● by Jim Phillips, P.E.

be 90 degrees ahead of the voltage (leading). Although

Ground verb: 1: to bring to or place on the ground: all three components can make up the total impedance,
2: to cause to run aground 3: to throw a football the most common element used for impedance ground-
intentionally to the ground to avoid being tackled for ing is the grounding resistor.
a loss: 4: to connect electrically with a ground The NEC contains specific articles that dictate when
5: to furnish a foundation of knowledge. you shall ground, when you shall not ground, and when
you are permitted – but not required – to ground.
These code requirements are based on various factors
According to Merriam-Webster’s dictionary, there are such as whether or not there are connected phase to
many definitions for the word “ground,” but how do neutral loads, whether only qualified persons service the
we know which one to use? Fortunately the National  installation, and operating voltage levels.
Electrical Code® (NEC® ) Article 100 provides us with The main goal of solidly grounding a power system is
a better description: to provide a low-impedance return path for short circuit
current during a line to ground fault. This helps produce
Ground. A conducting connection, whether intentional  a current with a large enough magnitude to enable
or accidental, between an electrical circuit or equipment  protective devices to quickly clear the fault. Grounding is
and the earth or to some conducting body that serves in also used to stabilize the line to ground voltage during
 place of the earth. normal operations, and it limits voltage during abnormal
surges such as lightning or accidental contact with higher
The NEC is pretty clear about the definition of an voltage lines.
electrical ground. However, when you begin to design All of these goals help to improve safety and minimize
an electric power system, you discover that the word damage. However, not all power systems are solidly
“ground” has a few modifiers that describe the type of  grounded. Depending on the NEC requirements for a
ground, such as: given system, there may be a choice between types of 
• Solidly grounded grounding so consideration must be given to the advan-
• Un(grounded) tages and disadvantages of each. Whether the choice is
• Resistance ground solidly grounded, ungrounded or impedance grounded,
• Reactance ground the type of grounding used will affect many variables.
The single biggest impact is on the magnitude of current
To help further clarify the various types of grounding, that could flow due to a ground fault and the possible
the NEC offers additional guidance by providing two damage that the current could create.
other definitions.
Solidly Grounded Systems
Solidly Grounded. Connected to ground without  The most commonly used grounding configuration
inserting any resistor or impedance device. for industrial, commercial and institutional power
distribution systems is the solidly grounded system.
Effectively Grounded. Intentionally connected to NEC Article 250.20 defines when an AC power
earth through a ground connection or connections of  distribution system shall be grounded. In general, with
sufficiently low impedance and having sufficient current- few exceptions, systems that operate between 50 and
carrying capacity to prevent the buildup of voltages that  1000 volts AC with line to ground voltages of less than
may result in undue hazards to connected equipment  150 volts and/or systems with line to neutral loads are
or to persons. required to be grounded. Article 250.21 defines systems
that are not required to be grounded but that are
Both of these definitions refer to a connection to earth,  permitted to be grounded. Systems 1000 volts AC or
or ground, and both refer to the word “impedance." greater are permitted to be grounded unless they supply
These two concepts help define the types of grounds mobile or portable equipment; then they shall be ground-
available for power distribution systems. Impedance can ed as specified in Article 250.188.
be comprised of resistance, inductance and capacitance The 150 volt line to ground threshold that requires a
and limits current flow based on the total magnitude of  system to be solidly grounded is based on laboratory
the impedance measured in ohms. When AC current experiments and case studies. If there is less than 150 volts
   I flows through a resistive component (resistor), it will be across an arcing gap, the arc rarely can sustain itself. By
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 NEC Article 230.95 requires that ground fault protec- possibility of tripping a facility’s entire power distribu-
tion of equipment be provided for solidly grounded wye tion system off line for a localized ground fault, rather
electrical services rated more than 150 volts line to than just tripping a smaller downstream breaker. Since
ground but not exceeding 600 volts phase-phase for each ground fault devices tend to be quite sensitive, respond-
service disconnecting means rated 1000 amps or more. ing quickly to low levels of ground current in a matter
There are exceptions for fire pumps and continuous of cycles, they do not always coordinate with smaller
industrial process systems where a non-orderly shutdown branch overcurrent devices downstream. It is quite possi-
will introduce additional or increased hazards, but in ble that a lower magnitude ground fault on a smaller
general this applies to most solidly grounded systems in branch circuit could trip the main overcurrent device’s
the 480Y/277 volt range. In addition, Article 215.10 has ground fault protection instead of one of the smaller
similar requirements for feeders. downstream breakers. The time-current graph below
The most common ground fault protection method illustrates coordination between a 2000 amp main circuit
used to comply with these Code requirements is a “resid- breaker and its corresponding ground fault function, and
ually connected scheme.” This scheme requires the sum- a 225 amp downstream circuit breaker. The graph’s
mation of currents from all three phases, usually from current axis indicates that for ground faults occurring
current sensors, at a wye connected summing point. In a in the range of 500 amps to just below 2000 amps, the
fairly balanced system, the sum of all three phases based main breaker’s ground fault function would trip rather
on the 120-degree phase displacement is zero. If a than the 225 amp breaker. The result is a major outage
ground fault occurs on one of the phases, there will be for a minor event.
more current flowing on that phase than the others and
the sum of all three phases at the wye connection is no Ungrounded Systems
longer zero. This results in the residual current flowing Where service continuity is a prime concern and tripping
through the ground device and tripping the circuit off  the power distribution system off-line due to a ground
line. In reality, the ground device is not really tripping fault cannot be tolerated, ungrounded systems are com-
directly due to a ground fault but rather in response to monly used if they are permitted by the NEC, which
an unbalance that is caused by a ground fault. includes not having any line-neutral loads. Although an
Unfortunately this means that a significant load unbal- ungrounded system has no intentional connection to
ance could possibly nuisance trip the device as well.
When ground fault protection is used on the service
only, a possible problem may exist. This presents the

Wye
Connected
Summing
Point

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 ground, there is a weak connection via capacitive cou-
pling from the power system conductors and equipment
to earth.
Capacitance exists between any energized conductor
and ground or between two energized conductors; in
each case air acts as the dielectric for the capacitor.
Capacitance is an impedance, which restricts current
flow depending on its magnitude. In an ungrounded
system, the impedance magnitude is extremely high,
approaching infinite, but it still allows a very small
current to flow, which produces weak coupling to
ground in ungrounded systems.
The major advantage of an ungrounded power system
is that when one phase shorts to ground, there is no solid Capacitive Coupling of Ungrounded System
return path through which current may flow. There is
usually only the very small current flow due to the capac-
itive coupling and in low voltage systems that is usually
only 1 or 2 amps. The absence of any significant current
during a ground fault means the power system can
remain energized and the process can continue to operate.
However there are disadvantages to using ungrounded
systems. When a ground fault is intermittent, which is
usually the case, large overvoltages can occur between
the phase conductors and ground due to the system
capacitance. This causes high voltage transients, which
can damage conductor and equipment insulation.  Voltage with no Ground Fault – Figure 1
During a ground fault, the phase-neutral voltage
increases to a phase-phase voltage. Figure 1 illustrates
a comparison of the voltage vectors under normal
conditions for a solidly grounded system and an
ungrounded system. Figure 2 shows the vectors of the
two systems under ground fault conditions. The ground-
ed system’s voltage on the grounded phase goes to zero
(in theory, depending on how solid the connection is).
The ungrounded system has the neutral point shift and
the grounded phase’s voltage goes to zero. The shifting
of the neutral point produces phase-phase voltage
between the remaining ungrounded phases and
ground/grounded phase.
NEC 250.21 requires that ground fault detectors be
 Voltage with Ground Fault – Figure 2
used in ungrounded AC systems with an exception for
voltages less than 120 volts line-ground. Ground fault
detection is necessary because if the first ground fault is
not found and corrected, a second ground fault on a Resistance Grounding to Reduce Ground
different phase would produce a phase-to-phase short Fault Current
circuit and substantial current would flow, tripping Think about the last time you or a colleague experi-
overcurrent devices and possibly causing damage. enced the effects of a short circuit. How bad was it and
When the ground fault detector indicates a fault has was there much damage to equipment? What caused it
occurred, the system can usually continue to operate, but and how long did the outage it created last? If the
the fault must be located and cleared as soon as possible. power system was grounded, chances are it was a line
 .
 . Locating a fault on an ungrounded system is not an easy
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 together. In fact, a three phase short circuit usually The NEC, service continuity requirements, and the
requires a little “additional help” like a backhoe or system voltage, together dictate which type of resistance
overhead crane. grounding system to use.
A ground fault frequently begins as an intermittent Although other locations and configurations exist, the
low magnitude arcing current that does not produce most common location for a grounding resistor is at the
the extreme mechanical forces found with higher wye connected secondary of transformers, connecting
magnitude faults. That sounds like a ground fault does the X0 terminal to the resistor and then to the ground-
not produce much damage but as it turns out, ground ing electrode system. They are also used to connect the
faults can be even more destructive than bolted (solid neutral of a generator to the grounding electrode system
contact) faults. The extreme heat of the arc can cause through the resistor. If the system does not have an
fires, and voltages can create safety issues. An arcing accessible neutral point, grounding transformers can
ground fault could even produce a current with a also be used to derive a neutral point. All neutral
magnitude so low and intermittent that phase overcur- grounding resistors must be designed and factory tested
rent devices might not be sensitive enough to respond to IEEE Standard 32-1972
quickly, if at all.
At the other end of the spectrum it is possible to have High-Resistance Grounding
extremely high magnitude currents produced by bolted NEC Article 250.36 states that:
ground faults. Depending on the location of the fault
and the impedance of various circuit elements such as 250.36 High-Impedance Grounded Neutral Systems
the source, transformers and conductors, the ground High-impedance grounded neutral systems in which a
fault current could be larger than the three phase fault grounding impedance, usually a resistor, limits the
current at the same location. An example of where the ground fault current to a low value shall be permitted
ground fault current sometimes is larger than the three for 3-phase AC systems of 480 volts to 1000 volts
phase current is at the secondary of delta-wye connected where all of the following conditions are met:
transformers. (1) The conditions of maintenance and supervision
It is possible to intentionally limit the magnitude of  ensure that only qualified persons service the
current that flows due to a line to ground fault in a installation.
solidly grounded system by adding impedance to the (2) Continuity of power is required.
ground return path, typically connected between the (3) Ground detectors are installed on the system.
transformer X0 terminal and ground. This can be in the (4) Line-to-neutral loads are not served.
form of an inductor or resistor although it is much more
common to use a resistor. A high-resistance grounded system is an alternative to
the ungrounded system. Both provide improved service
Resistance Grounding continuity by allowing continuous process systems to
Resistance grounded systems are broken into two remain on line during a ground fault. However, the
sub-categories: high-resistance grounded system has several additional
• High-resistance grounding advantages. High-resistance grounding requires selecting
• Low-resistance grounding a resistor to limit the ground fault current to slightly
higher than the capacitive charging current, but typically
no more than 10 amps. The power system can usually
continue to operate at this level of current since it is not
in a damaging range. In some respects, the high-resist-
ance ground system behaves like an ungrounded system
since process continuity can be maintained. However,
with a properly selected resistor, high-resistance ground-
ing can also reduce the transient overvoltages that are
Grounding Resistor Between
characteristic of ungrounded systems. The connection to
the Neutal and Ground Limits
Ground Fault Current ground through a resistor provides an additional, more
direct connection to ground rather than only through the
weak capacitive coupling found in the ungrounded sys-
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 A typical ground fault detection scheme for an system. Many high-resistance systems can be equipped
ungrounded system uses lights connected in a wye with a fault location system that switches a portion of 
configuration as shown below. If a ground fault occurs the resistor in and out, developing a pulsing current. A
on an individual phase, that phase’s light will now be sensitive clamp-on current meter can be used to track the
between the grounded phase and ground with zero volts fault, beginning at the source and following down the
across it, resulting in the light going out. branch circuit that has the pulsing current on it, leading
Manufacturers of high-resistance grounding systems to the faulted circuit.
can provide a fault detection system that indicates when Although other current and voltage ratings may be
the first ground fault occurs. A common method is to available, 5 amp and 10 amp resistors rated 277 volts
monitor the voltage across the resistor and when a line-neutral are the most common. The current rating is
ground fault occurs, the ground current flowing through continuous, since the system is designed to operate under
the resistor will produce a voltage across it that can be ground fault conditions.
sensed by a relay to initiate a warning signal. To illustrate the impact that the type of grounding has
Locating a ground fault on the high-resistance ground- on the ground fault current, several computer simula-
ed system can be much easier than on the ungrounded tions were performed with results tabulated below. The
simulations involve bolted short circuits at the secondary
bus of a delta-wye connected 2500 kVA transformer that
Typical Ground Fault Detection Schemes –
has an impedance of 5.75% and a secondary voltage rat-
ing of 480Y/277 volts. A total of three cases were devel-
oped for the following grounding configurations:
• solidly grounded secondary
• ungrounded secondary
• high-resistance grounded secondary

The results of the solidly grounded case show the

maximum three-phase short circuit current is 49,431
amps and the ground fault current is 50,350 amps. This
is a case where the ground fault current is greater than
the three phase current in part because the fault is locat-
Ground ed right at the secondary bus of a delta-wye transformer.
Fault The ungrounded case indicates that being ungrounded
on C Phase
results in zero has no effect on the three phase fault current, but since
voltage across there is no ground return path, the ground fault current
the C Phase light
goes to zero.
For the high resistance grounded case, a 5 amp
resistor was used to connect the neutral of a 480Y/277
secondary to ground. The impedance of the resistor is
277 volts/5 amps or 55.4 ohms. This large impedance is
many orders of magnitude greater than the equivalent
impedance of the rest of the power system, so the fault
A B
will be limited predominantly by the grounding resistor.
With the high resistance in the ground return path
between the neutral and ground of the transformer
secondary, the ground fault current is limited to 5 amps,
which would be low enough to continue operating.

Comparison of 2500 kVA Transformer’s 480 V Secondary Bus Faults

Sensing voltage acros
Sensing voltage
Ground
d Current C across the resistor Transformer Secondary Three Phase Fault Ground Fault
Current Voltage across the resistor indicates
indicates groundis
ground current Configuration Current Current
grounding resistor current
flowingis flowing Solidly Grounded 49,431 50,350
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 Low-Resistance Grounding effect that low-resistance grounding has on ground
During a ground fault, high-resistance grounding can be faults. Using a 5,000 kVA delta-wye transformer with a
very effective in maintaining service continuity on lower 4160Y/2400 volt secondary as an example, selecting a
voltage systems. This may not be the case at higher volt- grounding resistor rated 600 amps at 2400 V line-neu-
ages, typically above 5kV, where corona (electrical dis- tral would be a reasonable choice. 600 amps would pro-
charge) can occur at the fault location and can cause vide sufficient current for the operation of ground fault
more current to flow. At higher voltages low-resistance devices yet would minimize damage.
grounding should be used. The simulation of the solidly grounded transformer
Low-resistance grounding is not generally used on produces a three phase fault of 10,815 amps and a
low voltage systems (i.e. less than 600 volts) because ground fault of 11,202 amps. Again, since the fault is
when a ground fault occurs, the ground fault current at the secondary of a delta-wye transformer, the ground
flowing though the grounding resistor creates a substan- fault current is greater than the three-phase current.
tial voltage across it. At lower voltages, with the signifi- Using a 600 amp resistor between the transformer
cant voltage occurring across the resistor, there is often neutral and ground would theoretically limit the current
not enough voltage across the fault to sustain the cur- to 600 amps. The equivalent resistance would be
rent flow and trip an overcurrent device off-line. 2400 volts/600 amps or 4 ohms. Although 4 ohms is
Ungrounded or high-resistance grounded systems are large for a power system, it is not as large as the earlier
preferred to low-resistance grounding at lower voltages high resistance case. In this case, the impedance of the
since they do not require tripping an overcurrent device. system plays a more significant role since the resistor
impedance is smaller. In fact, during computer
Ratings of Low-Resistance Grounding Resistors simulations that were performed, the calculated ground
The neutral grounding resistor should be sized to limit fault current using a 600 amp resistor is actually 596,
the ground fault to a low enough level to minimize slightly lower than 600 amps due to the additional
damage, yet allow enough current to flow so ground impedance of the system including the transformer.
fault devices can operate and clear the fault. In addition,
Comparison of 5000 kVA Transformer’s
to dampen transient overvoltages, the resistor should
4,160 V Secondary Bus Faults
allow a minimum current to flow that is greater than
the capacitive current. The grounding resistor is usually Transformer Secondary Three Phase Ground Fault
sized to limit current to between 100 and 1000 amps, Configuration Fault Current Current
although manufacturers have resistors rated for lower Solidly Grounded 10,815 11,202
and higher currents.
A computer simulation was developed to illustrate the Low Resistance Grounded 10,815 596

Low Resistance Grounding

Due to a substantial voltage drop that occurs across the grounding resistor during a ground
fault, a low voltage system might not have enough voltage across the arc to sustain it.

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 Low Resistance Grounding Fault Simulation

The simulation illustrates the dramatic reduction in Since the resistor is connected between the neutral
ground fault current from 11,202 amps to a very man- and ground, the voltage on the ground side of the resis-
ageable 596 amps, which would greatly limit damage tor should normally be zero. However when there is a
but be large enough to trip a correctly set ground fault ground fault, the return current will develop a large
protective device. voltage across the resistor that raises the voltage on the
Grounding resistors used for low-resistance grounding neutral side of the resistor. According to NEC Article
are not usually designed to carry the rated current 250.186 (B), the conductor insulation rating for the
continuously, 600 amps for this example, but rather neutral conductor of a grounding resistor used in
for a limited time such as 10 seconds. The time rating systems greater than 1000 volts must have the same
is the duration that the resistor can carry rated current insulation rating as the phase conductors. This is a
without exceeding its temperature rating. Both time and different requirement than if an insulated neutral was
temperature ratings for grounding resistors are defined part of a solidly grounded system. In the case of a
by IEEE Standard 32-1972 and have time ratings from solidly grounded system, Article 250.184 (A) (1) allows
10 seconds to continuous, and temperature ratings from a minimum insulation level of the neutral conductor to
385 ºC to 760 ºC for their allowable temperature rise be 600 volts for solidly grounded systems.
as shown in the table below. Since the current rating of 
low-resistance grounding resistors is not for continuous The Design will use a ___________Grounded System
operation, it is important that ground fault protection  Just fill in the blank. Solidly grounded, ungrounded, high-
be set to trip off-line before the combination of time resistance grounded, low-resistance grounded; there are
and current allows the resistor to exceed its temperature so many options available for grounding power distribu-
rating. tion systems. Most of the time, solidly grounded systems
are used and work quite well. However, when service
Allowable Temperature Rise for Various Time Ratings
continuity or minimizing damage due to ground faults are
IEEE Standard 32-1972
of paramount importance, options other than solidly
Time Rating Duration Allowable Temperature grounded systems should be explored.
Rise above 30°C Ambient Selecting the correct grounding scheme for a power dis-
Short Time Typically used where tribution system is a function of economics, reliability,
protective devices will 760 ºC and Code requirements. When allowed by the NEC,
clear the fault quickly resistance grounding schemes can reduce ground fault
Extended Used where fault currents current, voltage transients and damage. High-resistance
Time can last an extended 610 ºC grounded systems are becoming more widely used as an
period of time but not more alternative to traditional ungrounded systems offering the
 . than 90 days per year
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