Introduction to

Embedded Hardware
Design

Santosh Sam Koshy

PTO, C-DAC Hyderabad
[email protected]
Content
• About the Module
• Introduction to Eagle Design Tool
• 6 Box Model of Embedded Systems
• Looking into the 6 Box Model
• A few commercially available devices
• A Multi-bot Design
• Setting the Foundations
• Resistors
• Capacitors
• Inductors
• Diodes
• Logic Families
• GPIO
Module Objectives
• By the end of this course, you should be able to
• Understand and acclimatize yourself with the design concepts involved in
developing a Microcontroller based Embedded System
• Design a Microcontroller based Embedded System which includes its sub
components like input devices, output devices, power supply and
communication and networking interfaces
• Use a design tool to develop schematics and further proceed for layout and
PCB design
• Have a walk through of PCB manufacturing process
Training Focus

Design Thought
Conceptual Know
Process (Choosing
How (Design
the Design
Aspects of
Components and
Electronic Systems)
Creating Schematic)

Skill Development (Layout and

Board Manufacturing)
 Module flow
Days Theory Sessions Lab Sessions
Hardware Design – Course Overview, Objectives Introduction to Cadsoft Eagle Design tool and
1-2 6 Box Model - System -> Devices -> Components Development of Eagle Libraries for various
Design Concepts - Hardware Design Flow, Logic Families, Pins & Ports components
uC Design Guide - Adding Reset, Clock, Peripherals, Programming and Debugging Choosing a micro-controller and building
3- 4
Requirements, Communication and Networking Interfaces requisite support for functioning

Design Concepts – Linear PS, Low Drop Out PS, Switched Mode PS
Power supply design for multibot charging
5-6 Standard Circuit Configurations – AC-DC, DC-DC
Li Ion Battery charger circuit
Battery – Chemistries, Charging methodologies, Battery Protection
Sensors – Temperature, Relative Humidity, Accelerometer, Ultrasonic, IR…
Micro-controller circuit with i/p block –
7-8 Human Input Devices – Switches and Push Buttons, Touch,
Temperature, Accelerometer, Ultrasonic
Signal Conditioning – Filters, Amplifiers, Isolation & Protection circuits

Actuators – Motors (DC, Stepper Motor), H-Bridge circuits Micro-controller circuit with o/p block – H-
9
Display Devices - LEDs, LCD Displays, 7 Segment Displays bridge circuits, Motors, Displays

PCB Boards – Laminates, PCB nomenclature

10 PCB Manufacturing Process – Chemical/Mechanical, Layout, Etching, Mask
Soldering Techniques – Instruments, Through hole, SMD, Pick & Place, reflow
Introduction to Eagle
Easily Applicable Graphical Layout Editor
Outline
• About Eagle
• Process Flow
• Terminology in use
• Getting to know Eagle
• Control Panel
• Schematic Editor
• Layout Editor
• Auto Routing
• CAM Process and Gerber generation
About Eagle
• Graphical Editor for designing Schematics and Layouts of PCBs
• Modules
• Schematic Editor
• Layout Editor
• Auto Router
• Computer Aided Manufacturing (CAM) Processor
• Creating Component Libraries
Process Flow
Create Schematic Entry

Design Tool Create Board Layout

Manufacturing
Components
& Assembly

Routing the Board

Manufacturing Files
Before we Begin
• Units of Operation
• 1 inch = 1 pitch = 25.4 mm = 1000 mil = 1000 thou
• Working Grid
• Schematic Editor - 0.1 inch = 100 mil = 2.54 mm
• Layout Editor - Set as a function of component pitch, else connections may fail
• Drill Information - Set in mm grid since all drill equipment are designed this
way
• Board Layout - Set in mm grid
 PCB Development Terminology
Track Pad Via Polygon
Copper filled line that Point where the component Connection between layers of Area in which copper can
connects components rests on the PCB the PCB be filled commonly for GND
planes and power planes
 Manufacturing Terminology - CAM Process
Comp & Sol Solder/Stop Silk Screen Excellon
Screens on which the Mask Component Outline, Name Drill Information like diameter
components are soldered. and Value and position information
Area around the solder
It concerns tracks, pads and mask which is etched out
vias and their details
Eagle PCB Tool
 Schematic Editor
Menu Bar
Action Toolbar
Parameter Toolbar
Coordinate Display Command Line

Command
Toolbar

Working Area
Layout Editor
Design Rules to be followed
• Tracks
• Track width depends on
• Electrical requirements – current flowing through it,
• Maximum temperature rise on the track,
• Routing space and
Track width reference table for 10oC temp rise
• Clearance space
Current (A) Track Width
• The thicker the better.
1 10
• Lower DC Resistance
2 30
• Lower Inductance
3 50
• Are easier to manufacture and check for breakages
• Net Classes can be defined for variable track widths- Power Requirements
Design Rules to be followed
• Pads
• Size, shape and dimensions depend on the component and manufacturing process
• Pad to Hole Ratio: Pad should be atleast 1.8 times the diameter of the hole
• Leaded Components like Resistors, Capacitors and Diodes should have a round pad
with diameter of atleast 70 mil
• DIL components should have oval pads with height 60 mil and length 90-100 mil
• Pin 1 pad of the IC should be different – preferable rectangular, as same dimension
as other pads
• Most SMD components use rectangular pads. SO package ICs use oval pads
• Vias
• Connect the tracks from one side of the PCB to the other through an electroplated
holes. These are called Plated Through Holes (PTH)
• Diameter of Vias are smaller than Pads
• Different kinds of Vias: Through Hole, Buried and Blinded
Design Rules to be followed
Design Rules to be followed
• A connection between 2 or more pads is called a net. Keep the nets as
short as possible. The longer the net, the greater is its resistance,
inductance and capacitance
• Ensure that the tracks have 45 Deg angles and not 90 Deg or more
• Electrical Rule Check (ERC) during schematic design
• Design Rule Check (DRC) during layout design
Generating Manufacturing Files
• Load the CAM processor by
• Either selecting from Control Panel
• Clicking on CAM processor icon in the Layout Editor
• Generating Gerber Files for Manufacturing
• Select ‘gerb274x.cam’ from ‘File/Open/Job’ dialog
• Click button ‘Process Job’
• The following files should be generated
• demo3.cmp - Component side
• demo3.sol - Solder side
• demo3.plc - Silkscreen for component side
• demo3.plc - Silkscreen for solder side
• demo3.stc - Soldering mask for the component side
• demo3.sts - Soldering mask for the solder side
• demo3.gpi - Information file, not relevant here
• Generating Drill Files for Manufacturing
• Select ‘excellon’ from ‘File/Open/Job’ dialog
• Click button ‘Process Job’
• The following files should be generated
• File name.dri – Drill Station Information
• File name.drd – Dril Table Information
 1. Assumes clarity of design
2. Requires component library
3. Evaluate power

Process Flow Schematic Entry

requirements
4. Fit schematic design into
editor
5. Perform Electrical Rule
Check (ERC)

1. Shape, size and layers of

target board
2. Components to be laid out
onto the board area
Design Tool 3. Add GND and Power Plane
Board Layout
if required
Manufacturing 4. Perform Ratsnest to
optimize connections
Components
& Assembly
1. Specify track, pad and via
details to DRC
Routing 2. Choose Manual / Auto
Router and perform routing
3. Evaluate Route to confirm
that all points are covered
4. Manual Route if required
5. Perform Design Rule Check
(DRC)

Manufacturing
1. Initiate CAM Process for
Drill and Gerber generation
2. Check Gerber in gerbv
Example Design
• Design a Regulated 5V AC-DC Converter Power Supply
• Input: Step Down AC Voltage
• Output: 5V Regulated DC Power Supply
• Component Type: All Through hole
• Input Connector, Output Connector
• Transformer is Off board
• Board may be Single Sided or Double Sided
Regulated 5V AC-DC Converter Power Supply

230V AC to 12V
Bridge Filter Regulator
AC Step Down
Rectifier Capacitor Circuit
Transformer

Bridge Rectifier Filter Capacitor Regulator Circuit

Student Assignments – Day 1
• Revise the PPT and familiarize yourselves with Eagle – Refer Eagle
Tutorial & PCB Basics Document for more information
• Practice Eagle
• Create the AC-DC Power Supply (5V)
• Create a regulated dual supply circuit (+/- 15 V) – Refer Datasheet, Fig. 5
Hardware Design Concepts
6 box model of an embedded system
 Input Box
Environmental/Ambient
Sensors
• Temperature Human Interface Input
• Light Devices
• Humidity • s/w & push buttons
• Sound
Signal Conditioning
• Keypad
• Magnetic field • Filters
• Joystick
• Distance • Amplifiers
• Pointing devices
• Force/strain • Isolation and Protection
• Position • Touch sensors ckts
• Compensation Circuits
 Output Box
Actuation
• Position
• DC motors Human Interface
• Stepper Motors Output Devices
• Servo Motors • Displays
Design Concepts
• On/off control • 7-segment
• LEDs (with multiplexing)
• Open drain/collector,
• Relays push-pull
• LCD & tri-state o/p types..
• Sound (buzzer) • Current buffer & Vtg.
convertor
• Opto-isolator..
 Power Supply Design
Design Concepts
• Linear power supply - Standard Circuits
Legacy
• Low Dropout • AC-DC conversions
Regulator • Standard Transformer Circuits
• SMPS basics • Modified Transformer Circuits
Battery
• Buck • Transformer-less Circuits • Overview of chemistries
• Boost • Rechargeable & Non
• Buck-boost • DC-DC conversions Rechargeable
• LDO Designs • Battery Comparative Analysis
• Buck Design • Form factor
• Boost Design • Life
• Cost
• Buck Boost Design • Charge capacity
• Charging Methods and
Charger Circuits
Fitbit • STM32L485JC – Cortex M4 Low Power Processors with 1MB
Microcont Flash and 128KB SRAM
roller

• 3-Axis Accelerometers, Altimeter (Pressure Sensor), Heart Rate

Sensors (Optical)
Input
• User Switch / Buttons
Block

• OLED Display
• Beep/Buzzer
Output
Block • Vibration

• Bluetooth (BLE)
Communi • SPI/I2C/Digital etc
cation

• Battery – Lithium Polymer (LiPo)

Power • USB Charging
Sources
Quadcopter • STM32 core cortex M controller with about 128KB flash and 20KB
Microcont RAM
roller

• 3-Axis Accelerometers
• 3-Axis Gyroscope
Input
Block • Camera (Optional)

• Brushless DC Motors
Output • Electronic Speed Controls
Block

• WIFI
Communi • USB for charging and Program download
cation

• Battery – Lithium Polymer (LiPo), 1500-3000mAH

• Battery Charger
Power
Sources • USB Charging
Roomba • Freescale MC9S12E / Motorola HCS12 – 16 bit, 128KB Flash, 8KB
Microcont RAM
roller

• Piezo Electric Sensors & Acoustic Sensors for cleaning

• Cliff Detection, Obstacle Detection Sensors
Input
Block • Touchpad interface

• Motors: Movement, Cleaning, Vaccum

• LEDs and Seven Segment
Output
Block • Buzzers

• WIFI
Communi
cation

• Li-Metal Hydride Rechargeable Batteries (14.4 V, 3600mAH

Power • Docking Station
Sources
A Multi-bot Design
Communication
Input Block Output Block Power Supply
& Networking

Wheels for Students

Obstacle movement choice – Li-Ion Battery
Detection (forward and Zigbee, BLE, pack
reverse) WIFI, etc

Docking
Wheel turn
Alignment

Edge Sounder for

Detection alerts

Displays using
Ambient
LEDs, 7
Environment
Segment and
– T,RH,Light
LCD

Input
Switches and
Buttons

Battery Level
Design Details
Design Plan

Power
Supply GPIO
Design View
Setting the Foundations….
Resistors
• Passive Electronic Component used to limit current flow
• Ohms Law - V = I*R, Symbol
• Power = I2R or V2/R
• Units: Ohms (Ω)
• Properties
• Power Rating
• Stability
• Temperature Coefficient
• Resistor Noise
• Parasitic Influences
Resistor Types
Through Hole Resistor Variable Resistance
• Carbon Film Resistors • Potentiometers
• Carbon Composition Resistors • Rheostat
• Metal Film Resistors
• Metal Oxide Film Resistors
• Wire Wound Resistors
Externally Influenced VR
Surface Mount Device Resistor • Thermistor
• 0402 • Photoresistor
• 0603
• Varistor
• 0805
• 1206 • Magneto resistor
Resistors - Carbon Composition
• Fixed form
• Fine carbon particles are baked with clay and
• Pros
• Ability to withstand high energy pulses
• Cons
• Low stability of value
• Low temperature stability
• Applications
• Protection of circuits (surge or discharge)
• Current Limiting, High Voltage Supplies, High Power
Resistors - Carbon Film
• Fixed form
• Ceramic carrier with thin, pure carbon film around
• Pros
• High Voltage and Temperature properties
• Cons
• Low Range of Values
• Applications
• High Voltage and Temperature Applications
• High voltage power supplies, radar, xrays and lasers
Resistors - Metal Film
• Fixed form, axial resistors
• Created by coating a ceramic rod with thin film of metal layer (Ni Cr)
• Pros
• Good stability, accuracy and reliability
• Low Noise, High Linearity
• Cons
• Low voltage
• Should be operated between 20-80% of its power rating
• Applications
• Active filters and bridge circuits
Resistors - Metal Oxide Film
• Fixed form, axial resistors
• Created by coating a ceramic rod with thin film of metal oxides like tin
oxide
• Pros
• Better performance than Carbon Film and Metal Film resistors in Power Rating,
Voltage Rating, Overload Capabilities, Surges and High Temperatures
• Cons
• Lesser Stability as compared to Metal Film
• Poor properties for low values and tolerance
• Low noise tolerance
• Applications:High Endurance
Resistors – Wire wound resistors
• An insulated metallic wire, wound around a non conductor
• The wire has high resistivity and is made from alloys like Nickel
Chromium, Nickel-Chromium-Manganese
• Pros
• Accurate Values, Excellent properties for low resistance, High power ratings
• Cons
• Parasitic Influences
• Applications
• Circuit breaker applications, Precision instruments like stereo systems,
Current Sensing etc
 Resistors - Reading its value
Through Hole Resistors Surface Mount Device (SMD) Resistors

B. B. ROY of Great Britain has a Very Good Wife

Resistors – Standard Values
• Resistor values are standardized to ease mass manufacturing process
• International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC) standardized it in
IEC60063:1963 standard
• Valid for other components like Capacitors, Resistors, Inductors,
Diodes etc
• Popular Standard for resistors is known as the E-series or preferred
standard
• Defines standards in a decade namely, E6, E12, E24, E48, E96, E192
with appropriate tolerance values
 Resistors Standard Values
Standard Tolerance Values
E6 20% 10, 15, 22, 33, 47, 68
E12 10% 10, 12, 15, 18, 22, 27, 33, 39, 47, 56, 68, 82
10, 11, 12, 13, 15, 16, 18, 20, 22, 24, 27, 30, 33, 36, 39, 43, 47, 51, 56, 62,
E24 5% (also 1%)
68, 75, 82, 91
100, 105, 110, 115, 121, 127, 133, 140, 147, 154, 162, 169, 178, 187, 196,
205, 215, 226, 237, 249, 261, 274, 287, 301, 316, 332, 348, 365, 383, 402,
E48 2%
422, 442, 464, 487, 511, 536, 562, 590, 619, 649, 681, 715, 750, 787, 825,
866, 909, 953
E96 1% …
E192 0.5% (also 0.25%, 0.1%)
The Ideal vs Practical Resistance
• The ideal resistor, used to limit current, dissipate power in the form of heat
• The practical resistor includes parasitic inductance and capacitance which
play an important role in High Frequency Operations
• While resistors dissipate power in the form of heat, capacitors store them
as an electric field, while inductances store them as magnetic fields
• Parasitic Impedance
• Z = R + j.X where X is the inductance (X = jwL)
• Example: What is the effective resistance of a 220 Ohm resistor, operated at 1GHz
assuming that the resistor type is a foil resistor with 0.05uH inductance, and no
capacitance??
• Parasitic Capacitance
• Z = ZR*jXC / (ZR + jXC) where XC= -1/jwC
Capacitors
• Passive Electric/Electronic component to store electric energy
• Capacitance is the ability of a conducting body to accumulate charge
• Two conducting plates separated by a dielectric produces the
capacitive effect whereby, charge is accumulated on the conducting
plates by polarizing the atoms in the dielectric
• Capacitance C = Q/V;
• With regard to the dielectric, C = (εo.εr.A)/d
Capacitor Types
Through Hole Surface Mount Device

• Ceramic Capacitors • Ceramic Capacitors

• Electrolytic Capacitors • Electrolytic Capacitors
• Film Capacitors • Tantalum Capacitor
• Mica Capacitors
• Air Capacitors
• Polymer Capacitor
• Trimmer Capacitor
Air Capacitors
• Use air as their di-electric
• Specifically designed for variable capacitance applications and are therefore
available in variable form.
• Involve 2 sets of semicircular metal plates, separated by air gaps. One set of
plates is fixed, while the other is connected to a spindle and moves in between
the fixed plates varying the area and therefore, capacitance
• Pros
• Simple to construct, low leakage current because of air as a dielectric,
• Cons
• Bulky in size, unsuitable for very high voltages, small capacitance values (100pF to 1nF)
• Applications
• Resonant circuits like radio tuners, frequency mixers, impedance matching in antennae, used
in military applications and also in the presence of strong magnetic fields
Ceramic Capacitors
• Uses ceramic material as a dielectric
• Modern electronics use Multi-Layer Chip Capacitor (MLCC) and Ceramic
Disc Capacitor. MLCCs are manufactured in SMD form factors and are
commonly used in most circuits
• Class 1 devices for High Stability and Low Losses. Very Accurate.
• Class 2 devices for high capacitance, low stability applications
• Low capacitance values - 1nF to 1uF, sometimes even upto 100uF
• Low Maximum Rated Voltage (16V to 15kV) and Small Sizes, Non polarized
• Applications
• Class 2 are used for high voltage laser power supply
• Circuit breakers and induction furnaces
• Most electronic circuits like DC-DC converters, robotics
Electrolytic Capacitors
• Uses an electrolyte as a dielectric to achieve greater capacitance. An
electrolyte (liquid or gel) contains a high concentration of ions
• Generally Polarized. Therefore, direction of the capacitor is important in a
circuit
• Large Leakage Currents, Large Value Tolerances, Equivalent Series
Resistance, Limited lifetime
• Capacitance 1uF to 47mF, Operating Voltage of few hundred volts DC
• Low shelf life and drift is possible
• Applications
• Applications that do not require high tolerances
• AC power supplies for ripple reduction
• Low pass filters in audio applications
Film Capacitors
• Use thin plastic film as the dielectric. Other capacitors use film
materials like polypropopylene, polyester, metalized, polystyrene etc
• Good stability, low inductance, low ESR and low cost
• Non polarized, High precision values (1nF to 30uF) and slower aging
process, Good voltage range (50V to 2kV)
• Applications
• High Vibration Automotive Environments, High Temperature Environments
and High Power Environments
• Phase shifters, x-ray flashes and pulsed lasers, safety capacitors,
electromagnetic interference suppression, fluorescent light ballasts
• Decoupling capacitors, filters, A/D conversions
Tantalum Capacitors
• Subtype of electrolytic capacitors, made of tantalum metal which acts as
the anode, covered by a layer of oxide which acts as the dielectric
• Generally polarized, Capacitance range 1nF to 72mF. Voltage Rating from
2V to 500V
• Pros
• Higher capacitance per volume, superior frequency characteristics, excellent stability
over time, Low leakage current
• Cons
• Only downside is their failure mode which leads to thermal runaway, fires and small
explosions
• Applications
• Sample & Hold Circuits, Power Supply Filtering, motherboards and cellphones
Super Capacitors
• Electronic devices, to store extremely large amounts of charge. Also known
as double layer capacitors or ultra capacitors
• Super capacitors use two mechanism to store electrical energy: double
layer (electrostatic nature) and pseudo-capacitance (electro chemical)
• These devices hold enormous amounts of charge upto 12000F. The
maximum charge voltage lies between 2.5-2.7V
• These are polar devices with fast charge and discharge times. Likely to
replace batteries in the near future
• Cons
• Low Specific energy – Total energy/Weight
• Linear Discharge Voltage – Require DC-DC converters for rendering useful outputs
• Cost
Inductors
• Inductors are components consisting of coils of insulated copper wire
wound around some type of core at its centre.
• This core might be a metal such as iron that can be easily magnetised;
or in high frequency inductors, it will more likely to be just air.
• Inductors depend for their action on the magnetic field that is present
around any conductor when it is carrying a current
• The magnetic field around an inductor is a store of energy (from the
current that caused the field). When the current is turned off, the
energy stored in the magnetic field is returned to the inductor,
causing a current to flow in the opposite direction.
Inductors
• Units are Henry
• One henry is the amount of
inductance required to produce an
emf of 1 volt in a conductor when
the current in the conductor
changes at the rate of 1 Ampere
per second.
• EMF E = L*di/dt

Values are in Micro Henry

Diodes
• A diode is a one-way conductor.
• It has two terminals, the anode or positive terminal and the cathode
or negative terminal.
• Ideally a diode will pass current when its anode is made more positive
than its cathode, but prevent current flow when its anode is more
negative than its cathode.
Diode Types
1. Three power rectifiers, (a Bridge rectifier
for use with mains (line) voltages, and
two mains voltage rectifier diodes).
2. A point contact diode (with glass
encapsulation) and a Schottky diode.
3. A small signal silicon diode.
4. Zener Diodes with glass or black resin
encapsulation.
5. A selection of light emitting diodes.
Counter-clockwise from
• Yellow and green (3mm) indicator LEDs,
• An infra-red photodiode,
• 5mm warm white LED and Red LEDs
• A 10mm high luminosity blue LED
 Logic Families

• Technologies which deal with the implementation of Logic 1 and Logic 0

• Popular Technologies
– Transistor – Transistor Logic (TTL)
– Complimentary Metal Oxide Semiconductor (CMOS)
– Emitter Coupled Logic (ECL)
• Important Aspects to consider
– Operating voltages and currents
– Propagation delay requirements
– Power consumption requirements of the system
– Compatibility between the technologies
 Transistor-Transistor Logic

• Operating Voltages
– Operates between 0 to VCC with 5% tolerance (0
to 4.75-5.25V)
– Logic 1: 2 V to 5 V
– Logic 0: 0 V to 0.8 V
• Speed: High
– Propagation delays are 10 nS when driving a 15
pF/400 ohm load
• Power Consumption: High
– About 10mW per gate
 Complimentary Metal Oxide Semiconductor (CMOS)

• Operating Voltages
– Between 0 and VDD
– Logic 1: 3-18V
– Logic 0: 0-1.5V
• Speed: Slower than TTL
– 25nS to 50nS
• Power Consumption: Low
– At 1MHz and 50pF, power dissipation is generally 10nW
per gate
• Be Careful…
– Electrostatic Discharge – Damages CMOS
– CMOS Capacitance – Propagation Delay
 Emitter Coupled Logic

• Earlier versions required negative voltage of -5.2

V. Therefore, incompatible with CMOS or TTL
• Subfamilies of PECL and LVPECL solve the problem
• Extremely fast in operation <1ns
• High Power requirement (40mW per gate)
• Applications
– High Frequency signal communication
Logic Family Comparisons
 GPIO

• A generic pin on a micro-controller whose behavior can be controlled at run-time by

the user. This behavior relates to Input or Output functionalities
• Software controlled digital signals
• Can be configured to be inputs or outputs or both
– Output values (1 & 0) are writable
– Input values (1& 0) are readable
• Inputs can be configured as Interrupts - Edge and Level Triggered
 GPIO

• Input Mode
– Floating, High Impedance, Tri-state
– Pull up & Pull Down Resistors
– Hysteresis
• Output Mode
– Push-pull
– Open Drain and Open Collector
– High Drive
• Interrupt Mode
 Input Mode - Pull Up Configuration

• Used in digital circuits to ensure that a well defined logic level is maintained at the
pin
• Value
– Factors that influence it
• Strong Pull-up: Low value leads to high current flow thereby high power dissipation
• Weak Pull-up: High Value of pull-up coupled with leakage current may render the input
voltage insufficient
• Larger Values will create a lagged response time because of the RC effect brought on by
the line capacitance
– Rule of the thumb
• Set the Pull-up value 10 times smaller than the pin’s input impedance
• 4.7K Ohm is a good starting point
• For CMOS Logic Families, this value can be increased because of low leakage current, to
the order of 10K to 1M
• Applications
– Interfacing a switch to the controller
– ADC interfacing to allow controlled current to flow into the resistive sensor
 Input Mode - Pull Down Configuration

• Similar to Pull Up, except, pin is pulled to logical low

• Values
– Has to be greater than the pin’s input impedance or it would
render the input voltage drop which is greater than accepted
values
• Applications
– To provide a known output impedance on o/p pins
 Input Mode - Hysteresis (Schmitt Triggers)

• Used to change slowly changing signals to square

waves having very fast transitions
• Noise can be removed from signals, provided that
the amplitude of the noise is not greater than ΔV T
• Slow rise and fall times can be restored to
practically instant transitions by feeding the signal
through a Schmitt trigger
 Output Mode - Push-Pull Configuration

• Output stage of an Integrated Circuit

• Two transistors in complimentary stages, with
only one being turned on at a time
• Enables sinking and sourcing of current
• Cannot be used in BUS type of configuration
• Pros
– Source and sinking capability
– Fast operation
• Cons
– Not usable in bus configuration
 Open Collector/Drain Configuration

• Output stage of an IC
• Can only sink current
• Requires a external (sometimes internal) pull-up resistor to
function
• Uses
– Driving busses without fear of shorting
– Level shifter or logic translation
– Adequate current drive
• Cons
– Slow as compared to push-pull because of RC effect
 Eagle Libraries

• Components being used in Schematic and Board Designs are stored as libraries
• A library contains 3 elements
– Package – Mechanical Footprint of the component
– Symbol – Representation for Schematic
– Device – Integrates both Symbol and Package into one file
• Library is represented with .lbr file
• Package details of the component is to be referred from the datasheet of the
component for creating a library
References
• Resistors: http://www.resistorguide.com
• Capacitors: http://www.capacitorguide.com/
• Logic Families: http://www.learnabout-
electronics.org/Digital/dig30.php
• Inductors: http://www.learnabout-
electronics.org/ac_theory/inductors01.php
• Diodes: http://www.learnabout-
electronics.org/Semiconductors/diodes_20.php