COMPUTER SCIENCE

S E D G E W I C K / W A Y N E
PA R T I I : A L G O R I T H M S , M A C H I N E S , a n d T H E O R Y
Computer Science

Computer 16. Intractability

Science An Interdisciplinary Approach

ROBERT SEDGEWICK
K E V I N WAY N E
Section 7.4
http://introcs.cs.princeton.edu
 COMPUTER SCIENCE
S E D G E W I C K / W A Y N E
PA R T I I : A L G O R I T H M S , M A C H I N E S , a n d T H E O R Y

16. Intractability
• Reasonable questions
• P and NP
• Poly-time reductions
• NP-completeness
• Living with intractability

CS.16.A.Intractability.Questions
 Context

Fundamental questions
• What is a general-purpose computer? ✓
• Are there limits on what we can do with digital computers? ✓
• Are there limits on what we can do with the machines we can build? focus of today's lecture

Kurt Gödel
1909−1994 John Nash Michael Rabin Dana Scott Dick Karp Steve Cook Leonid Levin
Asked the question Asked the question Introduced the critical concept
in a "lost letter" to in a "lost letter" to of nondeterminism Asked THE question Answer still unknown
von Neumann the NSA

3
A difficult problem

Traveling salesperson problem (TSP)

• Given: A set of N cities, distances between each pair of cities, and a threshold M.
• Problem: Is there a tour through all the cities of length less than M ?

Exhaustive search. Try all N ! orderings of the cities to look for a tour of length less than M .
4
How difficult can it be?

Excerpts from a recent blog...

If one took the 100 largest cities in the US and wanted to travel them all, what is the distance of the
shortest route? I'm sure there's a simple answer. Anyone wanna help? A quick google revealed nothing.

I don't think there's any substitute for doing it manually. Google the cities, then pull out your map and
get to work. It shouldn't take longer than an hour. Edit: I didn't realize this was a standardized problem.

Writing a program to solve the problem would take 5 or 10 minutes for an average programmer.
However, the amount of time the program would need to run is, well, a LONG LONG LONG time.

My Garmin could probably solve this for you. Edit: probably not.

Someone needs to write a distributed computing program to solve this IMO.

5
How difficult can it be?

Imagine an UBERcomputer (a giant computing device)…

• With as many processors as electrons in the universe…
• Each processor having the power of today's supercomputers…
• Each processor working for the lifetime of the universe…

value

quantity
(conservative estimate)
electrons in universe 1079
supercomputer instructions per second 1013
age of universe in seconds 1017

Q. Could the UBERcomputer solve the TSP for 100 cities with the brute force algorithm?

A. Not even close. 100! > 10157 >> 107910131017 = 10109 Would need 1048 UBERcomputers

Lesson. Exponential growth dwarfs technological change.

6
Reasonable questions about algorithms

Q. Which algorithms are useful in practice?

Model of computation
• Running time: Number of steps as a function of input size N.
• Poly-time: Running time less than aNb for some constants a and b.
• Definitely not poly-time: Running time ~cN for any constant c > 1.
• Specific computer generally not relevant (simulation uses only a polynomial factor).

"Extended Church-Turing thesis" (stay tuned)

Def (in the context of this lecture). An algorithm is efficient if it is poly-time for all inputs.

outside this lecture: "guaranteed polynomial time" or just "poly-time"

Q. Can we find efficient algorithms for the practical problems that we face?

7
Reasonable questions about problems

Q. Which problems can we solve in practice?

A. Those for which we know efficient (guaranteed poly-time) algorithms.

Definition. A problem is intractable if no efficient algorithm exists to solve it.

Q. Is there an easy way to tell whether a problem is intractable?

Existence of a faster algorithm
A. Good question! Focus of today's lecture. like mergesort is not relevant
to this discussion

Example 1: Sorting. Not intractable. (Insertion sort takes time proportional to N 2.)
Example 2: TSP. ??? (No efficient algorithm known, but no proof that none exists.)

8
Four fundamental problems
Example of an instance A solution

LSOLVE x1 + x2 = 1 x0 = − .25
• Solve simultaneous linear equations. 2x0 + 4x1 − 2x2 = 0.5 x1 = .5
• Variables are real numbers. 3x1 + 15x2 = 9 x2 = .5

LP 48x0 + 16x1 + 119x2 ≤ 88

x0 = 1
5x0 + 4x1 + 35x2 ≥ 13
• Solve simultaneous linear inequalities.
15x0 4x1 + 20x2 ≥ 23
x1 = 1
• Variables are real numbers. x0 , x1 , x2 ≥ 0
x2 = 0.2

ILP x1 + x2 ≥ 1 x0 = 0
• Solve simultaneous linear inequalities. x0 + x2 ≥ 1 x1 = 1
• Variables are 0 or 1. x0 + x1 + x2 ≤ 2 x2 = 1

SAT ¬x1 ⋁ x2 = true x0 = false

• Solve simultaneous boolean sums. ¬x0 ⋁ ¬x1 ⋁ ¬x2 = true x1 = true
• Variables are true or false. x1 ⋁ ¬x2 = true x2 = true

9
Reasonable questions

LSOLVE, LP, ILP, and SAT are all important problem- LSOLVE

solving models with countless practical applications. • Solve simultaneous linear equations.
• Variables are real numbers.

Q. Do we have efficient algorithms for solving them? LP

• Solve simultaneous linear inequalities.
A. Difficult to discern, despite similarities (!) • Variables are real numbers.

appropriate version of Gaussian elimination ILP

✓ LSOLVE. Yes. Ellipsoid algorithm (tour de force solution) • Solve simultaneous linear inequalities.
✓ LP. Yes. • Variables are 0 or 1.
? IP. No polynomial-time algorithm known.
SAT
? SAT. No polynomial-time algorithm known.
• Solve simultaneous boolean sums.
• Variables are true or false.
Q. Can we find efficient algorithms for IP and SAT?

Q. Can we prove that no such algorithms exist?

10
Intractability

Definition. An algorithm is efficient if it is poly-time for all inputs.

Definition. A problem is intractable if no efficient algorithm exists to solve it.

Definition. A problem is tractable if it solvable by an efficient algorithm.

Turing taught us something fundamental about computation by

• Identifying a problem that we might want to solve.
• Showing that it is not possible to solve it.
A reasonable question: Can we do something similar for intractability?

decidable : undecidable :: tractable : intractable

Q. We do not know efficient algorithms for a large class of important problems.


Can we prove one of them to be intractable?

11
Another profound connection to the real world

Extended Church-Turing thesis. 


Resources used by all reasonable machines are within a polynomial factor of one another.

Remarks New model of computation or new physical process?

• A thesis, not a theorem. • Use simulation to prove polynomial bound.
• Not subject to proof. • Example: TOY simulator in Java (see TOY lectures).
• Is subject to falsification. • Example: Java compiler in TOY.

=
Implications
• Validates exponential/polynomial divide.
NO

• Enables rigorous study of efficiency. HALT

= YES

... ...

12
 COMPUTER SCIENCE
S E D G E W I C K / W A Y N E

Image sources

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_Hilbert#/media/File:Hilbert.jpg
http://www.nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/economic-sciences/laureates/1994/nash-bio.html
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michael_O._Rabin#/media/File:Michael_O._Rabin.jpg
http://www.google.com/imgres?imgurl=http://www.cmu.edu/news/image-archive/Dana_Scott.jpg
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_M._Karp#/media/File:Karp_mg_7725-b.cr2.jpg
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stephen_Cook#/media/File:Prof.Cook.jpg

CS.16.A.Intractability.Questions
 COMPUTER SCIENCE
S E D G E W I C K / W A Y N E
PA R T I I : A L G O R I T H M S , M A C H I N E S , a n d T H E O R Y

16. Intractability
• Reasonable questions
• P and NP
• Poly-time reductions
• NP-completeness
• Living with intractability

CS.16.B.Intractability.PandNP
Search problems

Search problem. Any problem for which an efficient algorithm exists to certify solutions.

Example: TSP.

Problem instance: 

Set of cities, pairwise distances, and threshold M.

Certify solution by
adding distances and
checking that the total
is less than M

Solution: Permutation of the cities.

15
NP

Definition. NP is the class of all search problems.

problem description instance I solution S algorithm

Find a tour of cities in S of Add up distances and check

TSP ( S, M )
length < M that the total is less than M

Find a binary vector x that plug in values and check

ILP ( A, b )
satisfies Ax ≤ b each equation

Find a boolean vector x that plug in values and check

SAT ( A, b )
satisfies Ax = b each equation

Find a nontrivial factor


FACTOR ( M ) 147573952589676412927 193707721 long division
of the integer M

Significance. Problems that scientists, engineers, and applications programmers aspire to solve.
16
Brute force search

Brute-force search. Given a search problem, find a solution by checking all possibilities.

number of
problem description N (size) possibilities

number of
TSP ( S, M ) Find a tour of cities in S of length < M N!
cities

number of
ILP ( A, b ) Find a binary vector x that satisfies Ax ≤ b 2N
variables

number of
SAT ( Φ, b ) Find a boolean vector x that satisfies Ax = b 2N
variables

number of
FACTOR ( x ) Find a nontrivial factor of the integer M 10√N
digits in M

Challenge. Brute-force search is easy to implement, but not efficient.

17
P
solvable by an efficient
Definition. P is the class of all tractable search problems.
(guaranteed poly-time) algorithm

problem description efficient algorithm

Find a permutation that puts the

SORT ( S ) Insertion sort, Mergesort
items in S in order

3-SUM ( S ) Find a triple in S that sums to 0 Triple loop

LSOLVE ( A, b ) Find a vector x that satisfies Ax = b Gaussian elimination*

LP ( A, b ) Find a vector x that satisfies Ax ≤ b Ellipsoid

Significance. Problems that scientists, engineers and applications programmers do solve.

Note. All of these problems are also in NP.

18
Types of problems

Search problem. Find a solution.

Decision problem. Does there exist a solution?
Optimization problem. Find the best solution.

Some problems are more naturally formulated in one regime than another.

Example: TSP is usually

"Find the shortest tour
formulated as an
connecting all the cities."
optimization problem.

The regimes are not technically equivalent, but conclusions that we draw apply to all three.

Note. Classic definitions of P and NP are in terms of decision problems.

19
The central question

NP. Class of all search problems, some of which seem solvable only by brute force.
P. Class of search problems solvable in poly-time.

The question: Is P = NP ?

P ≠ NP P = NP
• Intractable search problems exist. • All search problems are tractable.
• Brute force search may be the best • Efficient algorithms exist for IP, SAT,
we can do for some problems. FACTOR ... all problems in NP.

NP
Intractable
P
problems
P = NP

Frustrating situation. Researchers believe that P ≠ NP but no one has been able to prove it ( ! ! )

20
Nondeterminism: another way to view the situation

A nondeterministic machine can choose among multiple options at each step

and can guess the option that leads to the solution.

Example: Java. Example: Turing

#:1
either x[0] = 0; or x[0] = 1;
either x[1] = 0; or x[1] = 1; solves ILP
either x[2] = 0; or x[2] = 1;
0:0 L
0:1
two
choices

Seems like a fantasy, but...

P ≠ NP P = NP
• Intractable search problems exist. • No intractable search problems exist.
• Nondeterministic machines would • Nondeterministic machines would be
admit efficient algorithms. of no help!

Frustrating situation. No one has been able to prove that nondeterminism would help ( ! ! )
21
Creativity: another way to view the situation

Creative genius versus ordinary appreciation of creativity.

Examples
• Mozart composes a piece of music; the audience appreciates it.
Creative genius
• Wiles proves a deep theorem; a colleague checks it.
• Boeing designs an efficient airfoil; a simulator verifies it.
• Einstein proposes a theory; an experimentalist validates it.

Computational analog. P vs NP. Ordinary appreciation

Frustrating situation. No one has been able to prove that creating a solution to a problem

is more difficult than checking that it is correct.
22
 COMPUTER SCIENCE
S E D G E W I C K / W A Y N E

Image sources

http://www.imdb.com/name/nm1101562/
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wolfgang_Amadeus_Mozart#/media/File:Wolfgang-amadeus-mozart_1.jpg

CS.16.B.Intractability.PandNP
 COMPUTER SCIENCE
S E D G E W I C K / W A Y N E
PA R T I I : A L G O R I T H M S , M A C H I N E S , a n d T H E O R Y

19. Intractability
• Reasonable questions
• P and NP
• Poly-time reductions
• NP-completeness
• Living with intractability

CS.16.C.Intractability.Reductions
Classifying problems

Q. Which problems are in P?

A. The ones that we're solving with efficient algorithms. Can I solve it on my
cellphone or do I need

1048 UBERcomputers??
Q. Which problems are intractable (in NP but not in P)?
A. Difficult to know (no one has found even one such problem).

Possible starting point: Assume that SAT is intractable (and hence P ≠ NP)
• Brute-force algorithm finds solution for any SAT instance.
• No known efficient algorithm does so.
A reasonable assumption.

Next. Proving relationships among problems.

Q. If P ≠ NP and SAT is intractable, which other problems are intractable?

25
Poly-time reduction

Definition. Problem X poly-time reduces to problem Y if you can use an


X→Y
efficient solution to Y to develop an efficient solution to X.

Typical reduction: Given an efficient solution to Y, solve X by

• Using an efficient method to transform the instance of X to an instance of Y.
• Calling the efficient method that solves Y.
• Using an efficient method to transform the solution of Y to an solution of X.
Similar to using a library method in modular programming.

Method for solving X

Method for solving Y
Transform Transform
instance input
instance solution
result
solution
of X of Y of Y of X

Note. Many ways to extend. (Example: Use a polynomial number of instances of Y.)
26
Key point: poly-time reduction is transitive

If X poly-time reduces to Y and Y poly-time reduces to Z, then X poly-time reduces to Z.

If X→Y and Y→Z then X→Z

Method for solving X

Method for solving Y
Transform Transform
instance input
instance solution
result
solution
of X of Y of Y of X

Method for solving Y

Method for solving Z
Transform Transform
instance input instance solution result solution
of Y of Z of Z of Y

27
Two ways to exploit reduction

Method for solving X

Method for solving Y
Transform Transform
instance input instance instance result solution
of X of Y of Y to X

Not emphasized in this lecture.

To design an algorithm to solve a new problem X Interested in details? Take a
• Find a problem Y with a known efficient algorithm that solves it. course in algorithms.

• Poly-time reduce X to Y.
The efficient algorithm for Y gives an efficient algorithm for X.

To establish intractability of a new problem Y (assuming SAT is intractable)

• Find a problem X with a known poly-time reduction from SAT. Critical tool

• Poly-time reduce X to Y. for this lecture.
An efficient algorithm for Y would imply an efficient algorithm for X (and SAT).

Easiest option: Just reduce SAT to Y (next)

28
Example: SAT poly-time reduces to ILP

SAT ILP
• Solve simultaneous boolean sums. • Solve simultaneous linear inequalities.
• Variables are true or false • Variables are 0 or 1.

(1 − t0) + t1 + t2 ≥ 1
¬x0 ⋁ x1 ⋁ x2 = true
t0 + (1 − t1) + t2 ≥ 1 ti = 0 iff xi = false
x0 ⋁ ¬x1 ⋁ x2 = true
(1 − t0) + (1 − t1) + (1 − t2) ≥ 1 ti = 1 iff xi = true
¬x0 ⋁ ¬x1 ⋁ ¬x2 = true
(1 − t0) + (1 − t1) + t3 ≥ 1
¬x0 ⋁ ¬x1 ⋁ x3 = true
An instance of SAT x0 = false Poly-time reduction to an instance of ILP t0 = 0
x1 = true
t1 = 1
x2 = true
t2 = 1
x3 = false
t3 = 0
A solution
A solution

Implication. If SAT is intractable, so is ILP.

29
More poly-time reductions from SAT

SAT

3-COLOR ILP VERTEX COVER

Dick Karp
1985 Turing Award
EXACT COVER CLIQUE HAMILTON CYCLE

SUBSET SUM INDEPENDENT SET TSP

PARTITION

Reasonable assumption. SAT is intractable.

Implication. All of these problems are intractable.
KNAPSACK BIN PACKING

30
Still more poly-time reductions from SAT

field of study typical problem known to be intractable if SAT is intractable

Aerospace engineering Optimal mesh partitioning for finite elements
Biology Phylogeny reconstruction
Chemical engineering Heat exchanger network synthesis
Chemistry Protein folding
Civil engineering Equilibrium of urban traffic flow
Economics Computation of arbitrage in financial markets with friction
Electrical engineering VLSI layout
Environmental engineering Optimal placement of contaminant sensors 6,000+ scientific
Financial engineering Minimum risk portfolio of given return papers per year.
Game theory Nash equilibrium that maximizes social welfare
Mechanical engineering Structure of turbulence in sheared flows
Medicine Reconstructing 3d shape from biplane angiocardiogram
Operations research Traveling salesperson problem, integer programming
Physics Partition function of 3d Ising model
Politics Shapley-Shubik voting power
Pop culture Versions of Sudoko, Checkers, Minesweeper, Tetris
Statistics Optimal experimental design

Reasonable assumption. SAT is intractable.

Implication. All of these problems are intractable.
31
 COMPUTER SCIENCE
S E D G E W I C K / W A Y N E

CS.16.C.Intractability.Reductions
 COMPUTER SCIENCE
S E D G E W I C K / W A Y N E
PA R T I I : A L G O R I T H M S , M A C H I N E S , a n d T H E O R Y

19. Intractability
• Reasonable questions
• P and NP
• Poly-time reductions
• NP-completeness
• Living with intractability

CS.16.D.Intractability.NPcomplete
NP-completeness

Definition. An NP problem is NP-complete if all problems in NP poly-time reduce to it.

Theorem (Cook; Levin, 1971). SAT is NP-complete.

Extremely brief proof sketch
• Convert non-deterministic TM notation to SAT notation.
• An efficient solution to SAT gives an efficient solution to
any problem in NP.

Nondeterministic SAT
Turing machine instance

Corollary. SAT is tractable if and only if P = NP.

Equivalent. Assuming that SAT is intractable is the same as assuming that P ≠ NP.
34
 Cook-Levin theorem

SAT

3-COLOR ILP VERTEX COVER

Steve Cook Leonid Levin
1982 Turing Award

EXACT COVER CLIQUE HAMILTON CYCLE

SUBSET SUM INDEPENDENT SET TSP

PARTITION

All problems in NP poly-time reduce to SAT.

KNAPSACK BIN PACKING

35
Karp + Cook-Levin

SAT

3-COLOR ILP VERTEX COVER Steve Cook Leonid Levin Dick Karp

EXACT COVER CLIQUE HAMILTON CYCLE

SUBSET SUM INDEPENDENT SET TSP

PARTITION All of these problems are NP-complete.

A provably efficient algorithm for any one of them

KNAPSACK BIN PACKING would yield a provably efficient algorithm for all of them

36
Two possible universes

P ≠ NP P = NP
• Intractable search problems exist. • No intractable search problems exist.
• Nondeterminism would help. • Nondeterminism is no help.
• Computing an answer is more difficult • Finding an answer is just as easy as
than correctly guessing it. correctly guessing an answer.
• Can prove a problem to be intractable by 
 • Guaranteed poly-time algorithms exist for
poly-time reduction from an NP-complete all problems in NP.
problem.

NP

P NP-complete P = NP = NPC

Frustrating situation. No progress on resolving the question despite 40+ years of research.
37
Summary

NP. Class of all search problems, some of which seem solvable only by brute force.
P. Class of search problems solvable in poly-time.
NP-complete. "Hardest" problems in NP.
Intractable. Search problems not in P (if P ≠ NP).

TSP, SAT, ILP, and thousands of other problems are NP-complete.

Use theory as a guide

• An efficient algorithm for an NP-complete problem

would be a stunning scientific breakthrough (a proof that P = NP)
• You will confront NP-complete problems in your career.
• It is safe to assume that P ≠ NP and that such problems are intractable.
• Identify these situations and proceed accordingly.

38
Princeton CS building, west wall

39
Princeton CS building, west wall (closeup)

1
0 1
0 0 0
1 1 0
1 1 0
0 0 1 0
1 1 1 1
0 1 1
0 0 0
1 1 0 0
1 0
1 1 1

char ASCII binary

P 80 1010000
= 61 0111101
N 78 1001110
P 80 1010000
? 63 0111111

40
 COMPUTER SCIENCE
S E D G E W I C K / W A Y N E

CS.16.D.Intractability.NPcomplete
 COMPUTER SCIENCE
S E D G E W I C K / W A Y N E
PA R T I I : A L G O R I T H M S , M A C H I N E S , a n d T H E O R Y

16. Intractability
• Reasonable questions
• P and NP
• Poly-time reductions
• NP-completeness
• Living with intractability

CS.16.E.Intractability.Living
Living with intractability

When you encounter an NP-complete problem

• It is safe to assume that it is intractable.
• What to do?

Four successful approaches

• Don't try to solve intractable problems.
• Try to solve real-world problem instances.
• Look for approximate solutions (not discussed in this lecture).
• Exploit intractability.

43
Living with intractability: Don't try to solve intractable problems

Knows no theory

Knows computability
I can't find an efficient algorithm.
I guess I'm just to dumb.

Knows intractability

I can't find an efficient algorithm,

because no such algorithm is possible!

I can't find an efficient algorithm,

but neither can all these famous people! 44
Understanding intractability: An example from statistical physics

1926: Ising introduces a mathematical model for ferromagnetism.

1930s: Closed form solution is a holy grail of statistical mechanics.

1944: Onsager finds closed form solution to 2D version in tour de force.

1950s: Feynman and others seek closed form solution to 3D version.

2000: Istrail shows that 3D-ISING is NP-complete.

Bottom line. Search for a closed formula seems futile.

45
Living with intractability: look for solutions to real-world problem instances

Observations
• Worst-case inputs may not occur for practical problems.
• Instances that do occur in practice may be easier to solve.
Reasonable approach: relax the condition of guaranteed poly-time algorithms.

SAT
• Chaff solves real-world instances with 10,000+ variables.
• Princeton senior independent work (!) in 2000. TSP solution for 13,509 US cities

TSP
• Concorde routinely solves large real-world instances.
• 85,900-city instance solved in 2006.

ILP
• CPLEX routinely solves large real-world instances.
• Routinely used in scientific and commercial applications.
46
Exploiting intractability: RSA cryptosystem

Modern cryptography applications

• Electronic banking.
• Credit card transactions with online merchants.
• Secure communications.
Adi Shamir Len Adelman
Ron Rivest
• [very long list]

RSA cryptosystem exploits intractability

• To use: Multiply/divide two N-digit integers (easy).
• To break: Factor a 2N-digit integer (intractable?).

Multiply (easy)

761838257287 * 193707721 147573952589676412927

Factor (difficult)
47
Exploiting intractability: RSA cryptosystem

RSA cryptosystem exploits intractability

• To use: Multiply/divide two N-digit integers (easy).
• To break: Solve FACTOR for a 2N-digit integer (difficult).

74037563479561712828046796097429573142593188889231289
Example: Factor this 08493623263897276503402826627689199641962511784399589
212-digit integer 43305021275853701189680982867331732731089309005525051
16877063299072396380786710086096962537934650563796359

Q. Would an efficient algorithm for FACTOR prove that P = NP ?

equivalent statement:
A. Unknown. It is in NP, but no reduction from SAT is known.
"FACTOR is not known to be NP-complete"

Q. Is it safe to assume that FACTOR is intractable?

A. Maybe, but not as safe an assumption as for an NP-complete problem.

48
Fame and fortune through intractability

74037563479561712828046796097429573142593188889231289
Factor this
 08493623263897276503402826627689199641962511784399589 $30,000 prize
212-digit integer 43305021275853701189680982867331732731089309005525051 claimed in July, 2012
16877063299072396380786710086096962537934650563796359

Create an e-commerce
company based on the RSA sold to EMC
for $2.1 billion in 2006
difficulty of factoring

$1 million prize

Resolve P vs. NP unclaimed since 2000

probably another $1 million


for Turing award

plus untold riches for breaking 


e-commerce if P=NP

or... sell T-shirts

49
A final thought

Example: Factor this 212-digit integer

7403756347956171282804679609742957314259318888923128908493623263897276503402826627689199641962511784399589
4330502127585370118968098286733173273108930900552505116877063299072396380786710086096962537934650563796359

Q. Would an efficient algorithm for FACTOR prove that P = NP ?

A. Unknown. It is in NP, but no reduction from SAT is known.

Q. Is it safe to assume that FACTOR is intractable?

A. Maybe, but not as safe an assumption as for an NP-complete problem.

Q. What else might go wrong?

Theorem (Shor, 1994). An N-bit integer can be factored in N 3 steps on a quantum computer.

Resources used by all reasonable machines

Q. Do we still believe in the Extended Church-Turing thesis? are within a polynomial factor of one another.

A. Whether we do or not, intractability demands understanding.

50
 COMPUTER SCIENCE
S E D G E W I C K / W A Y N E

Image sources

http://people.csail.mit.edu/rivest/
http://www.google.com/imgres?imgurl=http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/1e/Adi_Shamir_at_TU_Darmstadt_(2013).jpg
http://www.google.com/imgres?imgurl=http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/af/Len-mankin-pic.jpg

CS.16.E.Intractability.Living
 COMPUTER SCIENCE
S E D G E W I C K / W A Y N E
PA R T I I : A L G O R I T H M S , M A C H I N E S , a n d T H E O R Y
Computer Science

Computer 16. Intractability

Science An Interdisciplinary Approach

ROBERT SEDGEWICK
K E V I N WAY N E
Section 7.4
http://introcs.cs.princeton.edu