Original Research

published: 07 March 2016

doi: 10.3389/fbuil.2016.00003

The effect of Passive Design

strategies on Thermal Performance
of Female secondary school
Buildings during Warm season in a
hot and Dry climate
Sahar Zahiri1* and Hasim Altan2,3
1
 School of Architecture, The University of Sheffield, Sheffield, UK, 2 Sustainable Design of the Built Environment (SDBE),
Faculty of Engineering and IT, The British University in Dubai, Dubai, UAE, 3 Welsh School of Architecture, Cardiff University,
Cardiff, UK

This paper describes a series of field studies and simulation analysis to improve the
thermal performance of school buildings in the city of Tehran in Iran during warm season.
Edited by:
Yaolin Lin,
The field studies used on-site measurement and questionnaire-based survey in the warm
Wuhan University of Technology, spring season in a typical female secondary school building. The on-site monitoring
China
assessed the indoor air temperatures and relative humidity levels of six classrooms, while
Reviewed by:
the occupants completed questionnaires covering their thermal sensations and thermal
Zhenjun Ma,
University of Wollongong, Australia preferences. Moreover, thermal simulation analysis was also carried out to evaluate and
Rongxin Yin, improve the thermal performance of the classrooms based on the students’ thermal
Lawrence Berkeley National
Laboratory, USA
requirements and passive design strategies. In this study, the environmental design
*Correspondence:
guidelines for female secondary school buildings were introduced for the hot and dry
Sahar Zahiri climate of Tehran, using passive design strategies. The study shows that the application
[email protected]
of passive design strategies, including south and south-east orientation, 10 cm thermal
insulation in wall and 5  cm in the roof, and the combination of 30  cm side fins and
Specialty section:
This article was submitted to Heating, overhangs as solar shading devices, as well as all-day ventilation strategy and the use
Ventilation, and Air Conditioning, of thermal mass materials with 25–30 cm thickness, has considerable impact on indoor
a section of the journal
Frontiers in Built Environment air temperatures in warm season in Tehran and keeps the indoor environment in an
Received: 19 November 2015 acceptable thermal condition. The results of the field studies also indicated that most of
Accepted: 12 February 2016 the occupants found their thermal environment not to be comfortable and the simulation
Published: 07 March 2016
results showed that passive design techniques have a significant influence on the indoor
Citation:
air temperature and can keep it in an acceptable range based on the female students’
Zahiri S and Altan H (2016) The Effect
of Passive Design Strategies on thermal requirement. Therefore, in order to enhance the indoor environment and to
Thermal Performance of Female increase the learning performance of the students, it is necessary to use the appropriate
Secondary School Buildings during
Warm Season in a Hot and passive design strategies, which also reduce the need for mechanical systems and,
Dry Climate. therefore, reduce the energy loads of the building.
Front. Built Environ. 2:3.
doi: 10.3389/fbuil.2016.00003 Keywords: thermal performance, field measurements, passive design, thermal simulation, school buildings

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Zahiri and Altan Thermal Performance Using Passive Design

INTRODUCTION many studies have been conducted in different countries both

for mechanical and natural ventilation buildings. Heidari (2010)
Passive design in buildings uses building architecture to minimize conducted an extensive thermal comfort study in Iran for more
the energy consumption of the building and improves the thermal than 15 years. Around 5000 sets of data were gathered during the
comfort of the occupants. According to Mikler et al. (2009), the 10 years of study in various climatic region of Iran for residential
correlation of the local climate with the shape and the thermal and office buildings. The same study confirms that the adaptive
performance of the building is one of the main considerations action in indoor environments depends on the outdoor tempera-
of the passive design approaches to reduce the energy use of the ture and causes various neutral temperatures in different seasons.
building and to increase the thermal comfort of the occupants. According to this study, the indoor neutral temperature depends
In general, the foundation of passive design depends on natural on outdoor temperatures. Heidari (2010) stated that Iranian peo-
sources of energy and reduces the need for mechanical systems ple can achieve comfort at more than 30°C in the hot period and
for cooling, heating, and lighting in the building (LHSBC and less than 20°C in the cool season. Moreover, it has been stated that,
Guido Wimmers, 2009). To put the passive design strategies in the hot and dry climate of Iran, people can make themselves
into effect, the criteria of the thermal comfort, the local climate comfortable if they maintain indoor temperatures between 16.5
data, and the building’s thermal performance target should be and 22°C in the cold season and between 28 and 34°C in the hot
examined first (Mikler et al., 2009). season by adjusting their clothes, activity levels, and air velocity.
In recent years, the quality of construction and school design Many research studies were also conducted to provide high
in Iran has been improved significantly. However, most of the performance school buildings around the world. Many programs
existing schools have been constructed without any concern for also attempted to construct and refurbish the school buildings
the comfort of the occupants and the adaptation of the buildings based on sustainable and passive design such as Building School for
to the local climate (Ghaffari, 1998; Iravani, 2010). Based on the Future in the UK. Building Schools for the Future (BSF) was a
CABE (2010), the quality of indoor environment has a great influ- program to rebuild or refurbish all secondary schools in England
ence on the students’ learning performance and ability to learn in by 2020. It aimed at providing twenty-first-century facilities for all
indoor spaces. In order to develop environmental school design students in secondary schools and helping to study in more healthy
guidelines using passive design strategies and to improve the and comfortable environments (PricewaterhouseCoopers and
building’s thermal performance and the students’ indoor comfort DCSF, 2007). However, this scheme was scrapped (Richardson,
in Iranian school buildings, it is necessary to assess the current 2010) and many projects were stopped. One of the main reasons
design methods used by the educational authorities in Iran and was to get the best value for money (DFE, 2010). Nevertheless,
to examine the performance of existing schools. There are many there were many useful guidelines and standards on a school
school buildings in Iran with a large number of students (Nosazi building design in this program that are extensive and can be
Madares, 2013). According to the annual report of Central Bank changed to meet individual requirements for a particular design,
of Iran (CBI, 2011), there are more than 112,500 schools in Iran, and can offer good lessons for this research and the future designs
including around 545,000 classrooms in 2011–2012 and the of school buildings. There are also some guidelines for climatic
total number of students aged 6–18 were 13,234 thousand in school design in Iran but these guidelines need to be modified
2011–2012. It is necessary to improve the quality of these schools and updated, as they are general, and the students’ thermal
to provide healthy and comfortable study spaces for the students satisfaction from the indoor environment is not considered
with the use of passive design strategies to minimize the energy in the previous guidelines. The State Organisation of School
loads of the buildings as the school buildings in Iran are one of Renovation, Development and Mobilization in Iran has proposed
the major energy consumers (Gorji-Mahlabani, 2002; CBI, 2011). a climatic zoning for educational buildings and provided climatic
Although limited studies have been undertaken for school design design guidelines in various climatic zones in Iran (Ghaffari,
in Iran and some guidelines are suggested, there are still lack of 1998). Kasmai (1994) also conducted a series of research studies
practical resources for the environmental and sustainable design in school buildings in different regions of Iran on the impact
of buildings that are appropriate for Iranian schools with concern of different climatic conditions on Iranian school designs. He
to thermal comfort (Ghazizadeh, 1993 and Iravani, 2010). In reviewed available documents on the thermal performance of
order to create comfortable and healthy learning environments school buildings, as well as climatic features, such as temperature
for students, one of the main subjects that needs to be considered and humidity, in order to divide educational buildings into
during the design process is thermal comfort. Based on Nicol different types in different regions presented a climatic zoning
and Humphrey (2001), thermal comfort studies can help to map for school buildings. However, there are lack of passive and
frame sustainable design standards for buildings. Sustainable sustainable design guidelines for energy efficient school buildings
school buildings not only reduce the energy consumption and in these studies based on the students’ thermal comfort.
the buildings’ running costs, but also increase thermal comfort of This research studies a female secondary school building in
the occupants and help preserve non-renewable energy recourses the city of Tehran, which is located in the hot and dry climatic
(Nasrollahi, 2009). Investigating the environmental comfort in region of Iran. Because of the lack of climatic design guidelines
schools is very important because children are very sensitive to in Iran for female school buildings, this study aims to provide
temperature variations, and considering their physical comfort, environmental design guidelines for female secondary school
which is again a critical issue (CABE, 2008). In order to enhance buildings in a hot and dry climate of Tehran in the warm season
the thermal comfort and to predict the comfort boundaries, with regard to passive design strategies and the students’ thermal

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Zahiri and Altan Thermal Performance Using Passive Design

comfort. In this study, a series of field studies were conducted, of Education of Iran (2014), just over 1.8 million students are
including thermal comfort surveys and field measurements, studying in around 5000 schools in Tehran. The result of this
to assess the indoor thermal performance and to predict the study is later can be applied to the other regions with the similar
students’ thermal satisfactions. As the study involved human climate. The school building is a four-storey building, including
subjects in the field studies during the survey, an approval was a basement and a ground floor, with a masonry structure. Based
obtained from the University of Sheffield’s ethics committee, on Mahdizadeh (2011), 90% of the school buildings in Iran have
which provided confirmation that all studies conform to the a masonry structure. Moreover, the construction materials and
relevant regulatory standards. Moreover, thermal simulation thermal properties of the secondary school building are the
analysis was performed to evaluate and improve the thermal typical building materials used for masonry buildings in Tehran,
performance of the secondary school buildings, and to define such as brick as the thermal mass material and glass wool as the
environmental design guidelines using passive design strategies thermal insulation material (see Table 1).
with respect to the students’ thermal comfort, which would result The classrooms were located on the first and second floors,
in reducing the energy consumption of the buildings. and the main building facades were facing the south and north
Generally, Tehran has warm and dry summers and cold orientation. In this study, six classrooms were selected for field
winters (Kasmai, 2008). The annual precipitation is low and the study experiments and two classrooms were chosen for simula-
average rainfall on the plain is about 218 mm and the maximum tion analysis that represented all classrooms facing south (S) and
rainfall is about 50 mm in November (Kasmai, 2008). The average all classrooms facing north (N), which are located on the first
outdoor air temperature during the hottest period is 29.6°C in and second floors, respectively. In addition, both the indoor air
July and 21.6°C in May (warmest period in the academic year) temperatures and relative humidity levels were measured in all
and during the coldest period, it is 3.1°C in January. In general, classrooms and all the students filled out a questionnaire-based
the coldest period is from December to February and the hot and survey relating to their indoor thermal satisfaction in order to
warm period is from May to September. identify if the classrooms are thermally comfortable during the
lesson hours in a critical warm season.
METHODOLOGY
Field Measurements
In this paper, a series of field studies were conducted using a In this study, the indoor air temperatures and relative humidity
questionnaire-based survey and field measurements for 1 week levels were measured with HOBO data loggers in the warm spring
in May, which represents the warmest period during the school period of May 2010 for 1 week, which included a survey day. The
calender year and before the final exams and summer vaca- measurements assessed thermal conditions of six classrooms in
tion. Indoor air temperature and relative humidity levels of the warm spring season before the final exams and school closure
six classrooms were measured with HOBO data loggers while for summer holiday. The classrooms were located on the first and
the students completed questionnaires covering their thermal second floors of the school building, facing north (N) and south
sensations and thermal preferences in the classrooms facing (S) (see Figure 1).
north (N) and south (S), and located on the first and second
floors. The study also evaluated the thermal performance of the
TABLE 1 | Materials, thickness, and U-value of building components
classrooms using an environmental analysis software package,
in the case study school building.
DesignBuilder (2013). The thermal simulation analysis was car-
ried out by inputting actual data gathered from the field studies Components Materials Thickness U-value
in order to assess the indoor thermal condition in the typical (cm) (W/m2K)
school building. Later, various passive design strategies were Internal walls Gypsum plastering 2.5 1.831
applied to the simulation software, such as orientation, shading Brick block 10
devices, thermal mass, insulation, and natural ventilation. This Gypsum plastering 2.5
starts from the basic school model, investigating various strate- External walls Cement and render 3 1.582
gies to predict the optimum conditions for the school building Brick block 30
Gypsum plastering 2.52
based on the students’ thermal requirements. The simulation
results determined how to improve the thermal performance Internal floors Slate tiles 2 1.342
Mortar 2.5
of the building and how to provide classrooms that are more Light weight cast concrete 5
comfortable for the students by using passive design strategies, Gypsum plastering 1
and as a result aimed to reduce the energy consumption of the Roof Asphalt 3 0.575
school building in Tehran. Mortar 2
Felt/bitumen layers 5
The Case Study Building Screed 10
Thermal insulation(glass wool) 5
The original school building is a female secondary school
Cast concrete 5
building in the city of Tehran. The case study school building Clay tile 25
was chosen to be in Tehran as it is the capital of Iran and has Gypsum plastering and render 1
the largest number of students and school buildings when com- External Clear single glaze 0.6 5.778
pared to the other cities in Iran (CBI, 2011). Based on Ministry windows

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Zahiri and Altan Thermal Performance Using Passive Design

adaptive field basis alternative for naturally ventilated buildings,

proposals have been suggested by ASHRAE funded research and
a series of research studies. The results indicated that occupants of
naturally ventilated buildings prefer a wider range of temperature
compared to the occupants of centrally controlled HVAC build-
ings and become more finely adapted to the narrow, constant
conditions provided by mechanical ventilation systems. In a
controlled HVAC building, the Tc is between 22 and 24°C (Brager
and de Dear, 2000). However, the proposed adaptive comfort
standard for ASHRAE Standard 55, for a naturally ventilated
building, shows that the operative temperature is more than 18°C
and less than 24°C with 90% acceptability (ASHRAE, 2004).
In this study, relative humidity levels were also measured with
HOBO data loggers during the field study experiment. Based on
FIGURE 1 | Measured classrooms, S and N, on the first and second the measurement results, the humidity levels was between 15 and
floors. 38% in all measured classrooms and the average levels were less
than 29% during the teaching hours, which is low for school build-
ings. Generally, defining indoor relative humidity levels is more
The main aim of the field measurements was to establish a
complicated than defining indoor air temperatures, as relative
database in order to be able to predict the comfort temperature
humidity can easily be affected by the outdoor weather conditions
levels of the students and their thermal satisfaction while staying
especially if the buildings have poor constructions. The number
in the classrooms during the survey day in spring. The results
of the occupants and the airflow rate can also increase or decrease
were used to evaluate and improve the building’s thermal per-
the humidity levels inside a classroom (Kasmai, 2008). Moreover,
formance with the use of thermal simulation software. Based on
the mean radiant temperature was assumed to be equal to the
the field measurement results, the mean indoor air temperature
indoor air temperature in the measured classrooms. According to
in all classrooms was around 24°C during the teaching hours
Fanger (1973) and Santamouris (2008), when the occupants have
in May field study experiment that fell within Heidari’s (2010)
sedentary activity less than 1.5 met and the air velocity is below
defined comfort zone (see Eq. 1). To identify the indoor comfort
0.1 m/s, or the air is still in the indoor environment, the mean
temperature (Tc) in the case study school building and to predict
radiant temperature can be assumed to be equal to the indoor air
the initial comfort temperature ranges in the secondary school
temperature (Fanger, 1973; Santamouris, 2008), which was the
building in Tehran, the following equation was used, which is
condition in this study. In addition, in this study, the indoor envi-
based on Heidari’s (2010) predictions with regard to the residen-
ronments were not exposed to direct sunlight, and the layout in
tial and office buildings in Iran with varied heating and cooling
the classroom was constant in terms of the environment around
systems, and with respect to the religion and culture. Tmo is the
each seating area to any other point in the room, which caused
monthly mean outdoor temperature.
the mean radiant temperature measures to be similar to the
T c = 17.80 + 0.30T mo ( Heidari, 2010 ) (1) indoor air temperature (Limbachiya et al., 2012). Furthermore,
air velocity was considered as a fixed parameter, at about 0.1 m/s,
Tmo is the monthly mean outdoor temperature. as the outdoor air velocity was quite low and the air was still in the
Tc is the indoor comfort temperature. classrooms during the field study experiment in spring season.
Equation  1 was based on a decade of thermal comfort field
studies on Iranian people in 15 cities and in four various climatic Questionnaire Survey
regions of Iran (Heidari, 2010), which showed that the occupants The field survey was conducted in classrooms S and N, while the
were able to tolerate a wide range of temperatures, covering more indoor air temperatures were measured with HOBO data loggers.
than 14K in the hot season and 7K in the cool season. In addi- A questionnaire-based survey was carried out on the 4th May
tion, Iranian people can achieve comfort at more than 30°C in 2010. Around 126 questionnaires were distributed to the students
the hot period and less than 20°C in the cool season (Heidari, in six classrooms and the students were asked to fill in the ques-
2010). Heidari (2010) cited that, in the hot and dry climate of tionnaires and also describe their thermal sensations and thermal
Iran, people can make themselves comfortable at indoor air tem- preferences during lesson hours based on the 7-point ASHRAE
peratures between 16.5 and 22°C in the cold season and between scale (ASHRAE, 2004) and 3-point McIntyre scale (McIntyre and
28 and 34°C in hot seasons, by adjusting their clothes, activity, Gonzalez, 1976). The results of the questionnaire survey indi-
and air velocity (Heidari, 2010). The findings showed that people cated that just around 73% of the students’ responses fell into the
can obtain comfort at higher indoor air temperatures compared central three categories of the ASHRAE scale, slightly cool (−1),
to previous international standards and recommendations. In neutral (0), and slightly warm (+ 1) (see Figure 2). Based on the
addition, ASHRAE Standard 55 has tried to supply an objective ASHRAE standard 55 (ASHRAE, 2004), a response in the central
standard for thermal comfort and the primary aim was to provide three categories of the ASHRAE scale expresses satisfaction or
guidelines for centrally controlled HVAC (Brager and de Dear, acceptance and more than 80% acceptability in the three central
2000). In order to improve ASHREA Standard 55 to be a more categories of ASHRAE scale, from slightly cool to slightly warm,

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Zahiri and Altan Thermal Performance Using Passive Design

FIGURE 2 | Thermal sensation votes and preferences vote in classrooms S and N on 4th May 2010.

is enough to consider the indoor environment to be comfortable, TABLE 2 | Building operation schedules of the base case building model.
which in this case is not. In addition, around 80% of the students Building operation Schedules
in Classrooms N and around 60% in Classrooms S preferred a
cooler environment (see Figure 2). Natural ventilation 07:00 a.m.–09:00 p.m.
Heating system Off
Moreover, the average indoor air temperature in all classrooms
Occupancy period 07:30 a.m.–12:30 p.m.
during the teaching hours on the survey day was around 24°C and 01:30–05:30 p.m.
the most students preferred to be in a cooler environment while
the indoor air temperature exceeds 24.5°C. Although the Tc in the
classrooms during the May survey day fell within Heidari’s com-
impact of these strategies, including orientation, solar shading
fort zone as discussed in Section “Field Measurements”, thermal
devices, thermal mass, natural ventilation as well as external wall,
sensation votes were below 80% and the students wanted their
and roof insulation on indoor air temperatures in spring season,
thermal environment to be cooler in warm season. This shows that
was analyzed by revising the case study model in order to identify
the comfort temperature range is different for the female students
the optimal solution for each parameter. Following this, the opti-
in the secondary school buildings. A possible reason is related to
mum design solutions were defined for the case study building by
the age, religious, and culture grounds. As the female students
combining all the optimal design solutions for each parameter. In
needed to wear a special uniform and cover up their head in the
addition, the classrooms were naturally ventilated in warm peri-
school building on religious grounds, the neutral temperature was
ods through opening windows in all classrooms from 07:00 a.m.
slightly different in female school buildings in Tehran. Moreover,
until after the cleaning period at around 09:00 p.m. in the spring
in the school building, the students had less control in making
season. Table  2 presents the proposed schedules for occupancy
themselves comfortable, compared to residential buildings, and
and natural ventilation of the case study building in the simulation
as a result, the range of the comfort temperature is more limited.
modeling based on the real-time schedules of the school building.
Based on the questionnaire survey conducted in this research,
the maximum comfort temperature in May was 24.5°C as most
of the students wanted a cooler environment when the indoor air THERMAL PERFORMANCE ANALYSIS
temperature was more than 24.5°C.
In order to improve the thermal performance of the school
building, passive design strategies, including orientation, shading
The Simulation Analysis devices, insulation materials as well as thermal mass, and natural
In order to assess and improve the indoor thermal performance ventilation, were employed in the prototype school building sepa-
of the classrooms based on the passive design strategies and stu- rately. The simulation analysis was performed on classrooms S1
dents’ thermal comfort satisfactions, thermal simulation analysis and N1 for 1 week in May 2010. Classroom S1 was located on the
was performed in two classrooms using DesignBuilder, which first floor, facing south, and Classroom N1 on the second floor,
has a comprehensive user interface to the EnergyPlus dynamic facing north. These two classrooms represented all the classrooms
thermal simulation engine. The simulation analysis was carried in analyzing the impact of passive design strategies on indoor air
out for the field studies, using classrooms facing north (N1) and temperatures in various locations.
south (S1), located on the first and second floors of the building.
The field studies’ results were incorporated to the simulation Orientation
model in DesignBuilder in order to evaluate the current thermal Building orientation can affect the needs for mechanical energy
performance of the school building. Later, various passive design systems in the buildings. An appropriate building orientation can
strategies were applied to the simulation model separately and the decrease the use of mechanical heating and cooling systems, and

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Zahiri and Altan Thermal Performance Using Passive Design

as a result, reduce energy bills of the building. It is important to combination of side fins and overhangs, as well as window blinds.
consider the connection between the geographical features of the The aim was to find the best strategies for decreasing indoor air
site and the building itself in order to create an accurate passive temperatures during the warm period while making the most of
building (LHSBC and Guido Wimmers, 2009). Building orienta- solar radiation during the winter season.
tion has an impact on heat gains of the building, as a result of the
variety of solar radiation at different angles (Givoni, 1998). To Sizing of Overhangs and Fins
analyze the impact of the orientation on the indoor environment To find the starting dimensions for a shading devices’ shadow,
of the case study school building, simulation analyses have been including overhangs and fins, the following equations have
performed on various directions. The eight main directions (N, been used, based on a range of literature (O’Connor et al., 1997;
NW, W, SW, S, SE, E, and NE) have been considered for the pro- Kasmai, 2008):
totype school building, from 0° to 315°. The building was rotated For Overhangs:
anti-clockwise for eight primary directions, starting with 0° in the
H = D × tan A / cos (Z − N ) (2)
North. Figure 3 shows the plot box of indoor air temperatures
in classrooms S1 and N1 based on the eight main geographic For Fins:
directions in May. It can be seen that the indoor air temperatures
W = D × tan ( Z − N ) (3)
were in the highest range when the south facade faced west and
south-west, respectively, in Classroom S1 but when the same where H is the depth of the overhang’s shadow on the window
facade faced north and north-east, the indoor air temperatures and W is the depth of the side fin’s shadow over the window.
dropped when compared to the other side. However, the indoor Moreover, D stands for shading device projection and A is the
air temperature in Classroom N1 increased in all directions. This angle of the shadow, which describes the length of shadow on
is because the main facade of the classroom faced north in the the wall. In addition, Z is the solar azimuth and N is the window
base case and it received the minimum solar radiation when azimuth. Figure  4 presents the geometry and components for
compared to the other directions. vertical and horizontal shading devices.
Based on Kasmai (2008), the southern walls gain direct solar The initially proposed lengths for the overhangs and fins are
radiation for around 8 h a day in summer in the city of Tehran based on the shadow angles of shading devices defined in Iranian
at 35° N latitude. However, the northern walls receive at least 6 h National Building Regulations (INBR) (Ministry of Housing
of sunlight a day during the summer period. The eastern and and Urban Development, 2009). For south-facing windows,
western walls gain a considerable amount of solar radiation in the horizontal shading is 60° and for north-facing windows the
summer, at least 7 h a day. The comparison of indoor air tempera- vertical shading is 75° west. According to Kasmai (2008), during
ture variations in all directions shows that, while the classrooms the hot season, the maximum energy of the sun radiated on the
faced west, it has a maximum indoor air temperatures and, while south-facing walls is around 12:00 p.m. However, it is at 06:30
they faced north, it has the minimum indoor air temperatures a.m. and 05:30 p.m. in summer for north-facing walls, and there is
when compared to the other directions. no radiation during the winter in this direction. Considering that
the school would close for final exams in June and the maximum
Shading Devices solar radiation in north-facing walls is at 06:30 a.m. and 05:30
The main purpose of using shading devices is to prevent direct p.m. in summer while the classrooms are unoccupied, 12:00 p.m.
solar radiation reaching external walls. There are various kinds in May was chosen as the most appropriate time for solar azimuth
of shading: shading of the building over itself; shading of near to calculate the projection of shading devices based on the sug-
obstacles, such as overhangs, fins and blinds; and shading of sur- gestion of Kasmai (2008) as stated below:
rounding buildings and far obstacles (Ford et al., 2007). In this D = H × cos (Z − N ) / tan A (4)

study, the effect of near obstacle shading on the indoor environ-
ment was examined. Five various types of shading devices were Based on the proposed shadow angle by the INBR (Ministry
examined, including vertical overhangs with different lengths, a of Housing and Urban Development, 2009) and using Eq.  4, it

FIGURE 3 | Plot box of indoor air temperature for eight primary directions in classrooms S1 and N1 in May 2010.

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Zahiri and Altan Thermal Performance Using Passive Design

suggested not using side fins in south-facing windows or

overhangs in north-facing windows, in this study, both types of
shading devices were employed in both classrooms to compare
their effects on the indoor air temperatures. Although the INBR
does not suggest using window blinds as shading devices, in
this study, a blind with a medium slate was employed inside the
windows to examine its effects on the indoor air temperatures
in the warm season.

Result of the Analysis

As discussed before in this section, a range of shading devices
with various dimensions were employed in the base case model,
including overhangs and blinds, as well as a combination of
overhangs and side fins, in order to analyze the effect of them on
the indoor air temperatures. Figure 5 shows the plot box of the
indoor air temperatures resulted from applying various shading
FIGURE 4 | Geometry and components of shading devices (O’Connor devices in classrooms S1 and N1 in May 2010. As can be seen in
et al., 1997).
Figure 5, employing 30 cm overhangs and side fins together at the
openings reduced the indoor air temperatures in both classrooms.
The indoor air temperatures in Classroom S1 were reduced by a
TABLE 3 | Types and length of shading devices used in the simulation maximum of 2.5°C but in Classroom N1, it only dropped by a
analysis.
maximum 0.5°C. Moreover, employing 30 cm overhangs reduced
Shading device type Size of projection and blind (cm) the indoor temperatures as well, but the effect of overhangs on
the indoor air temperatures is less than that in the combination
S1 N1
used with side fins. The indoor air temperatures were reduced
Overhangs 30 30 by a maximum 2°C in the south-facing classroom, while in the
Overhangs 60 60 north-facing classroom, it only dropped by approximately 0.3°C.
Combination of overhangs and 30 and 30 30 and 30 It was expected that applying deeper overhangs and side fins
side fins
Combination of overhangs and 60 and 60 60 and 60
would result in lower temperatures, as the external walls around
side fins the shading devices received less solar radiation, but the result
Inside Blinds-Medium slate Cover whole Cover whole shows almost no effect when applying the 60 cm overhangs and
window window side fins, compared to using the 30 cm overhangs and side fins
(100 cm × 70 cm2) (100 cm × 70 cm2)
(see Figure 5). The same result was found for 30 cm overhangs
against 60 cm ones. A possible reason for this is the solar altitude
in the periods of May, which is between 62° and 73° (Kasmai,
was decided that choosing the initial length of 30  cm for the 2008). In addition, using a medium slate blind inside the windows
vertical and horizontal projections, which creates a shadow also helped to reduce the indoor air temperatures, as it prevented
over the whole window in warmest period. Although the INBR the sun’s radiation reaching the room. However, the effect of this
(2009) suggest not using any horizontal shading devices on the type of shading device is less than that of overhangs and side fins,
north side of buildings in Tehran, in this study, both vertical and and the combination of both, but it can be used as an additional
horizontal shading devices were used for comparing their effects item to be used when needed especially in hot periods.
on the indoor air temperatures. As the building’s main axis lay in Moreover, it is expected that the indoor air temperatures with
an east-to-west direction, and the main facade is facing south, the all combinations of shading devices between sunset and sunrise
angle of the window azimuth was 0°. The window azimuth is the decreased because of the effect of the thermal mass of the wall,
angle between the perpendicular to the window and the real south which was 30 cm brick wall. As the shading devices prevented
(Ministry of Housing and Urban Development, 2009). Table  3 the sun reaching some parts of the windows and interior spaces,
summarizes the proposed design strategies for shading devices as well as the surrounding external walls, the amount of energy,
and the length of the projections for each strategy in a base case which was released during the night decreased, and as a result, the
building, as well as the blind dimensions. Various design strate- indoor air temperatures were lower than expected.
gies for shading devices were employed in the simulation model
to examine the effects of them on the indoor air temperatures Ventilation
during the warm season, which included the survey days. Increasing the air movement rate in indoor spaces increases the
The primary suggestion for choosing the type and size of cooling efficiency in hot and warm seasons. Natural ventilation
shading devices was based on the INBR (Ministry of Housing and is one of the passive design strategies, which enhances indoor
Urban Development, 2009). However, additional dimensions for air quality in hot and dry regions by providing fresh air. Night
overhangs and side fins were employed to the base case model ventilation and evaporative cooling are some of the important
for comparison purpose. In addition, although these regulations ventilation strategies used to decrease the indoor air temperatures

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Zahiri and Altan Thermal Performance Using Passive Design

in hot and dry regions (Ford et  al., 2007). In this study, the classroom as less solar radiation reached this room. However,
focus is on night-time natural ventilation and all-day natural applying the all-day natural ventilation mode to simulation
ventilation during the warm spring season for cooling purpose. modeling results in reducing the indoor air temperatures in both
During the field study experiment, the windows always opened classrooms, compared to the base case. As illustrated in Table 4,
at around 07:00 a.m. and usually closed at around 09:00 p.m., two various opening ratios were considered for all-day natural
after the cleaning up period. Night ventilation reduces indoor air ventilation strategies, 40 and 60%. However, it can be seen that
temperatures in hot climates, as the outdoor temperatures drop 20% difference in opening ratios has similar effect on the indoor
after sunset (Sheta, 2012). As can be seen in Table 4, four different air temperatures. A possible reason may be minimal air move-
natural ventilation strategies were considered for the simulation ment in outdoor environments and high indoor air temperatures
analysis. These strategies included the base case practice and during the hot and warm period.
all-day natural ventilation, which included night ventilation with
two various opening ratios, 40 and 60%. Moreover, for the last Thermal Insulation
strategy no ventilation mode was applied in the base case model Appropriate insulation material helps to reduce undesirable heat
in order to assess the indoor air temperatures when ventilation is losses or heat gains through the building envelope. It decreases
absent for a whole day. the heat flow rate through the wall, roof, floors, and openings,
Figure  6 presents the indoor air temperatures in classroom whether outward or inward, and as a result, reduces the energy
S1 and N1 in May 2010. It can be seen that the lack of ventilation consumption of the building (LHSBC and Guido Wimmers,
in both classrooms clearly increased the indoor air temperatures 2009; Autodesk Ecotect Analysis, 2013). Thermal insulation
during the survey day. The indoor air temperatures in the south- materials have an impact on the indoor air temperatures of the
facing classroom increased around 4K, compared to the base buildings. A well-insulated building results in lower conductivity
case result, but it only increased by up to 3K in the north-facing through the building envelope fabrics, decreasing the heat flow as

FIGURE 5 | Plot box of indoor air temperature with different shading devices in classrooms S1 and N1 in May 2010.

TABLE 4 | Different ventilation strategies applied to simulation modeling.

Ventilation strategy Window opened Window closed Duration of ventilation (hours) Opening ratio

Base case practice 07:00 21:00 14 40%

All day and night ventilation 00:00 23:59 24 40%
All day and night ventilation 00:00 23:59 24 60%
No ventilation Never Whole day 0 0%

FIGURE 6 | Plot box of indoor air temperature with different natural ventilation strategies in classrooms S1 and N1 in May 2010.

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Zahiri and Altan Thermal Performance Using Passive Design

well as providing a comfortable indoor environment. The amount regardless of the location. In addition, adding 10 cm of insulation
of heat loss from building components is measured by U-values material resulted in a higher increase in temperatures than the
or thermal transmittance. A lower U-value means lower heat loss 5  cm thermal insulation in both classrooms. In general, add-
through the building fabrics and better insulation of the build- ing insulations to the external wall had the effect of increasing
ings. In addition, R-values or thermal resistance is a measure of temperatures in all rooms, which was not significant in the warm
a material’s resistance to heat flow, and therefore, an indicator of season, and all the suggested thermal insulations had nearly the
a material’s insulation properties. It is the inverse of the U-value same impact on the indoor air temperatures. In addition, put-
(LHSBC and Guido Wimmers, 2009). In this study, different ting thermal insulation on the outer side of the walls had almost
insulation types, with various thicknesses, were employed in the same effect on increasing the indoor air temperatures when
the external walls as well as in the roof separately, to examine compared to putting on the inner side, but the effect of thicker
their effects on the U-value of the building, and as a result, on the thermal insulation materials is more than that of the thinner
indoor air temperatures. The thermal insulation materials used materials. It is suggested to use thicker insulation materials on the
in the simulation modeling were based on recommendations by outer surfaces of external walls with mass construction, as it will
the INBR and are the typical insulation materials mostly used in give the advantage of greater thermal mass in the winter period.
Iran (Ministry of Housing and Urban Development, 2009; IFCO, Moreover, thicker insulation material results in lower U-value
2012; IRIMA, 2012). (see Table 5). The U-value of the non-insulated external wall in
the case study school building was 1.61 W/m2K and the tested
Thermal Insulation in External Walls variations of thermal insulation, including glass wool, XPS, and
The original school building does not include any thermal EPS, with 5 cm of thickness, reduced the U-value of the base case
insulation materials in the external walls. Three various types building to 0.54, 0.48, and 0.36 W/m2K, respectively. However,
of insulation materials were employed in the base case external increasing the thickness of the insulation materials to 10  cm
walls, including glass wool, extruded polystyrene (XPS), and had more impact on decreasing the U-value of the external wall,
expanded polystyrene (EPS), which are the common types of which decreased to 0.32, 0.28, and 0.32 W/m2K when using glass
insulation materials used in Iran (IFCO, 2012). These insulation wool, XPS, and EPS.
materials were selected based on the INBR (Ministry of Housing
and Urban Development, 2009). They were applied to the walls Thermal Insulation in Roof
separately, with various thicknesses of 5 and 10 cm. In addition, The original building has only 5 cm of glass wool installed in the
they were applied to the outer and inner sides of the external roof layer as a thermal insulation material. Three various types of
walls, in order to investigate the effect of the positioning of the insulation materials were employed in the base case roof layer, in
insulation materials on the indoor air temperatures. Figure  7 a similar way to the external wall experiment of thermal insula-
illustrates the result of the simulation analysis concerning insula- tion. The applied insulation materials included glass wool, XPS,
tion types, thicknesses, and positions in May 2010, in south- and and EPS. They were applied to the roof individually, with 10 cm of
north-facing classrooms. It can be seen that the application of all thickness. The reason for using 10 cm of thickness for the thermal
types of thermal insulation with 5 and 10 cm thicknesses resulted insulation materials was that the original building already has
in higher indoor air temperatures in both classrooms. It should 5 cm of glass wool as the thermal insulation installed to the roof
be mentioned that the windows were open during the occupancy layers. However, 5 cm glass wool were also applied to the inner
period in the base case building until the cleaning period at side of the roof in order to compare the difference between the
around 09:00 p.m. in the warm period. effect of inner side and the outer side on the indoor air tempera-
As the application of tight fitting thermal insulation materials tures. In addition, the thermal insulation materials with 10 cm
can improve airtightness levels of a building and limit air leakage of thickness were applied to the outer side of the roof as well as
through the building’s envelope, less air infiltration occurred the inner side in order to investigate the effects of the positioning
in the building (LHSBC and Guido Wimmers, 2009), and as a of the insulation materials on the indoor air temperatures. The
result, the indoor air temperatures increased in both classrooms, insulation materials were applied to the roof only and the floors

FIGURE 7 | Plot box of indoor air temperatures with different wall insulation in classrooms S1 and N1 in May 2010.

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Zahiri and Altan Thermal Performance Using Passive Design

had no thermal insulation, just similar to the original building. XPS, and EPS, reduced the U-value of the base case building to
The roof and ground floors are the most complex parts of the 0.32, 0.28, and 0.32 W/m2K, respectively.
building when compared to the middle floors, and in the base
case building, there were no classrooms on the ground floor and Thermal Mass in Walls
the basement, and therefore, no thermal insulation was installed Thermal mass is the capability of fabrics to save heat. It can be
in the middle floors in this study. Figure 8 presents the effects of integrated into a building as part of the buildings’ components
various thermal insulation materials, installed to the outer side in the walls and floors. High thermal mass materials’ such as
and inner side of the roof, on the indoor air temperatures in the concrete, brick, stone, and earth, can absorb and hold heat, and
north-facing classroom. release it slowly later on when there is a temperature difference
It can be seen that the application of all types of thermal between the material and the surroundings (LHSBC and Guido
insulation with 10  cm of thickness caused lower indoor air Wimmers, 2009). It is suggested that high thermal mass materials
temperatures in a north-facing classroom on the top floor (see should be used in building components in hot regions, as this pro-
Figure  8). However, the effect of inner side on reducing the vides a comfortable indoor environment by reducing the indoor
indoor air temperatures is slightly higher than the outer side. In air temperatures and avoiding overheating (Kasmai, 2008). Based
addition, the difference between the effects of thermal insulation on Kruger and Givoni (2008), using high thermal mass materi-
materials with 5 cm thickness on the indoor air temperatures is als in external walls reduces indoor air temperatures, especially
not very significant when compared to the 10 cm thickness, and when considering night-time ventilation for the room. In this
it is suggested to use 5 cm of thermal insulation materials to the study, various thermal mass materials with different thicknesses
inner side of the roof. were applied to the simulation model. Table 7 shows the materials
Table 6 presents the impact of various insulation types with applied to the base case external wall components.
various thicknesses on the U-value of the roof. The U-value of Figure 9 illustrates the effects of various thermal mass materi-
the roof for the base case building was 0.53 W/m2K and the tested als on the indoor air temperatures in classrooms S1 and N1. It can
variations of thermal insulation materials, including glass wool, be seen that the indoor air temperatures increased when using low
thermal mass materials. However, using high thermal mass mate-
rials decreased the indoor air temperatures on warm spring days.
TABLE 5 | Effect of thickness of insulation materials on overall U-value of For instance, applying 40  cm of lightweight concrete increased
external wall.
the indoor air temperatures by around 0.7K in peak periods in
Thermal insulation Thickness (cm) U-value (W/m2 K) both classrooms and using 25 cm heavyweight concrete reduced
the indoor air temperatures by around 0.3K in peak periods, but
Base case – 1.614
this was not very significant in spring when compared to the base
Glass wool 5 0.535
Glass wool 10 0.321
case. The reason is the current material of the base case, which
XPS 5 0.478 included the thermal mass of a 30-cm brick wall.
XPS 10 0.281 Considering Figure  9, it can be seen that the application
EPS 5 0.535 of thicker materials usually resulted in lower reduction in the
EPS 10 0.321 indoor air temperatures in both classrooms. For example,

FIGURE 8 | Plot box of indoor air temperatures with different roof insulation materials in classrooms N1 in May 2010.

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Zahiri and Altan Thermal Performance Using Passive Design

using 40 cm heavyweight concrete blocks in the external walls air temperatures, which were more close to the maximum com-
caused less reduction in the indoor air temperatures than using fort band in the warm season. The suggested primary optimum
25 cm heavyweight concrete blocks. Based on the literature, design solutions included suggested building orientation in the
the impact of thermal mass is increased by increasing thermal INBR, a combination of 30  cm of the overhangs and side fins
density and decreasing the thickness of the material, which for south- and north-facing side classrooms, external thermal
causes more constant heat capacity. A thinner density of mass insulation material with the U-value between 0.28 and 0.32 W/
material responds faster to surface temperature fluctuations and m2K for the external walls, 5 cm thermal insulation on the inner
consequently stores excessive heat gains and dampen interior side of the roof, 25 cm high-density concrete blocks as a thermal
air temperatures more effectively (Byrne and Ritschard, 1985; mass for the exterior facades and all-day natural ventilation
Fehr, 2009; Autodesk Sustainability Workshop, 2011). It is also strategies during the warm season (Optimum 1). In addition,
essential to locate thermal mass in direct solar radiation for it 30 cm outer brick was considered as a second suggested thermal
to have more impact on the indoor air temperatures, although mass material along with the other options used for the optimum
indirect sunlight has an effect on the overall performance of the design solution 1 (Optimum 2). Figure 11 illustrates the indoor
building, as the walls be heated by air convection (Nasrollahi, air temperatures of the real base case and the optimum solutions
2009; Autodesk Sustainability Workshop, 2011). In addition, it in classrooms S1 and N1 with respect to the outdoor temperature
can be seen that using lightweight concrete increases the indoor and the comfort temperature in May 2010. The peak indoor air
air temperatures in both classrooms. Based on Ries and Holm temperature is decreased by approximately 5K by the applications
(2004), using lightweight concrete in a building’s envelope causes of optimum solutions in Classroom S1. It should be noted that the
longer time lags. In addition, Vangeem et al. (2013) reported that peak indoor air temperature was during the occupied period in
reducing the density of the concrete masonry walls results in midday while the windows were open. In addition, the indoor air
increasing thermal lag. They cited that for external uninsulated temperature reduced by about 3K during the unoccupied period,
concrete walls, the beneficial effects of thermal mass are increased which is still considered as a significant amount.
as density is reduced from 2400 to 800  kg/m3 (see Figure  10), The reduction of the peak indoor air temperature during the
which may be a possible reason for the higher temperatures while occupied period in Classroom N1 was less than Classroom S1,
using lightweight concrete masonry walls when compared to the around 4K that is still considerable. In addition, the reduction
use of heavyweight concrete. of maximum indoor air temperature during the unoccupied
period was less than 2K. After the application of the optimum
solutions, the whole profile of the indoor air temperatures was
FINAL DISCUSSION around proposed comfort temperature in both classrooms. The
To estimate the effect of the optimum design solution, the maximum and minimum temperatures were mostly within the
measured indoor air temperature of the real base case build- proposed comfort band in both classrooms and the application
ing was compared to the effect of each optimum factor on the of all optimum solutions resulted in the reduction of the average
indoor air temperatures. Based on the results of the field study internal temperatures from about 5K in Classroom S1 to less
and the simulation analysis, by using passive design strategies, an than 4K in Classroom N1, which is again significant. Table  8
optimum design solution for the base case building was defined. presents the temperature difference between the minimum,
The optimum factors were taken from the analyzed passive maximum, and mean indoor air temperatures before and after the
design strategies, including orientation, shading devices, thermal application of optimum solutions. It can be seen that by applying
mass, natural ventilation, and insulation, and with respect to all the proposed solutions, the indoor air temperatures in both
the occupants’ thermal comfort satisfaction, which is discussed classrooms reduced significantly and the temperature difference
in Section “Questionnaire Survey.” The optimum passive design between each optimum solution and the base case temperature is
strategies were selected based on the effects of them on the indoor approximately similar during May 2010.

TABLE 6 | Effect of thermal insulation materials and their thicknesses on

Recommended Optimum Solution
U-value of the roof.
The aim of the optimum solution was to reduce the indoor
air ­temperatures in the warm season and to keep the internal
Insulation Thickness (cm) U-value (W/m2 K) ­temperature in an acceptable range within the minimum energy
Base case 5 0.527 use. The result of the simulation analysis of each parameter
Glass wool 10 0.318 indicated that all-day natural ventilation and the application of
XPS 10 0.279 the shading devices to the window areas helped significantly in
EPS 10 0.318 reducing the indoor air temperatures in warm spring season.

TABLE 7 | Thermal mass materials using different thicknesses in external wall components.

Thermal Brick Brick Heavy Heavy Medium Medium Light Light

mass (base case) concrete concrete concrete concrete concrete concrete

Thickness (cm) 30 20 25 40 25 40 25 40

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Zahiri and Altan Thermal Performance Using Passive Design

FIGURE 9 | Plot box of indoor air temperatures with different thermal mass materials in classrooms S1 and N1 in May 2010.

FIGURE 10 | Optimum concrete density for maximum thermal lag (Vangeem et al., 2013).

FIGURE 11 | Optimum design solutions in Classrooms S1 and N1.

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Zahiri and Altan Thermal Performance Using Passive Design

TABLE 8 | Difference between minimum, maximum, and mean indoor air temperature before and after application of optimum solution in May 2010 in
classrooms S1 and N1.

Indoor air temperature (°C) Mean Maximum Minimum

S N S N S N

Real base case 25.35 24.81 30.79 30.13 21.35 21.29

Optimum solution 1 21.62 22.04 25.82 26.99 19.24 19.18
Optimum solution 2 21.61 22.04 25.87 27.12 19.10 19.13

Employing the 30-cm overhang and side fins on the windows is TABLE 9 | Proposed passive design strategies for the female secondary
the suggested optimal projection to reduce the indoor air tem- school building in Tehran.
perature in spring. Applying 5 cm of thermal insulation on inner Passive Solution Current practice in the
side of the roof also helps to decrease the indoor air temperatures strategies base case
in the warm season. Although adding insulation materials to the
Orientation South–South East South
external wall increased the indoor air temperatures in spring, they Solar 30 cm overhangs and side fins (can No solar shading
had a small impact on increasing the temperatures, which was shading be movable to get the effect of sun
overcome by applying the shading devices and an all-day natural in winter)
ventilation strategy. It should be noted that all-day ventilation has Blind and slate can be used in warm
no cost at all and only obtained by keeping the windows open all season
Ventilation All day natural ventilation in hot and Natural ventilation from
day long. The installation of thermal insulation as well as shading warm seasons 7:00am to 21:00 in
devices require installation costs, but using these strategies will spring
reduce the buildings energy costs over the years. Wall 10 cm common thermal insulation No wall insulation
Table 9 shows the suggested optimum solution for the female insulation material on external side of external
walls layers
secondary school building with respect to the thermal satisfac-
Roof 5 cm common thermal insulation 5 cm insulation on the
tion of the occupants and passive design strategies for climatic insulation materials on internal side of roof external layers of roof
condition of the city of Tehran. The passive design strategies layers
included orientation, solar shading devices, natural ventilation Thermal 25 cm high-density concrete blocks 30 cm brick in external
and thermal mass, as well as thermal insulation for roof, and mass or 30 cm outer bricks in external walls walls
external walls.

of the students’ responses fell into the central three categories

CONCLUSION of the ASHRAE scale, which expresses satisfaction, and more
than 80% acceptability in these categories, from slightly cool to
This study was carried out to investigate the thermal performance slightly warm, is enough to consider the indoor environment to
of a typical female secondary school building in Tehran during a be comfortable, which in this case in not. In addition, around 80%
warm spring season. A series of field studies, including a thermal of the students in Classrooms N and around 60% in Classrooms S
comfort survey and on-site measurements, were conducted for preferred a cooler indoor environment.
1  week in May 2010 to predict the indoor thermal condition, Moreover, the base case building was modeled in a dynamic
as well as the occupants’ thermal comfort. Thermal simulation building thermal simulation tool called DesignBuilder. Based
analysis was also performed to evaluate and improve the building’s on the passive design strategies and the students’ thermal pref-
thermal performance using passive design strategies. The aim was erences within the classrooms, the optimum design solutions
to define a set of school buildings environmental design guide- were defined for the secondary school buildings to improve
lines with respect to the students’ thermal comfort and passive the indoor thermal conditions. The suggested optimum design
design strategies in order to reduce the school buildings’ energy solution includes all-day natural ventilation, installation of
consumption and to increase the students’ thermal comfort. overhangs and side fins, the use of thermal mass and thermal
The results of the field studies indicated that most of the insulation in the external walls and the roof, as well as the
occupants found their thermal environment not to be comfort- orientation. The primary simulation study was performed dur-
able during the warm season and preferred to be in a cooler ing a typical warmest week in May before school’s closure. The
environment when the indoor air temperatures exceeded 24.5°C study shows that the application of passive design strategies,
although the indoor air temperatures were within the comfort including south and south-east orientation, 10  cm thermal
band defined by Heidari (2010) for offices and residential build- insulation in wall and 5  cm in the inner side of the roof, the
ings. This shows that the female students’ comfort temperature combination of 30 cm side fins and overhangs as solar shading
is different from the residential and office buildings’ occupants, devices, as well as all-day ventilation strategy and thermal mass
and the maximum comfort temperature is lower than the maxi- materials with 25–30 cm thickness, has considerable impact on
mum band defined by Heidari (2010). Moreover, the results of reducing the indoor air temperatures in the warm season in
the questionnaire-based survey indicated that just around 73% Tehran, and keeps the indoor environment in an acceptable

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Zahiri and Altan Thermal Performance Using Passive Design

thermal condition. After applying the appropriate optimum the need for supplementary heating in cold periods. Therefore,
solution to the case study building, the maximum indoor air in order to create a high quality indoor environment and to
temperature decreased by approximately 5K in south-facing increase the learning performance of the students, it is neces-
classroom and 4K in north-facing classroom during the field sary to use the appropriate passive design strategies, which also
study experiment in May. reduce the need for mechanical systems in the school buildings,
Moreover, the simulation results indicate that the building and thus, save energy.
fabric and the thermal properties, as well as all-day natural
ventilation, had significant influences on reducing the indoor AUTHOR CONTRIBUTIONS
air temperatures in the classrooms and keeping it in acceptable
conditions. Moreover, using these appropriate passive design HA is SZ’s first academic supervisor during her doctoral
strategies, such as thermal mass and thermal insulation materi- studies and has reviewed the paper and provided feedback
als, can also improve the thermal performance of the building for initial revision, HA is an Associate Editor for the HVAC
during the winter period by keeping it warm, which also reduces Journal.

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Zahiri and Altan Thermal Performance Using Passive Design

Ries, J. P., and Holm, T. A. (2004). A Holistic Approach to Sustainability for Conflict of Interest Statement: The authors declare that the research was con-
the Concrete Community: Lightweight Concrete-Two Millennia of Proven ducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be
Performance. Salt Lake City, Utah: ESCSI. construed as a potential conflict of interest.
Santamouris, M. (2008). Advances in Building Energy Research. London:
Earthscan. Copyright © 2016 Zahiri and Altan. This is an open-access article distributed under
Sheta, W. A. M. (2012). Keeping Cool in Cairo: Thermal Simulation of Passive the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (CC BY). The use, distribu-
Cooling in Dwellings. Ph.D. thesis, The University of Sheffield, Sheffield. tion or reproduction in other forums is permitted, provided the original author(s)
Vangeem, M. G., Holm, T. A., and Ries, J. P. (2013). Optimal Thermal Mass and or licensor are credited and that the original publication in this journal is cited, in
R-Value in Concrete First International Conference on Concrete Sustainability. accordance with accepted academic practice. No use, distribution or reproduction is
Tokyo: ICCS13. permitted which does not comply with these terms.

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