Vol.1 Issue.

1, 2013
INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF RESEARCH IN AERONAUTICAL AND MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
Pg: 53-93

ISSN (ONLINE): 2321-3051

INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF RESEARCH IN

AERONAUTICAL AND MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

Fatigue Analysis of Fuselage & Wing Joint

Dinesh kumar K1, Sai Gopala Krishna V.V2, Syed Shariq Ahmed3, Meer Abdul Irfan4
1
Student, Guru Nanak Engineering College, Hyderabad, Andhra Pradesh, India,[email protected]
2
Student, Guru Nanak Engineering College, Hyderabad, Andhra Pradesh, India,[email protected]
3
Asst. Professor, M.Tech (Aerospace), at GNITC, Hyderabad, Andhra Pradesh,
India, [email protected]
4
Asst. professor, M.Tech, at GNITC, Hyderabad, Andhra Pradesh
Abstract

Fatigue is progressive failure mechanism and material degradation initiates with the first cycle. The
degradation/damage accumulation progresses until a finite crack is nucleated, then the crack propagates until
the failure process culminates in a complete failure of the structures. The total life from first cycle to the
complete failure can be divided into three stages: Initial life interval, Life interval, Final Life interval. The
fatigue damage is mainly based on two designs: FAIL-SAFE and SAFE-LIFE. The objective is to design a
Fail-Safe Structural component. In this project we have designed a Wing-Bracket interaction which was not
yet designed by any of the industry. And we have estimated the fatigue life of our Wing-Bracket attachment
model. Here we compared the fatigue life of our model with three materials such as Maraging Steel, Titanium
and Structural A36 steel. Among this three we have proved that Maraging steel gives more fatigue life
compared to other two materials. For estimating the fatigue life we have made some hand calculations.
Finally we have represented the fatigue life with the help of Goodman Curve. The Structural Component is
designed and analysed using CATIA and ANSYS Softwares. In analysis the maximum stress at which the
component undergoes degradation/damage is calculated for different End Conditions (loadings and stresses),
which determines the fatigue life of the component.

Keywords: Wing-Bracket interaction, Comparing the fatigue life of our model with three materials, Maraging
Steel, Titanium and Structural A36 Steel, High Cycle Fatigue.

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1. Introduction
Generally the performance of the aircraft depends on the life span of the different components. At some number of
cycles each and every component undergoes damage. Structure of an aircraft plays a major role in resisting different
types of loads in different conditions. Usually different composite materials are used for making a light stiff and
resistive structure. In another way weight also plays an important role in performance and life span of the aircraft.
The major problem is to balance both structural material and weight which in turn increases the lifespan and
performance of an aircraft. Normally aircraft structure damages due to the application of different cyclic loads at
different segments of its journey. Due to continuous applications of loads the structure degrades. This degradation of
structure due to application of cyclic loads is called fatigue analysis. Each and every component of an aircraft
undergoes fatigue damage. Now our next step is to select the component which undergoes fatigue damage. The
possibility of fatigue crack initiation must be considered in both civil and military aircraft although circumstances of
fatigue issues can be quite different.

2. Fatigue and its Approaches

2.1 Basic Terminology of Fatigue:

Fatigue Life:
Number of stress cycles of a specified character that a specimen sustains before failure of a specified nature occurs.

One method to predict fatigue life of materials is the Uniform Material Law (UML). UML was developed for fatigue
life prediction of aluminum and titanium alloys by the end of 20th century and extended to high-strength
steels and cast iron. For some materials, there is a theoretical value for stress amplitude below which the material
will not fail for any number of cycles, called a fatigue limit, endurance limit, or fatigue strength

Fatigue limit:
Stainless steels exhibit a 'fatigue limit' or 'endurance limit' during cyclic stressing. This means that there is a stress
level, below which fatigue failure should not occur. This is determined from a series of fatigue tests.
The fatigue stress limit is reached when failure does not occur after a million (106) or 10 million (107) cycles.

Fatigue Failure:
Often machine members subjected to such repeated or cyclic stressing are found to have failed even when the actual
maximum stresses were below the ultimate strength of the material, and quite frequently at stress values even below
the yield strength. The most distinguishing characteristics is that the failure had occurred only after the stresses have
been repeated a very large number of times. Hence the failure is called fatigue failure.
Fatigue Strength:
Number of cycles of stress of a specific character that a specimen of material can withstand before failure of a
specific nature occurs. Number of cycles required (usually 10 million) to cause a failure decreases as the level of
stress increases. Also called fatigue limit, it is affected by the environmental factors such as corrosion.
Cyclic Stresses:

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There are three common ways in which stresses may be applied: axial, torsional, and flexural. Examples are shown

in Figure 1

Figure 1: Visual examples of axial stress, torsional stress, and flexural stress
2.2 Fatigue Methods:
High-Cycle Fatigue:
High-cycle fatigue is when the number of cycles to failure is large, typically when the number of cycles to
failure, N, is greater than 103. Engineers and technicians obtain fatigue data much as they do tensile data. The test
machines are similar to that shown for tensile tests and similar specimens are used. The chief difference lies in the
application of load. In an HCF specimen test, the load is applied to the specimen at 30 to 60 cycles per second and
often at much higher frequencies.
High-cycle fatigue involves a large number of cycles (N>105 cycles) and an elastically applied stress. High-
cycle fatigue tests are usually carried out for 107 cycles and sometimes 5 x 108 cycles for nonferrous metals.
Low-Cycle Fatigue:
Low- cycle fatigue is when the number of cycles to failure is small, typically when the number of cycles to
failure, Nf, is less than 103
During cyclic loading within the elastic regime, stress and strain are directly related through the elastic
modulus. However, for cyclic loading that produces plastic strains, the responses are more complex and form a
hysteresis loop. From point O up to point A, the component is in tension. On unloading, the strain response of the
specimen follows the curve from A to D. At D, the component is under no stress.

2.3 Damage and Endurance Factor of safety:

1. Damage is calculated for Low cycle Fatigue applications.
a. Damage = n/N = number of cycles applied / Total life
b. Damage < 1 => Safe
c. Damage > 1 => Fail
2. Endurance Factor of Safety is calculated for High cycle Fatigue applications.
a. Endurance Factor of Safety = Endurance Strength / FE stress
b. Endurance Factor of Safety < 1 => Fail
c. Endurance Factor of Safety > 1 => Safe
2.4 Types of Fatigue:

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Corrosion fatigue:
Corrosion pits can act as notches. This results in lower fatigue lives in corrosive environments. Where
Corrosion fatigue is a concern, materials with inherent corrosion resistance are better choices than those with just
high fatigue strengths, but poorer corrosion resistance. Stainless steels can therefore be considered in preference to
high strength alloy steels for corrosive environment service. The good pitting resistance and inherent strength of the
duplex stainless steels makes them useful choices where corrosion fatigue is a hazard. Thermal fatigue:
Austenitic stainless steels are sensitive to thermal fatigue due to the unfavourable combination of high
thermal expansion rate and low thermal conductivity. The stress raised during thermal cycling is proportional to
thermal expansion coefficient, elastic modulus and temperature differences. Expansion allowances must be made
when designing in austenitic stainless steels for cyclic (fluctuating) elevated temperature applications.
Creep Fatigue:
In the initial stage, or primary creep, the strain rate is relatively high, but slows with increasing strain. This
is due to work hardening. The strain rate eventually reaches a minimum and becomes near constant. This is due to
the balance between work hardening and annealing (thermal softening). This stage is known as secondary or steady-
state creep. This stage is the most understood. The characterized "creep strain rate" typically refers to the rate in this
secondary stage.

2.5 Characteristic features of fatigue failures:

The characteristic features are significant in failure analysis in order to distinguish between fatigue failures,
static failure, including brittle failures, stress corrosion failures and creep failures. The characteristics of a fatigue
fracture are divided into two groups, microscopic features and macroscopic features.
i)Microscopic characteristics:
Transgranular crack growth:
Fatigue cracks in almost all materials are growing along a Transgranular path, i.e. through the grains. They
do not follow the grain boundary, contrary to stress corrosion cracks and creep failures. Because fatigue crack
growth is a consequence of cyclic slip, it is not surprising that fatigue crack prefers to grow through the grains.
Restraint on slip exerted by the grain boundaries is minimal inside the grains. The Transgranular character can easily
be observed on microscopic samples in the optical microscope.
Striations:
Striations are remnants of micro plastic deformations of individual load cycles. The striations indicate the
cyclic nature of the load history. The visibility of striations depends on the type of material and the load history as
well. If striations cannot be observed, it need not imply that the failure is not due to fatigue. The electron microscope
revealed that striations occurred in pairs with a larger and a smaller striation spacing respectively.
ii) Macroscopic characteristics:
Macroscopic characteristics of a fatigue failure can be observed with the naked eye. However, it always
should be advised to look also with a small magnifying glass with a magnification of 6 to 8. It is often surprising

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how many details then can be observed, e.g. small crack nuclei, sites of crack nuclei, surface damage causing a
crack nucleus, etc., details which escape visual observations by eye but which may be significant for the evaluation
of the fatigue problem.
2.6 Different phases of the fatigue life:
The fatigue life is usually split into a crack initiation period and a crack growth period. The initiation period
is supposed to include some microcrack growth, but the fatigue cracks are still too small to be visible. In the second
period, the crack is growing until complete failure. It is technically significant to consider the crack initiation and
crack growth periods separately because several practical conditions have a large influence on the crack initiation
period, but a limited influence or no influence at all on the crack growth period.
Microscopic investigations in the beginning of the 20th century have shown that fatigue crack nuclei start
as invisible micro cracks in slip bands. The stress concentration factor Kt is the important parameter for predictions
on crack initiation. The stress intensity factor K is used for predictions on crack growth.

Cyclic Crack Micro Crack Macro Crack Final

Slip nucleation Growth Growth Failure

Initiation Period Crack Growth Period

Stress Concentration Factor (Kt) Stress Intensity Fracture

Factor (K) Toughness
(Kic)

Figure 2: Phases of Fatigue Life

Crack initiation:
Quality of Surface is important. The crack may be caused by surface scratches caused by handling, or
tooling of the material. Areas of localized stress concentrations such as fillets, notches, key ways, bolt holes and
even scratches or tool marks are potential zones for crack initiation. Cracks also generally originate from a
geometrical discontinuity or metallurgical stress raiser like sites of inclusions. Dislocations play a major role in the
fatigue crack initiation phase.
Crack growth:
This further increases the stress levels and the process continues, propagating the cracks across the grains
or along the grain boundaries, slowly increasing the crack size. As the size of the crack increases the cross sectional
area resisting the applied stress decreases and reaches a thresh hold level at which it is insufficient to resist the
applied stress. Crack growth resistance when the crack penetrates into the material depends on the material as a bulk
property.

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2.7 Fatigue Design Methodologies:

Since the 1800s, a number of design philosophies or methodologies have evolved to deal with design
against fatigue failures.
Infinite-Life Design:
This is the oldest of the design philosophies and is based on maintaining the stresses at some fraction below
the fatigue strength of the metal. However, since it is a conservative methodology, it usually results in a heavier
design than some of the later methodologies.
1. Unlimited safety is the oldest criterion.
2. It requires local stresses or strains to be essentially elastic and safely below the fatigue limit.
3. For parts subjected to many millions of cycles, like engine valve springs, this is still a good design
criterion.
4. This criterion may not be economical (i.e. global competitiveness) or practical (i.e. excessive weight of
aircraft) in many design situations.
Safe-life design:
Safe-life design is based on the assumption that the part is initially flaw-free and has a fine life in which to
develop a critical crack size. Like the infinite-life methodology, safe-life assumes an initial flaw-free component.
This methodology was developed to account for parts that were subjected to higher loads that produced plastic
strains. Under these conditions, the description of local events in terms of strain made more sense and resulted in the
development of assessment techniques that used strain as a determining quantity, that is, log strain (e) versus log
number of cycles (N). The failure criterion is usually the detection of a small crack or some equivalent measure
related to a substantial change in load-deflection response, although failure may also be defined as fracture.
1. The practice of designing for a finite life is known as "safe-life" design.
2. It is used in many industries, for instance automotive industry, in pressure vessel design, and in jet engine
design.
3. The calculations may be based on stress-life, strain-life, or crack growth relations.
4. Ball bearings and roller bearings are examples of safe-life design.

Fail-Safe Design:
The fail-safe design philosophy assumes that fatigue cracks will be detected and repaired before they lead
to failure. This methodology was developed in the aircraft industry where large safety margins were weight-
prohibitive. Fail-safe designs incorporate multiple load paths and crack stoppers in the structure. In other words, if a
primary load path fails, the load will be picked up by an alternate load path to prevent the structure from failing. A
major part of this methodology is rigid certification criteria along with the capability to detect and inspect cracks.
1. Fail-safe design requires that if one part fails, the system does not fail.
2. Fail-safe design recognizes that fatigue cracks may occur and structures are arranged so that cracks will not
lead to failure of the structure before they are detected and repaired.

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3. Multiple load paths, load transfer between members, crack stoppers built at intervals into the structure, and
inspection are some of the means used to achieve fail-safe design.
Damage-tolerant design:
It is the latest design methodology and is an extension of fail-safe design. The refinement of the damage-
tolerant methodology is the assumption that structures do contain cracks and that fracture mechanics approaches can
be used to determine crack growth rates. If the crack growth rate can be calculated, it is then possible to inspect the
structure at various intervals and either repair or retire it prior to the crack reaching critical dimensions. Although
much progress has been made in the design against fatigue failures, they still occur with disturbing frequency. For
any design, it is imperative that part or component testing be conducted prior to placing the part in service. In
addition, it is important that the test conditions are representative of the actual environment that the component will
experience in service.
1. This philosophy is a refinement of the fail-safe philosophy.
2. It assumes that cracks will exist, caused either by processing or by fatigue, and uses fracture mechanics
analyses and tests to check whether such cracks will grow large enough to produce failures before they are
detected by periodic inspection.
3. Three key items are needed for successful damage-tolerant design:
a. residual strength,
b. fatigue crack growth behavior, and crack detection involving non-destructive inspection.

2.8 Approaches to Fatigue:

2.8.1 Stress-Life Approach (S - N):
Stress life or S-N method was the first method used for fatigue calculation. It was the standard fatigue
design method for 100 years. Stress-life approach is an empirical method, which uses stress-cycle (S-N) curves to
determine the fatigue or endurance limit (i.e. maximum fluctuating stress a material can endure for an infinite
number of cycles without causing failure) of a material or structure.
In this approach, the adhesive joint is subjected to fatigue loading at different load (stress) levels
relative to the joints quasi-static failure load measured at a rate equivalent to the frequency of the cyclic loading. It
is possible to determine an average stress (taken as the applied load divided by the overlap area), however this is
misleading as the average stress may be significantly lower than the stresses present at the ends of the joint overlap.
Stress Cycles:
Before looking in more detail at the nominal stress procedure it is worth considering the general types of
cyclic stresses which contribute to the fatigue process.

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Graph 1: Fully Reversed

Graph 2: Offset

Graph 3: Random

In Graph 1 a fully-reversed stress cycle with a sinusoidal form. This is an idealized loading condition
typical of that found in rotating shafts operating at constant speed without overloads. For this kind of stress cycle,
the maximum and minimum stresses are of equal magnitude but opposite sign. Usually tensile stress is considered to
be positive and compressive stress negative. Graph 2 illustrates the more general situation where the maximum and
minimum stresses are not equal. In this case they are both tensile and so define an offset for the cyclic
loading. Graph 3 illustrates a more complex, random loading pattern which is more representative of the cyclic
stresses found in real structures.

From the above, it is clear that a fluctuating stress cycle can be considered to be made up of two
components, a static or steady state stress σn, and an alternating or variable stress amplitude, σa. It is also often
necessary to consider the stress range, σr, which is the algebraic difference between the maximum and minimum
stress in a cycle.

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σr = σmax - σmin (2)

The stress amplitude, σa, then is one half the stress range

σa = σr /2 = ( σmax - σmin )/2 (3)

The mean stress, is the algebraic mean of the maximum and minimum stress in the cycle

σm = (σmax + σmin) / 2 (4)

Two ratios are often defined for the representation of mean stress, the stress or R ratio, and the amplitude ratio A.

R = σmin / σmax (5)

A = (3)/ (2) = σa / σm = (1-R) / (1+R) (6)

Basic definitions:
Average stress:
This is the mean stress. As you increase the mean stress, you move your point to the right on your
Goodman Diagram which will eventually cause that point move above the Goodman Line
Stress amplitude:
This is the alternating stress. As you increase the alternating stress the point moves up on your Goodman
Diagram which will eventually cause that point to move above the Goodman Line.
Residual (tensile) Stress:
This is a shift to the right on your diagram. A residual tensile stress will simply increase the mean stress.
(A residual compressive stress is a shift to the left - that is the reason for shot-peening)
The S-N Curve:
Between 1852 and 1870, the German railway engineer August Wöhler set up and conducted the first
systematic fatigue investigation.

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Graph 4: Data reported by Wohler

Graph 5: Idealized Form of the S-N Curve

When plotted on log-log scales, the relationship between alternating stress (Sa), and number of cycles to failure (N)
can be described by a straight line.

Limits of the S-N Curve:

S-N approach is applicable to situations where cyclic loading is essentially elastic.
Mean Stress Consideration:
The standard S-N Curve used for fatigue calculations is based on pure alternating load (Constant
Amplitude). Mean stress for this test is zero. Presence of mean stress affects the results and should be considered in
the design. Mean stress would be present for all the loading conditions other than pure alternating. It is also
generated due to processes like rolling or heat treatment, bolt pre-stresses or constant (dead weight) loading
applications. Tensile mean stress decreases life while compressive mean stress increase the life. Various Curves
(theories) are in used for consideration of tensile mean stress effect as shown in graph 6. Goodman Curve is most
commonly used due to mathematical simplicity and slightly conservative results.

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Graph 6: Goodman diagram

Soderberg : σa / σen + σm / σy = 1 (7)

Goodman: σa / σen + σm / σu = 1 (8)

Gerber: σa /σen + (σm /σu)2 = 1 (9)

Miner's Rule:
Formulae discussed so far were based on the assumption of constant amplitude loading. Miner's rule is used
for calculating the damage for variable amplitude loading.

Graph 7: Miner’s Rule Curve

Total damage = ∑ n/N (10)

n = applied cycles

N = cycles to failure

Types of stresses used for fatigue Calculations:

Commercial Softwares provide option for maximum principal, VonMises as well as maximum Shear stress.
Fatigue calculations are based on absolute maximum principal stress or Signed VonMises or Signed maximum
Shear stress.
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Signed Principal stress or absolute Principal stress:

This term is commonly used in fatigue analysis. Fatigue calculations are based on amplitude and mean
stress. It has been observed that if the calculations are just based on only maximum principal stress or only
minimum principal stress then stress range (σmax - σmin) is less and leads to higher fatigue life. Remedy is to find
maximum value out of the two at a point over given period of time and then find the stress range or amplitude and
mean stress based on this data.

Signed VonMises stress:

VonMises and maximum shear stress values are always positive. If these values are used for fatigue
calculations then stress range would be reduced to half resulting in higher fatigue life. Remedy is to find sign of
absolute principal stress at the point at a give time instance and assign it to corresponding value of VonMises or
maximum shear stress.

2.8.2 Strain-Life Approach (E - N):

Strain life approach is also known as Crack Initiation approach or Local Stress Strain approach or Critical
Location approach. This method calculates crack initiation life. It is considered for plastic strain and recommended
to Low Cycle fatigue.
In the High Cycle fatigue region, stress and strain levels are low and they are linearly related. The nominal
stress approach has been used extensively in the study of premature failures of components subjected to fluctuating
loads. Traditionally, the magnitude of the observed cyclic stresses were observed to be less than the tensile elastic
limit and the lives long (i.e., greater than about 105 cycles). This pattern of behaviour has become known as high-
cycle fatigue.

Graph 8: Strain amplitude Vs Reversal to failure

σa = σf (2Nf )b (11)

σa = True cyclic stress amplitude

σf = σa intercept at 2Nf = 1, known as fatigue strength coefficient

2Nf = Number of reversals for failure

b = Slope known as fatigue strength coefficient

c = Regression slope called fatigue ductility exponent

E= young's modulus

Total Strain ( Єt ) = Elastic Strain ( Єe ) + Plastic Strain ( Єp )

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Єe = σ/E (12)

Plastic strain as per Ramberg-Osgood empirical formula

Єp = (σ/k)1/n (13)

k = Strength coefficient

n = Strain hardening exponent

Steps for Strain - life calculations:

1. Material properties obtained from smooth specimen strain controlled test ( cyclic stress strain data and
strain life data).
2. Stress Strain history at the critical location.
3. cycle counting
4. Mean Stress correction
5. Damage calculations

The E-N approach uses fatigue tests, subjected to various types of cyclic loading, such as small-scale
bending, torsion, tension and compression to measure fatigue life. The results are plotted in terms of strain (Є) vs.
cycles to failure (N) on an E-N diagram.
When a stress-strain hysteresis loop is closed, then the strain range and mean stress are reverted
and the damage calculated using the E-N curve modified for mean stress correction. The analysis was carried out
over the whole strain time signal until all the cycles have been extracted and the total damage evaluated. The
transition from low-cycle to high-cycle fatigue behaviour generally occurs in the range 104 to 105 cycles.

Graph 10: Hysterisis Loop

∆σ = Stress Range

∆Є = Total Strain Range

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Є∆e = Elastic Strain Range

Є∆p = Plastic Strain Range

Area inside the loop = dissipated energy per unit volume (plastic work done)

2.8.3 Fracture Mechanics Approach:

Fracture mechanics is the study of mechanical behaviour of cracked materials subjected to an applied load.
The fracture mechanics approach has three important variables:
a. Applied Stress
b. Flaw Size
c. Fracture Toughness

Figure 3: Fracture Mechanics Approach

Fracture mechanics is used for calculating remaining life after crack initiation that is crack propagation
life. There are two methods namely:

Linear Elastic Fracture Mechanics (LEFM):

Linear Elastic Fracture Mechanics (LEFM) first assumes that the material is isotropic and linear elastic.
Based on the assumption, the stress field near the crack tip is calculated using the theory of elasticity. When the
stresses near the crack tip exceed the material fracture toughness, the crack will grow.
The Griffith Energy Balance:

According to the First Law of Thermodynamics, when a system goes from a non-equilibrium state to
equilibrium, there will be a net decrease in energy. In 1920 Griffith applied this idea to the formation of a crack.
Griffith observed that the strain energy in a body is partly released by the propagation of a crack. At the same time,
new surfaces are created in the body, which are associated with a certain surface energy, which in turn is
characteristic for a material. According to Griffith, a necessary condition for failure is that the released strain energy,
corresponding to a certain crack growth, is greater than the consumed surface energy. Griffith considered a plane
plate of a linear elastic material with a through-thickness crack of length 2a, Fig 4.

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Figure 4: Griffith Crack

Griffith determined the elastic strain energy U (a) as a function of crack length for a plate with crack:

U (a) = U0 – Πσ2a2/E (14)

Where U0 is the strain energy in the plate without regard to the crack, σ the nominal stress in the crack
plane and E is Young’s modulus.

Through crack growth, material close to the newly formed crack surfaces is unloaded and the
corresponding elastic energy released. The energy released per unit length of crack growth at a crack tip, or the
crack extension force G, is:

G = -dU(a)/da = Πσ2a2/E (15)

The energy required per unit crack length is called the critical crack extension force Gc. The condition for
fracture is then G = Gc that is fracture occurs at a critical value of the crack extension force. Thus it can be
concluded that failure occurs when the stress, crack length and critical crack extension force are related as follows:

Gc = Πσ2ac / E (16)

Where σ is the nominal or critical stress at fracture and ac the critical crack length.

Stress Intensity Factor:

While the energy-balance approach provides a great deal of insight to the fracture process, an alternative
method that examines the stress state near the tip of a sharp crack directly has proven more useful in engineering
practice.

Figure 5: Three basic modes of crack tip deformation. (a) mode I-opening; (b) mode II-sliding; (c)
mode III-tearing

Table 1: Stress intensity factor

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Type of crack Stress Intensity Factor, K

Edge Crack, length a, in a semi- infinite Plate 1.12σ√Πa

Central Penny Shaped Crack, radius a, in 2σ√a/Π

infinite body

Center Crack, length 2a in plate of width W σ √ W tan( Πa/W)

Two symmetrical edge cracks, each length a, in σ √W[tan (Πa/W) + 0.1 sin (2Πa/W)]
plate of total width W

Stress Intensity Factor K = Yσ(Πa)1/2 ( Paris Erdogan Equation) (17)

Where Y = Geometry Function

a = Crack length

σ = Nominal Stress

Elastic Plastic Fracture Mechanics (EPFM):Elastic Plastic Fracture Mechanics (EPFM) assumes isotropic
and elastic-plastic materials. Based on the assumption, the strain energy fields or opening displacement near the
crack tips are calculated. When the energy or opening exceeds the critical value, the crack will grow.

If a specimen is unloaded before the yield strength was attained, the unloading curve is identical to the
loading curve; see graph 11 after unloading, the specimen returns to its original shape, without any permanent
deformation. A material is said to flow when deformed beyond the yield strength. Consider a specimen loaded to the
point A in graph 13 and then unloaded. The unloading will not follow the loading curve backward, but instead a
linear curve with the same slope as the initial, elastic curve. The unloading curve is in fact elastic. After unloading a
permanent or plastic deformation remains in the material

σ LEFM

Linear Elastic

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Graph 11: Linear Elastic Curve

σ EPFM

Non-Linear Elastic

Graph 12: Non-Linear Curve

Elastic-Plastic

Graph 13: Elastic-Plastic Curve

Rate of Crack Propagation: da/dN = C (∆K)m (18)

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Where da/dN = Current rate of Crack Propagation,

c and m are material constants

For automobile industries usually detection of crack itself is considered as failure and the subject is more
important for airplanes designs and maintenance. In strength of materials we assume material is free from all the
defects, In fracture mechanics the starting point itself is to assume presence of a finite length crack.

Strength of materials deals with stresses developed due to various forces and moments while fracture
mechanics is all about calculating stress intensity factor and crack growth rate.

3. Modelling
Modeling of Wing-Bracket Interaction:

Airfoil Design:

For designing an airfoil key points are mandatory. We have chosen NACA 2412 airfoil for our project
purpose. NACA 2412 airfoil is a semi-symmetric and has maximum lift values around 1.93. The step by step
procedure for designing NACA 2412 airfoil is as follows.

Step 1: Importing key points into CATIA using EXCEL sheet:

CATIA has a flexibility of providing us EXCEL sheet with “GSD_SplinefromloftFromExcel”. Open the
sheet and paste the key points in EXCEL sheet as shown in figure 6.

Figure 6: Key points of NACA 2412

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Use MACRO’S in view option and choose as shown in figure 7 below. Then click RUN. Select option 2 for plotting
key points with spline. Key points will be plotted in the CATIA work bench. Before this command we have to open
CATIA in sketcher workbench. Figure 8 shows the image of airfoil with key points.

Figure 7: Macro Dialogue box

Figure 8: 2D NACA 2412 Airfoil

Step 2: Extruding key points:

Next exit the work bench and use PAD option to add material along perpendicular direction (EXTRUDE).
Thickness of the airfoil we have chosen here is 0.2mm. Figure 9 show the image of solid NACA 2412 airfoil.

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Figure 9: Airfoil with Thickness 0.2mm

Step 3: Giving Holes:

In sketcher, using circle and constraints three circles are drawn on airfoil. Figure 10 gives clear idea of
dimensions. Distance between holes is maintained 0.25mm. Hole diameter are 0.05mm, 0.04mm, 0.03mm
respectively.

Figure 10: Creating Holes

Exit the work bench and select pocket to give holes with respective diameter. Figure 11 gives the complete picture
of NACA 2412 airfoil with holes.

Figure 11: Airfoil with Holes

The above figures clearly give the design criteria we have chosen in this project for wing fuselage interaction. This
ends up airfoil design. Next step is modelling of 0.05 mm, 0.04mm, 0.03mm cylinders.

Assembly of stringers into airfoil:

Step 1: Modelling of Stringers:

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In this section we first draw three circles with 0.05mm, 0.04mm and 0.03mm diameter. By using PAD option in part
design we extrude these three circles to a length of 1.75mm forming 1.75mm length cylinders. These cylinders
represent stringers in actual aircraft. Here we are representing with solid 1.75mm length cylinders. The cylinders of
diameters 0.05, 0.04, 0.03
respectively of each of the
cylinders are shown below
Figure 12,13,14.

Figure 12: Cylinder of diameter 0.05mm

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Figure 14: Cylinder of diameter 0.03mm

Step 2: Assembling of cylinders (stringers) with NACA 2412 airfoils:

To combine to parts we use assembly work bench. In assembly work bench we insert each part one by one.
Initially we inserted 0.05 mm cylinder using “Insert existing part with position”. By using coincidence command
gave coincidence between the airfoil 0.05mm hole and cylinder as shown in figure 15.

Figure 15: Assembly of 0.05mm Cylinder and airfoil

Similarly 0.04mm and 0.03mm cylinders are inserted into the airfoil. By using MANIPULATION option
the airfoil is adjusted. Figures 16,17 shows the assembly of 0.04mm and 0.03mm cylinders.

Figure 16: Assembly of 0.04mm cylinder and airfoil

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Figure 17: Assembly of 0.03mm cylinder and airfoil

The above figures 15,16,17 clearly give us an idea of inserting cylinders into airfoils. With this we have
completed a part of our model. But to support the length of the rod we have created 7 respective number of similar
airfoils. To move on to creating multiple airfoils we go into assembly work bench choose MULTI
INSTANTIATION. In this select the distance between the airfoils with respect to the length and number of such
airfoils required such that cylinders are equally balanced as shown in figure 18.

Figure 18: Assembly of series of airfoils and cylinders

After completing the design of wing consisting of Stringers (circular cylinders) and multi airfoils (2412) the
next step is designing of BRACKET.

Bracket Design:

Step 3: Sketch of Bracket:

Dimensions of the bracket are taken in such a way that the length of airfoil must be equal to middle part of
bracket so that these two are assembled without any correction. Middle length of bracket is exactly equal to airfoil
length i.e., 1mm. Height of bracket is 0.30mm. Thickness of the bracket is 0.02mm. Fillet is same in four corners
having a radius of 0.015mm. The design of bracket is shown in below figure 19. The distance between holes is 0.20,
0.25, and 0.25.

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Figure 19: 2D bracket

The above 2D bracket has given a thickness of 0.02mm and length of 0.15mm using PAD option in part
design. Below figure 20 shows the 3D image of bracket. Then holes are made on both ends using pocket tool.

Figure 20: 3D bracket with holes

Assembly of Airfoil and Bracket:

This is the final assembly which is complicated. For assembling we insert individual parts of “multiple
airfoils with cylinders” and “bracket” using “existing component with positioning”. We have two procedures for
assembling these two components. One method is by using manipulation tool and other method is to give
coincidence of bracket with airfoil cylinders and then using manipulation tool. The second method is easy compared
to first method. The final model of wing and fuselage interaction through bracket is shown in below figure 21.

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Figure 21: Final Model

This model is imported into ansys for analysis which will be discussed in the next chapters. The complete
model is solid model made using “sketcher, part design, Assembly work benches”.

4. Analysis
4.1 Model Analysis:
Preference>Structural
Pre-Processor:
Preprocessor>Element type>Add>Solid>20 node 95
Preprocessor>Material Props>Material Models>Structural>Linear>Elastic>Isotropic
EX=2.1.e5
PRXY=0.3
Preprocessor>Material Props>Material Models>Structural>Density>8.1e-6
Meshing:
Meshing was done in hypermesh.

Figure 22: Meshed part of Wing Bracket interaction model

Solution:
Solution>Analysis Type>New Analysis>Modal
Solution>Analysis Type>Analysis Options>
No. of modes to extract = 6
No. of modes to expand = 6
Solution>Solve>Current LS
General Postproc:
General Postproc>Results Summary
General Postproc>Read Results>By First Set

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General Postproc>Plot Results>Contour Plot>Nodal Solution>DOF>Displacement Vector Sum

Figure 23: First mode of Frequency

General Postproc>Read Results>By Next Set
General Postproc>Plot results>Contour Plot>Nodal Solution>DOF>Displacement Vector Sum

Figure 24: Second mode of Frequency

General Postproc>Read Results>By Next Set

General Postproc>Plot results>Contour Plot>Nodal Solution>DOF>Displacement Vector Sum

Figure 25: 4.21 Third mode of Frequency

General Postproc>Read Results>By Next Set
General Postproc>Plot results>Contour Plot>Nodal Solution>DOF>Displacement Vector Sum

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Figure 26: 4.22 Fourth Mode of Frequency

General Postproc>Read Results>By Next Set
General Postproc>Plot results>Contour Plot>Nodal Solution>DOF>Displacement Vector Sum

Figure 27: Fifth mode of Frequency

General Postproc>Read Results>By Next Set
General Postproc>Plot results>Contour Plot>Nodal Solution>DOF>Displacement Vector Sum

Figure 28: Sixth mode of Frequency

4.2 Fatigue Analysis:
Maraging Steel:
Preferences>Structural
Pre-Processor:
Preprocessor>Element type>Add>Solid>20 node95
Preprocessor>Material Props>Material Models>Structural> Density>8.1e-6
Preprocessor>Material Props>Material Models>Structural>Linear>Elastic>Isotropic>
EX=2.1e5

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PRXY=0.3
Meshing:
Meshing was done in hypermesh

Figure 29: Meshed part of Wing Bracket interaction model

Solution:
Solution>Analysis Type>New Analysis>Static
Solution>Analysis Type>Sol'n Controls>Basic>Check Prestress effects
Solution>Define Loads>Apply>Structural>Displacements>On nodes>
Pick bracket holes and cylinders edges and select All DOF

Figure 30: Model with Boundary Conditions

Solution>Define Loads>Apply>Structural>Pressure>On nodes>
Pick all the leading edges of the airfoil and provide pressure value as 1MPa

Figure 31: Modal with Pressure force of 1Mpa

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Solution>Load Step Opts>Write LS file>1

Solution>Solve>Current LS
General Postproc:
General Postproc>Plot Results>Contour Plot>Nodal Solution>DOF>Displacement Vector Sum

Figure 32: Displacement Vector Sum

General Postproc>Plot Results>Contour Plot>Nodal Solution>Stress>1st Principal Stress

Figure 33: First Principal Stress

General Postproc>Plot Results>Contour Plot>Nodal Solution>Stress>3rd Principal Stress

Figure 34: Third Principal Stress

General Postproc>Plot Results>Contour Plot>Nodal Solution>Stress>VonMisesstress

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Figure 35: VonMises Stress

Titanium:
Preferences>Structural
Pre-Processor:
Preprocessor>Element type>Add>Solid>20 node95
Preprocessor>Material Props>Material Models>Structural> Density>4.4e-6
Preprocessor>Material Props>Material Models>Structural>Linear>Elastic>Isotropic>
EX=1.1e5
PRXY=0.32
Meshing:
Meshing was done in hypermesh

Figure 36: Meshed part of Wing Bracket interaction model

Solution:
Solution>Analysis Type>New Analysis>Static
Solution>Analysis Type>Sol'n Controls>Basic>Check Prestress effects
Solution>Define Loads>Apply>Structural>Displacements>On nodes>
Pick bracket holes and cylinders edges and select All DOF

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Figure 37: Model with Boundary Conditions

Solution>Define Loads>Apply>Structural>Pressure>On nodes>
Pick all the leading edges of the airfoil and provide pressure value as 1MPa

Figure 38: Modal with Pressure force of 1Mpa

Solution>Load Step Opts>Write LS file>1
Solution>Solve>Current LS
General Postproc:
General Postproc>Plot Results>Contour Plot>Nodal Solution>DOF>Displacement Vector Sum

Figure 39: Displacement Vector Sum

General Postproc>Plot Results>Contour Plot>Nodal Solution>Stress>1st Principal Stress

Figure 40: First Principal Stress

General Postproc>Plot Results>Contour Plot>Nodal Solution>Stress>3rd Principal Stress

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Figure 41: Third Principal Stress

General Postproc>Plot Results>Contour Plot>Nodal Solution>Stress>VonMises stress

Figure 42: VonMises Stress

Structural A36 Steel:

Preferences>Structural
Pre-processor:

Preprocessor>Element type>Add>Solid>20 node95

Preprocessor>Material Props>Material Models>Structural> Density>7.8e-6
Preprocessor>Material Props>Material Models>Structural>Linear>Elastic>Isotropic>
EX=2e5
PRXY=0.26
Meshing:
Meshing was done in hypermesh

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Figure 43: Meshed part of Wing Bracket interaction model

Solution:
Solution>Analysis Type>New Analysis>Static
Solution>Analysis Type>Sol'n Controls>Basic>Check Prestress effects
Solution>Define Loads>Apply>Structural>Displacements>On nodes>
Pick bracket holes and cylinders edges and select All DOF

Figure 44: Model with Boundary Conditions

Solution>Define Loads>Apply>Structural>Pressure>On nodes>
Pick all the leading edges of the airfoil and provide pressure value as 1MPa

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Figure 45: Modal with Pressure force of 1Mpa

Solution>Load Step Opts>Write LS file>1
Solution>Solve>Current LS
General Postproc:
General Postproc>Plot Results>Contour Plot>Nodal Solution>DOF>Displacement Vector Sum

Figure 46: Displacement Vector Sum

General Postproc>Plot Results>Contour Plot>Nodal Solution>Stress>1st Principal Stress

Figure 47: First Principal Stress

General Postproc>Plot Results>Contour Plot>Nodal Solution>Stress>3rd Principal Stress

Figure 48: Third Principal Stress

General Postproc>Plot Results>Contour Plot>Nodal Solution>Stress>VonMises stress

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Figure 49: VonMises Stress

5. Calculations
5.1 For Maraging Steel:
Yield Strength Sy = 2617Mpa

Ultimate Strength Su = 2693Mpa

Endurance limit from guide lines Se1 = 0.504*Su

= 1357.272

Surface Finish Factor Ka = a*Su^b

= 0.10507121

Size Factor Kb = (d/7.62)^-0.1133

= 0.856185089

Load Type Factor Kc = 0.577

Temperature Factor Kd = ST/SRT = 1

Miscellaneous effects factor Ke = 1/Kf = 1

Endurance Limit for machine element under investigation Se = Se1+Ka+Kb+Kc+Kd+Ke

= 1360.810256

Graph axis

0 2693

2617 0

From analysis

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Sa =14.605

Sm =26.375

Graph 14: Goodman Diagram for Maraging Steel

Life Cycle Calculations:

Log(0.9*Su) = 3.384478863

Log(Se) = 3.130434545

Log(Sf) = 1.421192468

LogN = 26.18437681

N = 152,889,199,106,666,000,000,000,000.00

For Titanium:
Yield Strength Sy = 940 Mpa

Ultimate Strength Su = 1040 Mpa

Endurance limit from guide lines Se1 = 0.504*Su

= 524.16

Surface Finish Factor Ka = a*Su^b

= 0.270782586

Size Factor Kb = (d/7.62)^-0.1133

= 0.856185089

Load Type Factor Kc = 0.577

Temperature Factor Kd = ST/SRT = 1

Miscellaneous effects factor Ke = 1/Kf = 1

Endurance Limit for machine element under investigation Se = Se1+Ka+Kb+Kc+Kd+Ke

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= 527.8639677

Graph axis

0 1040

940 0

From analysis

Sa =14.373

Sm =27.798

Graph 15: Goodman Diagram for Titanium

Life Cycle Calculations:

Log(0.9*Su) = 2.971275849

Log(Se) = 2.719176521

Log(Sf) = 1.444013551

LogN = 21.17453041

N = 1,494,618,711,403,670,000,000.00

For Structural A36 Steel:

Yield Strength Sy = 250 Mpa

Ultimate Strength Su = 500 Mpa

Endurance limit from guide lines Se1 = 0.504*Su

= 252

Surface Finish Factor Ka = a*Su^b

= 0.561169101

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Size Factor Kb = (d/7.62)^-0.1133

= 0.856185089

Load Type Factor Kc = 0.577

Temperature Factor Kd = ST/SRT = 1

Miscellaneous effects factor Ke = 1/Kf = 1

Endurance Limit for machine element under investigation Se = Se1+Ka+Kb+Kc+Kd+Ke

= 255.9943542

Graph axis

0 500

250 0

From analysis

Sa =14.795

Sm =25.462

Graph 16: Goodman Diagram for structural A36 Steel

Life Cycle Calculations:

Log(0.9*Su) = 2.653212514

Log(Se) = 2.404514376

Log(Sf) = 1.405892514

LogN = 18.04619226

N = 1,112,223,991,350,500,000.00

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6. Results and Discussions

Graph 17: S-N curve

The Region of high cycle, low cycle, finite life and infinite life is clearly shown in graph 5.1. This is the main graph
which determines the fatigue life of the component. If our component is in low cycle region then we have to
consider strain-life approach. If our component is in high cycle region then we consider stress-life approach. Our
wing-bracket interaction model is in high cycle region so we considered stress-life approach which in turn tells that
our component is in infinite life region.
Here we have shown the fatigue life of our wing-bracket interaction with three materials such as Maraging Steel,
Titanium and Structural A36 Steel with the help of Goodman Diagram.

Graph 18: Goodman Diagram for Maraging steel, Titanium and Structural A36 Steel

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Graph 19: Average stress (Sa) vs Mean stress (Sm)

7. Conclusion
The model we designed looks very simple and easy to understand. Actually it is not conventional wing Bracket
interaction. But we have used new Bracket to wing fuselage interaction. We Compared the Fatigue Life of our Wing
Bracket Interaction model with three materials Maraging steel, Titanium and Structural A36 Steel. Our model is
based on stress based approach which involves high cycle fatigue. This is clearly explained with the help of S-N
curve.
Among these three materials Fatigue Life of Wing Bracket Interaction with Maraging steel gives more Fatigue Life
Compare to Titanium and Structural A36 Steel. Pressure loads we have applied are 1Mpa.
Finally we conclude that our wing bracket interaction is a SAFE-LIFE structure in infinite safe zone.

Table 2: Comparison between materials

Maraging Titanium Structural A36
Steel Steel

Young's 210Gpa 110Gpa 200Gpa

Modulus

Poisson's 0.30 0.32 0.26

Ratio

Density 8.1gm/cm3 4.43gm/cm3 7.8gm/cm3

Yield Strength 2617Mpa 940Mpa 250Mpa

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Ultimate 2693Mpa 1040Mpa 500Mpa

Strength

Endurance 1360.810 527.863 255.994

Limit

Average Stress 14.605 14.373 14.795

(Sa)

Mean Stress 26.375 27.798 25.462

(Sm)

VonMises 37.232 36.078 38.075

Stress

Fatigue Life 1.528 x 1026 1.494 x 1021 1.112 x 1018

8. Future Scope
Results indicate that the model we have designed is simple and can be used for both small as well as large aircraft as
the materials can with stand different types of loads and weight balance is also perfect. This type of fitting mainly
will increase the life span of the material and study of fracture mechanics gives us the crack propagation. This crack
propagation can be obtained with the help of FE FATIGUE soft-ware.

9. References
1. "Mechanical Engineering Design", "Shigley", "McGraw-Hill", "9th Edition", "2011".
2. "Machine Design- An Integrated Approach", "Robert L. Norton", "Pearson Education India", "3rd Edition",
"2000".
3. "Aircraft Structures for Engineering Students", "T.H.G Megson", "Butterworth-Heinemann", "4th
Edition", "2007".
4. "Fundamentals of metal fatigue analysis", "J.A. Bannantine, J.J.COmer, J.L.Handrock", "Prentice Hall",
"1st Edition", "1989".
5. "Finite Element based Fatigue Calculations", "Dr. N.W.M. Bishop, Dr. F. Sherrat", "Glasgow, U.K
:Nafems", "1st Edition", "2000".
6. "Fatigue Testing and Analysis - Theory of practice", "yung-Li Lee, Jwo Pan,Richard Hathaway", "
Butterworth-Heinemann", "1st Edition", "2004".

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7. "Failure Fracture Fatigue, An introduction", "Tore Dahlberg, Anders Ekberg", "Studentlitteratur AB", "1st
Edition", "2002".
8. "Elementary Engineering Fracture Mechanics", "D.Broek, Martinus Nijhoff, The Hague", " Springer", "4th
Edition", "1986".
9. "Design and Analysis of Fatigue Resistant Welded Structures", "D. Radaj", "Woodhead", "1st Edition",
"1990".
10. "Stress Determination for Fatigue Analysis of Welded Components", "E.Niemi", "Woodhead", "1st
Edition", "1995".
11. "Manual on Statistical Planning and Analysis for Fatigue Experiments", " R.E. Little", "ASTM
International", "1st Edition", "1975".
12. "Fatigue and Corrosion in Metals", " P.P.Milella", "Springer", " 1st Edition", "2013".

13. "Fatigue testing and analysis under variable amplitude loading conditions", "Peter C..
McKeighan, Narayanaswami Ranganatha", " ASTM International", "2nd Edition", "2005".

14. "Fatigue of structures and materials", "Horace J. Grover", "Springer", "2nd Edition", "2009".
15. "Full-scale fatigue testing of aircraft structures: proceedings", "Frederik Johan Plantema, J. Schijve",
"Symposium Publications”, "1st Edition", "1961".
16. "Mechanics and Mechanisms of Fracture: An Introduction", "A.F.Liu", "ASM international", "2nd
Edition", "2005".
17. "Comprehensive Structural Integrity: Cyclic loading and fatigue", " I. Milne, Robert O. Ritchie, B. L.
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