Models and Theories

One of the main things geographer do is try to identify trends and patterns over space and time. Often
they will draw from the theories of sociologists, economists, historians, archeologists, political scientists,
physicians and trained geographers to develop models and theories. These models and theories try to make
generalization and simplifications of collected data. The models help provide visualizations, but it is important to
note that they are just that, generalizations.
When teaching with models remind students that the main goal of any model is to provide a
generalization and very rarely will a model be an accurate representation of a specific circumstance. Models
provide a guide that situations can be tested against. When a model is tested the data is compared to the model
to see how applicable the model is, or what changes would have to be made to the model in order for it to
actually apply to the specific situation. Again make it clear that a lot of the models are often outdated and may
be less applicable because of it. These are all great talking points about generalizing information and the
usefulness of these geographic models. The theories, and those who proposed them, are central to the study of
human geography and help establish it as more of a science as geographers make and test their theories with
real world situations.
Names and dates are rarely crucial to the study of geography, but when examining geographic changes
over time it is helpful to establish context and the process of diffusion. The mentioning of the social scientists
who proposed each theory is helpful in showing the framework for which geography exists with the other social
sciences, like economics, and sociology. In Advanced Placement classes especially these models are crucial as the
study of them is helpful in triggering the higher level thinking that advanced classes are trying to achieve.

Theory Model/Rule Description/Importance

First Agricultural Revolution (Neolithic Revolution): Started
10,000 years Ago, the beginnings of agricultural societies instead of
hunter-gathering
Second Agricultural Revoultion (Industrial Revolution): Started
around1750 in Europe. The use of machiens to increase food Tracking the growth and
production to support growing industrial centers. development of
Agriculture:
Third Agricutlrual Revolution (Green Revolution): Began after agriculture around the
Agricultural
World War II. The spread of modern western machines, farming world based on the use of
Revolutions methods, and scientific developments to non-western areas. Led by technology and farming
Norman Borlaug methods.
Fourth Agricutltural Revolution (Organic Revolution): Early
2000s. Growning concern over Genetically Modified Organisms
(GMOs) leads many individuals and states to transition to natual and
organically grown food.

Agricultural model
reflecting the transfer of
Agriculture: plants, animals, and
Columbian Exchange microbes between the
“Old World” and the “New
World”
 Models and Theories

Explains the connection of

different agricultural
Agriculture: Von
practices and the location
Thunen Agricultural
of the market. Accounts
Model
for land needed and
transportation costs.

Proposed idea of Cultural Landscape in which human activity

Basis for study of Human
Culture: Carl Sauer superimposes itself on the physical landscape. Each Cultural group
Geography
leaves own unique imprints.

Cultural diffusion model

where cultural traits
spread quickly from one
Culture: Contagious
center to the people
Diffusion
around them, who spread
it to the people around
them and so on.

Cultural diffusion model

where cultural traits
originate among elites,
Culture: Hierarchical
and then diffuses among
Diffusion
elites before trickling
down to lower levels of
society/lower tiered cities.
 Models and Theories

Cultural Diffusion model

which displays the
Culture: Relocation relationship between the
Diffusion spread of culture and the
physical movement of
people.

Cultural Diffusion model

showing the spread of
cultural, but the cultural
Culture: Stimulus trait adapts to regional
Diffusion tastes/variations. The idea
remains constant, but is
changed slightly for the
region.

Theorized in 1980, the

Brandt line divides the
Development:
world between the
Brandt Line
developed North and the
less developed South.

1. Very High Human Development Measures Life Expectancy,

2. High Human Development Education (Mean years of
Development: 3. Medium Human Development schooling and expected
Human 4. Low Human Development years of schooling), and
Development Index Gross National Income
(adjusted Purchasing
Power Parity)
 Models and Theories

Manufacturing plants
Development: Losch
choose locations where
Model of
they can maximize profit.
Profitability

5 Stages of Economic
Development
1. Traditional Society
Development:
2. Pre-conditions to Take-
Rostow Levels of
off (Primary Sector)
Development
3. Take-off (industry)
4. Maturity
5.High Mass Consumption

Theorizes the world as a

unified economic system
in which different
Development:
countries have different
Wallerstein World
roles and depend on one
Systems Theory
another. Divides world
into Core, Periphery, and
semi-periphery.
1. To eradicate extreme poverty and hunger.
2. To achieve universal primary education. In order to help the United
3. To promote gender equality and empower women. Nations work for the
Development:
4. To reduce child mortality. progress of all countries
United Nations
5. To improve maternal health. they developed their
Millennium
6. To combat HIV/AIDS, malaria, and other diseases. Millennium Development
Development Goals
7. To ensure environmental sustainability. Goals to lay out their
8. To develop a global partnership for development. objectives for all countries.

Sail-Wagon Epoch (1790–1830): Cities grow near ports and major

waterways which are used for transportation
Iron Horse Epoch (1830–70): Characterized by impact of steam Developed in 1967 by
engine technology, and development of steamboats and regional American Geographer
Industry/Services: railroad networks John Borchert to break
Borchert’s Epochs of Steel Rail Epoch (1870–1920): Dominated by the development of down American Industrial
Transportation long haul railroads and a national railroad network eras based on growth,
Auto-Air-Amenity Epoch (1920–70): With growth in the gasoline urbanization, and
combustion engine transportation.
High-Technology Epoch (1970–Present Day): Expansion in service
and information sectors of the economy
Industry/Services: - Primary: Extractive of resources Division of labor into
Clark’s Industrial - Secondary: Factories and industry different sectors and
 Models and Theories
Sectors - Tertiary: Services responsibilities.
- Quaternary: An activity that engages in the collection,
processing, and manipulation of information.
- Quinary: An activity that involves a managerial or control-
function associated with decision-making in large corporations or
high government officials.

Explains the relationship of

cost of transporting
Industry/Services:
materials between bulk-
Weber’s Least Cost
gaining and bulk-reducing
Model/Industrial
industries with centers of
Location
production and the
distance to markets.

1. Most migration is over short distances

2. Migration occurs in steps
3. Long-range migrants usually move to urban areas
4. Each migration produces a movement in the opposite direction
Migration: 5. Rural dwellers are more migratory than urban dwellers
Explains the processes of
Ravenstein’s Laws of 6. Within their own country females are more migratory than
world migration.
Migration males, but males are more migratory over long distances
7. Most migrants are adults
8. Large towns grow more by migration than by natural increase
9. Migration increases with economic development
10. Migration is mostly due to economic causes
1. Antecedent - Drawn before area is populated en mass
2. Superimposed- Borders drawn by outsiders. Usually do not take
Political Geography:
into account existing ethnic groups Proposed by Richard
Evolution of
3. Subsequent - Drawn after populated Hartshorne
Boundaries
4. Relict – Borders that no longer exist, but cultural/economic divides
still exist

Heartland Theory
proposed by Halford
Mackinder that claims
whoever controls the
Political Geography:
Heartland can control the
Heartland and
world. Nicholas Spyman
Rimland Theory
proposed the Rimland
theory stating control of
the Rimland was crucial in
controlling the Hearthland.
 Models and Theories

Established by the United

Political Geography:
Nations to set
International
international standards for
Convention on the
control of the seas and
Law of the Seas
resources within them.

Divides states into five

different categories.
Political Geography: 1. Compact
Territorial 2. Prorupt
Morphology 3. Elongated
4. Fragmented
5. Perforated

Explains the connection

Population: between development and
Demographic the changes in the Birth
Transition Model Rate, Death Rate, and
Population growth.

Developed by Abel Omran.

Connected to the
Demographic Transition
Population: Model, this theory looks at
Epidemiological the relationship between
Transition Model development levels, life
expectancies, and what
are the predominant risk
factors for death.
Counters Malthusian theory that food production and population Developed by Esther
Population: Boserup
growth will lead to misery. Instead has optimistic view that increases Boserup in 1965 to
Theory of Human
in knowledge and technology as misery approaches will prevent food counter Thomas Malthus’
Innovation
shortages. theory.
1. Food grows Arithmetically
2. Population grows Exponentially Explains the population
Population:
3. Population Checks growth and the impacts it
Malthusian Theory
- Positive Checks (Increase in Crude Death Rate) has on over-population
- Negative Checks (Decrease in Crude Birth Rate)
 Models and Theories
Population Pyramids are a
way of mapping
demographic data to
visualize trends and
patterns in growth
Population:
patterns. Population
Population Pyramids
Pyramids can be used to
compare and categorize
countries, states, and
regions based on select
characteristics.

Explains the relationships

between the location of
businesses in relation to
the location of population
Urbanization: centers. Connected to the
Central Place Theory idea that people travel less
distance for essential
products but will travel
further for consumer
goods.

Theorized problems in
sharing centers so lower
Urbanization:
order centers are located
Central Place Theory
entirely within the
(Administrative
hexagon of higher order
Principle)
centers

The lower the order of the

city the more of them
there are. The bigger the
city the bigger the market
Urbanization: area
Central Place Theory - Ex. There will be 3
(Marketing Principle) times more towns
than city’s, but a
city’s market size will
be 3 times bigger
 Models and Theories

Arrangement of cities to
connect as many
important places as
Urbanization: straightly and cheaply as
Central Place Theory possible
(Transportation - Lower order centers
Principle located along edges,
not corners of
hexagons

Based off assumption that

CBD is center of city and
Urbanization:
home values/rents
Concentric Zone
increase as distance from
Model
city increase

A historic center that is

fairly unchanged with elite
residential and industrial
centers around the
Urbanization:
periphery of the city.
Eastern European
Retail centers near the
Model of Cities
historic center help
expand the city centers
role as a tourist
destination.

Mini edge cities that are

Urbanization:
connected to another city
Galactic City Model
by beltways or highways.
 Models and Theories

Interaction between urban

centers can be calculated
by size and distance. Large
Urbanization:
cities have greater draw
Gravity Model
power. Decreasing
interaction as size and
distance increases.

Model based off cities in

Southwest Asia and
Northern Africa.
Urbanization: Islamic Development of a city
City Model around a central mosque
and historic bazaar. City
protected by a city wall
with stronghold citadel.

The city grows up around

the historic city centre hit
different sectors extending
Urbanization: Latin from the middle of upper
America Model of class housing and slums.
Cities More slums and new
development on the
periphery including
modern industrial parks.
 Models and Theories

Accounts for the growing

Urbanization: importance of cars and
Multiple Nuclei commuting. Creation of
Model different nuclei that
support each other

Urban areas consisting of

an inner city surrounded
Urbanization: by large suburban
Peripheral Model residential and business
areas tied together by a
beltway or ring road.

The Largest city is more than twice as large as the next city in Used to explain the
Urbanization: terms of importance and population. relationship between cities
Primate City Rule where one is
disproportionally larger.
– Rank 1 – Largest City If all cities in a country are
– Rank 2 – ½ the number of people as Rank 1 city placed in order from the
– Rank 3 – 1/3 the number of people as Rank 1 city largest to the smallest,
Urbanization: Rank-
– Rank 4 – ¼ the number of people as Rank 1 city each one will have a
Size Rule
– Rank 5 – 1/5 the number of people as Rank 1 city population half the size of
the preceding city.

Different areas attract

different activities by
chance of environmental
Urbanization: Sector
factors. Different sectors
Model
grow out in wedge shaped
areas away from CBD
 Models and Theories

Centered around a port

with sectors of Chinese,
Urbanization: Indian, and Western
Southeast Asia zones. Division between
Model of Cities elites, squatter
settlements and new
industry.

Model reflection the

importance of natural
Urbanization: Sub- resources and diversity of
Saharan Africa Sub-Saharan African cities.
Model of Cities Model also reflects
colonial past of African
cities.

A historic centre with

relatively little change over
Urbanization:
the last hundred years.
Western European
Growth extending from
Model of Cities
the cities with industrial
centers on the periphery.