EVOLUTION OF POPULATIONS

Evolution of populations.

Master ​mechanisms of evolution​.

How does each of them work?
What are their ​consequences to genetic diversity and to adaptation​?
Know their ​implications to plant and animal conservation.
Lastly, be able to ​explain why natural selection cannot make perfect organisms.

The smallest unit of evolution:

Natural selection acts on individuals
Evolutionary impact of natural selection only apparent in the changes in a population

Case of the medium ground finch

*found in the galapagos island
*population in ​daphne major island​ decimated by drought in 1977(from 1200 to 180)
*small soft seeds were scarce, but large hard seeds were abundant
*larger deeper beaks vs smaller short beaks
*individual finches did not evolve but population of large beaks increased from generation to
generation

Genetic variation makes evolution possible

Genetic variation-​ genetic differences among individuals within a population

*phenotypic variations often reflect genetic variation

*some pehnotypic variation does not result from genetic differences (product of envi influence)

*​Genetic variation provides the raw material for evolutionary change

Sources of genetic variation

1. Formation of new alleles
-mutation- heritable change in genetic material
TYPES OF MUTATIONS
-​germline mutations-​ mutation of the ​sex cells​; ​hereditary​ such as germ cells containing extra or
lacking chromosomes or nucleotide changes
-​somatic mutation- ​mutation of the ​body cells​, ​not hereditary​ like localized skin pigmentation

2. ​Altering gene number or position

-duplication of genes due to errors in meiosis
-duplications of small chromosome segments often harmless
3. ​Rapid reproduction
-mutation rates low in plants and animals
-even lower rates in prokaryotes, virus; mutant forms tend to proliferate in a short order

4. ​Sexual reproduction
-shuffles existing alleles and deals them at random to produce individual genotypes
-​3 mechanisms that contribute to shuffling: CROSSING OVER, INDEPENDENT
ASSORTMENT, FERTILIZATION

MECHANISMS THAT ALTER ALLELE FREQUENCIES

-natural selection
-genetic drift
-gene flow

Natural selection
-individuals have a certain inherited traits ​tend to survive and reproduce at higher rates than
other individuals because of those traits

Adaptive evolution​- evolution that results in a ​better match between organisms and their
environment

GENETIC DRIFT​ (​variation in the relative frequency of different genotypes in a small population,
owing to the chance disappearance of particular genes​ as individuals die or do not reproduce.

--Change of gene frequency variants

--Genetic drift is a mechanism of evolution in which ​allele frequencies of a population change
over generations due to chance​ (sampling error).

Chance fluctuations​ in allele frequencies over generations- tend to reduce genetic variation
within populations

-you are left with just a few individuals and lose most of the variation of the original population

Founder effect
-when a ​few individuals colonize a distant locality and start a new population, ​they ​carry only a
small sample of the parent population’s genetic variation
-probably accounts for the relatively high frequency of certain inherited disorders among
isolated human populations

Samples:
-One of the colonists carried a recessive allele for retinitis pigmentosa, 4/240 descendants had
the disease
-The child has shortened limbs and six fingers on each hand, all the amish with this syndrome
are descendants of a single couple that helped found the amish community in penn (genetic
disorder caused by recessive alleles affecting percent of pop; but 13 percent hetero carriers)

Bottleneck effect- ​stressful factor kills a great many individuals and eliminates some alleles from
a population;​ certain alleles may be overrepresented among survivors, others underrepresented
and others absent altogether

Sampes: current population descendants from a group of 20 survivors; low level of genetic
variation is seen: northern elephant seal fam

EFFECTS OF GENETIC DRIFT

-genetic drift is ​significant in small populations
-genetic drift can ​cause allele frequencies to change at random
-genetic drift can cause harmful alleles to become fixed

*African cheetah
-vulnerable
-6,674 in the wild
-5% cubs survive to adulthood
-susceptible to diseases
-high number of sperm abnormalities
-reduced reproductive capacity

Gene flow​- immigration of new individuals with new/diff alleles; ​is the transfer of ​genetic
variation​from one ​population​ to another.

Natural selection as the mechanism that consistently causes adaptive evolution

-blend of change (in creation of new genetic variations) and sorting (as natural selection favors
some traits over others)

Adaptive evolution​- ​increases frequencies of alleles that provide repoductive advantage

Relative fitness- survival of the fittest

-one organism has greater relative fitness than the other organisms ​if it leaves more fertile
descendants

MODES OF SELECTION
-​directional selection​- shifts the overall makeup of the population by favoring ​variants that are at
one extreme ​of the distribution (only white mouse)
-​disruptive selection-​ facors ​variants at both ends of the distribution (white and black)
-​stabilizing selection​-removes extreme variants from the population and ​preserves intermediate
types (gray mice)

Key role of natural selection in adaptive evolution

-​adaptations increase the frequencies of alleles t​hat enhance survival and reproduction
-​genetic drift can increase and decrease frequency of a slightly beneficial allele to increase
-gene flow may introduce alleles that are advantageous or disadvantageous

Sexual selection
-form of natural selection in which individuals with certain inherited characteristics are ​more
likely than other individuals to obtain mates

Sexual dimorphism- ​difference in secondary sexual characteristics​ between males and females

Intersexual selection-​ selection ​based on interactions between males and females​; males
produc certain structures because females find them ​attractive

Intrasexual selection​- selection ​based on interactions between members of same sex​; males
use large body size, to ​intimidate​, injure or kill rival males

Balancing selection-​ occurs when ​natural selection maintains two or more forms in a population
(heterozygote advantage; frequency-dependents selections)

Heterozygote advantage
-if individuals who are hetero at a particular locus have greater fitness than d both kinds of homo
-in terms of pheno
-maintenance of sickle allele (homozygotes die; hetero often survive malaria

Frequency dependent selection

-fitness of a phenotype ​depends on how common it is in the population

Sample: scale-eating fish; some are left mouthed recessive and rightmouthed dominants
Frequency of types oscillates

Why natural selection cannot fashion perfect organismss

-selection can ​act only on existing variations
-evolution is ​limited by historical constraints
-adaptations are often ​compromises
-chance, nat sel and the envi interact.

THE ORIGIN OF SPECIES

Origin of species.
Know the ​pre- and post-zygotic isolating mechanisms ​and be able to identify
which mechanism is at work in certain scenarios.
Describe the speciation process with reference to geography​.
Study the ​processes of allopatric and sympatric speciation.

Speciation​- process by which one species splits into two or more species

Microevolution​- ​changes over time in an allele frequencies population

Speciation- bridge
Macroevolution​- ​broad pattern of evolution above species level

Species

– Latin for “​kind” or “appearance”

- Based on morphology

Species
- is a group of populations ​whose members have the potential to interbreed in nature and
produce viable, fertile offspring​—but do not produce viable, fertile offspring with members of
other such groups

Reproductive isolation-
existence of biological factors (barriers) that prevent members of two
species from interbreeding​ and producing viable, fertile offspring
• ​block gene flow between the species and limit the formation of
Hybrids

(PREZYGOTIC AND POSTZYGOTIC ISOLATION)

Prezygotic isolation​- ​block fertilizaation from occuring (no zygote)

(by impending members of diff species to mate; by ​preventing attempted mating from completed
and by hindering fertilization)

samples:
Habitat isolation
-species ​separated by habitat

Temporal isolation
-caused by species ​breeding at different times

Behavioral isolation
-when species ​cannot communicate ​(courtship rituals for mate recognition cannot be carried
out)

Mechanical isolation
-when species ​cannot physically mate

Postzygotic isolation- ​mechanisms ​prevent hybrid zygote from developing into a viable, fertile
adult
-developmental errors may reduce survival among hybrid embryos

Samples:
Gametic isolation-​ ​gametes do not produce receptors​ on gametes

Hybrid inviability​- offspring ​does not completely develop

Hybrid sterility
-offspring ​does not become sexually productive​ (diff in chromosome number or structure)

Hybrid breakdown
-offspring has ​reduced survival

LIMITATIONS OF THE BIOLOGICAL SPECIES CONCEPT

-number of species to which this concept can be usefully applied is limited
-no way to evaluate the reproductive isolation of fossils
-does not apply to organisms that reproduce asexually all or most of the time
-in the biological species concept, species are designated by the absence of gene flow

-how species find mates

Morphological species concept

-distinguishes a species by ​body shape and other structural features

Ecological species concept

-​species’ ecological niche
(Niche: how members of the species interact with the nonliving and living parts of their
environment
-accomodate sexual and asexual organisms

Phylogenetic species concept

-species as the smallest group of individuals that ​share a common ancestor, ​forming one branch
on the tree of life
GEOGRAPHY OF SPECIATION

Allopatric speciation- “​other country”;​ geographic speciation prevents gene flow and allows for
separate patterns of natural selection​; a ​ bility of the organisms to move about (process of
allopatric speciation)

-​is a mode of ​speciation​ that occurs when biological ​populations​ of the same ​species​ become
isolated from each other to an extent that prevents or interferes with ​genetic interchange​.

Process of allopatric speciation

-separated gene pools may diverge
-reproductive barriers can develop when populations are isolated experimentally and subjected
to different environmental conditions

Evidence of allopatric speciation

Lab: When flies from “starch populations”

were mixed with flies from “maltose
populations,” the flies tended to mate
with like partners.

Nature:
30 species of snapping shrimp
(Alpheus) in Isthmus of Panama
• 15 from Atlantic side
• 15 from Pacific side
• sister species arose

Importance of allopatric speciation

-regions that are ​isolated or highly subdivided by barriers​ typically ​have more species​ than do
otherwise similar regions that lack such features

Sympatric speciation​- “same country”

Hi babe
I love you
Goodluck hehehe

Sympatric speciation​ occurs when ​populations of a species that share the same habitat become
reproductively isolated from each other​.
This speciation phenomenon most commonly ​occurs through​ polyploidy​, in which an offspring or
group of offspring will be produced with twice the normal number of chromosomes​. Where a
normal individual has two copies of each chromosome (diploidy), these offspring may have four
copies (tetraploidy). ​A tetraploid individual cannot mate with a diploid individual, creating
reproductive isolation.

Polyploidy​- responsible for ​speciation in plants due to large scale genetic changes

Autopolyploidy​- ​cause diploid individual to produce tetraploid offsprin​g; occurs when an

unreduced gamete produces the offspring

Allolyploidy​- ​two diploids produce polyploid gametes ​(result in rapid speciation); are fertile when
mating with each other but cannot interbreed

Sexual selection
-Results
• Normal light, females of each
species strongly preferred males
of their own species
• Orange light, females of each
species responded to males of
both species
• Hybrids were viable and fertile.
• Conclusion
• ​mate choice by females based on
male breeding coloration is the
main reproductive barrier

Habitat differentiation
-​subpop exploits a habitat or resource not used by the parent pop

Time course of speciation

Rapidly- new species can form rapidly once divergence begins (but it can take millions of years)
New developments in genetics have enabled researchers to identify specific genes involved in
some cases of speciation; speciation CAN be driven by few or many genes

HISTORY OF LIFE ON EARTH

Know the strengths, ​weaknesses​, and importance of the fossil record.

Based on the fossil record and the current living organisms,
what are the macroevolution trends in morphology​?
Fossils​- form when organisms are buried by sediments or preserved in oxygen-poor
environments

Sedimentary rocks ​richest source of fossils

Fossil record
-preserve details of ​hard​ structures
-​soft​-bodied also preverved

Soft-bodied do not fossilize as easily​ as species with hard body parts

Fossils rarely form in habitats where sediments do no accumulate

How can we determine the absolute age of a fossil

- Absolute “not errorless, only age given in years
Radiometric dating- decay of radioactive isotopes
--radioactive parent isotope decays to a daughter isotope are characteristic rate
--​halflife​, ​the time required for 50% of the parent isotope to decay

*fossils ​contain isotopes of elements ​accumulated in life

(carbon isotope: c-12 does not change over time; c-14, radioactive; used for fossils up to 75 k
years only)

Older fossils need radioactive isotopes with longer half lives

-can be dated using volcanic rocks
-radioisotopes from surrounding envi are trapped in new rocks
-trapped isotopes have long half-lives

Fossil record- ​substantial but incomplete and biased

Macroevolution

Modes of evolutionary change

-​anagenesis​- ​accumulation of changes in a lineage​ as it adapts to changing environments; ​does
not increase number of species
-​cladogenesis​-​evolution of two or more descendant species ​from a common ancestor; ​increase
number of species on earth

Gradualist hypothesis
-​large changes result from slow, continuous accumulation of small changes overtimes
-species gradually transforms to another through a series of intermediate stages
Punctuated equilibrium hypothesis-​ ​occurs in isolated populations at edge of species’
geographical distribution

Flaws- rapid morphological evolution frequently occurs without cladogenesis

Macroevolution trends in morphology

-​evolutionary lineages exhibit trends toward larger size
-greater morphological complexity
-development of novel (new) structures

Body size increased over time

-body size affects most aspects of organisms’ physiology and ecology
-​large organisms have more constant internal environment than small ones

Morphological complexity increased over time

-​species with large body size have greater variety of cell types

Evolutionary novelties
-​trait that is adaptive in one context turns out to be advantageous in another ​(​accidents only​;
never evolve in anticipation of future revolutionary needs
-carnivorous dinosaurs preadpated for flight

Phenomena that trigger evolution of morphological novelties

-​morphology changes over time because of allometric growth ​(create morphological diff in
closely related species

-changes in timing of developmental events cause morphology of closely related species to

differ (salamanders mature without changing to adult form)

Macroevolutionary trends in biodiversity

-number of species living on earth changes overtime as a result of adaptive evolution and
extinction

Adaptive radiation
-period of evolutionary change wherein ​groups of organisms form many new species
-adaptive zone also open up after the demise of a successful group

Extinction have been common in history of like

-​10% of species go extinct every million years and more than 50% go extinct every 100 million
years

Mass extinction
-​at least 5 mass extinctions have occured
--asteroid impact caused cretaceous mass extinction
--rocks dating to end of cretaceous period contain a layer of iridium
--10 km diameter asteroid caused an explosion to scatter iridium dust around the world
--chicxulub crater by yucatan peninsula

Biodiversity increase repeatedly over evolutionary history

-​mass extinctions teporarily reduce biodiversity and create evolutionary opportunities
-success of one lineage comes at the expense of another
-can also be attributed to evolution of ecological interaction

ORIGIN OF LIFE

What are the ​conditions that led to the evolution of life?​black, gray, blue, red,white and
green earths ​(What we’ve learned from the documentary, Life’s Rocky Start might help.)
Explain the

n​ecessary steps that led to the evolution of the first prokaryotic cells​,
● organic compounds could have formed from simpler molecules;
● energy came from lightning and UV radiation
● Dripping solution of RNA nucleotides on hot sand, clay, rock produces polymers
● Polymers acted as weak catalysts for chemical reactions
● Protocells​chance assembly of abiotically produced organic polymers
● Biological evolution: ​Nuclear region​ w/ DNA as coding system, system for DNA
replication, RNA transcription

unicellular eukaryotic cells, and unicellular eukaryotic cells.

Describe the​ importance of oxygen and water in the evolution of life​.
Also explain the ​endosymbiont theory

First living cells appeared:

-synthesis of organic molecules
-formation of macromolecules
-packaging into protocells
-Origin of self-replicating molecules

The early earth:

​Earth as a hot ball;​ dust and rocks collided and formed a hot ball bombarded by huge chunks of
rock and ice heat from collisions vaporized water

first atmosphere: ​little oxygen​, thick with water vapor, with compounds released by volcanic
eruptions, N2,CO2, NH4, H2
Earth cooled​: water vapor condensed into oceans, much of the hydrogen
escaped into space

chemical reactions in said mixture of gases must have produced organic molecules

Synthesis of organic compounds:

A.I. Oparin and J.B.S. Haldane (1920s)

• Earth’s early atmosphere a reducing environment, in which ​organic compounds could have
formed from simpler molecules;​ ​energy came from lightning and UV radiation
• Early oceans a “​primitive soup” from which life arose

S. Miller and H. Urey (1953)

• Tested Oparin-Haldane hypothesis
• Experiment ​simulating primitive atmosphere​ ​organic
compounds: amino acids, urea, lactic, formic, acetic acids

Hypotheses on where first organic compounds formed:

Presence of liquid water​, essential for biochemistry of life

• Near ​deep sea hydrothermal vents​ – reducing conditions, produce many organic compounds
• Extraterrestrial origin - ​meteorites as source of amino acids​ (Meteorite fell on Murchison,
Australia)

Abiotic synthesis of macromolecules

• Organic molecules not enough for emergence of life

• Abiotic synthesis of RNA monomers occur spontaneously from precursor molecules
• ​Dripping solution of RNA nucleotides on hot sand, clay, rock produces polymers
• ​Polymers acted as weak catalysts for chemical reactions

Protocells
• ​chance assembly of abiotically produced organic polymers
• ​first to exhibit living cell characteristics
-necessary conditions may have been met in ​vesicles ​(​fluid-filled compartments
enclosed by a membrane-like structure)

Vesicle formation
-Spontaneous formation when lipids, organic molecules added to water (bilayer)

Self-replicating RNA
• ​Protocells no genetic material
• ​RNA, probably the first genetic material, not DNA
Vesicle with self-replicating RNA – protocells

Living cells may have developed from protocells

• Chemical reactions within protocells became organized to transition to living cells

Geologic record
• a ​standard time scale that divides Earth’s history into four eons and further subdivisions

Eons
• Hadean, Archaean, and Proterozoic—lasted ~4 billion years
• ​Phanerozoic eon, roughly the last half billion years

​ ras
E
• ​distinct age in the history of Earth and its life
• ​Mesozoic era as the “age of reptiles”
• ​Boundaries between eras correspond to major extinction events in the fossil record

Prokaryotic cells: first living cells

Biological evolution: ​Nuclear region​ w/ DNA as coding system, system for DNA replication,
RNA transcription

Cytoplasmic region
• Ribosomes and enzymes to translate RNA to amino acids in proteins

First single-celled organisms

• ​Stromatolites​ – ​oldest fossil earliest evidence of life​ ca. 3.5 billion years
• fossil evidence of prokaryotic life layered rocks that form when certain prokaryotes bind thin
films of sediment together
• ​Earth’s sole inhabitants for 1.5 billion years

Photosynthesis and oxygen revolution

Most atmospheric oxygen gas (O2) is of biological origin – photosynthesis

• ​cyanobacteria photosynthesized– evolved oxygen (O2)

free (O2) dissolved in surrounding water, reacted with iron -- Fe3O4

Fe3O4 accumulated as sediments– red layers of rock

• additional O2 dissolved in seas until saturated – gassed out and entered atmosphere
• atmospheric O2 increased gradually

First eukaryotes
• ​Oldest eukaryotic fossil 1.8 billion years old
How did eukaryotic cells evolve from prokaryotic cells?

Endosymbiont theory
• ​endosymbiont – cell within another cell (host cell)
• ​mitochondria and plastids were formerly small prokaryotes that began living within larger cells
• probably entered the host cell as undigested prey or internal parasite

Evidences of the theory

-Eukaryotic organelles’ enzymes and transport systems are homologous with prokaryotic cells
-Both replicate by a splitting process; both contain circular DNA molecules
-Both have cellular machinery needed to transcribe and translate DNA into proteins
-Ribosomes of eukaryotic mitochondria and plastids more similar to prokaryotic ribosomes than
cytoplasmic ribosomes of eukaryotes

Origin of multicellularity

-First unicellular eukaryotes (small red algae – oldest)

-diverse unicellular eukaryotes
-multicellular forms

The Cambrian explosion

• ​Great increase in diversity of all animal forms

Pre-Cambrian
• ​large animals soft-bodied little evidence of predation –grazers, filter feeders, scavengers

Cambrian
-Appearance of predators > 1 m length, w/ claws
-Prey w/ defensive adaptations –sharp spines and heavy body armor
-​Arthropods, chordates, echinoderms, branchiopods, annelids appeared

Colonization of land

• Photosynthetic prokaryotes coated damp terrestrial surfaces

• ​fungi, plants, and animals, did not begin to colonize land until about 500 mya
Plants and fungi colonized land together 420 mya

•​ Arthropods (insects and spiders) and tetrapods most widespread and diverse land
animals
• ​Arthropods among first to colonize land, ​450 mya
• Tetrapods from lobe-finned fishes, 365 mya
• Tetrapods (humans), diverged 6-7 mya

PLANTS: TRANSITION TO LIFE ON LAND

Describe the adaptations​ which allowed for the existence of plants on land.
Describe ​major events which allowed for the existence and/or dominance of certain plant
groups ​at a certain time.

The invasion of the land

• ​Life evolved in oceans for several billion years

Middle Silurian (425 mya)

• ​land plants first appeared –algae and liverworts growing near rivers
• Joined by ​small stick-like plants without roots or leaves
380 mya
• ​land covered in vegetation of primitive ancestors of modern clubmosses, spike-mosses,
Horsetails

The great ​coal swamps

​Late Carboniferous (306 mya)
• After initial colonization, land plants diversified
• ​New lineages such as ferns, seed ferns, and primitive cycads and conifers ​appeared including
trees, climbers, epiphytes
• ​Huge swamps dominated by giant lycopod trees
• ​Cooler climate ​favored development of ​thick deposits which have fossilized as coals

The ​rise of the ferns

• ​Late Permian (255 mya)
• ​Coal swamps disappeared as climate warmed up
• Giant horsetails and clubmosses reduced in ​abundance but ​ferns, cycads, primitive conifers
diversified
• ​Reptiles evolved and early dinosaurs roamed the forests of tree ferns

Age of the cycads

• Mesozoic era (245-65 mya)
• ​Relatively stable period in Earth’s history
• Climate ​warm, without polar ice caps, fairly dry
• ​Cycads and conifers were dominant plant groups
• ​Dinosaurs were most important animals
• ​Primitive mammals were already present ​and ​first birds ​appeared in the later part of this period
The ​first flowers
•​ Late Cretaceous (94 mya)
• ​Flowering plants ​share ancestry with other seed plants but whether conifers,
cycads, or gnetum are the closest relative group remains uncertain
• Evolved quite early in Mesozoic era, but obscure for millions of years
• Ancestral water lily

The ​flowering​ of the world

•​ Middle Miocene (14 mya)
• Dinosaurs disappeared at end of Mesozoic era (65 mya)
• ​Mammals took over as principal land animals and flowering plants proliferated and diversified
to dominate Earth’s vegetation
• Wide range of forms for flowers and fruits and exploitation of animals as couriers of pollen and
seeds sustained success of flowering plants

Pine Savanna

Rain forest
Tropical rain forest of today
• most community of plants that has ever existed in the billions of years of life on Earth

Biochemical adaptations to land

• Desiccation
• Physical support
• Nutrient acquisition
• Reproduction
• Light availability

Adaptations vs. ​desiccation​ (make dry or lifeless)

• Ability to make ​sporopollenin, polymer around spores,​ against dehydration

• Evolved ​cuticle​ to ​further prevent drying
• Evolved ​stomata​ to ​allow uptake of carbon dioxide while limiting water loss

Adaptations for ​physical support

• ​Root and shoot system​- Mosses no roots and shoots

• ​Lignin​, tough substance, to strengthen plants
• ​Stem systems ​became more specialized and lignified for a ​strong scaffold​ that helps in
intercepting sunlight

Adaptations for ​nutrient acquisition

Evolution of vascular tissue
• ​Xylem ​to distribute water
• ​Phloem ​to distribute sugars
• ​Ferns, conifers, flowering plants are vascular

Adaptations for ​light availability

• Leaves
-​Green, indicator of chlorophyll presence
-​Flat, thin for increased surface area
-​Leaf arrangement to capture the most light

Adaptations for ​reproduction

• ​Plant life cycles can rotate between dominant diploid phase and haploid phase
• ​Haploids: gametes (gametophytes) or spores asexually
• Diploids: produce spores (sporophytes)
-Vascular plants evolved separate male and female gametophytes