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Biology Module 2

Organisation of Living Things

Topic
Organisation of
Outline
Living Things

5. Internal
1. Organisation Transport in Animals
of Cells Structure & function of human
circulatory system
Unicellular, colonial & multicellular
Changes during circulation
Cell differentiation
Open & closed systems
Tissues, organs, systems

2. Structure & 3. Digestion

Function in Plants in a Mammal
Structure & function of a leaf Physical & Chem.digestion 4. Gas Exchange
More about photosynthesis Structure & function of dig.system in Animals
Vascular systems Enzymes Absorption Mammal Respiratory System;
Gas exchange structures structure & function
Autotroph & heterotroph requirements Gas exchange in other animals

What is this topic about?

To keep it as simple as possible, (K.I.S.S. Principle) this topic covers:
1. Organisation of Cells
Unicellular, colonial & multicellular life-forms.
How multicellularity is organised: differentiated cells, tissues, organs & systems. Why this works.

2. Structure & Function in Plants

Structure & function of a Leaf. Stomates. More on photosynthesis. Vascular systems; xylem & phloem.
Gas exchange. Comparison: what autotrophs & heterotrophs need.

3. Digestion in a Mammal
Physical & chemical digestion, absorption, elimination. Structure of mammalian Digestive System.
Details of enzymes. Details of absorption.

4. Gas Exchange in Animals

Mammalian Respiratory System, structure & function. Gas exchange in frogs, insects, fish.

5. Internal Transport in Animals

What is carried in blood. Blood cells. Veins, arteries & capillaries. Structure & function of the heart.
Changes to the blood during circulation. Open & closed circulatory systems.
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1. Organisation of Cells
In the previous module you covered aspects of cell structure & function, including the main organelles,
functioning of the membranes, the basics of cell chemicals, chemical processes & control by enzymes.
You also covered the differences between eukaryotic & prokaryotic cells.
We begin this module with more about cells, but with an emphasis on the differences between:
Unicellular, Colonial & Multicellular Life-Forms
Unicellular Living Things Multicellular Living Things
Most of the individual living things on Earth are It is often a survival advantage for a living thing to
composed of a single, living cell. To survive as be large. Larger organisms can gather more food
a single-celled organism, the cell must be (or other resources) from the environment. Large
capable of carrying out ALL the functions organisms deter predators, or can overwhelm their
necessary... feeding, moving about, prey. They can dominate their “herd” and mate
reproducing, etc. more often to produce more offspring... in many
cases, BIG is good.
A classic example of a unicellular life-form is
the common water-living Paramecium. It However, (as you found out in Module 1) a large
swims strongly using tiny beating hairs called single cell has a smaller SA:Vol. ratio. A single cell
cilia. It is a voracious predator in its much bigger than a Paramecium cannot feed itself
microscopic world, feeding on smaller efficiently.
organisms, then growing rapidly &
reproducing by dividing in two (asexual). It The solution to this conundrum was taken by our
can also exchange genetic material with a evolutionary ancestors at least 600 million years
compatible ago... they became multicellular.
partner in a
primitive Paramecium All familiar plants and animals are multicellular...
version of they are made up of trillions of small cells.
sexual
reproduction. The cells are all
pretty much the
You should be same size. For
able to example, the
recognise cells in a
from the mouse are
diagram that exactly the
Paramecium is eukaryotic. The cell is packed same size as
with membrane-based organelles. Each has the cells in an
its own function which contributes to the elephant... the elephant simply has a lot more
overall capabilities of the organism. cells.

Despite the millions of Paramecia which might The single cell of a unicellular life-form must be
inhabit a pond, they are actually far able to do everything.
outnumbered by the trillions of much smaller
Bacteria & Archaea cells. These prokaryotes In a multi-cellular creature, however, each part of
lack true organelles, but have cell stuctures the body is specialised to do a particular job,
(eg a flagellum, or whip-like “tail”, for moving) and usually has many different specialist cells.
& different “regions” within the cell. This For example, muscle cells are different to nerve
allows each cell to carry out the necessary cells, and blood cells are different again. Before
life-functions. Being very small gives them a we take this idea further, there will be a slight
high SA:Vol. ratio, which gives maximum digression to consider the “in-between” stage
efficiency. between unicellular & multicellular life...

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Colonial Life-Forms
keep it simple science
There are a variety of (generally unrelated) living A Colonial Alga - Volvox
things which are somewhere in-between the A green alga (photosynthetic eukaryote) called
unicellular & multicellular states. They might “Volvox” is an example of a colonial life-form
perhaps give us a glimpse of some possible which has taken a few steps towards true
evolutionary pathways from being unicellular multicellularity.
towards multicellularity.

Mats & Biofilms

Many unicellular life-forms (in aquatic
environments) live in thin mats & sheets of millions
of cells, often secreting a mucus or jelly-like slime
for protection of the colony. As cells die, a new layer
may grow over them. Particles of sand & silt may be
trapped in the mucus forming a solid matrix with the
living mat of cells on Image by
top. Over time, they Frank Fox.
can grow taller to CCA-SA 3.0
form stromatolites,
like these in Shark
Up to 50,000 cells form a hollow sphere. Each cell
Bay, WA. Fossils of
identical structures has a flagellum pointed outwards & the colony is
dating back to over able to co-ordinate the beating of the flagella to
3 billion years ago swim towards light which is needed for food
have been found production. Also embedded in the sphere are
world-wide, so specialist reproductive cells which cause
obviously this simple colonial way of life is very production of “daughter colonies” inside the
ancient. sphere.

However, this is NOT multicellular life. Each of the Volvox, therefore, has 2 distinct cell types with
cells is an individual which lives independently & is separate functions and (somehow) has the ability
not part of an organised larger organism. None of
to co-ordinate its activities.
the cells have specialised functions, they simply
live together.
Sponges
Slime Moulds These simple
This little cutey is animals are
known as the “Dog’s undoubtably
Vomit Slime Mould”. multicellular,
For a long time such but only just.
critters were thought
to belong to the If a sponge is
Fungi kingdom. Now pulverised
they are classified through a meat
among the Protista, as ameoba-like protozoans grinder, then
(eukaryotic, single-celled, animal-like cells). Most of placed
the time, these cells live individually in moist soil, undisturbed in a tank of sea water, the surviving
feeding on bacteria. individual cells are capable of reassembling
themselves into a new, living sponge.
However, when certain conditions occur the cells give
off chemicals which cause other cells of their species Sponges consist of several types of specialised
to come together and merge into a mass as large as cells (each with a particular function) but there are
your fingernail, or larger. Their movements become no organs, no nerves or muscles and certainly no
co-ordinated so the mass slowly moves as one. Some body systems comparable to our digestive or
cells sacrifice themselves to die & form rigid spikes respiratory systems.
of dead cells with living reproductive cells at the tip.
These spikes protrude above the main “body” & They are capable of co-ordinating some of their
release spores which drift away to germinate new activities and some species can even “walk”
single-celled individuals. Later, the “body” may split- around the environment at an amazing speed of
up again and the cells disperse into the soil to about 5 mm per day.
become unicellular individuals once more.

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Multicellularity
keep it simple science
Cell Differentiation Nerve Cells (Neurons)
These are the basic units of your Nervous System.
Plants and animals are made of many cells, but each They are responsible for sending signals around the
organism is not just a jumble of cells living and growing body to control & co-ordinate your movements &
in a big lump. There is always an organised structure to bodily functions. They also carry signals in the
the way their bodies are built. network of cells within your brain which make
thinking, memory, emotions & personality all
Firstly, not all the cells in a multicellular organism are the happen.
same. They are differentiated into many shapes and sizes.
Each cell type does a different “job” in the body, and has How does their structure suit their function?
the shape, size and ability to match that function. For Neurons need to carry signals and connect to each
example... other & other body parts such as muscles. In the
brain they need to make many connections to form
Red Blood Cells (Erithrocytes) networks. A nerve signal involves the movement of
The red blood cells are responsible for carrying oxygen K+ and Na+ ions across a membrane. In-between
around your body. signals, the neuron must “re-charge” by pumping
ions across the membrane again. This requires
How does their structure suit function? energy. (See Na-K Pump, Module 1)
Firstly, consider what they have to do:
They achieve all this by:
• carry maximum oxygen, with fast • having at least 1 “axon”. This is a long thin cell
transfer of O2 in/out of the cell by diffusion. projection to carry a nerve signal over a distance.
The axon is insulated like an electrical wire, to
• they must survive being bashed around in the heart & prevent the signal crossing into the wrong pathway.
arteries.
• having many “dendrites”. These are signal
They achieve all this by: receivers. Signals from other neurons are received &
• being completely packed full of the O2 carrier passed on along the axon.
haemoglobin. To fit more in, they have sacrificed most of
their own cell organelles (no nucleus!) • having many mitochondria. The neuron needs a lot
of energy to run the Na-K Pump almost constantly.
• being quite small. This gives them a high SA:Vol. ratio
for rapid diffusion of O2 in or out across their cell
membrane. Their size also suits the body’s smallest
capillaries perfectly.

• having a rounded “donut shape” is ideal for the rough Image by

& tumble of flowing in the blood stream. Mind you, they Bruce Blaus
don’t survive for long and your body replaces many CCA 3.0
millions of them every day.
Every specialist cell type in a multicellular organism has features
(size, shape, organelles, etc) which suit its function.

but it’s more than just specialist cells...

In every multicellular organism each cell type occurs in
aggregations called “tissues”. At right is a Image by
microscopic UC Regents
Tissues view of part of Davis campus
CCA 3.0
A tissue is a collection of cells of the same type which an animal
grow to form a layer, or tube, or network, etc. brain. The
things looking
They work together to like plant roots
carry out a particular are neurons
function. For example, connected in a
epithelium tissue has network... this
the job of forming a is nerve tissue.
barrier, a coating or a
lining for part of the Other types of tissues include muscle
body, such as skin, or tissue, bone tissue and connective tissue,
the lining of the mouth as well as specialist tissue in secretory
& airways. glands such as the thyroid or pancreas.

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Organisation of Multicellularity (cont.)
keep it simple science

Organs Organ Systems

At the next level of A number of organs work with
organisation, a number of each other to carry out an overall
tissues, arranged in task. For example, the heart,
particular shapes, layers & arteries, veins and capillary organs
patterns, are combined to all connect to form the circulatory
form an organ, such as a system which distributes
heart, a kidney, a shin bone substances (food, water, oxygen)
around the body.
or an eye.
Other systems include the digestive system,
With muscle, nerve, connective & epithelium the respiratory system and so on. The 3
tissues all working together, the organ carries systems mentioned are the subject of the
out a particular function. e.g. the heart pumps remainder of this topic, along with the
blood, the eye senses light. corresponding systems in plants.

The photo shows the liver, the largest internal Organism

organ in the body of most mammals. Finally, all the organ systems fuctioning
efficiently in a co-ordinated manner form the
Challenge Question: What is the largest human complete multicellular life-form... an organism.
organ, by weight? (answer given later... somewhere)

Why Have Tissues, Organs & Systems?

Every Cell Needs Things Specialisation = Better Performance
Every living cell needs food, water and If every cell in your body had to carry out every
oxygen. Each cell must be able to get rid function for itself, it would have a very low ability.
of its waste products.
For example, if every cell had to see, breathe, talk,
In a multicellular organism most of the jump and think then each cell would not be able to do
cells are deep inside the body. They any one thing very well. Each cell would be a “jack-of-
cannot get food, water or oxygen unless all-trades, master of none”. By itself, each cell would
it is carried to them. not see much, nor jump very far.

The major body systems carry out the By having specialised tissues, organs and systems,
tasks of getting food, water and oxygen your body can do each task very well. Your eye is
and transporting them around so that excellent for seeing things, but useless for jumping.
every cell gets what it needs. That’s OK, because your muscles and bones can do
all the jumping.
A healty human shows her

Co-ordination = Efficiency
skill & co-ordination.

Once a living thing has the capability (for example) to see

things and to jump, then it will all work best if the 2 tasks are
co-ordinated, so it can see where to jump.
Try Worksheet 1
Multicellular organisms have specialised systems to
co-ordinate all their body functions. If you need food, your
eyes locate it, your muscles and bones move to get it, your
digestive system absorbs it into the blood, and your heart
and blood vessels transport it to all your cells.

You are a co-ordinated, multicellular organism. Specialised cells, tissues, organs &
systems give you many amazing capabilities, which you carry out with great efficiency.
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2. Structure & Functioning of a Plant
In Module 1 you revised some details of photosynthesis and the chloroplasts in plant cells where it occurs.
Now, we look at plants as multicellular organisms & study some important body systems & structures.
Note: There are at least 5 major “types” of plants. Here we will concentrate on “Angiosperms”...
the flowering plants which include most familiar examples.

Main Systems & Structures in a Plant

Leaves
A leaf may be considered as an organ within the “photosynthesis
system”. Each leaf contains a variety of tissues, each of which
has its own cell type.

This system of leaves is not only the main site of food production
by photosynthesis, but is involved with and connected to the
systems responsible for “transpiration” & “translocation.”

Stem, Trunk & Branch

The stem system of a plant has 2 main functions:
1. To support the plant & hold leaves up in the light.
2. To act as conduits for the transport of water (“transpiration”) & food
(“translocation”) around the plant.

Other Notable Structures Roots

Flowers: reproductive organs. The root system is responsible for:
Buds: growth points for new leaves, roots, • anchoring the plant in the soil.
or flowers. • absorbing water & minerals from the soil.
• food storage, such as in tubers (eg potato).
The root systems of some plants have other
Challenge Question: Answer
specialised functions.
The Skin. (Yes, skin is an organ!)
Research “legumes” to learn more.
Average weight of human skin = 8 kg approx.

More About Photosynthesis

Here is a quick reminder of some information covered in Module 1.
6H2O + 6CO2 C6H12O6 + 6O2 Glucose is a monosaccharide sugar, a member of
the carbohydrate group. It is easy for a plant to
Summarising photosynthesis with this brief equation convert glucose into other types of carbohydrate.
is very deceptive. Photosynthesis actually occurs as GLUCOSE Disaccharide sugars,
a complex series of chemical steps inside the molecules such as sucrose
chloroplast.
joined in pairs
There are 2 main stages, which take place in different
parts of the chloroplast, as summarised below.
PHOTOSYNTHESIS in the CHLOROPLAST
jo oly
(p
in m
ed er

Phase 1
in isa

In the grana,
10 tio

chlorophyll ligh
00 n)

t
’s

absorbs light
energy and
uses it to
split water STARCH
molecules CELLULOSE for storage of
into for building new
Phase 2 food
hydrogen cell walls
and oxygen. In the stroma, a cycle of reactions
The oxygen builds glucose from CO2 and the In fact, plants convert glucose to STARCH so rapidly
is released. hydrogen extracted from that the cells in a plant leaf become packed with
the water. starch grains when it is photosynthesising.

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The Structure of the Leaf
keep it simple science A plant leaf is a factory for photosynthesis. A typical leaf is built so that every part of its
design is suited to the achievement of that one objective... making food.
It is a classic case of Structure matches Function.

A leaf is generally broad, flat and The “veins” contain xylem tubes for
thin. This gives it maximum carrying water and minerals up from
surface area for absorbing light the roots, and phloem tubes for
and carbon dioxide from the air. carrying manufactured food away.
A leaf is thin enough that light Being specially reinforced with
penetrates to reach each layer of tough “lignin”, the veins also
cells within, for maximum support the flimsy leaf, and keep it
photosynthesis. in shape and positioned to catch
maximum light.
The cuticle is a layer of clear,
The Palisade Layer of waxy material. It allows light The epidermis layer
MICROSCOPIC
cells are tightly packed in through, but is waterproof to of cells is transparent
CROSS SECTION
an orderly row immediately prevent excessive water loss. like a window, to let
THROUGH A
under the top epidermis light through to the
LEAF
where there is maximum cells underneath.
light. Each cell contains
many chloroplasts. This is Veins run throughout each
the “engine room” for
leaf. The xylem tubes bring
photosynthesis.
water and minerals from the
roots and release them into
The Spongy Layer has the spongy layer. From
very loosely packed cells, there, some diffuses into the
with lots of spaces cells for photosynthesis,
around them. This allows while the rest evaporates
gases (CO2 & O2) and
through the stomates.
water to easily move
around by diffusion.
There are phloem tubes as
well, which collect the food
The lower leaf surface has many openings, called manufactured in the leaf
“stomates”. These allow: cells and carry it away to
feed other parts of the plant,
• water to evaporate from the leaf (Transpiration). such as roots, stem and
This ensures that water and minerals continue to
flowers which might not be
be “sucked up” from the roots. magnified and
rotated to able to photosynthesise.
surface view
• CO2 to diffuse into the leaf for photosynthesis.
Veins also act as reinforcing,
• O2 to diffuse out of the leaf into the air. helping to keep the flimsy
A magnified surface view of a stomate is shown. leaf deployed to catch
maximum light.
Phase-contrast Microscope
photo of guard cells
forming a stomate.

Photo by Alex Costa

(used under Creative
Commons Attribution
opening

2.5 Generic Licence)

Pore

Each stomate pore is an opening formed

between two special “guard cells”.
These cells can change shape to open
the pore, or close it up to minimise water
loss in dry conditions. The guard cells Electron microscope view
change shape by using osmosis to SURFACE VIEW of a single stomate
either pump-up full of water (pore open), OF A STOMATE
on a tomato leaf.
or deflate and shrivel (pore closed).
Try Worksheet 2
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® A question that may have occurred to you is, “how do scientists know the details of
complex chemistry in living things?” This page (mostly reprinted from Module 1) will
keep it simple science
remind you of the technology used to unravel such things.

Isotopic Tracers
Within each microscopic living cell, thousands of
chemical reactions are constantly occurring. Many
processes involve a sequence or chain of Example of the “Tracer” Method
reactions which need to occur in strict order, each Photosynthesis in plants:
one controlled by enzymes with a precise shape to
“grab” chemicals and either ram them together, or carbon + water glucose + oxygen
tear them apart, then “hand them on” to the next dioxide
step.

How have we been able to unravel such

CO2 + H2O glucose + O2
complexity occurring within a pin-point-sized bag
of life? Traditional, test-tube chemical analysis Now, here is a simple question about this process:
does NOT get you very far.
Where does the oxygen (O2) come from? Is it the
Isotopes oxygen originally in the CO2 or is it from the H2O?
You should already be aware that all chemical
elements occur in 2 or more variant forms called If a plant is exposed to CO2 containing some atoms
isotopes. The difference is the number of neutrons of a different isotope of oxygen, that isotope will be
in the nucleus of each atom. Some isotopes are later detected entirely in the glucose.
unstable & may spontaneously emit various
radiations... they are “radioactive”. However, if a plant is exposed to H2O containing
some atoms of the different isotope of oxygen, the
One of the best known examples concerns 2 of the isotope will be later detected entirely in the oxygen
isotopes of carbon: gas released from the plant.
“Carbon-12” “Carbon-14”
Therefore, all the oxygen gas in our atmosphere
(which has been released from photosynthesising
plants) was originally in water molecules. This
experiment has “traced” the pathway of oxygen
6p+ atoms through the process.
6p+
6n0 8n0
This is an extremely simple example of how the
“tracer method” can be used to study chemical
12 pathways in living cells.
6 C 14
6 C
Since they have the same number of electrons,
these atoms are chemically identical and react the
same way. However, carbon-14 is radio-active and
can be identified by the radiation it emits.

Tracing the Movements of Sugars & Starch

If a plant is exposed to light and to CO2 containing some radioactive C-14, a leaf sample will be found to
contain radioactive glucose & starch almost immediately. Some time later, a sample from the veins in the
stem will be found to contain radioactive sucrose (or other similar sugar).
Later still, the roots will be found to contain radioactive starch in the storage cells or tubers.

This gives clues about what the plant is doing to convert its carbohydrates into different forms AND how
this is linked to the movements of food chemicals throughout the plant.
Movement of materials through a plant is studied in more detail next.

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® The Vascular System (Veins) of a Plant

keep it simple science In order to photosynthesise, plants must collect water and carbon dioxide.
You have learnt about the stomates which allow CO2 to enter the leaves by simple
diffusion. In a land plant, water is collected by the roots from the soil and travels up to the leaves through
tubes called xylem. But first, how does the water get into the roots? Transverse Section of Root
Plants Absorb Water through special Once absorbed into the
outgrowths on the roots called “root hairs”. root hair cells, water
diffuses from cell to cell
Each root hair is part of one, very elongated towards the central xylem
cell. Root hairs help absorption of water by tubes which carry the
greatly increasing the surface area of the root in water (and dissolved
contact with the soil. minerals) upwards to the
photo by
leaves. This upward Truthlobby
MICROSCOPIC VIEW NEAR A ROOT TIP flow is achieved by CCA-SA 3.0
the plant constantly allowing water vapour to
LONGITUDINAL TRANSVERSE evaporate from each leaf (“Transpiration”). This
SECTION SECTION creates a “suction” at the top of the xylem tube, like
XYLEM TUBES drinking through a straw.
Phloem
tubes Alongside the xylem tubes are the phloem tubes
which carry food from the leaves to any part of the
plant which cannot photosynthesise... especially
down to the roots.

Together the xylem and phloem tubes form the

“veins”, or Vascular System, in a plant. There is no
circulation like our blood. These are two separate,
one-way-flow systems.
ROOT HAIRS
Outgrowths from Epidermis
epidermis cells layer Only about 2-3% of the water carried up from the
roots is used for photosynthesis. Most of it simply
The actual absorption of water is achieved by evaporates from the stomates into the atmosphere.
So what’s the point?
osmosis. The cells actively transport soil
minerals inside themselves. Now their • Evaporation from the leaves keeps the plant cool in a
cytoplasm has a higher solute concentration hot climate.
than the water solution in the soil. Water
diffuses into the cell (due to osmosis) through • Plants need a steady supply of soil minerals to
the cell membrane of the root hair cells. manufacture proteins. The constant upward flow of water
carries the dissolved minerals needed.
Hollow, dead cells, joined end-to-end
Xylem Tubes Carry Water forming a tube
Xylem tubes are dead, hollow cells, joined end-to-end forming
a continuous tube from root to leaf. The xylem tubes
transport water (and dissolved minerals).

Photo at left: SEM image of plant stem showing hollow xylem tubes. Cell walls re-inforced with rings
CCA-SA 3.0 unported licence. Image by McKDandy at en.wikipedia.
and spirals of lignin

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Plant Vacular System (cont.)
keep it simple science How do xylem tubes lift water upwards against the force of gravity?
“Transpiration” Cohesion & Adhesion
is the evaporation of water from the leaves. When the Another factor which helps the process is
stomates are open, water can constantly evaporate, creating called “capillarity” or the “capillary effect”.
a tension, or “pull” in the remaining water in the leaves. This is the way that water can “climb up”
the walls of a container forming a meniscus
Water molecules are quite strongly attracted to each other in a test tube, for example. This happens
and tend to cling tightly together. This force is called because water molecules are not only
“cohesion” and is the reason that water tends to form attracted to each other (“cohesion”) but
droplets... little blobs of water that cling together. also to some other substances such as
glass or the inside of a xylem tube. This
So, when water evaporates from leaves and creates a “pull” attraction is called “adhesion”.
force, each water molecule pulls on those behind it because
of the cohesion. Each molecule pulls others upward and so In very narrow tubes (“capillaries”) the
the entire column of water in a xylem tube moves upwards water will climb upwards against gravity
to replace the water lost by transpiration. So water is pulled because of adhesion, and drag more
upwards by a combination of transpiration and cohesion. molecules along by cohesion. This happens
This flow is called the “transpiration stream”. in xylem and helps lift water upwards.
This model explaining xylem function is known as the “Transpiration-Cohesion-Tension Theory”

Experimenting with Transpiration

The piece of equipment involved is called a “potometer”. High-tech
equipment is available, but the diagram suggests a simple A home-made
home-made version which works just as well.
Potometer
To Make Your Potometer...
1. Cut a leafy branch from a healthy shrub so that the Leafy
end of the cut stem is about the same diameter as your plant
clear plastic tubing. Keep your plant cutting in water until cutting
ready to assemble.

2. Insert a laboratory capillary tube (30-40 cm) tightly

clamp
into one end of your plastic tubing (about 50 cm)
hypodermic needle &
forming an air-tight connection.
syringe filled with water
3. Immerse the tubes in a tub of water & ensure both are air bubble
filled with water, with no air bubbles. Holding everything glass sucked in at
underwater, insert the plant cutting in the other end of the capillary tube or end of tube
plastic tubing. Ensure an air-tight seal with a blob of graduated pipette
petroleum jelly generously smeared around the joint. clear plastic
tubing, filled
4. Clamp the plant cutting upright, but keep the with water
ruler. (attach to capillary with rubber bands)
capillary tube end underwater until ready to begin
measuring.
Possible Experiments...
How It Works... 1. Measure & calculate the rate of transpiration of your
plant cutting to find a “baseline” value.
As the plant transpires, it will suck water from the plastic
tube and capillary. To measure the transpiration rate you
2. Measure again while a fan blows air over the leaves
lift the capillary tube end out of the water & line it up (to simulate windy weather).
beside a ruler. (or, use rubber bands to strap ruler &
capillary together) 3. Try using a fan heater (NOT TOO CLOSE) to simulate a
hot wind.
As the plant sucks water, an air bubble will now be drawn
in at the end. You can measure how fast the air bubble 4. Measure rates of transpiration with the Potometer in
moves in (say) mm per minute. If you know the diameter dim light compared to bright light (at same temperature).
of the capillary, you can calculate the actual volume of
Results could be analysed with appropriate graphs.
water being transpired in mm3 per min.
When you change the conditions the plant is subjected to,
When the bubble gets close to filling the capillary, re-set you may need to give the plant time to “recover” and
by injecting water into the plastic tube with a hypodermic return to normal. During this waiting period, the capillary
needle. This will force the air out of the capillary so you needs to be immersed in water so that air bubbles are not
can take more measurements. sucked into the plastic tube.

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® Phloem Tubes Carry Food Nutrients

keep it simple science While the xylem tubes are formed from dead cells, the phloem are living cells
joined end-to-end. The ends of each cell are perforated (“sieve plates”)
so each cell is open into the next and they form a continuous tube.

The transportation of nutrients through the Sieve plate

Phloem Tubes is called “Translocation”. between cells.

PHLOEM CELL
Sugars are actively alive and filled with cytoplasm.
transported in the flow
Flow of cytoplasm carries sugars
of cytoplasm within the through each cell.
cells.

Translocation Works 2-Ways

While the xylem is a one-way flow system, the phloem system can
carry food (especially sugars) in either direction. “Companion
cells”
If a lot of photosynthesis is occurring, the phloem will carry sugar to have many
storage sites in roots or stem. mitochondria
to provide
If photosynthesis is not possible for an extended time, then the ATP to the
phloem will carry sugars back from the storage sites to feed the phloem cells
leaf cells, or supply a growing flower or fruit.
Active & Passive Transport Under a microscope,
the cell cyoplasm in
Note that the flow of water in the xylem costs the plant nothing each cell can be seen
in energy terms... it is “passive” transport. flowing from one end
to the other.
In contrast, transport in the phloem is an “active transport” This “cytoplasmic
system... the plant must constantly supply energy to make streaming” seems to
it happen. cycle around within
each cell, passing food
molecules through the
The sugar (or other nutrients) carried in the phloem is
“sieve plate” into the
often a disaccharide sugar such as sucrose (table next cell.
sugar). Although photosynthesis produces glucose
initially, it is rapidly converted to starch to avoid The “veins” in a leaf are bundles of tubes
osmotic pressure problems due to the dissolved sugar. with both xylem AND phloem. There are also
However, starch molecules are too large to be transported by many strong fibres which add strength and
cytoplasm flows. The starch is converted to sucrose (or help keep the leaf in shape so it gathers light
similar) for transport, then back to starch at its destination. without “drooping”.

What Makes the “Sap” Flow?

Sugar is carried into cells by
active transport, requiring
SOURCE energy. Water flows in due to
Higher
Pressure osmosis, raising the pressure.
PH

Translocation...
LO

how it works
EM
Tra

Sugar solution
TU

flows due to
n

BE
slo

pressure The flow of nutrients through the phloem is caused

S
ca

differential by pressure differences between the “Source” tissues

tio

and the “Destination”.

n

Sugar is removed by
active transport, requiring The pressure difference is osmosic pressure,
energy. Water flows out of DESTINATION generated by active transport of sugars causing water
cells due to osmosis, Lower Pressure to flow into, or out of cells.
lowering the pressure.

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®
Gas Exchange in a Plant
keep it simple science Each part of a plant carries out gas exchange with a different structure.

Stomates Lenticels
are simple structures on the stems and
Stomates allow gas exchange in a leaf. Their trucks of plants which allow gas exchange
structure and functioning was covered earlier. to the cells by simple diffusion from the air.
MAGNIFIED Tightly packed
SURFACE VIEW OF cells in stem.
A STOMATE
Surface cells

Lenticel
opening

Loosely
Pore opening packed cells
allow gases
to diffuse

Root Hairs
in and out

were covered earlier in connection with water absorption.

Because they increase the surface area of the roots, root hairs are important for gas exchange as well as
water absorption. Oxygen in soil spaces, or dissolved in soil water simply diffuses into the root hair
cells, and spreads to other root cells by further diffusion.

Try Worksheets 3 & 4

Comparison: what Autotrophs & Heterotrophs Need

In this section of the syllabus the “Inquiry Question” is about the differences between the nutrient & gas
requirements of autotrophs compared to heterotrophs. Basically, this question was answered in Module 1,
if you realise that multicellular life-forms require whatever their cells need.
This table from Module 1 summarises the comparison.

Requirements Plants Animals

eukaryotic autotrophic eukaryotic heterotrophic

ENERGY Light for photosynthesis Complex, high energy carbohydrates

or (or lipids & proteins which can be
NUTRIENTS converted) made by other organisms

H2O & CO2 (photosynthesis) H 2O

SIMPLE
O2 (cellular resp.) O2
CHEMICALS
A range of simple inorganic A range of “minerals” & “vitamins”
“minerals” (ions) including which are generally supplied in a
nitrates, phosphates, sulfates, “balanced diet”. (What this means
calcium, magnesium, etc. varies from one species to another)

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keep it simple science

3. Digestion in a Mammal
Animals are Heterotrophs. They must eat energy-rich food made by other organisms, either plants or other animals.
In this section we will consider only the case of mammals, not all animals.
The food a mammal eats is composed largely of complex carbohydrates, proteins and fats
which must be digested before being absorbed into the body and used by the cells.
Digestion mainly involves chemically breaking large molecules down into smaller units
which can be carried around the body and transported across cell membranes.
ENZYME
Starch
Sugar
molecule
molecules

Protein ENZYME
Amino acid
molecule
molecules

However, overall there are 4 processes involved which need to be considered:

Physical Digestion is the physical cutting & mashing of the food, mainly achieved by the chewing of food in
the mouth. Breaking the food into smaller fragments increases the surface area available for chemical attack by enzymes.

Chemical Digestion involves digestive enzymes as suggested by the diagrams above. More details below.

Digestive Enzymes: Agents of Chemical Digestion

You will soon see a pattern here... a name ending in “-ase” is generally the name of an enzyme.

Protease
A “protease” is a digestive enzyme which attacks proteins.
Most proteases attack a protein chain only at the location
of a specific amino acid. There are a variety of
proteases, each with its own “target” amino acid.
The enzyme latches on to its “target”
(remember the lock-and-key idea)
and breaks the connecting bond between amino acids.

For example, consider an enzyme which breaks the bond These protein
to the right of the triangular amino acid in the diagram. fragments of
variable length are
Later in the digestive process, other protease enzymes (called called “peptides”
“peptidases”) will attack these peptide fragments
and eventually chop them up into individual amino acids.

Lipase
Lipase enzymes attack lipids... the fats & oils, breaking them into individual “fatty acids” & glycerol. Glycerol is a small
sugar-like molecule which holds 3 fatty acids together to make a fat molecule.

For a lipase enzyme to digest a fat molecule, the fat must first be emulsified into water solution.
This is achieved by secretions from the gall bladder.
Amylase
Many foods contain “starch”, a polymer of sugar molecules. There are several different types of starch, but the
commonest is known as “amylose”. So (you guessed it!) the digestive enzyme that attacks it is called “amylase”.

Starch molecule, A mixture of “dextrins”,

“amylose” disaccharide &
(actually much longer monosaccharide sugars Later, the dextrins (variable-length short chains)
than shown) Amylase & disaccharide sugars are attacked by specialist
enzyme enzymes until everything is broken down into
the simplest (monosaccharide) sugar molecules.
For example, sucrose (table sugar) is attacked
by “sucrase”, lactose (milk sugar) is attacked by
“lactase”, and so on.

Nuclease is the general name for enzymes which digest nucleic acids, DNA & RNA.

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®
Human Digestive System
keep it simple science
Structure & Function

Salivary Glands.
Chewing the food begins the An enzyme in saliva begins
digestion process. digesting starch.
Chewing breaks food into
smaller pieces with greater
surface area, so digestive
enzymes can attack it faster. Oesophagus
carries food to the stomach.

Liver
receives and processes
digested nutrients after
they are absorbed into Stomach
blood stream. churns food with acid.
Enzymes digest proteins
in food.
Gall bladder adds bile
to dissolve fats so enzymes
can digest them. Pancreas
adds a cocktail of enzymes
to futher digest food
Small Intestine
completes digestion with a
number of enzymes, then
absorbs nutrients into the blood Large Intestine
stream. Inside, it has many folds absorbs water, vitamins &
or “villi” which increase surface minerals into blood stream.
area for absorption.
Rectum
stores undigested wastes
Caecum & Appendix (faeces) for later elimination.
have no special functions
in humans

Which Organs Produce Which Enzymes?

Salivary Glands: amylase

Stomach: a powerful protease commonly called “pepsin”.

(Note: the stomach produces acid which causes most proteins to unravel & lose their normal molecular shape.
This makes them more vulnerable to pepsin attack. Unusual for an enzyme, pepsin has an “optimum pH” around
pH = 2, so it works really well in stomach acid.)

Pancreas: several proteases & peptidases, amylase, lipase, nuclease.

(Note: this organ secretes a chemical which neutralises stomach acid, so as the partly digested food enters the small
intestine, the pH changes dramatically to suit the new army of enzymes which attack it.)

Small Intestine: peptidases, maltase, sucrase, lactase.

These enzymes finish off chemical digestion, ready for absorption.

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®
Absorption of Digested Nutrients
keep it simple science
Intestinal Villi
The photo at right shows a thin section of the inside of a mammal’s
small intestine, seen through a microscope. Notice that the surface
is far from flat & smooth, but covered with projecting “fingers”.
These are called “villi” (singular = villus). The villi greatly increase
the surface area of the intestinal lining available for absorption of
the digested nutrients.

Villus surface
Schematic layer is only
one cell thick.
Diagram of
a Villus
Blood
capillary

“Lacteal” connects
to the Lymphatic
System The structure of a single villus is shown in
the simplified diagram at left.

The surface layer is only one cell thick, so

digested nutrients can be easily absorbed
and carried to the blood capillary network
small vein inside.
takes blood to
the liver Water soluble nutrients such as amino acids
& sugars are carried into the blood stream.
small artery Fatty acids & chemicals such as cholesterol
supplies blood are carried to a “lacteal” tube which drains
into the Lymphatic System. Eventually, the
Lymphatic tube drains fluids. “lymph” fluid drains into the blood stream
Eventually the “lymph” drains into the near the heart so that the fatty nutrients then
blood near the heart. circulate around the body.

Nutrients absorbed into the blood flow through a vein directly to the liver. Some nutrients are stored there,
while others undergo chemical processing before being passed via the blood flow to feed all the body’s
cells.
Try Worksheet 5
Water Absorption in the Large Intestine
By the end of the small intestine, most of the useful digested nutrients have been absorbed. The remaining
material is very watery, but the body cannot afford to lose so much moisture.

During its passage through the large intestine, most of this water is re-absorbed from the gut by osmosis.
Soluble minerals & vitamins (including some that are manufactured by gut bacteria) are absorbed along with
the water.

Gradually, the undigested waste becomes semi-solid to form faeces. This is stored in the rectum until it is
passed from the body.

Elimination of Solid Waste is a fairly obvious process familiar to us all. It is well

established that regular elimination & “bowel health” are dependent on consuming a lot of undigestible
“fibre”. This material adds “bulk” to the solid wastes (faeces) which accumulate in the rectum and
stimulates the process of elimination on a daily (approx) basis. This “fibre” also provides food for the
myriad bacteria which live inside our intestines. There is growing evidence that keeping these “gut
bacteria” happy improves many aspects of health, including weight control, resistance to disease and
general well-being.

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keep it simple science

4. Gas Exchange in Animals
Animals need oxygen for cellular respiration Lungs are not HUMAN
& need to get rid of the toxic product, CO2. hollow, but RESPIRATORY
The purpose of gas exchange is therefore to sponge-like SYSTEM
absorb O2 & excrete CO2.

You are reminded that efficient gas exchange Trachea

has 3 requirements: (Windpipe)
Each bronchus
sub-divides into
• a large surface area over which the gases Bronchioles Bronchi
can be exchanged between the environment (sing:
& the animal’s body. Each bronchiole bronchus)
ends in a cluster carry air to
of tiny air sacs... each lung
• a moist gas exchange membrane between
the Alveoli
the environment & the animal’s body.
(Gases must dissolve in water before Each Alveolus has a wall
diffusing.) just 1 cell thick, and the
internal surface is
• close contact between the gas exchange kept moist
membrane & the animal’s blood supply. Blood flow
(Because diffusion is only efficient over a
AIR flows Blood
short range.) capillary
in and out

There are many ways that animals carry out O2

gas exchange. This section will compare Bronchiole
four different systems... CO2
mammal, frog, fish and insect.

Lungs in a Mammal
Using the human as a typical example:

The lung is not just a hollow space like a balloon. If it was, the surface area for gas exchange
would be about the size of a sheet of newspaper. By dividing into millions of alveoli, the total
surface area inside your lungs is about the same size as a tennis court!

The inside surface is always kept moist, for gases to dissolve and diffuse. Each alveolus
is in intimate contact with a blood capillary to transport the gases to and from the body
cells.
The requirements for efficient gas exchange have been met.
Oxygen
Breathing O2
When the rib cage moves up and out and the Air in Blood
diaphram moves down, air is sucked into the
Alveoli
lungs via the trachea, bronchi & bronchioles.

Down in the tiny alveoli air sacs, gases are

exchanged between the air and the blood. Carbon Dioxide
CO2

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® Structure Suits Function

keep it simple science It is generally the case in living things that the structure of its organs suit their function.
Let’s consider structure and function for some parts of the Human Respiratory System.

Structure How This Helps Function

Trachea
Made of soft, Trachea is flexible, but cannot
Larynx
flexible tissue “kink”. It stays open when you (voice box)
with rings of move your head and neck.
cartilage. Trachea
(wind-pipe)
Lungs are sponge-like. This increases the
There are millions of surface area for gas
alveoli, like tiny bubbles exchange. The total Bronchus
within the lungs. area inside your lungs is (main branch)
about the same as a
tennis court! Bronchioles
Alveoli & Blood.
(smaller branches)
Each alveolus has a This allows O2 & CO2 to
blood capillary wrapped move quickly and easily
around its very thin wall. between air in the
Each bronchiole Diaphram
ends in a tiny air sac This is a sheet of muscle
alveolus and the blood.
(alveolus) which is which separates the chest
surrounded by from the gut cavity. Its
Alveoli always moist. Before gases can move
blood capillaries. movements help expand the
The inside surface of across the membranes,
the alveoli is always they must first be chest for breathing.
wet with watery fluid. dissolved in water. Singular Plural
1 Bronchus 2 Bronchi
1 Alveolus many Alveoli

Gas Exchange in Other Animals

FROG RESPIRATORY SYSTEM
Gas Exchange in a Frog
Simple Lung Mouth and
Amphibians hatch from their egg throat cavity
as “tadpoles” which live in water are moist &
and breathe with gills. Later they lined with
undergo metamorphosis and blood
develop into the adult form which breathes with vessels
lungs.

However, a frog’s lungs are much simpler than a Moist Skin also acts as a gas
mammal’s, and don’t have many alveoli. exchange surface

Doesn’t this mean less surface area and less efficiency?

Yes, but a “cold-blooded” frog doesn’t need to carry out cellular respiration just to make
body heat the way mammals do. So the need for O2 intake is a lot less.

Also, the frog doesn’t just do gas exchange in its lungs: The frog makes up for its
inefficient lungs by carrying out gas exchange through other body surfaces which are
kept moist and are lined with blood vessels... its mouth and throat cavity and the skin all
over its body.

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Gas Exchange in Other Animals (cont.)
keep it simple science
Gas Exchange in a Fish
Land-dwelling, air-breathing animals
always must have their gas exchange
organs inside their bodies so the
moist membranes won’t dry out. In
water this can’t happen, so a fish’s
gills are exposed to the water
environment, but shielded by a tough
“gill cover” to protect the delicate
breathing organs.
WATER
FLOW
BLOOD FLOW IN CAPILLARIES The gills are a series of feather-like plates
around which the water flows. Each gill
plate consists of thousands of tiny
“filaments” each one a thin leaf-shaped
structure packed with blood capillaries.

Gills have to be highly efficient, because the

level of oxygen dissolved in aquatic
environments is much lower than the
concentration of oxygen in the air.

This is by no means the full range of animal

WATER FLOWS
respiratory systems. If interested, keep
Blood flow GILL FILAMENTS researching!
ACROSS &
BETWEEN
FILAMENTS Try Worksheet 6

Gas Exchange in an Insect

Insects don’t have lungs or gills. Along the Spiracles
sides of their bodies is a series of holes
called spiracles. Each spiracle allows air to
move into a network of tubes (“trachea”)
which infiltrate their whole body. Trachea
The trachea tubes are moist
This system is quite efficient in a small inside for gas exchange. Gases
diffuse directly to the body
animal, but rapidly becomes inadequate as cells, which are never far from a
the animal grows larger, because the trachea tube.
Surface Area to Volume Ratio gets smaller. The network of tubes increases
the surface area for gas
exchange.
Also, their system relies on diffusion, which is only efficient over short distances. A large
animal cannot survive on long-range diffusion of gases.

That’s why there’s no such thing as a really big bug!

Hollywood fantasies cannot actually happen.

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® 5. Internal Transport in Animals

keep it simple science For most animals, internal transport is carried out by the Circulatory System...
the blood, heart and blood vessels; veins, arteries and capillaries.

Substances Carried in the Blood

Oxygen O2 Lipids (Fats)
is carried in the red blood cells by haemoglobin. absorbed from the digestive system are “packaged”
in a protein coat which makes the fat molecule
Carbon Dioxide CO2 miscible in water. This means that, while not fully
is partly carried by the haemoglobin in red dissolved, the molecules can be dispersed in water
blood cells, but most of it is carried in the blood and carried without joining together into droplets of
fat and separating from the water.
plasma, in the form of bicarbonate ions (HCO3-)
In this form they are carried dispersed in the blood
Water plasma.
is carried as the liquid solvent of blood plasma.
Nitrogenous Wastes
Salts, Sugars & Amino Acids such as urea, are water soluble and carried dissolved
These are nutrients absorbed from the Digestive in the blood plasma. These wastes are carried away
System. They are generally water soluble and are to be excreted in urine from the kidneys.
carried dissolved in the blood plasma.
Blood Cells RED
You will have examined blood under a microscope and seen something like this: BLOOD
CELLS
Sketch of Blood Cells There are about 600 red Red Blood Cells
cells to 1 white cell contain the red pigment
haemoglobin, which
carries oxygen. This is
no covered in more detail
nucleus later.
Red
Cells White Cell
much larger White Blood Cells
Shaped like a than red cells come in a huge variety of types, but all are
donut with the involved with defence against disease.
hole closed over large, irregular nucleus This is covered in a later topic.

Blood Vessels
Arteries carry blood Capillaries are the tiny blood
from the heart out to the vessels which form a network
body tissues. The walls of throughout the tissues so that
an artery are relatively thick every living cell is close to the
and muscular to withstand blood supply. The walls of a
the high pressure in the capillary are only one cell thick,
blood when the heart so diffusion of substances from
pumps. Thick, muscular walls blood to cells (or cells to blood)
is easily achieved.
Artery walls are very elastic, and when a pulse of high pressure blood
passes through, they expand outwards and then contract again, The inside of a capillary is so
helping to push the blood along. This rhythmic expanding and small that red blood cells often
contracting is what you can feel as your “pulse” wherever an artery is travel through it in single file.
close to the skin, such as in your wrist or throat.
VEIN
Veins carry blood back from the Cross-Section
body tissues to the heart. The blood
here is under lower pressure and the
walls of a vein are relatively thin. With blood
little pressure to push blood forward, flow
it is the contraction of the surrounding
muscles which helps push the blood Side view of VEIN showing a
along. Relatively thin walls are often valve.Blood can flow one way,
Some veins contain valves to prevent squashed by surrounding
muscles but not back the other.
back-flow of the blood.

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Structure & Function of the Heart
keep it simple science
A good way to get an understanding of the parts Artery
of the heart & how they function is to begin by to lungs
studying a simple, schematic diagram. (KISS Vein from
Principle!) upper body Aorta
(main artery
Veins TO the Heart to body)
Blood flows into the heart from a vein. Blood first Valve
enters the top chambers of the heart: Valve
• into the Right Atrium from the body.
This blood is depleted in O2, high in CO2 Veins
(solid arrows in diag.)
RIGHT
from
SIDE lungs
• into the Left Atrium from the lungs.
This blood is high in O2, low in CO2 Right Left
(Dotted arrows in diag.) Atrium Atrium

Both sides Beat Together LEFT

Next, the top chambers contract, which forces SIDE
Vein from
the blood into the ventricles below. Valve
lower body Valve
Then, both ventricles contract forcing the blood
upwards into the arteries leaving the heart. Right Left
Ventricle Ventricle
Valves Prevent Back-Flow
The opening from atrium to ventricle is controlled
by a set of skin-like flaps which act as valves. As
Walls of the heart
each ventricle contracts, the valve snaps shut, so are made of strong
blood cannot go back to the atrium. Blood in the left muscle, with a
Most of the sound of your heartbeat is the noise & right sides network of nerve-like
of the valves snapping shut. does NOT mix. fibres throughout.
Arteries FROM the Heart
Blood from the right ventricle flows out to the lungs to be More Details...
re-oxygenated. From the left ventricle the blood (which has Once you have a basic grasp of heart structure &
just returned from the lungs) enters the Aorta which function, it’s time for more detail.
branches off all over the body.
The diagram (left) is much more life-like, although still
More Valves rather stylised. The blood vessels & valves have been
As the heart relaxes after the beat, valves at the base of each given their technical names.
artery close to prevent back-flow
Check with your teacher as to the detail required to be
learnt.

Heart Muscle
Note the thickness of muscle in the various parts.

The atria (plural of atrium) have quite thin walls because

they only have to push blood down into the ventricles.
(In fact, 80% of each “charge” of blood flows into the
ventricle without help. Only the last 20% is forced in by
the atrial contraction.)

In contrast, the ventricle walls are thick & powerful to

pump blood great distances under pressure. The left
ventricle is especially powerful to propel blood up to the
head, etc.

Although the ventricles look to be different sizes in the

diagram, in fact they pump exactly the same volume of
blood (about 35mL each) with each beat. If not kept equal,
Note: The Syllabus is vague about whether study blood could begin to “pool” in either the lungs or parts of
of the heart should be included. We think it the body (eg lower legs) leading to severe health
necessary for better understanding. problems. This often happens following a “heart attack”
which damages only one side of the heart.

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Heartbeats Note: Information on this half-page is almost certainly beyond
syllabus requirements. We just think it’s really interesting!
keep it simple science
ECG
The Natural Pacemaker Although we describe nerve signals as “electrical” in nature,
Heart muscle is quite different to every other they are not like electrical currents in a wire. Rather, they are a
muscle in the body. In all other muscles, wave of “de-polarisations” which occur as sodium & potassium
contraction occurs when a nerve signal is sent from ions flood across the cell membranes, triggering the contraction
the brain (or spinal chord reflex arc) to the muscle. of the muscles. This wave spreads rapidly along nerve-like
fibres within the heart muscle.
Heart muscle can be “given orders” from the brain,
(eg if you get a fright, a nerve signal from your If sensitive electrodes are attached to the chest, slight
brain triggers fast, pounding heart beats) but differences in voltage can be detected in the skin caused by this
normally the heart itself commands the regular de-polarisation. Converted into a graph of voltage against time,
beating. this produces an electrocardiogram or ECG.
SA node

voltage
In the heart wall at the top of the
right atrium is a nerve bundle
called the sinoatrial node
(“SA node”). Every second or
so, the SA node fires off a time
nerve-like electrical signal The ECG has become a major diagnostic tool for health care
which spreads rapidly AV node specialists who can figure out all manner of heart abnormalities in
through fibres within the heart conjunction with looking for other symptoms such as body
walls. This causes both atria temperature, breathing rates, fluid swellings, blood chemistry, etc.
to contract, pushing blood into
the ventricles. R
Looked at individually, each “spike”
of an ECG is described by 5 prominent
The signals also reach another bumps, simply named as shown.
nerve nexus... the atrioventricular T
node (AV node). It has a built-in P
“P” is due to de-polarisation of the atria.
delay of a few milliseconds, then The “QRS complex” is due to
fires off another wave of signals de-polarisation of the ventricles.
throughout the ventricular walls causing them to “T” is the recovery, where the muscle is Q S
contract. The AV-node delay is vital to correct beat re-polarising for the next beat.
rhythm.
Every aspect of the shape of the ECG can be used for
The “wave” of signals & contractions die down and diagnosis: the height of each bump, its length, the duration of
the heart muscle relaxes for a fraction of a second, the gaps between each part... it all means something to an
before the entire sequence begins again. expert.

The Need to Remove Carbon Dioxide

Transporting a gas in the blood is not just about carrying oxygen. There is also a critical need to remove
CO2. Carbon dioxide doesn’t just dissolve in water, it reacts to form an acid.

CO2 + H2O H2CO3 H+ + HCO3- It’s the hydrogen ions that create problems.
Hydrogen ions are acids and can lower the
carbonic hydrogen bicarbonate
acid ion ion pH of a cell or the blood.

At the concentrations produced by a typical cell, the hydrogen ions could easily lower the pH of the
cytoplasm by 0.5 pH unit or more. This might not sound like much, but it could be life-threatening.
Remember that enzymes are very sensitive to pH changes and quickly change shape and
lose their catalytic activity. This would be disastrous for cell metabolism.
To avoid this problem, CO2 is carried away in the blood as rapidly as it is produced in the cells.

Prac Work: CO2 and Acidity Explanation and Chemistry

CO2 reacts with water to form carbonic acid
You may have carried out an experiment to see the
effect of dissolved CO2 on the pH of water. CO2 + H2O H2CO3
Carbonic acid is a weak acid which partly ionises
You might have bubbled some CO2 through water.
Using a pH meter, or Universal Indicator, you will H2CO3 H+ + HCO3-
have measured any change in the pH of the water.
Hydrogen ion Bicarbonate ion.
You would have found that the pH went down... makes water This is how most CO2 is
i.e. the water became more acidic. more acidic carried in blood

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® Changes to the Blood as it Circulates

keep it simple science As the blood circulates around the body its chemical composition undergoes a
number of changes...
Blood flow
in Lungs
Nutrients & Nitrogenous Wastes
As the blood flows through capillaries in the digestive system it
picks up sugars, amino acids, salts, water, vitamins, etc that have
been absorbed from the gut. (However, lipids are first absorbed
into the lymphatic “drains” and enter the blood much later)

This blood from the gut is collected in a vein which takes it Heart

Arteries
directly to the liver. Here some of the nutrients may be absorbed Some Nutrients
from the blood for storage or chemical processing (e.g. glucose is into storage
extracted from the blood and polymerised to form glycogen for Wastes into
storage in the liver). Also in the liver, large amounts of the waste blood

Veins
chemical urea are added to the blood to be carried away for Digested
Nutrients
excretion. move
Liver into blood
Later, as blood flows through capillaries in body tissues such as
muscle or bone, nutrients are absorbed from the blood into the
cells which need energy (glucose) and new chemical building Gut
blocks (amino acids, lipids).

Sooner or later, every bit of blood flows through the kidneys Kidneys
which extract the urea and excess salts and water for excretion as
urine. Wastes and
excess water & salts leave
blood. Excreted in urine.
O2 CO2 Blood flow
in Body tissues
Carbon dioxide
Lungs Nutrients move from blood into cells
Oxygen Blood Air
Air Blood Respiratory Gases O2 & CO2
Gas exchange and transport is
essential for delivering oxygen to
cells and removing CO2.
Heart
Arteries

CHANGES IN As blood passes through capillaries

OXYGEN AND CARBON DIOXIDE in body tissues, oxygen is released
AS THE BLOOD CIRCULATES from the haemoglobin molecules
and diffuses along the
Veins

concentration gradient into the

body cells. There is always a
concentration gradient favouring
this because the cells are
constantly using up oxygen for
cellular respiration.

Meanwhile, the concentration of

carbon dioxide is high because of
its constant production by cellular
respiration, so it diffuses from the
cells into the blood.
Body tissues
When the blood gets to the lungs the opposite occurs.
Inside the alveoli (air sacs of the lungs) the air has a
Oxygen Carbon dioxide very high concentration of oxygen and is very
Blood Cells Cells Blood low in CO2. Therefore, oxygen diffuses into the
CO2 blood, while carbon dioxide diffuses from the
O2 blood into the air.

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 KISS Resources for NSW Syllabuses & Australian Curriculum.

® Different Internal Transport Systems

keep it simple science We have used the human body as the model to study the Circulatory System.
However, different types of animals have all sorts of variations.
Here we make only a broad comparison between two general types of system.
Closed Circulation Systems CLOSED CIRCULATION IN A MAMMAL
All vertebrate animals (fish, amphibians, reptiles, birds and
mammals) have a blood system that is “closed”... the blood is Alveoli Capillary
always flowing inside a blood vessel, pumped around by the (air sacs) network in
heart. in lungs Lungs
CO2 O2
This system is highly efficient because the blood can be kept Vein
flowing within the vessels, guaranteeing a steady flow of Artery
nutrients, gases and wastes between body cells and the outside
environment. This efficiency allows vertebrates to grow very large
and still function perfectly despite the poor SA/Vol ratio of a large
body.

Be aware that fish, amphibians and most reptiles do not have a

Arteries
system quite the same as a mammal, but in all cases the system HEART

Veins
is “closed”. pumps blood

OPEN CIRCULATION IN AN INSECT

Arteries Circulatory fluid
flows out of
blood vessels
Capillary
network in body
Heart
pumps
“blood”
Body cells receive O2 & nutrients, and get rid of CO2
fluid Blood fluid flows
& other wastes
directly among
Open Circulation Systems
body cells
Invertebrate animals (including insects, worms & snails)
have much simpler circulatory systems in which the
Veins “blood” (or a fluid doing the same job) does not always
stay inside a blood vessel.

Fluid slowly collects back into veins. The “open” system is not very efficient, because the
Wastes (but not CO2) are taken away for excretion, blood is not forced to keep flowing through blood
and blood returns to the heart. vessels as in a closed system.

However, in a small insect, with its separate gas

Try Worksheets exchange system which is not dependent on blood flow,
7, 8, 9 this is obviously quite adequate... after all, insects are
the most numerous animals on the planet!

The Importance of Haemoglobin

Blood is red because of the many red cells, and red cells are Because of this, our blood can carry thousands of times
red because they are packed with the red-coloured, iron- more oxygen than would be possible by simply dissolving
containing, protein haemoglobin. oxygen in the blood plasma.

In the lungs, where the oxygen concentration is very high, When the oxygenated blood gets to the body tissues the
some oxygen dissolves in the moisture lining the alveoli then reverse happens. The high concentration of dissolved CO2
diffuses into the blood and dissolves in the plasma.. lowers the pH of the blood slightly. This causes the
haemoglobin proteins to change shape slightly and
Oxygen is not very soluble in water, however, and if that’s all release the oxygen molecules.
there was to the story, then our blood could never carry
enough oxygen to supply our cells. Haemoglobin molecules The oxygen diffuses into the cells, and the freed
have a great attraction for oxygen molecules and quickly haemoglobin molecules can pick up some of the CO2
“grab” O2 molecules. molecules and carry them back to the lungs.

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copyright © 2005-17 KEEP IT SIMPLE SCIENCE to the SITE LICENCE CONDITIONS only
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