Silberschatz 7th Chapter 1 Questions and Answers

Introduction Chapter 1 introduces the general topic of operating systems and a

handful of important concepts (multiprogramming, time sharing, distributed
system, and so on). The purpose is to show why operating systems are what they
are by showing how they developed. In operating systems, as in much of
computer science, we are led to the present by the paths we took in the past, and
we can better understand both the present and the future by understanding the
past. Additional work that might be considered is learning about the particular
systems that the students will have access to at your institution. This is still just a
general overview, as specific interfaces are considered in Chapter 3.

Exercises 1.1 In a multiprogramming and time-sharing environment, several

users share the system simultaneously. This situation can result in various security
problems.

a. What are two such problems?

Stealing or copying one’s programs or data; using system resources (CPU,
memory, disk space, peripherals) without proper accounting.
b. Can we ensure the same degree of security in a time-shared machine as in a
dedicated machine? Explain your answer.
Probably not, since any protection scheme devised by humans can inevitably be
broken by a human, and the more complex the scheme, the more difficult it is to
feel confident of its correct implementation.

1.2 The issue of resource utilization shows up in different forms in different types
of operating systems. List what resources must be managed carefully in the
following settings:
a. Mainframe or minicomputer systems
b. Workstations connected to servers
c. Handheld computers
Answer: a. Mainframes: memory and CPU resources, storage, network
bandwidth. b. Workstations: memory and CPU resources c. Handheld computers:
power consumption, memory resources.

1.3 Under what circumstances would a user be better off using a timesharing
system rather than a PC or single-user workstation?

Answer: When there are few other users, the task is large, and the hardware is
fast, time-sharing makes sense. The full power of the system can be brought to
bear on the user’s problem. The problem can be solved faster than on a personal
computer. Another case occurs when lots of other users need resources at the
same time.

A personal computer is best when the job is small enough to be executed

reasonably on it and when performance is sufficient to execute the program to the
user’s satisfaction.

jas::/conversion/tmp/scratch/389117979.doc <(1)>
Silberschatz 7th Chapter 1 Questions and Answers
1.4 Which of the functionalities listed below need to be supported by the operating
system for the following two settings:
(a) handheld devices and (b) real-time systems.

a. Batch programming b. Virtual memory c. Time sharing

Answer: For real-time systems, the operating system needs to support virtual
memory and time sharing in a fair manner.
For handheld systems, the operating system needs to provide virtual memory, but
does not need to provide time-sharing.
Batch programming is not necessary in both settings.

1.5 Describe the differences between symmetric and asymmetric multiprocessing.

What are three advantages and one disadvantage of multiprocessor systems?

Answer: Symmetric multiprocessing treats all processors as equals, and I/O can
be processed on any CPU.
Asymmetric multiprocessing has one master CPU and the remainder CPUs are
slaves. The master distributes tasks among the slaves, and I/O is usually done by
the master only.

Multiprocessors can save money by not duplicating power supplies, housings, and
peripherals. They can execute programs more quickly and can have increased
reliability. They are also more complex in both hardware and software than
uniprocessor systems.

1.6 How do clustered systems differ from multiprocessor systems? What is

required for two machines belonging to a cluster to cooperate to provide a highly
available service?
Answer: Clustered systems are typically constructed by combining multiple
computers into a single system to perform a computational task distributed across
the cluster.
Multiprocessor systems on the other hand could be a single physical entity
comprising of multiple CPUs.
A clustered system is less tightly coupled than a multiprocessor system. Clustered
systems communicate using messages, while processors in a multiprocessor
system could communicate using shared memory. In order for two machines to
provide a highly available service, the state on the two machines should be
replicated and should be consistently updated. When one of the machines fail, the
other could then take-over the functionality of the failed machine.

1.7 Distinguish between the client–server and peer-to-peer models of distributed

systems.
Answer: The client-server model firmly distinguishes the roles of the client and
server. Under this model, the client requests services that are provided by the
server. The peer-to-peer model doesn’t have such strict roles. In fact, all nodes in
the system are considered peers and thus may act as either clients or servers - or

jas::/conversion/tmp/scratch/389117979.doc <(2)>
Silberschatz 7th Chapter 1 Questions and Answers
both. A node may request a service from another peer, or the node may in fact
provide such a service to other peers in the system.

For example, let’s consider a system of nodes that share cooking recipes. Under
the client-server model, all recipes are stored with the server. If a client wishes to
access a recipe, it must request the recipe from the specified server. Using the
peer-to-peer model, a peer node could ask other peer nodes for the specified
recipe. The node (or perhaps nodes) with the requested recipe could provide it to
the requesting node. Notice how each peer may act as both a client (i.e. it may
request recipes) and as a server (it may provide recipes.)

1.8 Consider a computing cluster consisting of two nodes running a database.

Describe two ways in which the cluster software can manage access to the data on
the disk. Discuss the benefits and disadvantages of each.

Answer: Consider the following two alternatives: asymmetric clustering and

parallel clustering. With asymmetric clustering, one host runs the database
application with the other host simply monitoring it. If the server fails, the
monitoring host becomes the active server. This is appropriate for providing
redundancy. However, it does not utilize the potential processing power of both
hosts. With parallel clustering, the database application can run in parallel on both
hosts. The difficulty implementing parallel clusters is providing some form of
distributed locking mechanism for files on the shared disk.

1.9 How are network computers different from traditional personal computers?

Describe some usage scenarios in which it is advantageous to use network

computers.

Answer: A network computer relies on a centralized computer for most of its

services. It can therefore have a minimal operating system to manage its
resources. A personal computer on the other hand has to be capable of providing
all of the required functionality in a standalone manner without relying on a
centralized manner. Scenarios where administrative costs are high and where
sharing leads to more efficient use of resources are precisely those settings where
network computers are preferred.

1.10 What is the purpose of interrupts? What are the differences between a trap
and an interrupt? Can traps be generated intentionally by a user program? If so,
for what purpose?

Answer: An interrupt is a hardware-generated change-of-flow within the system.

An interrupt handler is summoned to deal with the cause of the interrupt; control
is then returned to the interrupted context and instruction. A trap is a software-
generated interrupt. An interrupt can be used to signal the completion of an I/O to

jas::/conversion/tmp/scratch/389117979.doc <(3)>
Silberschatz 7th Chapter 1 Questions and Answers
obviate the need for device polling. A trap can be used to call operating system
routines or to catch arithmetic errors.

1.11 Direct memory access is used for high-speed I/O devices in order to avoid
increasing the CPU´s execution load. a. How does the CPU interface with the
device to coordinate the transfer?

b. How does the CPU know when the memory operations are complete?

c. The CPU is allowed to execute other programs while the DMA controller is
transferring data. Does this process interfere with the execution of the user
programs? If so, describe what forms of interference are caused.

Answer: The CPU can initiate a DMA operation by writing values into special
registers that can be independently accessed by the device. The device initiates
the corresponding operation once it receives a command from the CPU. When the
device is finished with its operation, it interrupts the CPU to indicate the
completion of the operation. Both the device and the CPU can be accessing
memory simultaneously. The memory controller provides access to the memory
bus in a fair manner to these two entities. A CPU might therefore be unable to
issue memory operations at peak speeds since it has to compete with the device in
order to obtain access to the memory bus.

1.12 Some computer systems do not provide a privileged mode of operation in

hardware. Is it possible to construct a secure operating system for these computer
systems? Give arguments both that it is and that it is not possible.

Answer: An operating system for a machine of this type would need to remain in
control (or monitor mode) at all times. This could be accomplished by two
methods:

a. Software interpretation of all user programs (like some BASIC, Java, and LISP
systems, for example). The software interpreter would provide, in software, what
the hardware does not provide.
b. Require meant that all programs be written in high-level languages so that all
object code is compiler-produced. The compiler would generate (either in-line or
by function calls) the protection checks that the hardware is missing.

1.13 Give two reasons why caches are useful. What problems do they solve?
What problems do they cause? If a cache can be made as large as the device for
which it is caching (for instance, a cache as large as a disk), why not make it that
large and eliminate the device?

Answer: Caches are useful when two or more components need to exchange
data, and the components perform transfers at differing speeds. Caches solve the
transfer problem by providing a buffer of intermediate speed between the

jas::/conversion/tmp/scratch/389117979.doc <(4)>
Silberschatz 7th Chapter 1 Questions and Answers
components. If the fast device finds the data it needs in the cache, it need not
wait for the slower device. The data in the cache must be kept consistent with the
data in the components. If a component has a data value change, and the datum
is also in the cache, the cache must also be updated. This is especially a problem
on multiprocessor systems where more than one process may be accessing a
datum. a component may be eliminated by an equal-sized cache, but only if: (a)
the cache and the component have equivalent state-saving capacity (that is, if the
component retains its data when electricity is removed, the cache must retain data
as well), and (b) the cache is affordable, because faster storage tends to be more
expensive.

1.14 Discuss, with examples, how the problem of maintaining coherence of cached
data manifests itself in the following processing environments: a. Single-processor
systems b. Multiprocessor systems c. Distributed systems

Answer: In single-processor systems, the memory needs to be updated when a

processor issues updates to cached values. These updates can be performed
immediately or in a lazy manner. In a multiprocessor system, different processors
might be caching the same memory location in its local caches. When updates are
made, the other cached locations need to be invalidated or updated. In distributed
systems, consistency of cached memory values is not an issue. However,
consistency problems might arise when a client caches file data.

1.15 Describe a mechanism for enforcing memory protection in order to prevent a

program from modifying the memory associated with other programs.

Answer: The processor could keep track of what locations are associated with
each process and limit access to locations that are outside of a program’s extent.
Information regarding the extent of a program’s memory could be maintained by
using base and limits registers and by performing a check for every memory
access.

1.16 What network configuration would best suit the following environments?
Answer:
a. A dormitory floor A LAN.
b. A university campus A LAN, possible a WAN for very large campuses.
c. A state AWAN.
d. A nation A WAN.

1.17 Define the essential properties of the following types of operating systems:
a. Batch b. Interactive c. Time sharing d. Real time e. Network f. Parallel g.
Distributed h. Clustered i. Handheld

Answer: a. Batch. Jobs with similar needs are batched together and run through
the computer as a group by an operator or automatic job sequencer. Performance
is increased by attempting to keep CPU and I/O devices busy at all times through

jas::/conversion/tmp/scratch/389117979.doc <(5)>
Silberschatz 7th Chapter 1 Questions and Answers
buffering, off-line operation, spooling, and multiprogramming. Batch is good for
executing large jobs that need little interaction; it can be submitted and picked up
later.

b. Interactive. This system is composed of many short transactions where the

results of the next transaction may be unpredictable. Response time needs to be
short (seconds) since the user submits and waits for the result.

c. Time sharing. This systems uses CPU scheduling and multiprogramming to

provide economical interactive use of a system. The CPU switches rapidly from one
user to another. Instead of having a job defined by spooled card images, each
program reads its next control card from the terminal, and output is normally
printed immediately to the screen.

d. Real time. Often used in a dedicated application, this system reads information
from sensors and must respond within a fixed amount of time to ensure correct
performance.

e. Network. Provides operating system features across a network such as file

sharing.

f. SMP. Used in systems where there are multiple CPU’s each running the same
copy of the operating system. Communication takes place across the system bus.

g. Distributed. This system distributes computation among several physical

processors. The processors do not share memory or a clock. Instead, each
processor has its own local memory. They communicate with each other through
various communication lines, such as a high-speed bus or local area network.

h. Clustered. A clustered system combines multiple computers into a single

system to perform computational task distributed across the cluster.

i. Handheld. A small computer system that performs simple tasks such as

calendars, email, and web browsing. Handheld systems differ from traditional
desktop systems with smaller memory and display screens and slower processors.

1.18 What are the tradeoffs inherent in handheld computers?

Answer: Handheld computers are much smaller than traditional desktop PC’s.
This results in smaller memory, smaller screens, and slower processing capabilities
than a standard desktop PC. Because of these limitations, most handhelds
currently can perform only basic tasks such as calendars, email, and simple word
processing. However, due to their small size, they are quite portable and, when
they are equipped with wireless access, can provide remote access to electronic
mail and the World Wide Web.

jas::/conversion/tmp/scratch/389117979.doc <(6)>