Classification, and Elimination : of 1 and Bar Surface Defects ALS.L TECHNICAL COMMITTEE ’ ’ 5 7° > a 9 2 3 | > 5MUSCO WA. CON ALLS. oe, TECHNICAL COMMITTEE ON RODAND BAR MILLS‘ Detection, Gesetiontony and Elimination 01 Rod and Bar Surface Defects INTRODUCTION e This manual is the work of the AISI Technical Committee on lod and Bar Mills. While authors are credited foreach ofthe three sections, the documentasa whole has taken shape through lenghours ‘of committze work which has included surveys, technical presentations, plant tours, literature searches, seminars, and a large dose cf negotiation. The subject of surtace defects is particularly dificull to master, not only because each mamber company has its own unique terminology and processes, but because surtaco defects are sometimes dafinad by their physical appearance, ‘sometimesby theirorigin, and occasionally by.acombination ofthe two. Itwouldbetotally inaccurate: tosuogest that the materialinthis manualis universally endorsed by all member companies, orthat the terminology end precepts will be universally adopted at each company. Early in the project It ‘was recognized that 100% agreementon many issues would beimpossible, Stilitwas{eltthatthree enormous baneilis would result fram the effort: 1, The work would be educational. 2. The resulting manual, designed for dally shop floor use, would tend to standard ize the terminology over a period of time. 3. The knowledge and the manual would Improve quailty, ‘This manual wil be revised periodically. Any suggested Improvements can be sent to: AIS! Technical Committee on Rod and Bar Milts io American Iron and Stee! institution 1189 15th Street NW, Washington, B.C. 20005 @ BFS ASES PLS SES, Fax i: 202-469-6573 Project Chairman Committee Chairman read « Senet Steel Timken Comp: 1258 Dueber Avanue SW. Canton, Ghio 44708 ickitional books may be ordered through The Timken Company. UUUBsSEUYUYL |sia Paci eee ee chat wewuwwuvvwevwwwew w, - e é ¢ € TABLE OF CONTENTS SECTION 1: ‘Surtace Detect Definitions - D. P. Miller, LK. Repp, The Timken Company SECTION 2: (On-line Detection of Longitudinal Surtace Defects evn merrntmnennenne 17 7 Wedd, LTV Steal Company SECTION 3: (Offline Confirmation of Defect Origin... J.C. Felice, Inland Stool Company: LK. Rapp, Tha Timken CompanySS Lee Oo ee € EU Ease STANDARD DEFECT NAME: Burnt Steel COMMONLY MISTAKEN FOR: Tearing, Heat Checking DEFINITION AND DESCRIPTION: Burnt steel Is a severe defect which occurs when Intergranvisr oxidation weakens grain boundaries to the point where they can no longer support mechanically Induced rolling stresses. This condition may be caused by grain boundary melting, or extreme hot short- ness, and is uszly attributed to high heating tures. Hf not detected within the first few ‘rolling stands, burnt steel can deform further and appeer to be scabs in the finished product. DETECTION AND CONFIRMATION: Bumt stee! appears visually as a smeared condition of numerous interconnected tears. Micro examination wil usually show grain boundary ‘melting oF incipient melting denoted by the pres- ‘ence of triple points. (CAUSE AND CORRECTIVE ACTION: Burt steel is caused by overheating which results in intergranular oxidation and the diffusion of residual elements to grain boundaries. Extremely high temperatures and long hold timss at rong erperd: ture should be avoided. Because higher carbon contants require lower rolling temperatures, burnt steel is often observed on high carbon steels when furnace temperatures were not sutficiently lowered, METALLURGICAL COMMENTS: Burnt steel can appear on the surface similar to heat checking but ciflers in the mechanism. Both detects deal with fracture along grain boundaries, ‘but the cracks in heat checking Initiate below the surlace and propagate outward, Tearing is a less severe form of burnt steel charac- terized by discrete, Y-shaped slip batwson grains due to low yield siranath er hot shortness. Note that in common practice, this detect and heat checking are both referred io as bumt steel, regarc- less of the mechanism.CROSSROLL STANDARD DEFECT NAME: Crossroll OTHER NAME: Crossed DEFINITION AND DESCRIPTION: Crossrail Is comprised of two fongitudinal ridges, 180 degrees apart, caused by the rol being out of axial adjustment. DETECTION AND CONFIRMATION: ‘Crossroll appears, in the severe case, as shown below. His detected both visually andby using a wood block repiica of the surface (known as "blocking? Crossroll (CAUSE AND CORRECTIVE ACTION: ‘Axial misalignment of a roll sat forms the ridges known as crossrol, METALLURGICAL COMMENTS: ‘Severe crossroll can cause laps in the finished bar, rossroll is distinguishable from averfll because tt only has one ledge'en each side.NS RE ee Se ge Se S | HEAT CHECKING STANDARD DEFECT NAME: Heat Checking COMMONLY MISTAKEN FOR: Severe Tearing, Burnt Steel DEFINITION AND DESCRIPTION: Heat checking (s a defect consisting of multipia crevices and tears which are connected belaw the surface. ft can sppear ina finished bar as.a sorles of seams or ferrite fingers, but generally first occurs In tiie as cast condition. Heat checking Is attriscted to rapid heating which CAUSES CFACkS fo initiate within the material and propagate to the surtace. DETECTION AND CONFIRMATION: Heal checking appears visually as shown below in large billets where large temperature differences ‘can develop between the surface and center. Micro examination shows much the same intercon- ected appearance as visual. No melting is appay- ent but decarburizations usually present. Multiple ‘subsurface defecis may nol appear connected in the plane observed; however, they are usually con- ected to the suriace and to each other in another plane. (CAUSE AND CORRECTIVE ACTION: Heat checking cocurs because of the combination of three factors: thermal stresses, transformational on the graln boundaries. ‘The minimization of any of the three increases the alowable level of the other ‘two. ‘Aluminum killed steels generally contain aluminum and nitrogen to form aluminum nitrides as an embrittiing phase on the grain boundaries. Lowering aluminum and nitragen levels as much as Possible minimizes, but will not completely eliminate their occurrence. ‘Thermal stresses are reduced by lowering heating rales, ‘Transiormation stresses Increase when Ingots or blooms are reheated before they are coalad enough to be a single phase. Charging sieel “cold”, ie., ‘completely transformed to fentte, sharply reduces tha incidenoe of heat checking, METALLURGICAL COMMENTS: Heat checking differs from burnt steel in that burnt steel occurs by a hot s mechanism and the cracking propagates from the surface inward. ‘Note that in common practica, heat checking is gitan referred to as bumt steel, regardiass of the ‘mechanism, aSTANDARD DEFECT NAME: Laps ‘COMMONLY MISTAKEN FOR: Seams. DEFINITION AND DESCRIPTION: Laps are longitudinal crevices at least 50 de grees off radial, created by folding over, but nat welding, material during hot working. A jongitu- dina! discontinuity in the bar may exist prior to falding over but the detect generally Is devel- oped at the mill. DETECTION AND CONFIRMATION: Visual detection inclides magnaglo or table Insped- ‘ton of pickled, shot blasted or hot rolled surfaces. Laps exhibit ragged, longitudinal, and occasionally ‘curved appearance. When grinding out the defect, laps will“move" around the circumference with Increasing depth. Laps generally occur singly, ot as two laps 180 degrees apart, or asa double line of ‘adjacent laps. Micro examination will show the slanted nature of ‘defect, with generally more cecarturization on upper portion. Determination of depth, length, ori- ‘entation and shape gives the most precise indica. tion of lap arigin. it two laps are present 180 do- (res apart, the dapth to whicit they are folded over ‘can Indicate at what point in te rolling overt occurred Upset tests of lapped material causa a ragged longitudinal spit, Torsion tests can detect laps using a small number of eyeles, CAUSE AND CORRECTIVE ACTION: ‘Any abrupt longitudinal discontinuity can become a lap upon subsequent rolling. Overfll, scratches, ‘and conditioning gouges are typical sources which ‘should be eliminated, Nor-uniform spreading results in wrinkles or soufts that can become laps in subsequent rolling. Cor- rective action includes more unitarm heating, reduc- ing mhomboldity of incoming or in-mill product, selecting loss sevare roti pass sequences, or reducing inter-stand tension, METALLURGICAL COMMENTS: ‘Laps are not caused by the type of steel, but are generally 2 result of poor workmanship. Incoming billet section quality is an important factor in pro venting this defect.i » OVERFILL 7 STANDARD DEFECT NAME: Overfill i> OTHER NAMES: Fins, Off the Hole | > DEFINITION AND DESCRIPTION: (CAUSE AND CORRECTIVE ACTION: , Overtili is. @ protruston on ene or both sides ofa ——_Qvarfill s generally caused by the incoming size > bar caused by the section being too tange for being too large for the pass. This can be corected | the pass. if the cefect Is on one side only, it is _by opening the Immediate pass or reducing the ’ usually referred io as OFF THE HOLE, meni cross section of incoming material. ‘a guiding or other alignment, This > condition is usvstly detected on the mall. ‘METALLURGICAL COMMENTS: 2 DETECTION AND CONFIRMATION: ‘Qvertill, if not corracted at the source, frequently @ ‘Overil appears, inthe severe case, ag shown brash below. Itis detected both visually and by using a ‘Overflll can sometimes oocur on the front and back. > wood block replica of the surface (known as ‘ends of rofied bars because the biliet is not experi- “blocking"). ‘encing a steady roling state, The front end is. > to the pass whlle the back end does not ‘have sufficient tension due to a tack of traling ‘8 ae | ‘Mild overfill can form when the rolling temperature: D> End View fluctuates: too Severely. A particular pass is set up for Overitt Incoming stock of a specific size (which is a function , ‘of the temperature). Thus, it the tamparature differs ‘significant trom that anticipaied, the pass does not > {il properly and overfill can result. 3 s 7 9 2 A) 3 3 a > 7° ri 7 » 7” E=» ROLLED-IN SCALE STANDARD DEFECT NAME; Rolled-in Seale COMMONLY MISTAKEN FOR: Scabs OTHER NAMES: Fitted or Pilled Surface DETECTION AND DESCRIPTION: Rolied-in scale torms an irregular impression in the surtace of a bar and Is caused by Incom- plete descaling atter the nesting operation. The detect has significant width and appears irregu- Jar In shape and tecation. if rolled-in scale Is dis- Jodged from the suriace it can cause a pitted ‘Surface on hot-rolled bare. Often a bar will ‘exhibit bath conditions. DETECTION AND CONFIRMATION: ‘After detecting rotled-in sceta visually, rubbing with ‘an abrasive tool to romove urdiorm depth scale will ‘eveal the rough suriace undemeath. ‘Scale is brittl. tthe material is ductile, it may be a ‘Stab. Micro examination wil confirm rounded nature ‘ot impression. Scanning Elsciron Microscopy (SEM) and Energy Dispersive Spectrometry (EDS) ‘can be used to verity chemical composition of rolled-in material as scale. (CAUSE AND CORRECTIVE ACTION: ‘The occurrence of rolled scala is most dependent onthe adherence, not the amount, of primary scale Produced. Scale adherence is a function of sieat chemistry, fumace heating and prior ‘surface condition of incoming billets. Some ste! types descale adequately merely thraugh the rolling process, especially through the first breakdown passes, Others requir he assistance of an in-ine mechanical descaler of some sort to insure more efficient scale removal. Minimizing time at tempera- ture will usually reduce the overall amount of scale, but will not necessarily Impact the adherence of the scale produced. Modification can sometimes be ‘made to roll pass designs to promote mors com- plete scale breaking and removal, Slab or box passes are the best roughing passes for scale removal. METALLURGICAL COMMENTS: Rolled-in scale is. eooseiats penlant In high nickel ‘grades because the scale formed is very adherent. Rolledsin scale results in a wide, round-bottomed Irregularity as compared to the deep, sharp root radius found in pickling related corrosion pits.9 > 9 ? - ; 9 . 2 F 17. e te) STANDARD DEFECT NAME: Scabs COMMONLY MISTAKEN FOR: Slivers, Shearing, and Rolled in Scale DETECTION AND DESCRIPTION: Scabs are Irreguiarly shaped, flattened protru- slons caused by splash, bolling, or ather prob- Jems trom teaming, casting, or candftioning. ‘Seabs are always resent prior ta rolling. DETECTION AND CONFIRMATION: Scabs have scale and inegular surfaces beneath ‘them; they tend to be round or oval shaped and ‘concentrated to only certain blooms or billets. ‘Scabs are generally ductile when bent. lt material is bitte, it may bo rolled-in scale. CAUSE AND CORRECTIVE ACTION: Poorly allgned or poorly contralied teaming into ‘molds results in scabs on ingot, bloom, and billet surtaces. These should be removed by ettective ‘conditioning. ‘Scarfing remnants left on bilets can sometimes become scabs upon rolling. METALLURGICAL COMMENTS. ‘Scabs may also act as stress risers, causing the material undemeath them to crack.F SCRATCHES STANDARD DEFECT NAME: Scratches COMMONLY MISTAKEN FOR: Seams OTHER NAMES: Gouges, Scoring DEFINITION AND DESCRIPTION: Scratches are longitudinal, or near longitudinal, indentations caused by mechanical rubbing of the baron pratrusions as Ii !s processed. DETECTION AND CONFIRMATION: Scratches are detected visuatly or by using a wood. block replica of the surtace (‘blocking’). Thelr appearance can vary from small, sharp indentations to large gouges with panially projecting edges. Micro examination can distinguish a sermich from a seam, lap, or crack. The bottom ot a seraich willbe more rounded and contain loss scale. Upset or torsion tests willrarely cause a scratch to ‘open up. (CAUSE AND CORRECTIVE ACTION: ‘Mechanical parts and pickup on mill components contact the product as it progresses through the ‘ill, causing scratches. The shape of a scratch, and its position and orfentation on a bar can often lead to likely sources of the scratching. This can often be confirmed by observing sparks at points of ‘contact on the mill, METALLURGICAL COMMENTS: ‘Scratches are- more lkely to be found on softer ‘materials. The generally more rounded bottom, (larger-root radius) makes a scraich less detrimental ‘than an equally deep seam.wevvuvvuvewsev~ vy ee @ ee yg eee ee | ee STANDARD DEFECT NAME: Seams COMMONLY MISTAKEN FOR: Laps, Strain Cracks DEFINITION AND DESCRIPTION: ‘Seams are longitudinal crevices that are tight or ‘even closed at the surface, but are not welded Shut. They are close to radial In orientation and can originate in steaimaking, primary roiling, or on the ber or rod mill. DETECTION AND CONFIRMATION: Visual detection includes magnaglo or table inspec- ‘ton of pickled, shot-tlasted, or hot rolled surfaces. ‘Seams are generaly straight but vary in length, ‘When grincing to determine depth, a seam does not ‘change position arcund the circumference of the bar. Seams may also be detected on the mill by noting a darker line on the hot bar or by using a ‘wood block replica of the surface (known as “Dlocking’). Eddy current testing will ind seams that are present but not readily visibie in rod or wire Micro examination is the most precise method of ‘determining possibio seam origin based.on observa- tions of defect orisntation and the presence of scalo, subscele, or decarcurization In the vicinity of the defect. [Reier to Section 3 of this manual.] Upset tests will cause a longitudinal split gt a seam, CAUSE AND CORRECTIVE ACTION: ‘Seams present in the billet can be due to non ‘metalic inclusions, soabs, cracking, tears, subsur- face cracking or porosity. During strand casting, los nears a Oem rea eee Devas Oct: ‘aon mat, comer cracks, erteppod moe paw car, sovere stanistop cracks, or breakouts which Tosgal wihin te rad but lave a weakened surlace. Seam frequency varies, but when seams fre randordy ate itn acing, eBay they were presentin the incoming billets. Detects ‘not have bean fully removed or grinding Injury may have oocurred during conditioning. A alinite patter to the occurrence of seams Indicates they were mill-Induced. Millinduced ‘seams have been attributed to wrinkling associated with section geometry. METALLURGICAL COMMENTS: Seams are frequenily caused by initiation or propa~ cation of cracks which form when the material solidifies, undergoes phase transformations, or is hot worked. Seams are the most common of all bar detects and also among the toughest to provent due tothe multitude of possible onlgins. [Relerto Section 8 of this manual] thas been noted that shot-blasting can actually mask the prasence of seams If the ort size used promotes the closing of a seam by a peening - ism,Ge jaar Ed STANDARD DEFECT NAME: Shearing COMMONLY MISTAKEN FOR: Slivers, Scabs, Laps, Seams DEFINITION AND DESCRIPTION: Shearing occurs when a ongitudinal strip of base metal is torn off a bar during rolling. The strip is often reattached 23 rotiing continues, although not necessarily to the same bar. ‘Shearing can refer to either the discontinulty caused by detachment cr subsequent reattach ment. There are usually soveral occurrences Of ‘shearing with a single orisntation alang the bar. DETECTION AND CONFIRMATION: Shearing is normally detected visually and appears longer than scabs. Also, the surface below the defect is smoother and more uniform than found scabs. Micro examination can sometimes reveal an ‘overheated condition between grains. (CAUSE AND CORRECTIVE ACTION: Excessive rubbing of steel as it rolls through the mill ‘causes overheating, shearing material which is lator picked up from mill components on the same or another billet. Mill adjustments can reduce sources of frictional heating. Improved guiding, pass dasion and section contro! can reduce inckjents of shearing, METALLURGICAL COMMENTS: Intergranular precipitates or segregation might ‘weaken the surface, increasing the likeliness of shearing. “The rolledin “sheared matertal may have come from some source other than the base metal. W sheared material is not reattached, the gouge left in the surtace may form other defects upon further rolling,a STANDARD DEFECT NAME: Slivers COMMONLY MISTAKEN FOR: Shearing, Scabs OTHER NAME: Hair DEFINITION AND DESCRIPTION: ‘Slivers are elongated pleces of motal attached fo the base metal at one end only. They nor- mally have been hot worked into the surface and are common io jow strength grades which are easily tom, especlally grades with high ‘sulfur, lead of copper contents. DETECTION AND CONFIRMATION: ‘livers are gunsrally detected visually. Stivers can also be dstacted by running a paper towel along the ‘surface of finished product. Il the paper catches, sivers are present Micro examination will reveal whether anomalies such as oxide pockets, non-metallic inclusions, slag pits, etc. were present which caused the surlace to rupture. Straightening can expose a sliver to the surtace and make it more prominent. CAUSE AND CORRECTIVE ACTION: Silvers often originate trom short, rolled out point elects or defects which were net removed during conditioning. Fins or deep ridges from bloom or billat conditioning can also cause slivers and should be avoided. Any deep conditioning required should be featherad gradually. ‘Severe mechanical gouges on tha mill can become ‘slivers upon further rolling, ‘Slivers seemto be more common on mills with ‘higher roling speeds. Stowing the mill operation slightly may help reduce sliver frequancy. (METALLURGICAL COMMENTS: free material processing, mil setups, chemis- ‘oF healing practices can sometimes provide pastor hero Orca ere or heat to heat variation in sliver indicates the sivers probably dd nol orpinste hie nil i\ a STANDARD DEFECT NAME: Strain Cracks OTHER NAMES: Psnel Cracks, Mid-Face Longitudinal Cracks DEFINION AND DESCRIPTION: Strain cracks are defined es near longitudinal ‘open crevices less than 20 ciegrees off radial. They are crested when concentrated residual tions, exceed the jocal yieid strength of the ‘material at the temperature cf crack formation. DETECTION AND CONFIRMATION: ‘Strain cracks are usually detected visually. When hot and/or covered with scale, strain cracks are difficultto see. They generally open up as they Sool, Cracks can be short or long, and depth is nat dependent on length. Micro examination reveais that strain cracks are often intergranular and can originate in a surlace depression. CAUSE AND CORRECTIVE ACTION: Excessive cooling rates combined with crack sensi- tive charmistries often result in sirain cracks. These sensitive steel types can be slow cooled through transformation temperatures to minitrize cracking. METALLURGICAL COMMENTS: ‘Strain cracks are most commonin as-cast struc- tures and generally worsen when straight chromium or manganese additions are made to medium or high carbon steels, When the steel surface is depressed in the as-cast concition, this incicates that ductila necking of the Solidified shell may have occurred at a high tem- perature, The term strain cracks has been artitrarly defined ‘based on industrial usage. it does not necessily imply anything spacitic about the metallurgical nature of the crack formation,C22 Ss 2 SS ee Suse eS STANDARD DEFECT NAME: Stress Cracks OTHER NAMES: Transverse Cracks, Cross Cracks DEFINITION AND DESCRIPTION: ‘Stress cracks are defined as transverse or noar transverse open crevices created when concen- trated residual stresses exceed the lacal yield ‘strength of the material at the temperature of crack formation. These stresses can be me- any point in the manufacture of steel. DETECTION AND CONFIRMATION: Stress cracks are often found visuelly at locations which experience bending or straightening, gener- ally when inspecting 2 conditioned surtacs. Micro examination can be useful in determining ‘crack origin by noting crack orientation, intengranu- lar nature and presence of scale or sub-scale. A longitudinal rather than a transverse crass section ‘through the defect is generally more informative. Microstructural characteristics can indicate the history of heating and cooling experienced by the localized area of the crack. CAUSE AND CORRECTIVE ACTION: Excessive straightening loads can exceed the local yield strength of the material, causing stress cracks. Machina loads can be adjusted, or i these are already minimized, bars can be tempered or stress ‘telfeved belore straightening. ‘Cooling too quickly can also induce stress cracks. Gritical cooling rates are highly dependent on staot chemistry. Steel types known to be crack sensitive ccan be slaw cooled through the transtormation tem- poratures to minimize the problem. METALLURGICAL COMMENTS: ‘The presence of martensite on tha surface Indicates ‘tha material was cooled too rapidly in a localized Bia mean nS NEAT whee ond ‘Strass cracks may not be found by Inspection systems designed to detect longitudinally oriented detects. ‘Stress cracks are more likely to be found in medium ‘and hightcarbon steels with straight chromium or manganese additions. ‘The term stress cracks is arbitrally defined based ‘on industrial usage. it does not necessarily imply ating sian re pact rranarcioal nate ofSTANDARD DEFECT NAME: Tears COMMONLY MISTAKEN FOR: Seams, OTHER NAME: Hot Short, Burnt Steel DEFINITION AND DESCRIPTION: Tears are discrete chevran-shaped breaks ‘pointing up or down the length of the praduct. They are caused by exceeding the material yleld strength in isolated ereas due toa hot short condition, cold camers, ar mechanical stress Ing. If further rolled, oars may become elon- gated and resemble seams but often retain the paint at the end of the deiect. DETECTION AND CONFIRMATION: ‘Tears are most often detected visually and are identified by their smooth “Y"-shaped appearance. Micro examination can accurately determing depth of tears, but this is not often necessary. CAUSE AND CORRECTIVE ACTION: High residual element levels (@.9. Cu, Sn, S)and Jong times allowed for diffusion often results in tears, Minimizing both residual levels and time-at rolling temperature help correct the problem, METALLURGICAL COMMENTS: forming low melting temperature phasos which cause hot shortness, or a lack of cohesiveness between grains, ‘Tears are commonto low yield sirength steels ara generally found In larger sizes since highly wrought structures are stranger dua to a smaller grain-size. Inits more severe torm, the discrete nature of tears progresses to an almost continuous array ol Inter- ‘connected tears which is commonly referred to as ‘burt steel.wvweoewe wy , ” € a a SECTION 2 ON-LINE DETECTION OF LONGITUDINAL SURFACE DEFECTS T. W. Judd, LTV Steel Company A. Incentives for On-Line Inspection ioe ae sai eis WA br be have through online inspection of 1. Oning inspection can provide process centoieizgrostc Iomation i reduce scrap and lo conserve manpower and energy. 2. Onrina inepaction is the anly practical ‘means to provide ful-length inspection ot Product which is coiled. 3. In some instances, on-line inspection can sliminaie the need for a separate off-line inspection. 8B. On-Line Inspection Technology Of the available nondestructive testing methods, the eddy current method Is most advantageous for on- ling Inspection in that he methad is non-contact, ‘can be applied to product traveling at thousands of feat por minute, is readily automated and is capable of reliable operation in mill environments. An eddy current testis defined as one In which the test article is subjected to an atemaiing electromagnetic field, and which depends for test results upon variations in the induced circulating currents, commanly called eddy currents. When testing non ‘magnetic materials, the test depends entirely upon ‘eddy current effects. When tasting magnetic ‘materials, both eddy current and magnetic effects ‘are encountered and itis dificult to enilrely sepa- rate the two. However, in the casa of ferromagnetic materials above the Curie temperature (~ 1450 degrees F), magnetic effects disappear. Thus, at least in theory, hot bars can be inspectec'as readily, oF more readily, Jhan cold bars. In commercial on-ine eddy current test systems such as those mada by Foerster, HBS and Mag- netic Analysis, the eddy currents ara induced in tha te OF atica GesGy ivicn tote, windings and two differentially connected secondary receiving) windings (Figure 1). AC. Source eS,‘alr-flow duplex tubeThe primary windings are fed from a source of alterating current, Usually in'the frequency range of 10-400 KHZ. The two secondary windings are physically displaced so that thay sense slightly different portions of the bar and compare the ‘material at these locations with each other. The difference voltage from the secondary windings is ‘ampified and fered to yield information about the electrical properties of the bar. The electrical Properties of the bar are influenced by the presence ‘of flaws (the desired signal) and aiso by curtace scale and variations in composition, dlametor, temperature, etc. (nolsa’). The ferential (com- parative) secondary coil arrangement provides cancellation of long time-consiant variations such as changos in temperature, dimensions, etc. thus Pamnitting a satistactory signal-to-noise ratio to be achieved. The differential arrangement can also cancel signals caused by certain types of flaws. ‘This situation willbe discussed in more detail ater. For good sensitivity, the coil windings must be quite lose to tha product (typically < 0.1 in.). For inspec- tion of hot-rolled products at roling temperatures this situation posas difficult coll assembly design problems, |.e., protection must be provided against Conducted and radiated heat, scale on the product, ‘and hooked or upset ends. The coll assembly must be cooled. This is usually done with water. All electrical connections must be encapsulated ‘agalnst condensation and water leaks. Often alr is ‘employed to clear scale fromthe .D. of the coil, Figure 2 shows a typical water-cooled, eddy-current cencircing test coif assembly Including funnel guides to center the bar within the assembly and to protect the coil from physical damage. The coil and guides Must be changad whenever a signiticant change in bar diameter occurs. Coil assemblies are designed to permit rapid size change-over. ‘4 common problem in on-iine bar inspection Is dealing with the data which, because of very high line speeds, can be generated at very high rates. All of today's commorcial test systems permit Intertace with @ computer for data processing and management. The computer programs used are ‘Specitic to a given vendor but, in general, analyze ‘signal amplitude, signal density (number of signals per unit of bar longin), periodic signals, and also provide statistical evaluation of test results. and ‘memory for future recall of test data. Prinl-outs showing defect signal amplitude, distibution, etc. ‘are normally provided. Automatic marking systems for marking defective areas are common options, Commercial Systems for On-Line Fapscion creat ‘Systems for on-iing inspection of bars are available from several suppllers: Institute Dr. Foerster, HES, ND Technology, Magnaflux, Magnetic Analysis Corporation and Eddio (Japan). These systems are very similarin design and operation; the major cifferences are found in the eapabilties of the asso- ciated computers. Thus, choice of a specific system may be highly dependent on the neads of a given application and factors such as cost and the availa- bility of support services. ‘The strength of these systems is their ability to provide real-time quality contro! information. Under optimum conditions longitudinal flaws a fraction of an inch in length and afew mils in Gepth can be detacted and 100% inspaction can ba achiaved at line spaeds of thousands of feet per minute. Most transverse flaws are reacily detected. (On the other hand, all currently available commercial systems share several operational constraints: 1) Product must be above the Curie temperature at the Inspection site. Normally this Is not a problem In on-ine testing but care must be taken to avoid, {for example, splashing water on the surface of the bar which can induce localized cooling. 2) The test systems do not provide quantitative Taoutts, The amplitude of flaw signals is not nec- essary a good indication ol the severity of tho flaw, 8) Because the systems usually employ differential ‘wet colls, ong longitudinal flaws of constant i- mensions will not be detected - although a signal may ba obtained trom the leading and traling fends of the flaw ifthe transition between the Uunflawed area and the flaw is abrupt. This may or may nol be a problem because flaws of constant dimensions are relatively rare. In some cases the dala ‘computer can infer long flaws by searching for a succession ol small signals which characterizes the variations In ae ‘and/or width along the length of such 4) Proper guidanca and transport of the bar through the test coll assembly Is critical. If the bars off- center in the coil, test sensitivity will not be uniform around the circumlerence of the bar. Vibration of the bar can degrade signal-to-noise rato and imit useful sensitivity of the test,oR D. Other On-Line Inspection Technology NOT researchers are working on on-line bar inspee- tion systems which wall not sutler the shortcomings listed as #2 and #3 above. These inspection sys- ‘tems utilize the eddy current method but employ ‘small probe coils which orbit about the bar instead of an encircling coll assembly. This assembly permits.a more quantitalive test and good detertion Of long flaws even if their dimensions are constant. A potential disadvantage of the arrangament is, ‘ailure to detect vary short flaws in that such flaws could pass between scan paths at high line speeds. Tne ideal inspection situation would be a combina- tion of a differential encircling coll test and an ‘orbiting probe test. A typical system of this type is shown in Figure 3. This sysiemis being developed by Sumitomo in Japan. A sinslar system is being developed by Bergstrand in Sweden, At the time of this walling, neither system is considered a commear- clal product but that situation could change in the naar future, Limited work has been done jo apply a non-contact: ing ulirasonic inspection method (éloctromagnatic acoustic transducar technology of laser induced ultrasonics) to on-ne inspection of bars but as yet many problems remain unresolved. These meth- ‘ods, however, also offer potential tor improved on- fine bar inspection systems in the future.OFF-LINE CONFIRMATION OF DEFECT ORIGIN J.C. Felice, inland Steel Company LK. Repp, The Timken Company wewwesevrrewv eee ew wee w eee eee eee ew The origin of tongitudinal bar defects is not always evident irom visual examination alone, since defects from different sources can appear essen- tially dentical on the surface. Techniques have been established to aid! in determining the point in the steel procassing sequanca where a defect ‘occurred. The following observations are presented In an attempt to document some of these tach- niques and provide some guidelines for their use. All are based on metallographic examination of a ‘transverse section of a longitudinal detect. Tha most important distinction to be made is the difference between a defect formed during the tolling process itsall, ang that which remains as @ remnant of a detect that was present in the steel ‘before the most recent reheat. The presence of ‘subscale in the base material adjacent to the detect is currently the most reliable method of making this ‘determination, ‘Scale is formed by the oxidation of metal at the surface by exposure to an oxidizing atmosphere at an elevated temperature. With Increased contact {ime at temperature, oxygan cftluses inward forming Particles of subscale which are actually oxides of various alloying elements. Distribution and composi- fion of subscale particles is highly dependent on steel type and time/temperature parameters. These variations, however, are in this case fess Important than the evidence of penetration or lack of it. In order for subscale to ba present, time al tempera- ture must be Jong enough for the oxygen diffusion to ‘Scour. Ithas been estimated that at least fitisen minutes at 2250 degreus F would be necessary for subscale to develop. Lower temperatures would require correspondingly longer times. Tho typical roling mill reheat cycle generally provides more than enough time at elevaiad temperature tor ‘subscale to form along any defects present. On the other hand, dafacts procuced during rolling are pen to the surface only curing the roling and subsequent caoling of the steel. The continuously -dectaasing temperature turther decreases the likelihood af any measurable subscale formation. Figure 1 Illustrates a seam originating froma pre- existing bloom defect, with subscale penetration ‘evident. Figure 2s an example of a seam formed ‘9n the rolling mill, as characterized by the lack ot any subscala formation. ‘The presence of subscale, therefore, Indicates that the detect had been open to the atmosphere during a reheat operation. Whan more than one reheat and conversion takes place, itis usually not possible to dotermine which reheat was the first one resulting in subscale formation, of exacily when in the process- Ing the defect actually occurred. in the most severe ‘cases, excessive scaling, lange pariicia sizes and opth of penetration suggest very early subscale formation with subsequent long or repeated heating times. Knowledge of the path of the ‘material can then be used to develop hypathases of Gefect origin. Quantitative methods for determining Incremental affects trom individual heating cycles: are theoretically possible. However, these quickly become impractical to apply because of wide variations between steel fypes and fumace condi- tions, some of which are unknown. ‘Decarburization has also been used as an indicator bar defect origin. In an etched sample, decarburl- zation surrounding a defect is identified as a layer of {ferrite with very litle oF none of the pearic struc- ture found In the balance of the base material. This is llustrated in Figure 3. Because of carbon diftu- ‘sion outward, decarburization Is timeftemperature dependent much like subscale formation. lis pres- ‘ence and degree are therefore an indication of ‘exposure to the atmosphere at elevated tempera- ‘tures, However, decarourization is less conclusive than subscale for defect origin determinations. Ap- pearance and interpretation can vary considerably based on the original carbon content of the steal, —Figure 1 ‘Seam trom pre-sxisting bloom dalect, showing attendant subscale, 4.75" diametar bar, AISI 8719 stes!, 100%. eee Detect formed on rolling mill, as evidenced by lack of subscale. 8.75" diameter ber, AISI 8719 steel, 100X.oy ee ce eee oe Figure 3 Defect iilustrating decarburization relative to surtace of the bar. 9.25" diameter bar, AISI 5180 steel, 50X. Decarburtzaton in the vicinity of a defect is usually evaluated interns of Its extant and depih relative to decarburization occurring at the surfaca ct the bar. The symmatry of the decarburzation pattem can also be a clue to defect origin. ‘Symmetrical decerburization indicates that the defect is present in bills form prior to reheating and rolling. Oxygen in the fumaoe atmosphere deplates the carbon equaly cn both sides ofthe pre-xising fect. Decarburization thet ia obviously asymmetrical \ndicates that the catect is mechanical in nature and was induced some time during hot roling. For ‘example, poor bifet conditioning practice may leave sharp edges or burss causing non-uniform steel deformation despite an otherwise satistactory mill setup. As the overiled section gets pressed back into place during subsequent stands, one side of the defect will exhibit extra decarburization, Fenile fingers are 2 surtace quality problen associated with longitudinal bar defects. They gen- ‘erally occur in the follewing manner: A defect In a [bloom or ingot is excosed to the atmosphere during ‘@ reheat and the expacted subscale and decarburl- zation form surrounding the entire defect. During rolling, the crack is parially closed. What was initially the base of the crack appears to be welded shut; however, a tall of subscale remains in a chain of fertite which has baen depleted of carbon and alloy. This is illustrated in Figure 4, Any trapped scale becomes an oxygen source, allowing the Internal oxidation and dacarburization procasses to continue as long as limes and tem- peratures are adequate. Even if the portion of the ‘rack naw visibly opan is removed, this Torito finger’ remains asa weakness in the material and vill probably reopen during some turther precess- ing. Because there is currently no non-destructive \way to detect ferrite fingers on a production basis, ‘they often will not be recognized as a problem until ‘the final product is in a customer's plant. Theretore, the prevention of surtace defects at all stages ol is important, even with intermediate con- diticning practicas in piace. Detects existing in blooms can sometimes propa- gate from the epplcation of thermal or mechanical ‘stresses, either during rolling or subsequent proc- ‘essing of the hot rolled bar. The original portion ofOxido trall Jeading trom ase da seam, fring 8.188" diameter bar, AISI 4820 steel, 1 (top) unetched the defect would exhibit scale, subscale, and decarburization as described above. in addition, a ‘second stage crack would extend into-the steel, with ‘no subscale and litie any cecarburization present, Inclusions of melt and casting origin can be @ souree of surlace delects by acling as crack ina fion sites whan forming stresses are applied. ‘Cracks wider at the base than at the surface or the prasence of large subsurface inclusions in the ‘general area of the crack are first indications 10 ‘consider this possibilty, Inclusions of this type generally glow under polarized light and may appear to be highily angular, with many sharp comers. Angularity is indicative of inclusion com- positions which have very high melting points, They tend not to deform with the rest of the steel and ‘cantribute to localized non-uniform filling out of the pase. Ofien, in observing a micro, the actual particle ‘hat originally caused the problem is either gone or does not Intersect the observed plane of polish. However, remnants of the foreign material may exist on the crack edges and can be detected at vvery high magnification, as with a scanning electron (Bottom) etched in nitat microscope (SEM), Chemical analysis of any extraneous material (by energy dispersive x-ray spectrometry, for example), fs usually necessary to determine pasticle identity and probable source. Aeterences 1. C. L. Meyetie and V. E. Elliot, “A Method for Determining he Cxig of Surtace Detect in ‘Transactions of the Products,” IE voume 170, 1948, pp.201-218, Richart 1 Van Vick, ane @. Wel, “Gubscalé Inclusions in iron Alloys,” Metals Engineering Quarterly, May 1973, pp50-54, 3. BA, Bucian, “The Quiesionable Seam orite Fingers, Mechanical Working and Stoo! Brocassing Ganterence, AIME, 1872, pp.406- 4 Econ H. Beck, and W. Brand, “De- ‘carburization and Scale Formation,” Wire Jour ‘fal, September 1974, pp.155-164, ‘5. Internal publications of Armco Inc., Inland Steet Company, and The Timken Company.