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The document discusses parenting skills and how parenting programs can help parents improve their interactions with children by helping them understand child development, responsibilities, and early learning. Successful parenting programs cover many factors like discipline, caregiving, and parental well-being, and address specific child behaviors or developmental stages. The goal is to help parents do their best for their children.

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77 views4 pages

Assignment

The document discusses parenting skills and how parenting programs can help parents improve their interactions with children by helping them understand child development, responsibilities, and early learning. Successful parenting programs cover many factors like discipline, caregiving, and parental well-being, and address specific child behaviors or developmental stages. The goal is to help parents do their best for their children.

Uploaded by

dreyk dreyk
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
Available Formats
Download as ODT, PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
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Parenting skills

The child-parent relationship has a major influence on most aspects of child


development. When optimal, parenting skills and behaviours have a positive impact
on children’s self-esteem, school achievement, cognitive development and behaviour.

Parenting programs can improve parent-child interactions by helping parents to


better anticipate their children’s developmental changes, carry out child-rearing
responsibilities and provide early learning experiences.

Successful parenting programs:

cover many factors, such as consistent caregiving, positive discipline and parental
well-being;
address specific types of child behaviour or target specific developmental transitions.

Parents want to do the best they can for their children – parenting programs can
help them maximize their ability to do this.

Optimism is a mental attitude reflecting a belief or hope that the outcome of some
specific endeavor, or outcomes in general, will be positive, favorable, and desirable.
A common idiom used to illustrate optimism versus pessimism is a glass with water
at the halfway point, where the optimist is said to see the glass as half full and the
pessimist sees the glass as half empty.

The term derives from the Latin optimum, meaning "best". Being optimistic, in the
typical sense of the word, is defined as expecting the best possible outcome from any
given situation.[1] This is usually referred to in psychology as dispositional
optimism. It thus reflects a belief that future conditions will work out for the best.[2]

Theories of optimism include dispositional models, and models of explanatory style.


Methods to measure optimism have been developed within both theoretical systems,
such as various forms of the Life Orientation Test, for the original definition of
optimism, or the Attributional Style Questionnaire designed to test optimism in
terms of explanatory style.

Variation in optimism and pessimism is somewhat heritable[3] and reflects biological


trait systems to some degree.[4] It is also influenced by environmental factors,
including family environment,[3] with some suggesting it can be learned.[5]
Optimism may also be linked to health.[6]

Psychological optimism[edit]
Dispositional optimism[edit]

An optimist and a pessimist, Vladimir Makovsky, 1893


Researchers operationalize the term differently depending on their research. As with
any trait characteristic, there are several ways to evaluate optimism, such as the
Life Orientation Test (LOT).
Dispositional optimism and pessimism[7] are typically assessed by asking people
whether they expect future outcomes to be beneficial or negative (see below). The
LOT returns separate optimism and pessimism scores for each individual.
Behaviourally, these two scores correlate around r = 0.5. Optimistic scores on this
scale predict better outcomes in relationships,[8] higher social status,[9] and
reduced loss of well-being following adversity.[10] Health preserving behaviors are
associated with optimism while health-damaging behaviors are associated with
pessimism.[11]

Some have argued that pessimism and optimism are ends of a single dimension,
with any distinction between them reflecting factors such as social desirability.
Confirmatory modelling, however, supports a two-dimensional model[12] and the
two dimensions predict different outcomes.[13] Genetic modelling confirms this
independence, showing that pessimism and optimism are inherited as independent
traits, with the typical correlation between them emerging as a result of a general
well-being factor and family environment influences.[3]

Explanatory style[edit]
Explanatory style is distinct from dispositional theories of optimism. While related to
life-orientation measures of optimism, attributional style theory suggests that
dispositional optimism and pessimism are reflections of the ways people explain
events, i.e., that attributions cause these dispositions[citation needed]. Measures of
attributional style distinguish three dimensions among explanations for events:
Whether these explanations draw on internal versus external causes; whether the
causes are viewed as stable versus unstable; and whether explanations apply
globally versus being situationally specific. In addition, the measures distinguish
attributions for positive and for negative events.

An optimistic person attributes internal, stable, and global explanations to good


things. Pessimistic explanations attribute these traits of stability, globality, and
internality to negative events, such as difficulty in relationships.[14] Models of
Optimistic and Pessimistic attributions show that attributions themselves are a
cognitive style – individuals who tend to focus on the global explanations do so for
all types of events, and the styles correlate among each other. In addition to this,
individuals vary in how optimistic their attributions are for good events, and on how
pessimistic their attributions are for bad events, but these two traits of optimism
and pessimism are un-correlated.[15]

There is much debate about the relationship between explanatory style and
optimism. Some researchers argue that optimism is simply the lay-term for what
researchers know as explanatory style.[16] More commonly, it is found that
explanatory style is quite distinct from dispositional optimism,[17][18] and the two
should not be used interchangeably as they are marginally correlated at best. More
research is required to "bridge" or further differentiate these concepts.[14]

Origins[edit]
Optimistic Personality (modified from [3])
As with all psychological traits, differences in both dispositional optimism and
pessimism [3] and in attributional style [19] are heritable. Both optimism and
pessimism are strongly influenced by environmental factors, including family
environment.[3] It has been suggested that optimism may be indirectly inherited as
a reflection of underlying heritable traits such as intelligence, temperament and
alcoholism.[19] Many theories assume optimism can be learned,[5] and research
supports a modest role of family-environment acting to raise (or lower) optimism and
lower (or raise) neuroticism and pessimism.[3]

Work utilising brain imaging and biochemistry suggests that at a biological trait
level, optimism and pessimism reflect brain systems specialised for the tasks of
processing and incorporating beliefs regarding good and bad information
respectively.[4]

Humour (British English) or humor (American English; see spelling differences) is


the tendency of particular cognitive experiences to provoke laughter and provide
amusement. The term derives from the humoral medicine of the ancient Greeks,
which taught that the balance of fluids in the human body, known as humours
(Latin: humor, "body fluid"), controlled human health and emotion.

People of all ages and cultures respond to humour. Most people are able to
experience humour—be amused, smile or laugh at something funny—and thus are
considered to have a sense of humour. The hypothetical person lacking a sense of
humour would likely find the behaviour inducing it to be inexplicable, strange, or
even irrational. Though ultimately decided by personal taste, the extent to which a
person finds something humorous depends on a host of variables, including
geographical location, culture, maturity, level of education, intelligence and context.
For example, young children may favour slapstick such as Punch and Judy puppet
shows or the Tom and Jerry cartoons, whose physical nature makes it accessible to
them. By contrast, more sophisticated forms of humour such as satire require an
understanding of its social meaning and context, and thus tend to appeal to a more
mature audience.

Faith is confidence or trust in a particular system of religious belief,[1] in which


faith may equate to confidence based on some perceived degree of warrant.[2][3]
According to Rudolf Bultmann, faith must be a determined vital act of will, not a
culling and extolling of "ancient proofs".

Stages of faith[edit]
Intuitive-Projective: a stage of confusion and of high impressionability through
stories and rituals (pre-school period).
Mythic-Literal: a stage where provided information is accepted in order to conform
with social norms (school-going period).
Synthetic-Conventional: in this stage the faith acquired is concreted in the belief
system with the forgoing of personification and replacement with authority in
individuals or groups that represent one's beliefs (early-late adolescence).
Individuative-Reflective: in this stage the individual critically analyzes adopted and
accepted faith with existing systems of faith. Disillusion or strengthening of faith
happens in this stage. Based on needs, experiences and paradoxes (early
adulthood).
Conjunctive faith: in this stage people realize the limits of logic and, facing the
paradoxes or transcendence of life, accept the "mystery of life" and often return to
the sacred stories and symbols of the pre-acquired or re-adopted faith system. This
stage is called negotiated settling in life (mid-life).
Universalizing faith: this is the "enlightenment" stage where the individual comes
out of all the existing systems of faith and lives life with universal principles of
compassion and love and in service to others for upliftment, without worries and
doubt (middle-late adulthood (45–65 years old and plus).[4][page needed]
No hard-and-fast rule requires individuals pursuing faith to go through all six
stages. There is a high probability for individuals to be content and fixed in a
particular stage for a lifetime; stages from 2-5 are such stages. Stage 6 is the
summit of faith development. This state is often[quantify] considered as "not fully"
attainable.[5]

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