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CHEMISTRY: A MOLECULAR APPROACH

Nivaldo J. Tro

1.1 Atoms and Molecules

1) Atoms = Are the submicroscopic particles that constitute fundamental building

block of ordinary matter.

2) Molecules = “Two or more atoms chemically joined together,” in a

specific geometrical arrangement.

3) The details on how specific atoms bond to form a molecule (e.g. in a straight
line, at a particular angle, in a ring, or in some other pattern) as well as type of
atom in the molecule, determine everything about the substance that the
molecule composes.

4) Chemistry = The science that seeks to understand the behavior of

matter by studying the behavior of atoms and
molecules.

1.2 The Scientific Approach to Knowledge

1) Scientific knowledge is empirical-based on: Observation & Experimentation

2) Hypothesis= A tentative interpretation or tentative explanation of an

observation (e.g. observed phenomena)

A. A good Hypothesis is Falsifiable

(1) It makes predictions that can be confirmed or refuted by further

observations.

(2) Tested and Verified by Experiments

a) controlled procedures designed to generate such
observations.

EX: When a substance combusts, it combines with air.

EX: Metals tends to lose electrons.

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3) Scientific Law = A brief statement that summarizes past

observations and predicts future ones.

A. Also subject to experiments to add support or prove wrong;

B. Describes how nature behaves;

C. Summarizes a series of related observations;

D. A concise verbal statement or mathematical equation that summarizes a

broad variety of observations and experience;

4) Law of Conservation of Mass = “In a chemical reaction, matter is

neither created or destroyed”

A. Atomic Theory = John Dalton = “All matter is composed of tiny

indestructible particles called atoms.”

5) Scientific Theory = Is a model for the way nature is and tries to

explain not merely what nature does, but why.

6) Scientific Method

A. Each set of observations allows refinement of the original model;

EX. Is based on continued observation and experimentation;

7) Law

A. Summarizes a series of related observations;

B. A concise statement that summarizes observed behaviors and

observations and predicts future observations.

EX: In a chemical reaction matter is neither created nor destroyed;

EX: Chlorine is a highly reactive gas;

EX: If elements are listed in order of increasing mass of their atoms, their
chemical reactivity follows a repeating pattern.

EX: Neon is an inert gas;

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8) Theory

A. Gives the underlying reason for them;

B. Attempts to explain why the observed behavior is happening.

EX: The reactivity of elements depends on the arrangement of their

electrons.

9) Observation

EX: When iron rusts in a closed container, the mass of the container and
its contents does not change.

EX: When a match burns, heat is evolved.

1.3 The Classification of Matter

1) Matter is anything that occupies space and has mass.

A. Antoine Lavoisier – No change to the total mass within a container

during a combustion;

B. John Dalton – Formulated the Atomic Theory of matter;

NOTE: An Atom of N can NOT be broken down in smaller

particles that will still have the unique properties of N.

2) The States of Matter

A. Solid:

(1) Atoms or molecules are packed close together in fixed locations

and can only vibrate;

(2) They do NOT move around or pass each other.

(a) Fixed Volume
(b) Rigid Shape

(3) Crystalline – A or M are arranged in a pattern with long range,

repeating order;
(a) Table Salt
(b) Diamonds
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(4) Amorphous – A or M do NOT have long range order;

(a) Glass
(b) Plastic

B. Liquid:
(1) Atoms or molecules are packed close together, but are free to move
relative to each other;

EX: definite volume and NO definite shape;

C. Gas:
(1) A or M have a lot of space between them and are free to move relative
to one another;

(2) significantly compressible;

D: According to its composition

E: Element: A substance that CAN’T be chemically broken down into simpler

substances.

3) Classifying Matter According to its Composition, Elements,

Compounds and Mixtures

A. Pure Substance

(1) Elements;

(a) “Pure Substances” which are NOT decomposable into simpler

substances;
(b) Sugar
(c) Helium

OR

(2) Compounds

(a) Is composed of two or more elements in fixed, definite proportions;

(b) Water – Composed of only type of A or M;
(c) More Common

(3) EX: Carbon Dioxide = Pure Substance that is a compound;

(4) EX: Aluminum = Pure Substance that is an element;

(5) EX: Iron = Pure Substance that is an element;

(6) EX: Carbon Monoxide = Pure Substance that is a compound;

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(7) EX: Hydrogen Peroxide = Pure Substance that is a compound;

(8) EX: Water = Pure Substance that is a compound;

(9) EX: Ice = Pure Substance that is a compound;

(10) EX: Carbon = Pure Substance that is an element;

B. Mixtures – Composed of two or more different types of A or M

that can be combined in variable proportions

(1) Heterogeneous – Composition varies from one region to another;

(a) A or M are separate;
(b) Two or more substances in variable proportions, where the composition
is variable throughout;
(c) Easily separated into its components by simple technique such as
filtering or decanting;

(2) Homogeneous – Same composition throughout;

(a) A or M are mixed uniformly;
(b) Two or more substances in variable proportions, where the composition
is constant throughout;

(3) EX: Sweat = Homogeneous Mixture of water, sodium chloride, etc

(4) EX: Vegetable Soup = Heterogeneous Mixture;

(5) EX: Wine = Homogeneous Mixture;

(6) EX: Wine with Sediments = Heterogeneous Mixture;

(7) EX: Beef Stew = Heterogeneous mixture;

(8) EX: Apple Juice, Cola = Homogeneous Mixtures;

(9) EX: Chicken Soup = Heterogeneous Mixture;

(10) EX: Coffee = Mixture;

(11) EX: Crude Oil = Heterogeneous Mixture;

(12) EX: Gasoline = Homogeneous Mixture;

(13) EX: Gold = an Element;

(14) EX: Ammonia = a Compound;

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C. Separating Mixtures

(1) Decanting – Separating a solid from a liquid by pouring off the liquid;

(2) Distillation – Mixture is heated to boil off the more volatile liquid (easy
vaporizable); The volatile liquid is then re-condensed in a
condenser and collected in a separate flask;

(a) Mixtures of mixable liquids can usually be separated by

distillation;

(3) Filtration – Insoluble solid and a liquid, the two can be separated by
filtration, in which the mixture is poured through filter paper;

1.4 Physical and Chemical Changes and Physical and

Chemical Properties
1) Physical Changes – Changes that alter only state or appearance, but
NOT composition;

A. A or M that compose a substance does not change their identity during

a physical change;

B. Sugar dissolving in water, the Sugar molecules separate, but the

molecules of Sugar and water remain intact.

C. EX: The shine of Silver (Mercury is a liquid at room temp)

D. EX: The odor of paint thinner

E. EX: The boiling point of ethyl alcohol

F. EX: The temp at which dry ice evaporates (dry ice sublimes}

G. EX: The color of gold

H. EX: The liquid propane in gas evaporates

I. EX: Sugar dissolves in water

J. EX: Platinum ring becomes dull due to abrasion

K. EX: Dew forms on a blade of grass

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2) Chemical Changes – Alter the composition of matter;

A. Atoms rearrange, transforming the original substance into different

substance;

B. EX: The tendency of Ethyl to burn (methane gas is burned)

C. EX: The flammability of propane gas

D. EX: The tendency for iron to rust

E. EX: Natural Gas burning on stove (a match burns)

F. EX: The liquid propane in a gas grill burns into a flame

G. EX: Bicycle frame rusts

H. EX: Sugar burning on skillet

I. EX: Silver surface becomes tarnished exposed to air;

J. EX: Leaves turning color;

K. EX: Explosive with Oxygen

EX: Isopropyl Alcohol

1. Colorless – Physical [can be observed w/o breaking bonds]

2. Flammable – Chemical
3. Liquid at room temp – Physical
4. Density = .79 g/ml – Physical [can be observed without breaking bonds]
5. Mixing with water – Physical [can be observed without breaking bonds]

EX: Ozone

1. Bluish Color – Physical

2. Pungent Odor – Physical
3. Very Reactive – Chemical [must be observed by breaking bonds]
4. Decompose on exposure – Chemical
5. Gas at room temp – Physical
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1.5 Energy: A Fundamental Part of Physical and Chemical

Change

1) Physical and Chemical changes are usually accompanied by energy

changes.
A. Releases energy into the surrounds;

2) Understanding the Physical and Chemical changes of matter---that is

understanding chemistry---requires the understanding energy
changes and energy flow.

3) Energy = The capacity to do work;

4) Work = Action of a force through a distance;

5) Total Energy a sum of its:

A. Kinetic Energy

(1) Energy associated with its motion;

B. Potential Energy

(1) Energy associated with its position and composition;

C. Thermal Energy

(1) Energy associated with the temperature of the object;

6) Total Energy = Sum of its Kinetic Energy (the energy associated with
its motion)+ Potential Energy (the energy associated
with its position or composition)
(1) High Potential Energy [unstable]
Converts to

(2) Kinetic Energy

Converts to

(3) Low Potential Energy [stable] [[Heat]]

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7) Law of Conversation of Energy = Energy is neither created or

destroyed

8) Systems with high potential energy (unstable) change in a way to

lower its potential energy (more stable), releasing energy into the
surroundings;

1.6 The Units of Measurements

1) English System

2) Metric System

3) International System of Units (SI) – System used by Scientists

A. meter, second, Kelvin, mole
B. NOT grams

4) The Standard Units:

A. The Meter – A measurement of length
B. The Kilogram – A measurement of mass
C. The Second – A measurement of time
D. The Kelvin – A measurement of temperature
E. The size of the degree is the same in the Kelvin and the Celsius scales,
and they are 1.8 times larger than the degree size for Fahrenheit.

(1) Fahrenheit (US)

(a) 212 F [Boiling]
(b) 32 F [Freezing]
(c) -459 F [Absolute 0]

(2) Celsius (Scientists)

(a) 100 C
(b) 0C
(c) -273 C

(3) Kelvin
(a) 373 K
(b) 273 K
(c) Ok

(4) K = C + 273.15

(5) C = (F – 32)/1.8

E. Prefix Multipliers
(1) These multipliers change the value of the unit by powers of 10.
(2) 1 Kilometer = 1000 meters
(3) 1 Millimeter = .001 meters
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F. Derived Units: Volume and Density

(1) Derived Units is a combination of other units

(a) Speed (m/s)
(b) Volume m3
(c) Density kg/m3 Density = mass/Volume D = m/V

1] Density is an example of Intensive Property = One that is independent of the amount

of the substance.

2] Mass is an example of Extensive Property = One that depends on the amount of the
substance.

(2) An Intensive property is a property the is independent of the amount of the

substance present, such as color or density;

(3) An Extensive property is a property that depends upon the amount of the
substance, such as mass or volume;

EX: What symbol is used to represent 10 = da +1

EX: Which is the smallest volume: 44 cm, 1.0dL, 5.5 x10 mL, 1.0 x 10 nL

EX: What symbol is used to represent 10 = d -1

EX: 1,000,000 = mega

EX: What symbol is used to represent 10-3 = milli

EX: 1 x 10-15 = f

EX: 1 x 10-12 = Pico

1.7 The Reliability of a Measurement

1) Scientific measurements are reported so that every digit is certain
except the last, which is estimated.

2) Counting Significant Numbers

A. Significant Figures Rules

(1) All nonzero digits are significant

1. 28.03
2. 0.0540

(2) Zeros between two numbers are significant

1. 408
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2. 7.0301

(3) Zeros to the left of the first nonzero are NOT significant

1. 0.0032 NOTE: These zeros represent placeholders.

2. 0.00006 NOTE: These zeros represent placeholders.

(4) Trailing zeroes after a decimal point are always significant

1. 45.000 NOTE: These zeros represent precision

2. 3.5600

(5) Trailing zeros before an implied decimal point are ambiguous

1. 1200

B. Counting Significant Figures Examples

(1) 0.04450 – 4 S. F. (a) 1,050,501 km (b) 0.00000000000002 s

(2) 5.0003 km – 5 S. F. (c) 0.0020 (d) 0.001090 cm

(3) 10 dm = 1 m [Unlimited S.F. Defined quantities have an unlimited # of S.F.]

(4) 1.000 x 10 - 4 S. F. (e) 180,701 (f) 0.001040

(5) 0.00002 mm – 1 S. F. (g) 0.00570 (h) 90201

(6) 10,000 m – Ambiguous

(7) 50,010.000 – 8 S. F. (a) 0.000312 = 3 SF

(b) 312,000 s = Ambig
(8) 0.000309 - 3 S. F. (c) 3.12 x 10 km = 3 SF
(d) 13127 = 5 SF
(9) 37,400.00 – 7 S. F. (e) 2000 = 1 SF
(f) 0.1111s = 4 SF
(10) 1.004 – 4 S. F. (g) 0.007 m 1 SF
(h) 108,700 km = Ambig
(11) 0.0040030 – 5 S. F. (i) 1.563300 x 10 m = 7 SF
(j) 30,800 = 3 SF
(12) 78,001,000 - 5 S.F.

(13) 5,000. – 4 S.F. EX: 1009.630 – 7 SF

(14) 0.000305 – 3 S.F. EX: 3.408 x 10 – 4 SF

(15) 3,091 – 4 S.F. EX: 463.090 - 6 SF

(16) 82,024 – 5 S.F. EX: 0.0005890 g – 4 SF

(17) 0.000491 – 3 S.F. EX: 20.300 – 5 SF

(18) 0.0132 – 3 S.F.

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(19) 83,000 – 2 S.F.

(20) 83,000. – 5 S.F.

(21) 83.000 – 5 S.F.

(22) 4,532,100 – 5 S.F.

(23) 90,000 – 1 S.F.

(24) 789.000 - 6 S.F.

(25) 200. – 3 S.F.

(26) 50.000 – 5 S.F.

(27) 10,082 – 5 S.F.

(28) 70,000,000 – 1 S.F.

(29) 70,000,000. – 8 S.F

(30) 0.0025 – 2 S.F.

(31) 0.00008914 – 4 S.F.

(32) 84.10000 – 7 S.F.

(33) 3,008,000 – 4 S.F.

(34) 0.000339 – 3 S.F.

(35) 10.830100 – 8 S.F.

(36) 102,003.0900 – 10 S.F.

(37) 0.00500906000 – 9 S.F.

(38) 809,000. – 6.S.F.

(39) 2.00000000 – 9 S.F.

(40) 0.0497000 – 6 S.F.

(41) 109,003 – 6 S.F.

(42) 5.00603 – 6 S.F.

(43) 554 km – 3 S.F.

(44) 7 pennies – Defined Unit

(45) 1.01 x 10 m – 3 S.F.

(46) 0.00099 s – 2 S.F.

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(47) 1.4500 km – 5 S.F.

(48) 21,000 m – 2 S.F. (Ambiguous)

C. Significant Figures in Calculations

2 2 3 4
(1) 62 / 41 = 1.512195122 = 1.5 a. 9.15 / 4.970 = 1.84

3 3 3 4 2
(2) 782 / 231 = 3.38528 = 3.39 b. 1.54 x 0.03060 x 0.69 = .033

4 4 3 3 5
(3) 1219 / 3462 = .352109 = .3521 c. 27.5 x 1.82 / 100.04 = .500

2 2 4 2 1
(4) 56 x 28 = 1,568 = 1,600 d. 4.005 x 74 x 0.007 = 2

4 4 3 4
(5) 4833 x 1741 = 8,414,253 = 8,414,000 e. 453 / 2.031 = 223

5 2
(6) 62,881 / 97 = 648.257732 = 650

4 3
(7) 5621 x 895 = 5,019,553 = 5,020,000

3 2
(8) 218 / 26 = 8.3846154 = 8.4

5 1
(9) 59,411 x 2 = 118,822 = 100,000

3 2
(10) 307 x 32,000 = 9,824,000 = 9,800,000

4 3
(11) 8.000 / 532 = 0.015037594 = 0.0150

5 2
(12) 400.00 / 23,000 = 0.020866365 = .021

1 3
(13) 0.00005 x 9740 = 0.487 = 0.5

4 3
(14) 0.03010 x 5030 = 151.403 = 151

(15) 13.0198
+1.2
-------------
14.2198
14.2

(16) 94.00
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15
+ 182.113
------------
291.113
291

(17) 59.21
-18.8722
------------
40.3378
40.34

(18) 2.345
0.07
2.9975
----------
5.4125
5.41

(19) 5.9
- 0.221
---------
5.679
5.7

EX: (433.621 – 333.9) x 11.900

433.621
333.9
----------
99.7 x 11.900 = 1,186.6799
1,186.7
1,187
1.19 x 10

EX: (249.362 + 41) / 63.498

249.362
41
----------
290 / 63.498 = 4.56707
4.57

EX: Which has greatest # of SF: 0.5070, 0.201, 418000, 6.02 x10

EX: How many contain 3 SF: 0.408, 9.040, 0.0400, 9,05 x 10

EX: How many SF are in the answer (9.992 x 3.200) + 0.610 = 3 SF

EX: How many SF are in the answer 56.4 + 0.8822 + 21 = 2 SF

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EX: How many SF are there in the answer [(143.7-121) x 2.06]/0.600 = 2 SF

EX: How many SF in 5.34 = 3 SF

EX: How many SF in 11.5 x 8.78 = 101 3 SF

EX: Round the # to 4 SF – 229.613 = 2.296 x 10 +2

EX: Acetylene molecule contains 2 atoms of carbons. The number 2 represents how many SF?
Infinite

EX: Round off 00907506 to 4 SF = 9.075 x 10 +5

D. Precision and Accuracy

(1) Certainty

a. Accuracy

1] How close the measured value is to the actual value or true

value;

b. Precision

1] Refers to how close a series of measurements are to one

another or how reproducible they are;

2] How close a measured number is to other measured numbers;

c. EX: 1.11, 1.81, 1.95, 1.75. Actual value 1.75

1] results are neither precise nor accurate

d. EX: 1.71, 1.73, 1.67, 1.69. Actual value 1.40

1] results are precise, but not accurate

e. EX: 1.79, 1.81, 1.80, 1.81. Actual value 1.80

1] results are both precise and accurate

(2) Random Error – Error that has equal probability of being too high or
too low.

a. With enough repeated trials, will average itself out;

(3) Systematic Error – Error that tends toward being either too high or too
low.
a. Does NOT average out with repeated trials;
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1.8 Solving Chemical Problems

1) Using units as a guide to solving problems is often called

Dimensional Analysis;

EX: Avg. speed is 1255 m/s (4 S/F) convert to mph.

1255 m/s (1 Mile/1609.3 m)(3600 Sec/1 hour) = 2807 miles/hour

EX: How many minutes does it take for light to reach the sun, 93 Million
miles, and the speed of light is 3.00 x 108 m/s?

93 x 106 miles (1609.3 m/ 1 Mile) (1 s / 3.00 x 108 m)(1 minute / 60 s) =

8.3 minutes

Rule 1) Addition & Subtraction

A) Use the lowest number of "places"
0.24 + 0.345 = 0.59
2 decimal places + 3 decimal places

3233 + 1300 = 4500

round to the # of places, so round to the nearest 100's place.

Rule 2) Multiplication & Division

A) 23 x 436 = 1.0 x 104
2 SF 3 SF

B) 453 / 3.2 = 140

3 SF 2 SF
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1 ml / 1 cm

1 cm / 1 ml

1L / 1000 cm

1000 cm / 1L

1000 g / 1 kg

1 kg / 1000 g

1 inch / 2.54 cm

1000 g / 1 kg
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1.057 qt / 1L

1 m / 1000 mm

1 m / 39.37 inch

1 m / 100 cm

1 inch / 2.54 cm

1 m / 100 cm

1 m / 10 dm
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1000 m / 1 km

1 gallon / 3.785 L

1 km / .6214 miles

1 m / 1.094 yd

1 lb / 453.6 grams

1 mile / 5280 ft

1 m / 1 x 10 nm

1 kg / 1000 g
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1 g / 1000 mg

1 L / 100 cL

1 kL / 1000 L

K = C + 273.15

C = (F – 32)/1.8

10 100 1000
mm cm m Km
10 100 1000
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2.1 Imaging and Moving Individual Atoms

1) An atom is the smallest identifiable unit of an element;

1. Each element is composed of tiny, indestructible particles called atoms.

2) There are about 91 different naturally occurring elements;

3) 20 Synthetic atoms;

4) Scanning Tunneling Microscope

1. Image and move individual atoms and molecules

2. Moving an extremely sharp electrode over a surface and measuring the

resulting tunneling current, the current that flows between the tip of the
electrode and the surface without being in physical contact with each other.

2.2 Early Ideas about the Building Blocks of Matter

2.3 Modern Atomic Theory and the Laws that Led to it

1)The 3 most important laws that led to the development and acceptance of
the Atomic Theory were the:

1. Law of Conservation of Mass

(1) In a chemical reaction, matter is neither created nor destroyed;

a. When you carry out an chemical reaction, the total mass of the
substances involved in the reaction does NOT change;

b. Mass of the Reactants = Mass of the Products

c. Is applied to compounds

2. Law of Definite Proportions [Joseph Proust]

(1) All samples of a given compound, regardless of their source or how

they were prepared, have the same proportions of their constituent
elements;
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a. Applies to two or more samples of the SAME compound and

states that the ratio of one element to the other is always the same.

EX: Water → Hydrogen (2) + Oxygen

2 (1.0g of H)
2.0 g 16.0g

(Molar Mass of Water = 18.0 g)

Calculate Mass Ratio

16.0g O/2.0g H = 8:1

0:H

(2) Mass Ratio

3. Law of Multiple Proportions [John Dalton Law]

(1) When 2 elements (A & B) form 2 different compounds, the mass of

element B that combine with 1 g of element A can be expressed as a
ratio of small whole numbers;

a. Applies to two different compounds that contain the same two

elements (A & B) and stats that the mass of B that combine with 1
g of A are elated to a whole small number;

(2) Carbon Dioxide (CO(2)) – Mass of Oxygen that combines with 1 gram
of carbon – 2.67 g

(3) Carbon Monoxide (CO) – Mass of Oxygen that combines 1 gram of

carbon – 1.33 g

(4) The ratio of the 2 masses 2.67 g/1.33 g is 2:1

OR
C:O Ratio is 1:1 [Carbon Monoxide]

Molar mass of C = 12g

Molar mass of O = 16g

C:O(2) Ratio is 1:2 [Carbon Dioxide]

Molar Mass of C = 12g

Molar Mass of O = 32g 2:1 Ratio
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EX: Law of Multiple Proportions

H(2)O H(2)O(2)

2:1 2:2

2(1.0 g H):16g O 2(1.0 g H): 2(16.0 g O)

2g:16g 2g:32g = 1:2 Ratio

N(2)O NO

O 16.0 g O 16.0g
N (2) 28.0 g N 14.0g

28/16 = 1.75/1 14/16 = .875/1

1.75/.875 = 2

2.4 The Discovery of the Electron

1) Atoms itself was composed of even smaller more fundamental particles.

1. Protons (+1) and Neutrons (0) are both in the Nucleus

2. Electrons (-1) in orbital’s

NOTE: The (# of protons) - (# or electrons) = charge

If neutral, there will be 0 charge

2) Cathode Ray (J. J. Thomson)

1. Cathode rays are produced when a high electrical voltage is

applied between two electrodes within a partially evacuated tube
called a cathode ray tube.

2. Rays were streams of particles that:

(1) They traveled in straight lines;

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(2) They were independent of the composition of the material from which
they originated;

(3) Carried a Negative electrical charge;

A. Electrical Charge is a fundamental property of some of

the particles that compose the atom and results in
attractive and repulsive forces – called electrostatic
forces

3) Electron – was discovered by J.J. Thomson

1. The magnitude of the charge of the electron is of tremendous

importance because it determines how strongly an atom holds its
electrons.

2. Electron – Smallest and Lightest subatomic particle

2.5 The Structure of the Atom

1) J. J. Thomson proposed that the negatively charged electrons were
small particles held within a positively charged sphere.

1. Plum-pudding model

2) Radioactivity was discovered (Henri Becquered)

1. The emission of small energetic particles from the core of certain unstable
atoms.

2. Three Different Types of Radioactivity:

(1) Alpha Particles – Elec Charged, Particles
(2) Beta Particles – Particles
(3) Gamma Rays - Elec Charged, Not Particles

3) Nuclear Theory (Rutherford)

1. Most of the atoms mass and all of its positive charge are contained in a small
core called the nucleolus;

2. Most of the volume of the atom is empty space, throughout, which tiny,
negatively charged electrons are dispersed.
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3. There are as many negatively charged electrons outside the nucleolus as

there are positive charged particles (protons) within the nucleolus, so that the
atom is electrically neutral.

4. Missing mass was composed of neutrons, neutral particles within the nucleus.

2.6 Subatomic Particles: Protons, Neutrons, and Electrons in

Atoms

1) All atoms are composed of the same subatomic particles:

1. Protons – Mass – 1.67262 x 10-27 kg

(1) Assigned a charge of +1

(2) 1.00727 amu

2. Neutrons – Mass – 1.67493 x 10-27 kg

(1) Assigned NO charge

(2) Matter is usually charged neutral
(3) 1.00866 amu

3. Electrons – Mass – 0.00091 x 10-27 Kg

(1) 0.00055 amu

(2) Assigned a charge of -1

4. Elements: Defined by their Number of Protons

(1) What makes the atoms of element different from those of another?

a. The number of Protons in its nucleus;

b. The number of Protons defines the element;

(2) Atomic Number (Z)

a. The number of Protons in an atom’s nucleus;

b. Indicates the number of Protons or Electrons in Neutral atom;

(3) AMU is an Average, one isotopes weighs more and the other weighs
less.
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5. Periodic Table

(1) Those with similar properties occur in the same column;

(2) The Chemical Symbol and the Atomic Number always go together;

(3) The Atomic Number rangers from 1-116;

(4) Chemical Symbol – 1 or 2 letter abbreviation of the element;

(5) In the Periodic Table, elements are arranged in order of increasing

Atomic Number.

6. Isotopes: When the number of Neutrons Varies

(1) All atoms of a given element have the same number of Protons;
however, they so NOT have the same number of Neutrons;

1) Different Isotopes for an element usually exhibit the same chemical

behavior;

2) Some elements have 3 or more naturally occurring Isotopes;

3) Since the size of an atom is determined by the Electrons, Isotopes of

the same element should be the same size.

(2) All atoms of a given element does NOT have the same mass.

(3) Atoms with the same number of Protons, but a different number of
Neutrons are called Isotopes.

(4) The relative amount of each different Isotope in a naturally occurring

sample of a given element, is usually the same.

EX: Natural Sample of Neon atom,

90.49% are the isotope with 10 Neutrons;
0.27% are the isotope with 11 Neutrons, and
9.25% are the isotope with 12 Neutrons.

(5) The percentages is called the Natural Abundance of the Isotope.

(6) Each Element has its own Natural Abundance of Isotopes.

(7) The sum of the number of Neutrons and Protons in an atom is called
the Mass Number and is given the symbol (A);

(8) The Number of Neutrons in an Isotope is the difference between the

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Mass Number (A) and the Atomic Number (Z);

(9) Mass Spectrometer – Measures masses of atoms and the %

abundance of Isotopes

(10) Notation for Isotopes

Mass # (Chart Decimal #)

X (Chemical Symbol);
Atomic #
X-A
2nd Notation for Isotopes = X (Chemical Symbol or name) – Mass #

EX: 40X = P + 18; n = 22; e = 18

18
25X = P + 12; n = 13; e = 12
12

(11) Pair of Isotopes of same element Example:

7. Ions: Losing and Gaining Electrons

(1) Neutral Atom → the # of Electrons = the # of Protons;

(2) During chemical changes, atoms often lose or gain Electrons to form
charged particles called IONS.

(3) The charge of an ION depends on how many Electrons were gained
or lost in forming the ION.

(4) Positively charged ION’s are called CATIONS;

a. Metals tend to form Cations;

b. Atoms are usually larger than their corresponding Cation;

(5) Negatively charged IONs are called ANIONS;

a. Anions are larger than their corresponding atom b/c the anion
contain more electrons than the atom;

b. Since electrons repel one another AND determine the size of the
atom or ion, adding electrons to the atom to form an Anion
makes it larger.
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(6) NOTE: The # of Neutrons in a nucleus of an atom does not affect the
atom size;

The # of the Electrons, however, does effect the size of an

atom;

(7) Ions vs Isotopes

1) Ions have the loss or gain of electrons. Isotopes differ in

Neutrons

NOTE: Atom is made up of a Nucleus surrounded by Electrons.

The Nucleus contains Protons (Pos Charged Particles) and Neutrons (Neutral
Particles) and is where most of the mass of the atom comes from, but is a tiny
fraction of an atoms volume.

The Nucleus is surrounded by negatively charged electrons, the same number

as there are protons in the nucleus. (Atom is therefore neutral overall)

2.7 Finding Patterns: The Periodic Law and the Periodic Table
1. Periodic Table (Dimitri Mendeleev)
(1) Periodic Law

1) Listing elements in increasing mass, their properties recurred in

a periodic pattern;

(2) Metals – Found on the lower left side and middle of the periodic table;

1) Metals tend to form Cations;

(3) Nonmetals – Found in the upper right side of the periodic table;

1) Nonmetals tend to gain electrons;

(4) Metalloids – Lie along the zigzag diagonal line that divide metals and
nonmetals;

1) Several Metalloids are also classified as semiconductors;

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(5) Main-Group Elements

1) Whose properties tend to be largely predictable based on their

position.

2) Column labeled with a Number and the letter A.

3) Each Column within the Main-Group element are called “Family”

or “Group” of elements.

(a) Elements within a group have similar chemical properties;

(b) Since elements in the same group have the same number of Valence
electrons they tend to have similar chemical reactivity;

(c) Chemical reactions typically involve Valance electrons;

4) The Rows are called Periods;

5) 1A-Alkali Metals – All Reactive Metals

(a) Tend to lose an Electron - 1+ Ions

6) 2A-Alkaline Earth Metals – Fairly Reactive

(a) Tend to lose 2 Electrons - 2+ Ions

7) 6A – Oxygen Family Non-metals

(a) Tend to gain 2 Electrons – 2 – Ions
(b) Are generally un-reactive

8) 7A-Halogens- Very Reactive Non-Metals

(a) Tend to gain 1 Electron – 1 - Ions

9) 8A-Nobel Gases – Mostly Un-Reactive

(a) Do NOT combine with other elements to form compounds;

(6) Transition Elements

1) Whose properties tend to be less predictable based on their

position.

2) Column labeled with a Number and the letter B.

2. Ions and the Periodic Table

(1) In chemical reactions:

1) Metals tends to lose electrons – forming Cations

2) Non-Metals tends to gain electrons – forming Anions

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(2) MGE – Tend to form Ions that have the same number of electrons as the
nearest Nobel Gas.

(3) Main Group Metal – Tends to lose electrons, forming a Cation, with the same
number of electrons as the nearest Nobel Gas.

(4) Main Group Non-Metal – Tends to gain electrons, forming Aions, with the
same number of electrons as the nearest Nobel
Gas.

Predict the Charge for:

Al

1. Main Group Metal

2. Tend to lose Electrons to form a Cation
3. Al = 13 Electrons closet Nobel Gas is N = 10 Electrons
4. Al will tend to lose 3 Electrons forming a Cation Al 3+

1. Main Group Non-Metal

2. Tend to gain Electrons to form a Aions
3. S = 16 Electrons closet Nobel Gas is Argon = 18 Electrons
4. S will tend to gain 2 Electrons forming an Aion S 2-

2.8 Atomic Mass: The Average Mass of an Element’s Atoms

1. Atomic Mass

(1) Atomic Mass = Average Mass of the isotopes that compose that
element.

1) Listed directly under the Element Symbol

(2) Atomic Mass = (fraction of isotope 1 x mass of isotope 1) +

(fraction of isotope 2 x mass of isotope 2) + Etc

EX: Cal. The Atomic Mass of Copper, which has 2 naturally occurring isotopes:

Cu-63
Mass 62.9396 amu
Natural Abundance 69.17%
Cu-65
Mass 64.9278 amu
Natural Abundance 30.83%

69.17/100 = .6917(62.9396) + .3083(64.9278) = 63.55 amu

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2. Mass Spectrometry Measuring the Mass of Atoms

and Molecules
(2) The mass of atoms and the % abundances of isotopes of elements are
measured using Mass Spectrometry

2.9 Molar Mass: Counting Atoms by Weighing Them

1. The Mole: A Chemists “Dozen”

(1) The Chemists “dozen” is called the mole.
1) 1 mol = 6.022141 x 1023

(2) The is also called Avogadro’s Number [6.022 x 1023]

(3) The number of moles of the substance as the amount of the

substance;

(4) One mole of ANYTHING is 6.022 x 1023 units of that thing;

(5) Defined as being equal to the number of atoms is exactly 12

grams of pure carbon-12; (12 g C = 1 mol C atoms = 6.022 x 1023
C atoms);

(6) Gives us a relationship between mass (grams of Carbon) and

number of atoms (Avogadro’s number)

2. Converting between Numbers of Moles and Number of

Atoms
(1) Conversions Factor = 1 mol atom / 6.022 x 1023 atoms

3. Converting between Mass and Amount [Number of

Molar]
(1) The mass of 1 mol of atoms of an element is called the molar
mass.

(2) The value of an element’s molar mass, in grams per mole, is

numerically equal to the element’s atomic mass in AMU.

(3) EX: Copper

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Atomic Mass 63.55 amu

Molar Mass 63.55 g/mol
1 mole of copper atoms therefore has a mass of 63.55 g.
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3.1 Hydrogen, Oxygen and Water

1. The properties of compounds are generally very different from the
properties of the elements that compose them.

2. When 2 elements combine to form a compound, an entirely new

substance results.

3.2 Chemical Bonds

1. Compounds are composed of atoms held together by Chemical
bonds.

A. Chemical bonds are the result of interaction between charged particles

(Electrons & Protons) that compose atoms.

2. Two Types of Chemical Bonds

A. Ionic

1) Occurs between metals and non-metals;

2) Involves the transfer of electrons from 1 atom to another;
3) Always trying to get a FULL octet.
4) The metal atom then becomes a Cation (pos charged ion) and the
non-metal becomes a Anion (neg charged ion);
5) Ionic bonds are always expressed in its Lowest Whole Number of the
ratio;
6) EX: Metal interacts with a non-metal, it can transfer 1 or more electrons
to the non-metal;

NOTE: 2 Non-metals may form Ionic bonds when you have a + charge non-metal with a -
charge non-metal.

B. Covalent

1) Occurs between 2 or more non-metals;

2) Involves the sharing of electrons between 2 atoms;
3) The shared electrons interact with the with the nuclei of BOTH atoms,
lowering their potential energy through electrostatic interaction with the
nuclei;
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NOTE: How can a compound contain BOTH Ionic and Covalent bonds?

An Ionic compound that contains a Polyatomic ion, such as NaNO3 has BOTH
Ionic bonds (that hold the Sodium and Nitrate ions together) as well as
Covalent bonds (that hold both atoms within the Nitrate ion together).

3.3 Representing Compounds: Chemical Formulas and

Molecular Models
1. Chemical formulas indicates the elements present in the
compound and the relative number of atoms or ions of each.
A. Chemical formulas normally list the more positively charged element
first;

B. Followed by the more negative charged elements;

2. Types of Chemical Formulas

A. Empirical Formula

1) Simply gives the relative number of atoms of each element in a

compound;

2) The smallest Whole Number Ratio between atoms in a compound.

B. Molecular (Chemical) Formula

1) Simply gives the actual number of atoms of each element in a

compound;

2) Always a whole number multiple of the Empirical Formula;

3) The exact number of each type of atom necessary to build a specific

molecule.

4) Used only for Covalent bonds;

5) What the substance actually has in it.

Molecular Formula N2 H4 C2 H6 C2 H6 O2

Empirical Formula N H2 C H3 C H3 O
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C. Structural Formula

1) Using lines to represent the covalent bonds to show how the atoms in
the molecule are connected to each other.

2) May also be written to give a sense of the molecules geometry;

3) Can also show the different types of bonds that occur between
molecules;

a) Double Bonds

(1) 2 shared electron pair;

(2) Stronger and Shorter than a single bond;

b) Single Bonds

(1) 1 shared electron pair;

4) Molecular Models

a) The most accurate and complete way to specify compounds;

(1) Ball and Stick Model-Shows the geometry of the molecule;

(2) Space Filling Molecular Model-Best sense of relative size of the

atoms;

3.4 An Atomic-Level View of Elements and Compounds

1. Pure substances could be divided into (1) Elements &
(2) Compounds;

2. Elements may be either (1) Atomic or (2) Molecular;

A. Atomic Elements = Are those that exist in nature with single

atoms as their basic unit.

EX: Xenon, Silver, Neon (Ne), gold (Au), potassium (K)

B. Molecular Elements = Do NOT normally exist in nature with

single atoms as their basic units.

2 or more atoms of the same element

bonded together EX. S8
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1) Most molecule elements exist as diatomic molecules

Have No Fear Of Ice Cold Beer

H2 N2 F2 O2 I2 Cl2 Br2 [Examples of Molecular

Elements]

2) A few molecular elements exist as polyatomic molecules

(e.g. P4)

NOTE: Why aren't prefixes used in naming Ionic compounds?

The charge of a ions dictate how many must be present to form a neutral
unit.

Molecular compounds do NOT have such constraints and therefore

must use prefixes to denote the number of atoms present.

3. Compounds may be either (1) Molecular or (2) Ionic.

A. Molecular Compounds = Composed of 2 or more Covalently

bonded non-metals;

= highly directional covalent bonds which

result in the formation of molecules;

EX: NO2 [2 non-metals], N2O, H2O,

B. Ionic Compound = Are composed of Cations (1 type of metal)

and Anions (2 or more non-metals) bound
together by ionic bonds.

Exist anytime we have positive ions (metal)

and negative ions (non-metal) combining
together.

Ionic compounds create a SOLID;

(Sodium Chloride (NaCl), Potassium Sulfate

(NA2SO4))

= contain non-directional ionic bonds which result

in the formation of ionic lattices;

= extended networks of alternating cations and

anions;
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1) The basic unit of an Ionic compound is the Formula Unit, the

smallest, electrically neutral collections of ions.

EX: NiCl2 [Ni = metal, Cl is a non-metal]

K2O [K = metal, O is a non-metal]
Fe2O3

2) Polyatomic Ion = An Ion composed of 2 or more atoms;

EX: NaNO3 [ metal + polyatomic ion]

= Are compounds made up of different

elements, usually non-metals, and
possess a charge.

Single Charge Cations

NH4+ = Ammonium
HG22+ = Mercury(I)

Single Charge Anions

CH3CO2- = Acetate
C2H3O2- = Acetate
CN- = Cyanide
OH- = Hydroxide
MnO4- = Permanganate
NO3- = Nitrate
NO2- = Nitrite

Double Charged Anions

CO32- = Carbonate

rO42- = Chromate

Cr2O72- = Dichromate

O22- = Peroxide

SO42- = Sulfate

SO32- = Sulfite
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Triply Charged Anions

PO43- = Phosphate

PO33- = Phosphite

Double + Single Charge Anions

H+ PO43- =HPO42- Hydrogen Phosphate

2H+ PO43- =H2PO4- Dihydrogen Phosphate

H+ CO32- =HCO3- Hydrogen Carbonate or

Bicarbonate

H+ SO42- =HSO4- Hydrogen Sulfate or

Bisulfate

Iodine - Molecular Element

NH3 - Molecular Compound

Graphite - Atomic Element

NaP - Ionic Compound

Ag2(SO4)2 - Ionic Compound [(SO4) - Polyatomic Ion]

3.5 Ionic Compounds: Formulas and Names

1. Ionic compounds occur throughout Earth’s crust as minerals.

2. Ionic compounds are also found in the food we eat.

3. Writing Formulas for Ionic Compounds.

A. Ionic Compounds are Charge Neutral;

B. Ionic compounds always contain positive and negative ions.

C. The sum of the charges of the positive ions (cations) must always
equal the sum of the charges of the negative ions (anions).

D. The formula reflects the smallest whole number ratio of ions

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4. Naming Ionic Compounds

A. Common Names

B. Systematic Names

1) Determined simply by looking at the chemical formula;

2) The formula of a compound can be deduced from its Systematic

Name;

C. Usually formed between Metal and Non-Metals;

D. Ionic Compounds can be divided into 2 types, depending on the metal in

the compound;

1) First Type – Contains a metal whose charge is irrelevant from

one compound to another (the metal only forms 1
Ion)

a) Since the charge is always the same it need NOT be specified in

the name of the compound;

2) Second Type – Contains a metal with a charge that can be

different in different compounds;

a) The metal can form more than one kind of Cation and the charge
must be specified for a given compound;

b) Metals of this type are often found in the “Transition Metals” section;

5. Naming Binary Ionic Compounds Containing a Metal that

Forms Only One Type of Cation

A. Binary Compounds - Containing only 2 different elements;

B. Name of the Cation (metal) base name of Anion (non-metal) + ide

KCl → Potassium (Cation) Chlor (base name for Anion) + ide

CaO → Calcium (Cation) Ox (base name of Anion) +ide

CaBr2 → Calcium (Cation) Brom (base name of Anion) +ide

Ag3N → Silver (Cation) Nitr (base name of Anion) + ide

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6. Naming Binary Ionic Compounds Containing a Metal that forms

More than One Kind of Cation
A. EX: Fe2+ iron (II)

B. Name of the Cation (metal) [ charge of the Cation (metal) in

Roman Numerals in parenthesis ] base name of Anion (non-metal)
+ ide

C. The charge of the metal Cation is obtained by inference from the

sum of the charges of the non-metal anions;

D. The sum of all the charges must be 0;

E. EX: CrBr3 [NOTE: the charge of Chromium must be 3+ to be

charge neutral]

Chromium (III) Bromide

F. EX: CuO2 [NOTE: the charge of Copper must be 2+ to be charge

neutral]

Copper (II) Oxide

PbCl4 = Lead (IV) Chloride

FeS = Iron (II) Sulfide

Ruthenium (IV) Oxide = RuO2

7. Naming Ionic Compounds Containing Polyatomic Ions

A. The name of the Polyatomic ion is used whenever it occurs;

B. Most Polyatomic ions are oxyanions anions containing Oxygen and

another element.

C. If there are only 2 ions in a series, the one with the more Oxygen
atoms are given an ending with –ate; and the one with the fewer
ions is given the ending of –ite;

NOTE: Oxygen is usually at the end; the ate/ite refers to how many
oxygen's are present or the Oxidation Number;
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D. If there are more than 2 ions in the series then the prefixes hypo
(less than), per (more than);

EX: NaNO2 = Na (Cation) Sodium, NO2 (Polyatomic Anion) Nitrite

Sodium Nitrite

FeSO4 = iron (II) sulfate

EX: ClO - hypochlorite

CIO2 - chlorite
CIO3 - chlorate
CIO4 – perchlorate

Li2Cr2O7 - Lithium (cation); Polyatomic ion - Dichromate

Lithium Dichromate

Sn(ClO3)2 - Tin(II)Chlorate

Cobolt (II) Phosphate – Co3(PO4)2

8. Hydrated Ionic Compounds

A. Some ionic compounds, called Hydrates, contain a specific number of

water molecules associated with each formula unit.

B. Epson Salt = MgSO + 7H2O = Magnesium Sulfate Heptahydrate

C. 7 H2O called waters of hydration.

D. Hydrates are named lust as other ionic compounds, but they are given
the additional name “prefixhydrate,” where the prefix indicates the
number of water molecules associated with each formula unit.

E. -1/2H2O = hemiHydrate

F. -6H2O =hexaHydrate

G. – 5H2O=pentaHydrate

3.6 Molecular Compounds: Formulas and Names

1. Naming Molecular Compounds

A. Molecular Compounds forms between 2 or more nonmetals.

B. Binary (two element) molecular compounds:

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prefix+ name of 1st element + prefix + base name of 2nd

element + ide

C. First element is MORE metal like (toward the left and bottom)

D. Always write the name of the element with the smallest group
number first;

E. If the 2 are in the same group, write the element with the greatest
row number first;

F. If there is only 1 atom of the first element in the formula, the prefix
mono is omitted;

G. EX: NO2 = nitrogen dioxide

N2O = dinitrogen monoxide
NI3 = nitrogen triiodide
PCl5 = phosphorus pentrachloride
P4S10 = tetraphorphorus decasulfide
N2O5 = dinitrogen pentoxide
Phosphorus tribromide = PBr3

2. Naming Acids

A. Acids are molecular compounds that release Hydrogen ions when

dissolved in water.

B. EX: Hydrogen + 1 or more non-metals

C. HCl = H+ and Cl- (Hydrogen Chloride) [Binary Acid – Only 2

Elements]
D. aq = dissolved in water

E. HCl (g) and HCl(aq)

F. Have a sour taste and their ability to dissolve many metals.

3. Naming Binary Acids

A. Hydro – (Base Name of nonmetal) + ic Acid

B. Hl – hydroiodic acid

C. HF - hydrofluoric acid
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4. Naming Oxyacids

A. Hydrogen + Oxyanion (an anion containing a non-metal and oxygen)

B. HNO3 → Nitrate Ion NO3 → Nitric Acid

C. H2SO3 → Sulfite Ion SO3 → Sulfurous Acid

D. H2SO4 → Sulfate Ion SO4

E. The number of H+ ions depends on the charge of the Oxyanion so

that the formula is always charge neutral.

F. HC2H3O2 → Acetic Acid (Oxyanion is acetate)

G. HNO2 → Nitrous Acid

H. Perchloric Acid → HCLO4

EX: Base Ions or Polyatomic Ions changed to an acid

Nitrite Ion NO2 - = Nitrous Acid HNO2 [ -ite = ous Acid]

Nitrate Ion NO3- = Nitric Acid HNO3 [ -ate = ic Acid]

NOTE: The one with the more oxygen gets the (ic) ending for an acid;

Phosphate Ion PO43- = Phosphoric Acid H3PO4

Phosphorite Ion = Phosphorous Acid H2PO4

3.7 Formula Mass and the Mole Concept for Compounds

1. Atomic Mass = Average mass for an atom;

2. Formula Mass (molecular mass, molecular weight) = Average

mass for a molecule of a compound;

A. Is the sum of the atomic masses of all the atoms in the chemical
formula;

B. Formula Mass CO2 = C(12.01) + 2(O)(16.00)

= 44.01 amu
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C. Formula Mass C6 H12 O6 = 6(12.01 amu) + 12(1.008 amu) + 6(16.00

amu)

= 180.16 amu

3. Molar Mass of a Compound

A. An elements molar mass-the mass in grams of 1 mole of the atoms

is numerically equivalent to its atomic mass.

B. CO2 molar mass = 44.01 g/mol

4. Using Molar Lass to Count Molecules by Weighing

A. Molar mass of (compound) provides us with a conversion factor

between Mass (grams) and Amount (moles);

B. EX: Find the # of (compound) molecules in a sample of dry ice with

a mass of 10.8 g?

Compound (grams) → Mol Compound → Compound molecules

Avagodo #
10 g CO2 x (1 mol CO2)/(44.01 g CO2) x (6.022 x 1023 CO2)/(1 mol CO2)=

3.8 Composition of Compounds

1. A chemical formula, in combination with the Molar Masses of its

constituent elements gives the relative amount of each element in
a compound.

2. One way to express how much of an element is in a given

compound is to use the elements Mass Percent Composition
(Mass Percent) for that compound.

A. Mass % of element X = (mass of element X in 1 mol of

compound)/(mass of 1 mol of the compound) x 100%
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3. EX: Cal the Mass % of Cl in CCl2F2

Molar Mass = 12.01 g/mol + 2 (35.45 g/mol) + 2(19.00 g/mol)

= 120.91 g/mol

Mass % Cl = (2 x 35.45)/(120.91 g/mol) x 100%

= 58.64%

4. Mass Percent Composition as a Conversion Factor

A. The Mass % of an element in a compound is a conversion factor

between mass of the element and mass of the compound.

58.64 g Cl : 100 g CCl2F2

B. 2.4 g NA; Sodium Chloride is 39% sodium by mass;

2.4 g NA x (100 g NaCl)/39 g Na = 6.2 g NaCl

5. Conversion Factors from Chemical Formulas

A. Chemical formulas contain within them inherent relationships between

atoms and molecules.

1 mol CCl2F2 : 2 mol Cl

Compute the # of moles of Cl in 38.5 mol of CCL2F2

38.5 mol CCl2F2 x 2 mol Cl / 1 mol CCl2F2 = 77.0 mol Cl

B. EX: What is the mass in grams of Cl in 25.0 g CCl2F2

25.0 g CClF x (1 mol CClF)/(120.91 g CClF) x (2 mol Cl)/(1 mol CClF) x

(35.45 g Cl) / (1 mol Cl)

= 14.7 g Cl

General Form

Mass of compound →Moles Compound →Moles Element →Mass Element

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3.9 Determining a Chemical Formula from Experimental Data

1. Calculate a chemical formula from mass percent composition, but
it is an empirical formula, NOT a molecular formula;

2. Molecular formulas require the molar mass of the compound.

3. EX: 0.857 g of Hydrogen; 6.86 g of Oxygen; Empirical Formula?

Empirical Formula represents a "ratio of atoms" or "ratio of

moles of atoms" NOT a ratio of masses.

Convert mass (g) to amounts (moles)

Moles H = 0.857 g H x (1 mol H)/(1.01 g H) = 0.849 mol H

Moles O = 6.86 g O x (1 mol O)/(16.00 g O) = 0.429 mol O

H0.849O0.429

To get the smallest Whole-Number Ratio

H0.849/0,429O0.429/0.429 = H2O Empirical Formula

4. Calculating Molecular Formulas for Compounds

A. You can find the Molecular Formula of a compound from the

Empirical Formula if you know the molar mass of the compound.

B. EX: Find the Molecular Formula for Fructose

Empirical Formula CH2O
Molar Mass 180.2 g/mol

C. Molar Mass is a whole number multiple of the Empirical Formula Molar

Mass

Molar Mass = Empirical Formula Molar Mass x n

n = molar mass / Empirical Formula Molar Mass

EFMM = 12.01 g/mol + 2(1.01 g/mol) + 16.00 g/mol = 30.03 g/mol

n = 180.2 g/mol / 30.03 g/mol = 6

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Molecular Formula = (CH2O) x 6 = C6 H12 O6

5. Combustion Analysis

A. Common way of obtaining empirical formula for unknown

compounds is through Combustion Analysis.

B. The unknown compound undergoes combustion in the

presence of pure oxygen.

3.10 Writing and Balancing Chemical Equations

1. Combustion analysis employs a chemical reaction - a process in
which one or more substances are converted into one or more
different ones.

2. Combustion Reaction - particular type of chem reaction in which

the substance combines with oxygen to form one or more oxygen
containing compounds.

3. Chemical Reaction is represented by a Chemical Equation

CH4 + O2 → CO2 + H2O

reactants products

4. Write an equation that more closely represents what actually

happened - we must balance the equation;

5. We must change the coefficients NOT the subscripts;

6. When we add coefficients, we change the number of molecules in

the equation but NOT the kind of molecules.

7. The same on both sides of a Chemical Equation:

A) the number of atoms of each type;
B) the number of molecules of each type;
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3.11 Organic Compounds

1. Compounds are divided into 2 types: (1) Organic and (2) Inorganic

2. Organic compounds comes from living things.

A) Easy to decompose;

B) The Key element is Carbon;

C) Carbon always form 4 bonds

3. Inorganic compounds comes from the earth.

A) Difficult to decompose;

4. Hydrocarbons

A) Dividing organic compounds into types:

(1) Hydrocarbons

a. Organic compounds that contain only carbon and hydrogen;

b. Single Bonds - Alkanes
c. Double Bonds - Alkenes
d. Triple Bonds - Alkynes

(2) Functionalized Hydrocarbons

5. Functionalized Hydrocarbons

A) Hydrocarbons in which a functional group has been

incorporated into the hydrocarbon.
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K(ClO3) - Potassium Chlorate

Sc(ClO2)3 - Scandium Chlorite

Sn(ClO)2 - Tin (II) Hypochlorite

Pb(CrO4) - Lead (II) Chromate

Mg(Cr2O7) - Magnesium Dichromate

Sr(ClO4)2 - Strontium Perchlorate

K(MnO4) - Potassium Permanganate

NaCn - Sodium Cyanide

YP - Yetrium Phosphide

CuI - Copper (I) Iodide

Ni(OH)2 - Nickle (II) Hydroxide

XeCl2 - Xenon Dichloride

CBr - Cadmium Sulfite

AgBr - Silver Bromide

Zm(NO2)2 - Zinc Nitrite

CaCO4 - Calcium Carbonate

N2O4 - Dinitrogen Tetroxide

Na2 O - Sodium Oxide (Monotomic Anion = ide)

AlPO4 - Aluminum Phosphate

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NH NO3 - Ammonium Nitrate

NH - Cation, NO - Anion

RbF - Rubidium Fluoride (Monotomic Anion = ide)

PF3 - Phosphorus Tri Fluoride

TiO2 - Titanium (IV) Oxide

Fe(C2 H3 O2)2 - Iron (II) Acetate

SF6 - Sulfur Hexa Fluoride

Mn2(SO4)7 - Manganese (VII) Sulfate

Ga2S - Galium Sulfide

Be Cl2 - Beryllium Chloride (Monotomic Anion = ide)

V2 Se5 Vanadium (V) Selenide

Aluminum Oxide = Al2O3

Silver Sulfate = Ag 1+ SO42-

Ag2SO4

Magnesium Cyanide = Mg2 CN 1-

Mg(CN)2 Parenthesis are important with
Polyatomics

Zinc Oxide = Zn2 O2

ZnO

Fe Cl2 Iron (II) Chloride Ferrous Chloride

Fe Cl3 Iron (III) Chloride Ferric Chloride

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Rb (SCN)2 Rubidum Thiocyanate

Sn F2 Tin (II) Flouride

Stennous Flouride

NOTE: Tin could be a +2 or +4; the lowest charge gets an

-ous;

Carbon Monoxide - CO

Nitrogen Trihydride - NH3 (Ammonia)

Sulfur Dioxide - SO2

Sulfur Hexaflouride - SF6

S2 F10 - diSulfur Deca Fluoride

N2 H4 - di Nitrogen Tetra Hydride

P H3 - Phosphorus TriHydride