract and buying a fancy sports car is valued far more than

earning a college degree (Gerdy, 2006, p. 122). To many coaches and athletes, getting to

the “Big Show,” rather than earning a college degree, is what college is all about (Gerdy,
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2006, p. 111). Coaches scream at seven-year olds for committing an error in a T-ball

game. Parents attack Little League umpires or fatally beat each other at youth hockey

games (Gerdy, 2006, p. 112). Things have gotten so bad in this regard that more than

two dozen state legislatures have approved or are debating bills that stiffen penalties for

attacks on referees. School districts are forced to play games behind locked doors for

fear of spectator violence. This is what we have become, all in the name of sport. This is

our All-American addiction (Gerdy, 2006, p.30). Zimbalist (2001) provides an

interesting example of academics taking a back seat to athletics. He says, Kevin Ross a

6’9” basketball star at Creighton University, was admitted into the school after scoring a

9 out of a possible 36 on his ACT test. The average score at Creighton was a 23.2.

Initially his application was rejected by the admissions office, but the athletics

department asked admissions to take a second look with the aid of the school’s vice

president. Ross’s first year included a rigorous schedule of course work in “Squad

Participation,” “Theory of Basketball,” “Theory of Track and Field,” and “Introduction to

Ceramics.” His GPA was sufficient to qualify him to play in his sophomore year (p. 28).

Gerdy (2006) mentions the population of attendance at sporting events and the amount of

money TV companies make for each sporting event they televise. Gerdy (2002)

elaborates that the days of playing sports for fun and exercise are gone; we must elevate

any competition to epic proportions. Gerdy (2002) states that heated rivalries are recast

as holy wars. The meeting of two undefeated teams is billed as the “Game of the

Century” (Gerdy 2002, p. 90) or at least this week’s Game of the Century. Even at the

youth sport level, it is not enough to simply play within your town. Traveling all-star

teams must be formed to see which town reigns supreme. The idea of this is like a
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business. It is putting the best product on the floor rather than focusing on allowing kids

to developing a love for the game (Gerdy 2002, p. 31). Kids are prevented to participate

often end up quitting the sport before ever getting the chance to love it. Gerdy (2002)

explains how it is important to distinguish between two major forms of sport in our

society; “organized” versus “free play” or “exercise”: A group of neighborhood kids

meeting after school to play a game of stickball is a classic example of sport as ‘free

play.” “Organized” sport is an athletic activity that has been institutionalized, such as

Little League, high school, college and professional sports. There is an emphasis on

structure, rules, and procedures, all imposed by adults. Most significant, there is an

emphasis placed upon winning (p. xii). Gerdy (2002) speaks about how youth sports in

general have become controlled by adults who take youth leagues too seriously by

pushing kids to win for the sole fact they can be a member of a winning team and live

their live through their child by trying to accomplish something they couldn't do when

they were young (Gerdy 2002, p. 78).

These ideas early imposed by youth coaches result in many kids looking at sports

in a way that it’s all about winning. There is not enough emphasis on skill, the art of

teamwork and just playing to have fun. The stress of winning will come naturally if the

athlete wishes to continue his or her sport later in life. Gerdy (2002) mentions one of the

beauties of sports is the way you can lose yourself for hours with the aid of nothing but a

ball and your imagination. One’s ability to imagine and construct vivid mental images

and concepts is a valuable developmental characteristic, which sport can nurture. For

example, the rules when my friends and I played baseball in the school playground as

opposed to the park were different (Gerdy 2006, p. 123). They had to be because the
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playing areas were so different. In the park, any decent shot to left field wound up in a

busy street. Consequently, left field was out of play. In fact, if you hit two straight balls

there, you were out. In the playground, right field butted up against the backside of a

sign labeled “School No. One”, this sign was only twenty yards behind first base. It was

our own version of Fenway Park’s Green Monster. But unlike Fenway, where a ball hit

off the wall results in a hit, in our game, a fly ball off the wall could be caught for an out

(p. 5). This is an example of the right way to learn to play sports. This is also an

example of the right way to enjoy sports. Enjoy the sport with pure love for it and if the

sport doesn’t provide fun, it may be time to find a new sport (Gerdy 2006, p. 110).

Specifically, the sport itself not being pleasurable, not a situation where a coach is telling

a kid he or she will never play because their skills are not up to par. That is just a tough

situation. Initially, as Gerdy (2002) states, kids should all be free to play any sport they

want without restrictions and somebody telling them they are not good enough to play.

Gerdy provided an example of how the college game has evolved and is now looked at as

a professional sport. Gerdy (2002) writes that he couldn’t distinguish between the

opening introductions of the Chicago Bulls or the grand entrance of former University of

Kentucky basketball coach Rick Pitino minutes before tip-off at Rupp Arena and the tag

team of Rob Van Dam and the Great Sabu. There was every bit as much preening,

pointing, chest bumpin’, and high fivin’ and every bit as much pomp, pageantry, glitter,

and glam (p. 24). This symbolizes colleges trying to imitate the pros by copying their

introduction theme that contains tons of special affects presenting the athletes as super

heroes rather than skilled athletes who are humans.

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Renick (1974) writes about the differences between college athletics and

professional sports. The philosophical difference between a professional and an amateur

has been, and continues to be, a lively topic of debate. The difference between

professional and college athletics seems to be one of degree, with the college athlete

coming out at the short end of the measuring of the measuring stick. (Renick, 1974, p. 4).

College athletics are administered for the benefit of those who control them: individual

institutions, regional conferences, and national agencies (Renick, 1974, p.3). The rules

and regulations of these agencies are designed to control athletes and athletics, but the

athlete himself or herself has no voice in their design. The athlete is treated as a

commodity to be exploited for the benefit of others and is left with no viable alternatives

to conformity if he wishes to participate in intercollegiate sports (p. 551). College

athletics has become more similar to professional athletics in recent years which relates

back to the statements made by Gerdy (2002). If the professional game and collegiate

game are now becoming less different, then it is easily assumed that other levels

including high school and youth athletics have become more comparable. For example,

youth sports have become much more structured with an emphasis on winning similar to

high school athletics where coaches depend on wins to keep their jobs and pay the bills

(Gerdy, 2006, p. 123). Gerdy (2002) speaks about the losing connection to sports. He

talks about all of the media involved with sports now such as, sports TV packages,

videogames and computers making it easy for a kid to not play sports but rather watch

them from their house losing the experience of having pure joy while hitting a homerun

or catching a touchdown pass. Gerdy (2006) states that he does not get the sense that

there are playgrounds and ball fields crowded with children playing stickball, touch
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football, and basketball as in the past. Further, professional games are prohibitively

expensive, pricing many families out of the market. The only opportunity many children

have to watch a pro game is on television; that is, of course, if it doesn’t start too late as is

the case with the World Series. Even so, the television experience is a very shallow one

(p. 245).

Using critical theory, the media used by young kids has poisoned many young

minds in solely becoming addicted to watching instead of playing. The media keeps

allowing more opportunities to watch rather than play. Consumerism is playing a role

with protecting consumers the right to buy which is helping the economy. Consumerism

is however at times persuading people to not play sports and rather watch them or control

them through video games (Zimbalist, 2001, p. 23). The connection Gerdy (2002) is

referring to is the youth experience of sports. He speaks about how adults need to take a

step back and let kids run sports leagues. He believes the involvement of adults, mostly

males, provides a false idea of what youth sports should be about. Gerdy (2002) writes

that one of the reasons organized sport is so wildly popular is that most Americans,

particularly men, have had a very direct connection to the athletic experience. At some

point in their lives, most men, and now an increasing number of women, were involved in

athletics on a very meaningful experimental level. That participation in organized sports

for most did not last past high school (p. 244). Most youth constructors do not have a

solid grasp on the goal of athletics (Gerdy, 2002, p. 132).

The topic of athletics and academics is something that has caused much

controversy, especially with college athletics. The balance between the two has changed

over the years with the power sports has. Whitner (1986) states that it is redundant to note
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that the educational attainment of college athletes has become a major national concern.

Purdy, Eitzel, and Hufnagel have documented from a socioeducational perspective the

problem of the student-athlete. After comparing ten years of data regarding college

athletics and the general college student population, these authors conclude that the

educational value of college athletic participation is negative rather than positive. The

reality for individuals who work with student-athletes from an academic or student

services perspective is that they are confronted daily with people who are underprepared,

unlikely to graduate, priority skewed, and manipulated by the demands of their sport (p.

659). These college counselors were not aware of the demands of playing a rigorous

sport while in college initially.

Athletes controlled by their sport is a major issue in college athletics, student

athlete daily schedules are busy. Mazeika (2015) writes about the harmful effects of a

student athletes’ schedule: When the final bell rings on school days, a student-athlete is

far from done. In a span of roughly eight hours, teenagers committed to prep sports are

engaged in grueling schedules that barely leave enough time to spend with family, hang

out with friends or update their Facebook page (p. 2). Mazeika wrote about how these

busy schedules are causing more harm than good to the young student athlete. He

mentions at minimum; athletes need eight to ten hours of sleep a night in order to

maintain a healthy lifestyle. He stressed how the athletic schedule is becoming more

time consuming taking away from time to explore other interests and activities. Fletcher,

Benshoff and Richburg (2003) mention that student-athletes frequently must miss class in

order to travel to scheduled sports events and typically are required to make up missed

material, assignments, and exams (p. 36). A clinical associate professor and medical
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director of the Sleep Center at Lucile Packard Children’s Hospital in Palo Alto spoke on

the lack of sleep for athletes, “While there is a wage of sleep for each individual, the hope

is for boys and girls to get 8 to 10 hours of sleep at night. For those who do extraneous

activities, their bodies undergo more stress and more wear and tear, so they should

actually get more sleep to recuperate from the activity” (Mazeika, 2015, p. 2). Sports

take up a lot of time and combining that with schoolwork causes many student-athletes to

lose multiple hours of sleep. An example of this can be found from McNulty (2016),

McNulty describes a day in the life of Utah State volleyball player Erica Moscoso. At

6:30 a.m., Erica Moscoso’s day begins. First weight lifting, then she’s rushing nonstop to

classes, volleyball practice and her student athlete mentor hours. When she makes it

home after 9 p.m., it’s finally time to do her own homework. “Sleep is definitely

something I sacrifice to do well,” said Moscoso, the senior setter on the Utah State

volleyball team. “It’s basically just go go go and that’s something I had to learn about as

a freshman that time management is really important especially if you’re taking a bunch

of classes and want to do well.” For Moscoso, who is majoring in bioveterinary science,

there is more to life than volleyball and, as her time as an Aggie is dialing down, she

certainly has plans for the future (p. 2). Moscoso’s schedule allows for her minimal time

to get adequate rest and prepare for the following day.

Gerdy (2002) wrote about African-Americans in particular and their relation to

athletics in college. Gerdy explains that the educational system’s most effective vehicle

is to provide the disadvantaged blacks in particular, educational opportunities that later

translate into upward mobility and social equality. This, however is not the case, while

athletic scholarships provide opportunities for many blacks who otherwise could not
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afford to attend college, this supposed concern over the educational well-being of these

student-athletes is mired in hypocrisy. Despite the romanticized notions regarding

athletics as a vehicle for social advancement, the only equality of opportunity that exists

in sports is the equal opportunity to help a school or pro team win games and generate

revenue. The athletic establishment is not interested in long-term educational

development and equality of opportunity, but rather in short-term wins and revenue

projections (p. 185). This statement emphasizes the backseat academics take in the eyes

of athletic departments. In terms of critical theory, athletic departments have a great deal

of power with sports becoming so popular and wealthy.

An example of academics becoming out of control within an athletic department

is when North Carolina’s basketball team was taking fake classes. Smith (2015)

described the incident as a tragedy and an example of a school doing whatever it takes to

field an elite basketball team, even if that means creating classes to boost players’ GPA’s.

Rashad McCants, a North Carolina basketball player from 2005 championship team

admitted to having a substandard educational experience while at University North

Carolina. Rashad McCants is not the only athlete to have received false education while

in college. Ranch (2011) gives two more examples of athletes involved in college

athletic controversies: Cam Newton and Terrelle Pryor.

Critical Theory can be used to explain the meaning of the term student-athlete.

Critical Theory treats society in terms of power structures (equality and inequality)

(Gerdy, 2002, p. 124). The student-athlete and regular student have many differences

that separate them from one another making each have a different level of power in the

eyes of institutions. According to (Potuto, J.R., O’Hanlon and James, 2007) Perhaps the
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finding that over 60% of those who surveyed view themselves more as athletes than as

students is no surprise. Certainly athletic participation claims much of their time and

energy and, in many cases, provides important financial support. Certainly also, it seems

safe to assume that many persons with whom they come in contact - whether it be

members of the public, fellow students or even faculty and staff – view them as more

athletes than students (Potuto, J.R., O’Hanlon and James, 2007 p. 1). Critical theory can

also harp on the fact that media is becoming detrimental in relation to sports. Gerdy

(2002) states television has affected virtually every aspect of our games, distorting not

only when but also how they are played. “Because television networks make money by,

in effect, renting audiences to advertisers, they have considerably less interest in the

internal structures, particular histories and traditions, or distinctive rhythms of a given

sport-except insofar as they affect. We have been duped into believing that unless you

are not worthy of an ESPN highlight, you are not worthy as an athlete. It is no longer

enough to play simply for the camaraderie, the intrinsic values gained, or the sheer joy of

participation (Gerdy, 2006, p. 32). Some have their confidence diminished when they

look at the superstar athlete in a sport they are playing and cave into the fact they will

never be able to do things their favorite athlete can do so they quit (Gerdy, 2006, p. 145).

The media often portrays one type of athlete without mentioning the art of the

skill involved with sports. In Gerdy’s words the impact of this ESPN mentality on the

individual athlete is tremendous as it is the driving force behind how an athlete

determines his or her “success.” Most athletes are conditioned to believe that the only

successful athletic career is one which ends in the Olympics, NBA, NFL, or other major

professional leagues (Gerdy, 2002 p. 33). The media showcases professional sports to
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the point people think there is only one league for each sport. There are opportunities to

play overseas and many alternative leagues such as the Canadian Football League, Minor

League Baseball and Continental Basketball Association. Using a Critical Theory

perspective, the financial power of major professional leagues promotes the ideology they

are the only leagues that matter.

Methodology

Primary research was conducted involving interviews with student-athletes. All

of the student-athletes are from Spring Hill College. Eight student-athletes from Spring

Hill College participated and they are all confidential. All of the interviewees were

chosen at random by Dr. Almquist from a variety of different sports both male and

female. The interviews are qualitative in-depth interviews based upon their college

experience as a student-athlete and their overall viewpoint of the given questions related

to college athletics and are based of the list of questions from Appendix A. A thematic

was carried out upon the respondents of the student-athletes to discover if the respondents

share similar experiences. The eight respondents had similar answers for most of the

questions but obviously had slightly different perspectives based on their respective

sports.

Youth Aspect

The first theme is how the student-athlete got introduced to their sport. Were they

forced or did they have a love for it from the beginning. The answers were unique among

the respondents but only two out of the eight respondents were actually forced to play a

sport. However, all of the respondents admitted to eventually enjoy playing their sport.
Running head: THE MEANING OF STUDENT-ATHLETE UNDER REVIEW 20

Respondent 3 stated, “Early on I was actually diagnosed with juvenile diabetes so

my parents decided to sign me up for the YMCA basketball league to help me

lose weight and become more active because of the diagnosis and that's how I got

started. I didn’t want to do it (basketball) because I wasn’t an active child so the

idea of running up and down the court just wasn’t in my mind. I honestly didn’t

develop a love for it until high school because I didn’t feel appreciated until I

played for my high school coach who believed in me and was really behind me

and helped me accomplishing my dream” (Respondent 3, personal

communication, May 13, 2018).

Respondent 3 stated initially that the love for her sport did not come initially. She

was not an active child and was not interested in sports that involved running.

Respondent 3 kept playing her sport for just exercise but had no joy for the sport. That

joy did not come until high school. She emphasized that she did not feel as if she was

being valued for playing her sport until she played for a coach that really believed in her

and pushed her to become the best player she could be.

Respondent 5 however answered similar to others stating, “No, I never got forced

to play, my parents told me when I was really young, I liked kicking everything so they

brought me to a soccer club and when I got older it just became more fun but I always

had that love for it at an early age” (Respondent 5, personal communication, May 15,

2018). Respondents 5 and 3 had similar answers because both of their parents assigned

them to leagues but Respondent 3 just developed her love for the sport later. Among the

other Respondents, the consistent answer was they were never forced into playing sports.

The athlete either developed a love for the sport initially or later but they all eventually
Running head: THE MEANING OF STUDENT-ATHLETE UNDER REVIEW 21

loved the sport. This love is a strong reason why some of the Respondents still play their

sport at a collegiate level.

Respondent 4 states how at an early age he played multiple sports but eventually

was forced to choose one because of the demands that college athletics require. Gerdy

(2006) elaborates on the idea of sacrificing multiple sports to focus one sport is a tragedy

in sports. Gerdy (2006) states that focusing on one sport too early can lead to becoming

burnt out or quitting the sport rather than focusing on multiple sports which can benefit

not only the human body but also the mind. In conclusion, the student-athletes had a love

for their sport at an early age and wanted to continue playing their sport at the highest

level possible.

Recruiting

The second area of focus is how scholarships/recruiting have changed college

sports dramatically. Respondent 4 stated, “I had offers from three different Ivy League

schools, I wasn’t considered a scholar at the high school but by just focusing on

basketball it got me to places where if I would have focused more on academics I

probably wouldn’t have gotten interest from those schools. I would get calls from

coaches all day wanting to talk and make sure I was doing the bare minimum to

graduate” Respondent 4, personal communication, March 13, 2018).

Respondent 4 emphasized the amount of time spent on speaking with college

coaches and the process of being recruited while being in high school. He elaborated on

college coaches were making sure he had the bare minimum in terms of grade to get

accepted into the school. The coaches were not concerned on the recruit reaching his

potential as a student but solely focusing on if he was doing just enough. Respondent 4
Running head: THE MEANING OF STUDENT-ATHLETE UNDER REVIEW 22

also emphasized the amount of times coaches would contact him. He would get calls

every day from a variety of colleges. This emphasizes how competitive college athletics

have become and how the value of acquiring a talented high school basketball player has

gone up. Respondent 4 said some nights were extremely tough his senior year because he

had so many coaches telling him different things and he didn’t know who to trust.

Respondent 5 elaborates on his experience being invited to a camp at an early age

along with being recruited: “When I was 13 years old, I went to a professional academy

after they invited me and I played there for one year and they told me I wasn’t fast

enough, we have enough players, you should go back to your hometown club. This was a

hard point in my life. However, when I got older, one of my coaches showcased me on a

website and this allowed coaches from the U.S. to see me play” (Respondent 5, personal

communication, March 28, 2018).

Respondent 5 stressed the amount of recruiting that took place in his career. For

the respondent, soccer recruiting started at the age of 13 and continued throughout his

whole life leading to coming to the U.S. on a full-athletic scholarship. After age 13 he

speaks about the amount of hours he put in to improve and how he knew one day it would

pay off. Respondent 5 was recruited through a website and offers came from colleges

throughout the country in relation to the website. Respondent 5 gives an example of how

college athletics in the United States have broadened their horizons and are willing to

recruit players from other countries. This demonstrates how competitive the recruiting

landscape has become.

Respondent 6 stated that he would not come to Spring Hill unless he was offered

an athletic scholarship. In terms of recruiting, respondent 6 elaborates on a slightly

Running head: THE MEANING OF STUDENT-ATHLETE UNDER REVIEW 23

different experience, “I wasn’t heavily recruited, I moved around a lot so I was never

really in one spot long enough for a coach to get in touch with me, if they tried to get in

touch with me I was already gone by that point” (Respondent 6, personal communication,

March 14, 2018).

The fact that Respondent 6 stated he was not heavily recruited even though he

was in constant communication with his coach at the end of senior year exemplifies how

big recruiting has become in college sports. Respondent 6 made it clear it wasn’t until

his senior year that he got recognized by college coaches which to him was considered

not heavily recruited. Respondent 4 also emphasized the need for a scholarship. He

elaborated that throughout high school if he wasn’t getting any money to do track in

college he was never willing to play at that level. Respondent 6 even dropped out of a

school because he did not agree with his scholarship contract. The main reason he chose

Spring Hill was because of a scholarship. This is similar to Respondent 5 who stated he

would never have even thought of coming to Spring Hill if there was no scholarship

offered. Respondent 5 was more heavily recruited than respondent 6 but both

emphasized the importance of a scholarship in the recruiting process. Both agreed they

would not have played a sport in college without a scholarship. As Gerdy (2002)

explains how we have become numb to the business side of sports, the idea is relevant in

Respondent 5 and Respondent 6 experiences. They were numb to the money and

scholarship aspect of picking a school.

Respondent 2 talks about early development with Track; “I kind of played with

played with the idea of doing track in college but once I realized I was able to get college
Running head: THE MEANING OF STUDENT-ATHLETE UNDER REVIEW 24

scholarship for track I started to apply and see where I could get in and then a number of

schools contacted me after that” (Respondent 2, personal communication, May 12, 2018).

This is an example of recruiting and scholarships coming together all at once.

Once Respondent 2 sent out her scores that were considered good along with her track

times and shortly after got a number of responses. This shows how advanced recruiting

has become now and the technology aspect behind it. Respondent 2 was also recruited

through a website similar to Respondent 5.

In relation to Gerdy (2006) who states sports have become powerful as well as

much more revolved around money and Renick (1974) informing there is a slight

difference between college athletics and professional athletics. The next theme is, do

these student-athletes view their sport as a job rather than an athletic activity?

In relation to his athletic career Respondent 4 says, “I got my first college letter

the summer going into my freshman year of high school and mentally, my sport instantly

became a job” (Respondent 4, personal communication, March 13, 2018).

Respondent 4 mentioned how he was only in 8th grade at the time and receiving

recognition from college coaches was a major deal to him. He mentioned how at that

moment his love for the sport was still there but he looked at it more so as a job. The

reason was because the attention from college coaches intensified his focus on basketball

because he saw he had a chance to play at the next level. Coaches were telling him

things he can work on in order to play at the next and many of the coaches were in

constant communication with him through text and email.

Respondent 4 elaborated on the transition into college, “When you get into

college it’s about as a job as you can get because you’re getting paid, they’re paying you
Running head: THE MEANING OF STUDENT-ATHLETE UNDER REVIEW 25

X amount, they’re paying for your whole school which is $52,000 a year for Spring Hill

to play your sport at the highest level. If you play baseball they’re paying you $52,000 a

year to hit a ball. It’s about as job-like as possible because they are literally paying you.”

(Respondent 4, personal communication, March 13, 2018).

Critical Theory

Critical theory is relevant in Respondent 4’s statements when he talked about the

power of money in his sport. Respondent 4 elaborated on his scholarship and how the

schools is paying him $52,000 a year to play basketball at a high level, not to perform at a

high level academically but to play his sport at a high level. The power of becoming a

great basketball player allowed Respondent 4 to have his college education paid for. The

love for sports he explained shifted more to earning college scholarships than playing his

sport when scholarships became relevant.

Respondent 2 spoke on viewing her sport as a job and a fun activity, “Some days I

am completely exhausted and I just don’t want to go but I have to. There are days that I

feel overwhelmed with schoolwork and practice. School has been really difficult at times

because there are weeks in which I have three tests and events that make balancing out

both a real challenge. Some nights I don’t get enough sleep and so forth” (Respondent 2,

personal communication, March 12, 2018).

Respondent 2 initially stated her sport was a job and elaborated that some days

can be fun but it is most certain a job. She mentions that she has to go to practice and

find a way to fit in everything else around it. Respondent 2 explains how practices take

up time and require preparation the day before to plan out the next day in order to

succeed academically. Just like on a job, she has to be there no matter what and plan out
Running head: THE MEANING OF STUDENT-ATHLETE UNDER REVIEW 26

her day around her sport. This is what makes most of her weeks hard with school. She

has to be participating in her sport that takes up time while also being able to perform

well in the classroom.

Respondent 2 spoke on sleep in which she struggles to get at times. Mazeika

(2015) mentions that athletes need more sleep than anyone else and that people should

get at least 8-10 hours of sleep a night. Mazeika (2015) also emphasized athletes need

more sleep in order to recover from their athletic activities.

Respondent 3 said, “Basketball definitely is more so of a job to me. Just like a

job you know, I have to put my all into it. Every time I step onto the court or every time I

need to do something extra. I believe it’s both for me” (Respondent 3, personal

communication, March 13, 2018).

Respondent 3 stated she feels at times her sport can be a job more so from the

mental perspective. Unlike Respondent 4 who looked at the situation more from a

financial side, Respondent 3 expressed her feelings and revealed that she loves basketball

but even that love requires a huge amount of energy and focus into succeeding at the

sport. The love takes up just as much time to her as any other job would. Out of the

eight respondents, six concluded that their sport was a job once he or she entered college.

Respondent 3 stated basketball can be mentally draining with the amount of time it

requires and most days when she attends practice and workout sessions it is a job like

approach.

Mental View

The next theme is about the mental view student-athletes have about their sport.

It is about how much desire they have about succeeding in their sport compared to
Running head: THE MEANING OF STUDENT-ATHLETE UNDER REVIEW 27

academics. The question provided is which is more important to them and which they

think about more, being an athlete or student.

Respondent 8 says, “It is definitely more on my sport because it felt like I had less

control over that where in terms of school I was never really too worried about it. I

always felt like if I just studied a little bit I should be fine. I never had sleepless nights

about school” (Respondent 8, personal communication, March 20, 2018).

This statement shows how Respondent 8 thought about his sport more than his

academics. Respondent 8 would only think about something he had less control over

which was his sport. Respondent 8 also explains that his sport demands so much time

that he constantly has to think about his sport in order to plan around it.

Respondent 1 says, “I definitely would say I think about my sport more than

anything else. I mean with traveling and the amount of attention it brings, it is constantly

on my mind whenever I’m away I try and just relax” (Respondent 1, personal

communication, March 12, 2018).

Traveling and uncertainness were key reasons why Respondent 8 stated his mind

was more on his sport rather than academics. Respondent 8 explained how his sport was

demanding throughout the year, while academics were only demanding for a couple of

weeks at a time.

Respondent 3 says, “Mentally I think more about my sport which kind of sucks

because in order to play my sport I have to be good academically but my sport demands

so much focus and attention it can be very challenging, at times more than I can handle”

(Respondent 3, personal communication, March 13, 2018).

Running head: THE MEANING OF STUDENT-ATHLETE UNDER REVIEW 28

This quote by Respondent 3 relates to the idea of athletes becoming controlled by

their sport. She is constantly watching film and only looking at schoolwork as an

obstacle to overcome in order to continue to prepare for her sport rather than using

education as an opportunity to grow and gain knowledge on different aspects of life.

Respondent 3 also acknowledges the academic standards while playing a sport and how

even with the grade requirement, her sport is still the primary focus.

Respondent 6 reflects on being overwhelmed while in college, “There are times

where I feel I feel I have way too much on my plate and my sport plays a significant role

in that. While I was choosing a major, my sport was a big influence in my decision.

Initially, I wanted to go into Bio Chemistry but trying to major in Bio Chemistry and play

a sport at the same time was way too much for me. The scheduling is hectic especially if

you are trying to maintain your GPA” (Respondent 6, personal communication, March

30, 2018).

Respondent 6 mentioned how playing his sport affected his decision in choosing a

major. This seemed to be a common theme among the respondents relating to the idea

that Respondents are thinking about their sport more than their academics. Respondents’

minds are more focused on being an athlete than a student

Respondents 4 says, “I know a ton of people, a ton of my good friends who play

sports in college and they can’t do majors like business and stuff because it’s too time

consuming resulting in them choosing majors that their not interested in. The plan is to

play professionally and when that doesn’t work out, they’re left with a degree in

something they are not interested in or don’t have a passion for” (Respondent 4, personal

communication, March 13 2018).

Running head: THE MEANING OF STUDENT-ATHLETE UNDER REVIEW 29

The last part mentioned by Respondent 4 relates to Wachter (2010) in one of the

reasons why so many athletes go broke. Many athletes get a degree in something they

are not interested in and when they are done playing their sport they are not prepared to

apply for a job they are interested in or have a passion for. Zimbalist (2001) emphasizes

how important a college education is and how it can prevent this problem from becoming

bigger and more relevant. He elaborates the fact that many athletes are treated like

professionals while there in college and it is difficult to focus on anything else except for

their sport (Zimbalist, 2001, p. 5).

Respondent 2 talks about her typical day being a student- athlete and how much

attention she draws towards her sport, “On a typical day I wake up at 7 or 6 depending on

if I have an 8 am and I will be busy until about 6:30 at night. Before the day starts I am

thinking about my sport because I have to plan around it” (Respondent 2, personal

communication, March 12, 2018).

Respondent 4 emphasized that she can’t even eat lunch because of her sport. 6

out of the 8 respondents state that they stress more about their sport than schoolwork. 6

of the 8 Respondents said mentally they think more about their sport because of the

demand it requires. Multiple Respondents state their sport is much more draining than

academics and the reason for this stress is because a lot of them feel they have to perform

well in fear of being asked to leave the school by their coach if they don’t perform up to

expectation.
Running head: THE MEANING OF STUDENT-ATHLETE UNDER REVIEW 30

Student-Athlete

The last theme that was asked of the Respondents was whether or not they

believed in the term student-athlete and if it relevant in their experience. 7 out of 8

Respondents said no.

Respondent 3 says, “I completely think that's a myth (referring to the term

student-athlete), we (student-athletes) are definitely athletes first before students. Some

of us probably wouldn’t even be here if it wasn’t for our sport. Scholarship wise, money

wise, we wouldn’t have a chance at an education. For us we have to put our sport first in

order to stay at a school like Spring Hill” (Respondent 3, personal communication, March

13, 2018).

Respondent 3 emphasized that student-athletes’ purpose for being at a school like

Spring Hill and for most that is the main reason they are there. Respondent 3 referred

back to the recruiting aspect and that when she was getting introduced to the school, most

of her vision was playing her sport and how she would enjoy playing a sport at the

school.

Respondent 5 says, “I would definitely say athlete first because it has gotten me

here. Scheduling obviously can be challenging but I always make sure my schoolwork

and other stuff is built around my athletic activities. Sports also requires more team

activities and I look at my schoolwork as my personal work that I can accomplish on my

own with it never interfering with my sport which is my ticket here” (Respondent 5,

personal communication, March 15 2018).

Respondent 5 emphasized similarly to Respondent 3’s answer in that we, as

athletes, would not be at the school without our sport. His mindset is always on his sport
Running head: THE MEANING OF STUDENT-ATHLETE UNDER REVIEW 31

because he explains he needs to succeed in his sport in order to stay at Spring Hill

because he has a scholarship for his sport, not his academics. The team atmosphere

involved with his sport is another important factor when scheduling.

Respondent 4 states, “It’s a joke (referring to student-athlete) it has never existed.

It’s always athlete first, that is the only reason I am at this school, it’s because I am an

athlete, my grades are not great but I am an athlete so that helps. It’s just a joke that

people say student-athlete, well its actually athlete-student no doubt, any day of the

week” (Respondent 4, personal communication, March 13, 2018).

Respondent 4 has a unique experience playing a collegiate sport at two different

colleges but stated at both schools it was athlete-student before student-athlete.

Respondent 4 mentioned how schools depend on the athlete and his or her team to bring

in revenue by winning games. He elaborated on freshman year, while playing in division

one, sports were the primary source of revenue for the school. Winning was emphasized

so much because the more they won, the more money the school would make.

In conclusion, based on the research, the word “student-athlete” is not relevant in

the total experience of most college athletes. With the time management playing a sport

requires, college athletes feel they are at a disadvantage when it comes to the classroom.

Gerdy (2006) made many points about sports becoming out of control and from talking

with the Respondents many of his observations are relevant. According to Gerdy (2006)

growing up with sports has changed, the overall meaning of sports has changed and now

from the Respondents’ answers, “student-athlete” has changed to “athlete-student”. 7 out

of the 8 respondents feel this way strongly and believe it. Out of the 5 themes, only one

was not relevant to the secondary research. That one refers to the youth aspect of sports.
Running head: THE MEANING OF STUDENT-ATHLETE UNDER REVIEW 32

Respondents consistently stated that they were not forced to participate in sports. They

all developed love for their sport at some point. In relation to the research question,

student-athlete has changed over time in these eight student-athletes. It is more so

“athlete-student” than “student-athlete” because of the mindset, preparation, dedication

and overall college experience that is dedicated to their sport.

Running head: THE MEANING OF STUDENT-ATHLETE UNDER REVIEW 33

Bibliography

1. Fletcher, T. B., Benshoff, J. M., & Richburg, M. J. (June 06, 2003). A Systems

Approach to Understanding and Counseling College Student-Athletes. Journal of

College Counseling, 6, 1, 35-45

2. Gerdy, J. R. (2006). Air ball: American education's failed experiment with elite

athletics. Jackson: University Press of Mississippi.

3. Gerdy, J. R. (2002). Sports: The all-American addiction. Jackson: University Press

of Mississippi.

4. Hyman.M. (2003, July 3). Of course colleges chase the money. Business Source

Premiere. Retrieved from http://web.b.ebscohost.com/bsi/detail

5. Krumme, A. (2006, October 3). Money matters in college athletics. The Louisville

Cardinal.

6. Mazeika.V. (2015, March 18). Hectic schedules mean student-athletes lose sleep.

San Jose Mercury News.

7. McNulty. M. (2016, October 8). A day in the life of a student athlete: balancing

school, sports and a social life. Utah Statesman

8. Oberteuffer, D. (1936). The Athlete and His College. The Journal of Higher

Education, 7(8), 437-442.

9. Potuto, J. R., O'Hanlon, ., & James, . (December 01, 2007). National Study of

Student-Athletes Regarding Their Experiences as College Students. College Student

Journal, 41, 4, 947-966.

10. Purdy, D., Eitzen, D., & Hufnagel, R. (1982). Are Athletes Also Students? The

Educational Attainment of College Athletes. Social Problems, 29(4), 439-448

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11. Renick, J. (1974). The Use and Misuse of College Athletics. The Journal of Higher

Education, 45(7), 545-552.

12. Sanderson, A., & Siegfried, J. (2015). The Case for Paying College Athletes. The

Journal of Economic Perspectives, 29(1), 115-137

13. Smith, J. M., & Willingham, M. (2015). Cheated: The UNC scandal, the education

of athletes, and the future of big-time college sports.

14. Whitner, P., & Myers, R. (1986). Academics and an Athelete: A Case Study. The

Journal of Higher Education, 57(6), 659-672

15. Wachter, Why Ballers Go Bust: An alarming number of star athletes end up broke.

Now leagues are trying to do something about it. (October 11, 2010). Business Week

New York-, 4199, 89-90

16. Zimbalist, A. S. (2001). Unpaid professionals: Commercialism and conflict in big-

time college sports: with a new postscript by the author. Princeton, N.J: Princeton

University Press
Running head: THE MEANING OF STUDENT-ATHLETE UNDER REVIEW 35

Appendix A:

List of Interview Questions

Running head: THE MEANING OF STUDENT-ATHLETE UNDER REVIEW 36

List of Sample Questions

1. How much time would you say you spend a week on athletics compared to

academics?

2. Mentally, would you say you think more about your sports or academics?

3. What are some of your greatest memories of college?

4. Are most of the friends you made in college also athletes?

5. What is a typical day like for you in college?

6. Do you feel overwhelmed at times during college?

7. Do you feel more important while playing a sport?

8. Have you ever been judged as just an athlete while being in college?

9. What’s your major?

10. Did being an athlete affect your decision on choosing this major? How so?

11. Do you think if you didn’t play a sport you could have pursued some interests not

involving athletics?

12. What are those interests?

13. Do you dream of playing a professional sport?

14. How do you see yourself after college?

15. Do you wish/see yourself continuing to play sports after college?

Running head: THE MEANING OF STUDENT-ATHLETE UNDER REVIEW 37

Appendix B:

IRB Permission Letter

Running head: THE MEANING OF STUDENT-ATHLETE UNDER REVIEW 38

To: Jack Morrissey & Dr. Christina Kotchemidova

From: Chelsea Greer

Chair, Institutional Review Board
Date: 3/7/2018
RE: IRB Proposal Number IRB2017-16

The IRB has reviewed and approved your proposal submitted on February 8, 2018 (The Meaning
of “Student-athlete”: A qualitative research paper). This approval is effective from today’s date
until March 7, 2019. Reminder: If you find it necessary to make any changes to your protocol,
you will need to submit those changes to the IRB for approval.

If you wish to renew next year, simply send a brief note requesting the renewal of IRB2017-
16. You will not need to go through the IRB approval process next year if the protocol and
measures stay the same.
We wish you the best with your project.
Running head: THE MEANING OF STUDENT-ATHLETE UNDER REVIEW 39

Appendix C:

Sample Consent Form

Running head: THE MEANING OF STUDENT-ATHLETE UNDER REVIEW 40

Spring Hill College

4000 Dauphin Street
Mobile, AL 36608
Researcher(s): Jack Morrissey
Title of Research Project: The Meaning of “Student-athlete”

CONSENT TO PARTICIPATE IN RESEARCH

You are being invited to participate in a research study on the meaning of the term
“student-athlete.”

Before you agree to participate, the investigator needs to tell you about (i) the purposes,
procedures, and duration of the research; (ii) any procedures which are experimental;
(iii) any reasonably foreseeable risks, discomforts, and benefits of the research; (iv) any
potentially beneficial alternative procedures or treatments; and (v) how confidentiality
will be maintained. If you agree to participate, you must be given a signed copy of this
form and a written summary of the research.

The purpose of this research is to study the experience of student-athletes. You will be
asked questions about your college experience as an athlete for 15-30 minutes depending
on the length of your answers. You will be able to chose if you want to be recorded or
not. Your participation in this research is completely voluntary. There is no anticipated
risk for participating. If you start feeling uncomfortable for any reason you will be free to
stop answering and leave. You will also be allowed to skip any question you do not wish
to answer. The interviewer is the only person who will know your name and likeness.
Your name will not be linked to your answers and will not appear in the study. Your
answers and your consent form will remain secured in the interviewer’s custody and will
be destroyed in May 2018.

You may contact Jack Morrissey at 224-545-3874 any time you have questions about the
research. If you have questions about your rights as a research subject, you may contact
the Institutional Review Board Chair at [email protected]

Your signature on this document means that this research study has been explained to
you, that the explanation includes the above information, that you are 19 or older, and
that you agree voluntarily to participate.

________________________ ________________________
Signature of Participant Signature of Witness
Running head: THE MEANING OF STUDENT-ATHLETE UNDER REVIEW 41

_________________________ ________________________
Typed/printed Name Typed/printed name

__________________________ _______________________
Date Date