CHAPTER 1 ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEMS

1.1 Definition of Environment

‘Environment’ is a term derived from the French word ‘Environner’ that means ‘to surround’. There was a
time when environment just meant surroundings. It was used to describe the physical world surrounding us
including soil, rocks, water and air. As per Environment Protection Acts, environment includes all the
physical and biological surroundings of an organism along with their interactions. Environment is thus
defined as “the sum total of water, air and land and the inter-relationships that exist among them and with the
human beings, other living organisms and materials.”

1.1 Manmade Environmental Problems related to Natural Resources

Life on this planet earth depends upon a large number of things and services provided by the nature, which
are known as Natural resources. Thus water, air, soil, minerals, coal, forests, crops and wild life are all
examples of natural resources. Exploiting excess of the resources by man may result in deficiency in the
availability of these resources. The natural resources can be classified as follows;

THE MAJOR NATURAL RESOURCES

(i) Forest resources (iv) Food resources
(ii) Water resources (v) Energy resources
(iii) Mineral resources (vi) Land resources.

1.1.1 FOREST RESOURCES:

Forests are one of the most important natural resources on this earth. Covering the earth like a green blanket
these forests not only produce innumerable material goods, but also provide several environmental services
which are essential for life.

Importance of Forest

 Ecological Balance  Wind Erosion

 Renewable Natural Resources  Check the Erosion
 Economic Development  Creates Rainfall
 Environment Quality  Control Floods
 Safeguard against Pollution  Linked with Cultural and Civilization
 Soil Conservation  Supply of Raw Material
OVER CONSUMPTION ON FORESTS REASONS
Population is increasing tremendously. Meeting its ever-increasing demand has resulted in overconsumption of
forests. Fuel wood, Timber and Pulpwood, Wood for Packing Purposes, Paper Board and Newsprint are one of
the major source for deforestation. Deforestation is the process of felling and turning forests into barren land.
Problems due to Deforestation
 Loss of future markets for ecotourism.  Food problems
 The environmental change may make some  Ecological imbalance
species disappear  Increasing CO2
 Changes in the microclimate  Floods leading to soil erosion
 Loss of biodiversity  Destruction of resources
 Most humid regions changes to desert  Heavy siltation of dams
 Environmental pollution  Global warming

1.1.2 Water resource

Water covers 70% -75% of earth’s surface of which 97.2% is locked in sea and oceans, 3% is fresh water,
2.15% in polar ice caps, and less than 1% available as surface and sub surface water (rivers, streams, lakes)
with which we have to manage ourselves. Water is renewable resource.
Main sources of water for our use are:
1) Groundwater
About 9.86% of the total fresh water resources is in the form of groundwater and it is about 35-50 times that
of surface water supplies. A layer of sediment or rock that is highly permeable and contains water is called an
aquifer. Layers of sand and gravel are good aquifers while clay and crystalline rocks (like granite) are not
since they have low permeability. Aquifers may be of two types:

 Unconfined aquifers which are overlaid by permeable earth materials and they are recharged by water
seeping down from above in the form of rainfall and snow melt.
 Confined aquifers which are sand witched between two impermeable layers of rock or sediments and
are recharged only in those areas where the aquifer intersects the land surface

Effects of Groundwater Usage:

i) Subsidence: When groundwater withdrawal is more than its recharge rate, the sediments in the aquifer
get compacted, a phenomenon known as ground subsidence
ii) Lowering of water table: Mining of groundwater is done extensively in arid and semi-arid regions for
irrigating crop fields. However, it is not advisable to do excessive mining as it would cause a sharp
decline in future agricultural production, due to lowering of water table.

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 iii) Water logging: When excessive irrigation is done with brackish water it raises the water table
gradually leading to water-logging and salinity problems.

2) Surface water
The water coming through precipitation (rainfall, snow) when does not percolate down into the ground or does
not return to the atmosphere as evaporation or transpiration loss, assumes the form of streams, lakes, ponds,
wetlands or artificial reservoirs known as surface water. The surface water is largely used for irrigation,
industrial use, public water supply, navigation etc.

Effects due to Surface Water:

i) Floods: Heavy rainfall often causes floods in the low-lying coastal areas. Prolonged downpour can
also cause the over-flowing of lakes and rivers resulting into floods. Deforestation, overgrazing,
mining, rapid industrialization, global warming etc. have also contributed largely to a sharp rise in the
incidence of floods, which otherwise is a natural disaster.
ii) Droughts: When annual rainfall is below normal and less than evaporation, drought conditions are
created. Ironically, these drought- hit areas are often having a high population growth which leads to
poor land use and makes the situation worse. Anthropogenic causes: Drought is a meteorological
phenomenon, but due to several anthropogenic causes like over grazing, deforestation, mining etc.
there is spreading of the deserts tending to convert more areas to drought affected areas.

1.1.3 Mineral resource

Minerals are naturally occurring, inorganic, crystalline solids having a definite chemical composition and
characteristic physical properties. There are thousands of minerals occurring in different parts of the world.
However, most of the rocks, we see everyday are just composed of a few common minerals like quartz,
feldspar, biotite, dolomite, calcite, laterite etc.
USES AND EXPLOITATION
 Development of industrial plants and  Communication- telephone wires, cables,
machinery. electronic devices.
 Generation of energy e.g. coal, lignite,  Medicinal system
uranium.  Formation of alloys for various purposes (steel).
 Construction, housing, settlements.  Agriculture.as fertilizers, seed dressings and
 Defense equipment’s-weapons, armaments. fungicides (e.g.
 Transportation means.  Jewelry (Gold, silver, platinum, diamond)
.

ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS OF MINERAL EXTRACTION AND USE:

More important environmental concern arises from the impacts of extraction and processing of these minerals
during mining, smelting etc. Mining is done to extract minerals (or fossil fuels) from deep deposits in soil by
using sub-surface mining or from shallow deposits by surface mining. The former method is more destructive,
dangerous and expensive including risks of occupational hazards and accidents.
The environmental damage caused by mining activities are as follows:

(i) DE-vegetation and defacing of landscape: The topsoil as well as the vegetation are removed from the
mining area to get access to the deposit. While large scale deforestation or de-vegetation leads to several
ecological losses, the landscape also gets badly affected. The huge quantities of debris and tailings along with
big scars and disruptions spoil the aesthetic value of the region and make it prone to soil erosion.

(ii) Subsidence of land: This is mainly associated with underground mining. Subsidence of mining areas
often results in tilting of buildings, cracks in houses, buckling of roads, bending of rail tracks and leaking of
gas from cracked pipelines leading to serious disasters.

(iii) Groundwater contamination: Mining disturbs the natural hydrological processes and also pollutes the
groundwater. Sulphur, usually present as an impurity in many ores is known to get converted into sulphuric
acid through microbial action, thereby making the water acidic. Some heavy metals also get leached into the
groundwater and contaminate it posing health hazards.

(iv) Surface water pollution: The acid mine drainage often contaminates the nearby streams and lakes. The
acidic water is detrimental to many forms of aquatic life. Sometimes radioactive substances like uranium also
contaminate the water bodies through mine wastes and kill aquatic animals. Heavy metal pollution of water
bodies near the mining areas is a common feature creating health hazards.

(v) Air pollution: In order to separate and purify the metal from other impurities in the ore, smelting is done
which emits enormous quantities of air pollutants damaging the vegetation nearby and has serious
environmental health impacts. The suspended particulate matter (SPM), Sox, soot, arsenic particles, cadmium,
lead etc. shoot up in the atmosphere near the smelters and the public suffers from several health problems.

(vi) Occupational Health Hazards: Most of the miners suffer from various respiratory and skin diseases due
to constant exposure to the suspended particulate matter and toxic substances. Miners working in different
types of mines suffer from asbestosis, silicosis, black lung disease etc.

1.1.4 ENERGY RESOURCE

A source of energy is one that can provide adequate amount of energy in a usable form over a long period
of time. These sources can be of two types:
 Renewable Energy source
 Non-renewable energy
A source of energy is one that can provide adequate amount of energy in a usable form over a long period
of time. These sources can be of two types:

(1) Renewable Resources which can be generated continuously in nature and are inexhaustible e.g. wood,
solar energy, wind energy, tidal energy, hydropower, biomass energy, bio-fuels, geo-thermal energy and
hydrogen. They are also known as non-conventional sources of energy and they can be used again and
again in an endless manner.

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  Solar energy: Sun is the ultimate source of energy, directly or indirectly for all other forms of
energy. Now we have several techniques for harnessing solar energy. Some important solar energy
harvesting devices such as Solar heat collectors, Solar cells, solar cooker, solar water heater, solar
power plant
 Wind energy: The high speed winds have a lot of energy in them as kinetic energy due to their
motion. The driving force of the winds is the sun. The wind energy is harnessed by making use of
wind mills. The blades of the wind mill keep on rotating continuously due to the force of the
striking wind. The rotational motion of the blades drives a number of machines like water pumps,
flour mills and electric generators
 Hydropower: The water flowing in a river is collected by constructing a big dam where the water is
stored and allowed to fall from a height. The blades of the turbine located at the bottom of the dam
move with the fast moving water which in turn rotate the generator and produces electricity
 Tidal energy: Ocean tides produced by gravitational forces of sun and moon contain enormous
amounts of energy. The high tide and low tide refer to the rise and fall of water in the oceans. A
difference of several meters is required between the height of high and low tide to spin the turbines.
The tidal energy can be harnessed by constructing a tidal barrage. During high tide, the sea-water
flows into the reservoir of the barrage and turns the turbine, which in turn produces electricity by
rotating the generators.
 Geothermal energy: The energy harnessed from the hot rocks present inside the earth is called
geothermal energy. High temperature, high pressure steam fields exist below the earth’s surface in
many places. This heat comes from the fission of radioactive material naturally present in the rocks.
Biomass energy, bio gas, hydrogen gas are also included in renewable source of energy

(2) Non-renewable Resources which have accumulated in nature over a long span of time and cannot be
quickly replenished when exhausted e.g. coal, petroleum, natural gas and nuclear fuels like uranium and
thorium. Coal, Petroleum, natural gas are the nonrenewable energy resources

1.2 ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES RELATED WITH HUMAN ACTIVITIES

1.2.1 Global Warming:

The increase in CO2 content of the environment has been responsible for gradual heating up of our globe,
by a process called greenhouse effect. The CO2 layer acts like a glass cover used for green house which
allows outside heat to enter the green house, but does not allow inside heat to go out. Similar to glass
house, CO2 layer, transparent to short wave radiation from the sun but absorbs longer wave radiation from
earth. The net result is gradual heating up of earth. It is feared that by year 2100, CO2 in our atmosphere is
doubled, leading to 4 degrees rise in world temperature. Such continues warming of earth may cause the
ice to melt at poles. This may cause the rise in sea level by about 0.65 m, which ultimately may submerge
most of our islands and coastal cities.
 1.2.2 Acid rains
The clear rainfall through unpolluted environment is with its pH value slightly less than 7. However the
environment is polluted with primary pollutants like SO2, NOx gases, the resultant rainfall tends to be more
and more acidic with the increase in concentration of these pollutants. This extra acidity in rain water is
caused due to the formation of secondary air pollutants, like Sulphuric acid and Nitric acid due to the reaction
of water vapor with SO2 and NOx gases respectively. It has been specified that when pH of rain water falls to
5.6 or below, the rain is specifically termed as acidic. Acid rain has potential to convert forests into waste
lands by damaging trees, plants and crops, acidify fresh water lakes, rivers reservoirs, springs, wells and
underground sources, induce respiratory illness to humans, poison wild life, inflict irreversible damages on
buildings to deface the old treasured monuments.

1.2.3 Ozone layer depletion:

Depletion of ozone layer in the stratosphere due to increasing the release of chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs).
The CFCs are released by refrigeration and air conditioning. The presence of ozone in stratosphere, in fact,
cuts off the most harmful ultra violet radiations released by the rays of the sun from reaching the surface of
the earth. The reduction in ozone layer cause serious diseases like cataracts and skin cancer in humans. The
first ozone layer depletion was notice in Antarctic region in 1985. Countries of this region, like Australia and
Argentina have recorded increase incidence of skin cancers, which are curable only if detected early. One of
the most dangerous UV radiation, called UV-B, may even penetrate scores of meters into the oceans killing
phytoplanktons and krills, thereby causing food scarcity to larger animals like fishes

1.2.4 Climate Change:

Climate change is one of the major reason that is threatening todays worlds, the temperature in urban area
will be approximately 4 degrees more when compared to nearby rural areas or green belt areas. It is due
to paved structures, use of automobiles, burning of fossil fuels and deforestation. The result in increase in
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 temperature will thereby pose many problems. Melting of glaciers is one of the main problem. Due to
increase in temperature ice caps are melting which results in increase in sea level. May be we cannot see
some of the mostly populated and important cities located on the coastline due to the submergence of
those cities.

1.2.5 Heat islands:

The temperature in urban area will be approximately 4 degrees more when compared to nearby rural areas
or green belt areas. It is due to paved structures, use of automobiles, burning of fossil fuels and
deforestation. So urbanized places are considered to be hotter than surrounding villages, this concentrated
increase in temperature is termed as heat island.

1.3 URBANISATION:

Urbanization is the increase in the proportion of people living in towns and cities. Urbanization occurs
because people move from rural areas to urban areas .This usually occurs when a country is still developing.
Urbanization can also be defined as a process of concentration of population in a particular tertiary.

Effects of Urbanization
 Slums and its consequences  Soil erosion
of overcrowding.  Illiteracy
 Lack of sanitation  Unemployment
 Climate change  Crime is the worst impact of urbanization.
 Poverty  Global warming, air pollution, water scarcity and pollution and loss
 Deforestation of forest cover, agricultural land and depletion of wildlife.

1.3.1 EFFECTS DUE TO URBANISATION:

1.3.1.1 Air Quality
Air quality is defined as presence of solid, liquid, gases substances present in atmosphere in such
concentrations that may tend to be injurious to human beings, or other living creatures. The solid liquid
gases substance which present in air cause harmful effects on abiotic and biotic components of our
environment are called air pollutants.

1.3.1.2 Precipitation
Precipitation occurs due to the prevailing cold winds, in cities where the temperatures are high when
compared to surrounding rainfall occurrence becomes difficult, thereby decreasing the groundwater and
surface water content in the urbanized areas which creates water crises.

1.3.1.3 Erosion
Urbanization leads to clearance of forest areas in to concrete jungles, these constructional activities result in
loss of the top most fertile soil and retards vegetation. Moreover constructional activities pollute land with
debris. Erosion can be controlled by maintaining adequate green belt area.

1.3.1.4 Land quality

Land quality is completely degraded due to increase in urbanization, constructional activities, wastes coming
from industries, waste coming from residential areas, sludge’s from waste water treatment plant, mining etc.
degradation of land quality will intern effect groundwater and surface waters.

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CHAPTER 2: SOURCES, CAUSES, EFFECTS AND CONTROL MEASURES OF
POLLUTION

POLLUTION: Pollution can be defined as the presence of unwanted, harmful and toxic substances in the
media beyond threshold limit which creates loss to human life, animal life, plants and monuments directly
or indirectly.
Air pollution:
Air pollution can be defined as the “Presence of one or more contaminants or combinations of these
contaminants in the air in such a concentration and for such durations that it may or tend to cause
damage to humans, plants, animals and property or which unreasonably interferes with the
comfortable usage of air“. Air pollution is considered important because unlike water pollution it is not
two dimensional, air pollutants always travel in three dimension, capturing and control of pollution is hard.
(i) Poor Quality of Fuel- Fuel of poor quality such as coal, diesel, petrol, fuel oil is used. Although during the
past few years, various measures have been taken to improve the quality of fuel such as reduction of
Sulphur in diesel, unleaded petrol etc.

(ii) Old Process Technology: Old process technology is employed in many industries especially in small scale
industries resulting in high emission of air pollutants

(iii) Wrong Siting of Industries: Wrong siting of industries especially close to residential areas results in people
getting affected due to air pollution.

(iv) No Pollution Preventive Step in Early Stage of Industrialization: No pollution preventive steps were taken
in early stage of industrialization which has resulted in high levels of air pollutants in many areas.

(v) Poor Vehicle Design Poor vehicle design especially 2-stroke two wheelers result in high emission of air
pollutants.

(vi) Uncontrolled Growth of Vehicle Population Uncontrolled growth of vehicle population in all major
cities/towns has resulted in high levels of air pollution.

(vii) No Pollution Prevention, Control and compliance System in Small/ Medium Scale Industry No pollution
prevention and control system in small/medium scale industry exists resulting in high levels of air pollution.
Poor compliance of standard in small/medium scale industries also result in high levels of air pollution.

Primary and secondary pollutants:

Primary pollutants are those which are emitted directly from the source may be from chimneys of
industries or exhaust pipes and automobiles Examples: dust; SPM; smog; fumes; SO2; CO.
Secondary pollutants are those which are not directly released from the source but are formed by the
interaction between primary pollutants and constituents of atmosphere (or) by the interaction among the
primary pollutants themselves. Examples:
1) Sulphuric acid Sulphur tri oxide: SO2+O2------- SO3 in the presence of sunlight
Sulphuric acid and mist: SO3+ H20---- H2SO3/ H2SO4
2) Ozone: NOX+HC-------- O3 under photochemical reaction
3) Aldehydes: HC+ O2------- aldehydes under photochemical reaction
4) PAN
1) SOURCES OF AIR POLLUTION:
Sources are those activities (processes) or those points (places) which emit air pollutants in to the atmosphere
Continuously or may be sporadic.
Ocean sprays
CLASSIFICATION OF SOURCES OF AIR POLLUTION: Volcanoes
Classification based on origin NATURAL Forest fires
Dust storms
Pollens
Bio-organic gases

Industrial
Vehicular
ANTHROPOGENIC Composite
Domestic

STATIONARY Industries
 Classification based on location Fixed emissions

MOVING Vehicular, locomotive

Moving emissions

Stack emissions
POINT Tail pipe emissions
 Classification based on spatial distribution

NON-POINT (FUGITIVE)

Paved and unpaved roads

Building construction demolition
Loading and unloading of material
Agricultural activities
Refuse burning
Smoking
Emissions from leakages
Lawn activities
Volatile material handling

2) ATMOSPHERIC INSTABILITY:

Stability and instability indicated the disturbances in the atmosphere and dispersion of pollutants if they are
given out to atmosphere. This change in DALR with respect to ELR would produce disturbances in the
atmosphere.

10
 Case a case b
T1
T1 T2
T2 T3
T3

Here in the CASE A: lapse rate

Temperature T3>T2>T1: It means the ground level surface is hotter than other layers of the atmosphere. As
we move to higher altitude it will be cooler. This generally happens day times and the transport of pollutants
is good.
CASE B: negative lapse rate
The temperature T3<T2<T1: it means the temperature is increasing as we move to higher altitude. In this case
when the same air parcel is inserted it will at ground level where T3 is the temperature which is cooler than T2
and T1, the particle cannot expand and get cooler as it moves up instead it gets accumulated at ground level
only where temperatures are low. This is called INVERSION.

DALR

Unstable Stable

Plume behavior Under uniform variation Plume behavior Under non uniform variation
 Looping  Lofting
 Coning  Fumigation
 Fanning  Trapping

Mixing height:
The mixing height is defined as the height of the layer adjacent to the ground over which pollutants or any
constituents emitted within this layer or entrained into it become vertically dispersed by convection or
mechanical turbulence (Seibert et al. 2000).

Mixing height is given by

1) h= 74(Qp)0.27
2) h= 14(Qs)1/3
Minimum height for industries = 30m

Minimum height for thermal power plants = 275m

Qp= particulate matter emission in tone/hr.

Qs = SO2 emission in kg/hr.
The mixing height generally depends on factors like
 Wind speed- wind speed is measured by an instrument called cup anemometer.
 Wind direction- Wind direction is measured by wind vane
 Temperature profile

AIR POLLUTION CONTROL DEVICES:

S. Device Particle Efficiency Merits Demerits Figure

No size %

1) Gravity > 50µm <50 Simple to Requires large

settlers design Space, Efficiency is
&maintain Low, Large size
particles

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2) Cyclones 5-25 µm 50-90 Used for Requires large
Large Space, Efficiency is
Quantities, Low, Large
Used for airs size particles
With volatile
Gases.

3) Scrubbers 0.5-10 80-99 Hot gases Water wastage,

µm can be freezing problem
cooled, in cold countries,
Remove corrosion may takes
gaseous place
pollutants

4) Electro >1 µm 95-99 Tolerate Voltage

Static high fluctuations,
Precipi temperatures, Personal
-tators small size safety problems
can be
removed,
easy
for
maintenance

5) Fabric <1 µm >99 High Only dry gases,

Filters Efficiency, Clogging,
Dry state Effects with
removal Chemicals
 2.1.2 WATER POLLUTION:
For any living being water, air, food, shelter, etc. are primary needs, for which water has the greatest
importance. Without food human can survive for a number of days, but water is such an essential element
without it he cannot.
Water Pollution: Water pollutant is defined as presence of solid, liquid, gases substances in water in such
concentrations that may be injurious to human beings as well as environment.

Sources of water pollution:

 Industrial waste waters
 Domestic waste waters
 Septic tanks
 wastewater treatment plants
 Floods
 Sinking of pollutants through ships
 Solid waste leachate effecting ground water
 Storm waters
 Salt water- fresh water interface

IMPURITIES IN WATER:

1. Suspended impurities: These impurities are dispersion of solid particles that are large enough to be
removed by filtration on surface and heavier ones settle down. Suspended impurities include clay, algae,
fungi, organic and inorganic matters and mineral matters etc.

2. Colloidal impurities: It is very finely divided dispersion of particles in water. These particles are so small
these cannot be removed by ordinary filters and not visible to the naked eye. All the colloidal impurities
are electrically charged and remain in continuous motion. The electric charges on the surface of the
particles are large enough in comparison with their mass to cause the particles to repel one another. Due
to the repelling action all the colloidal particles remain in motion and do not settle. These colloidal
impurities are generally associated with organic matter containing bacteria’s.
3. Dissolved impurities: Some impurities are dissolved in water when it moves over the rocks, soil etc.
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 Solids, liquids and gases are dissolved in natural waters. These dissolved impurities may contain organic
compounds, inorganic salts and gases etc.

QUALITY OF WATER:
Physical indicators: temperature, odor and taste, color, turbidity, transparency, water conductivity,
suspended solids (Total Solids (TS), Total Suspended Solids (TSS), Total Dissolved Solids (TDS), Volatile
Solids (VS)) and dry residue
Chemical indicators: Acidity, pH, alkalinity, salinity, hardness, redox-potential, dissolved or saturated
oxygen (DO), Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD); Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD); metals such as
zinc (Zn), iron (Fe), calcium (Ca), magnesium (Mg), silica (Si), copper (Cu), manganese (Mn), nickel (Ni)
and Boron (B).
 Nutrients: nitrogen, phosphorus, silica, nitrates (NO3), nitrite (NO2), phosphate (PO4), silica (SiO2) and
ammonia (NH3).
Biological indicators: presence of disease-causing organisms (Total coliforms, E.coli, Plants and animals);
benthic macro-invertebrate diversity: counted per liter & Microbiological indicators- bacteria and fungi
CONTROL/TREATMENT:
Depending on the type of treatment plant and the quality of raw water, treatment generally proceeds in the
following sequence of stages:
1. Screening 5. Sedimentation
2. Aeration 6.Pre-chlorination and de-chlorination
3. pH correction. 7.Filtration
4. Coagulation and flocculation 8.Disinfection

 Screening - the removal of any coarse floating objects, weeds, etc. from the water.
 Aeration - dissolving oxygen into the water to remove smell and taste, promote helpful bacteria to
grow, and precipitate nuisance metals like iron and manganese.
 pH correction - preparing for coagulation and to help precipitate metals.
 Coagulation and flocculation - causes the agglomeration and sedimentation of suspended solid
particles through the addition of a coagulating agent (usually aluminum sulfate and/or iron sulfate) to
the raw water along with a polymer to help form a floc.
 Sedimentation - Floc settles out and is scraped and vacuumed off the bed of large sedimentation
16
 tanks. Clarified water drains out of the top of these tanks in a giant decanting process.
 Pre-chlorination and de chlorination - mostly to kill algae that would otherwise grow and clog the
water filters. Also kills much of the remaining unprotected bacteria.

DRINKING WATER STANDARDS:

 CHAPTER 3: ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS

3.1 ENVIRONMENTAL POLICIES AND LEGISLATION

The Environmental Policy of Ethiopia [EPE], which was approved on April 1997, constitutes eleven-sectoral

and eleven cross-sectoral policy elements. Its overall policy goal is “to improve and enhance the health and

quality of life of all Ethiopians, and to promote sustainable social and economic development through the

sound management and use of natural, human-made and cultural resources and the environment as a whole, so

as to meet the needs of the present generation without compromising the ability of future generations to meet

their own needs”. EPE emphasize the need for arresting land degradation. The policy's section on Soil

Husbandry and Sustainable Agriculture, Forest Wood Land and Tree Resource, Genetic Species and

Ecosystem Biodiversity, Water Resource, Energy and Mineral Resource address the issue of combating

desertification.

3.1.1 The Need for a Policy:

The overall policy goal is to improve and enhance the health and quality of life of all Ethiopians and to promote
sustainable social and economic development through the sound management and use of natural, human-made and
cultural resources and the environment as a whole so as to meet the needs of the present generation without
compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs. Therefore, given the current stage of the
country’s political and policy development, the time is opportune for developing a comprehensive
environmental policy on natural resources and the environment.

3.1.2 LEGISLATION POLICY SEEKS TO:

a. Ensure that essential ecological processes and life support systems are sustained, biological diversity is
preserved and renewable natural resources are used in such a way that their regenerative and productive
capabilities are maintained and where possible enhanced so that the satisfaction of the needs of future
generations is not compromised; where this capability is already impaired to seek through appropriate
interventions a restoration of that capability;
b. Ensure that the benefits from the exploitation of non-renewable resources are extended as far into the future
as can be managed, and minimize the negative impacts of their exploitation on the use and management of
other natural resources and the environment;
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c. Identify and develop natural resources that are currently underutilized by finding new technologies, and/or
intensifying existing uses which are not widely applied;
d. Incorporate the full economic, social and environmental costs and benefits of natural resource development

into the planning, implementation and accounting processes by a comprehensive valuation of the

environment and the services it provides, and by considering the social and environmental costs and

benefits which cannot currently be measured in monetary terms;

e. Improve the environment of human settlements to satisfy the physical, social, economic, cultural and other

needs of their inhabitants on a sustainable basis;

f. Prevent the pollution of land, air and water in the most cost-effective way so that the cost of effective

preventive intervention would not exceed the benefits;

g. Conserve, develop, sustainably manage and support Ethiopia's rich and diverse cultural heritage;

h. Ensure the empowerment and participation of the people and their organizations at all levels in

environmental management activities; and

i. Raise public awareness and promote understanding of the essential linkages between environment and

development.

3.2 ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT ASSESMENT:

3.2.1 NEED FOR EIA:

Economic development can have major impacts on the environment by degrading soils, polluting bodies of water,

altering landscapes and threatening biodiversity, in some cases driving species into extinction. In turn,

environmental impacts can impose significant economic and social costs on society, especially with regard to

human health. EIA, however, can predict development’s negative effects and reveal strategies to avoid and

mitigate them, and EIA can also point to possibilities to enhance the positive effects of development activities.

EIA arose in response to the pollution and the unnecessary degradation of natural resources caused by

rapid and unsustainable industrialization, agricultural development, and technological progress. EIA

recognizes that natural resources are finite and incapable of absorbing the unchecked demands of

modern society.
3.2.2 METHODOLOGIES:
- Checklists

Checklists are standard lists of the types of impacts associated with a particular type of project.
Checklists methods are primarily for organizing information or ensuring that no potential impact is
overlooked. They comprise list questions on features the project and environments impacts. They are
generic in nature and are used as aids in assessment

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- Matrices

Matrix methods identify interactions between various project actions and environmental parameters and
components. They incorporate a list of project activities with a checklist of environmental components
that might be affected by these activities. A matrix of potential interactions is produced by combining
these two lists (placing one on the vertical axis and the other on the horizontal axis). They should
preferably cover both the construction and the operation phases of the project, because sometimes, the
former causes greater impacts than the latter. However, matrices also have their disadvantages: they do
not explicitly represent spatial or temporal considerations, and they do not adequately address synergistic
impacts.
- Networks

These are flow diagrams used to help in tracing the web relationships that exist between different
activities associated with action and environmental system with which they interact. They are also
important in identifying direct and cumulative impacts. They are more complex and need expertise for
their effective use.

- Consultations

With decision-makers, affected communities, environmental interest groups to ensure that all potential
impacts are detected. However there can be danger in this when excessive consultation is done and some
unjustifiable impacts included in the ToR.

3.3 ENVIRONMENTAL MONITORING:

Environmental monitoring is the systematic measurement of key environmental indicators over time with in a
particular geographic area (World Bank, 1999). Monitoring should focus on the most significant impacts identified in
the EIA. Various types of monitoring activity are currently in practice.

The main types are briefly described below:

 Baseline Monitoring: A survey should be conducted on basic environmental parameters in the area
surrounding the proposed project before construction begins. Subsequent monitoring can assess the changes in those
parameters over time against the baseline.

 Impact Monitoring: The biophysical and socio-economical (including public health) parameters within the
project area, must be measured during the project construction and operational phases in order to detect
environmental changes, which may have occurred as a result of project implementation

 Compliance Monitoring: This form of monitoring employs a periodic sampling method, or continuous
recording of specific environmental quality indicators or pollution levels to ensure project compliance with
recommended environmental protection standards. Monitoring should be regular and performed over a long period of
duration. Interruptions in monitoring may result in generating insufficient data to draw accurate conclusion

22
 concerning project impact. The main aim of EIA monitoring is to provide the information required to ensure that
project implementation has the least possible negative environmental impacts on the people and environment

3.4 MITIGATION METHODS:

Several mitigation options are screened and compared in the ongoing effort to prevent and ameliorate
adverse impacts. Initial background papers are prepared documenting baseline conditions, study
methodology, the analysis of alternatives, and preliminary impact predictions. Impact predictions are then
refined and impact significance determined for both individual and cumulative impacts. A concerted effort
is made to mitigate potentially significant adverse impacts. In a few cases, this necessitates comparing
mitigation options.

1. Avoiding the impact altogether by not taking a certain action or parts of an action
2. Minimizing impacts by limiting the degree or magnitude of the action and its implementation
3. Rectifying the impact by repairing, rehabilitating, or restoring the affected environment
4. Reducing or eliminating the impact over time by preservation and maintenance operations during the life
of the action
5. Compensating for the impact by replacing or providing substitute resources or environments

 Impact Prediction:

A key technical element in the EIA process is the prediction of impacts (effects) for both the without-
project and with-project conditions. Numerous technical approaches can be used. As an example, the
principles and guidelines of the Water Resources Council (1983) delineate several approaches which can
be used in the EIA process for water resources projects. These approaches include:

 Professional judgment with adequate reasoning and supporting data.

 Past experience
 Numerical calculations & mathematical models.
 Geographical information systems
 Risk assessment
 Economic valuation of environmental impacts

Experimental methods used for prediction include physical models, field experiments, and laboratory
experiments. Physical models include scaled-down representations, in two or three dimensions, of the study
area after an activity has been implemented. Field experiments refer to in situ tracer experiments where
tracers are used to predict the behaviour of releases to surface waters (usually marine) or to groundwater.
Laboratory experiments refer to bioassay methods to determine the effect of pollution on a particular
species. Standard toxicological methods are used to determine the effect of a pollutant (or mix of
pollutants) in water on a species, usually fish. Laboratory experiments are useful where no data exist on the
effect of a pollutant on plants or animals. An advantage is that these experiments can be set up to represent
the environment in which the effect may occur by using, for example, water from the river to which a
pollutant is discharged.

3.2.4 ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT PLANNING (EMP)

An Environmental Management Plan (EMP) is a detailed plan and schedule of measures necessary to minimize,
mitigate, etc. any potential environmental impacts identified by the EIA (World Bank1999). Once the EIA the
significant impacts have been identified, it is necessary to prepare an Environmental Management Plan. An EMP
should consist of a set of mitigation, monitoring and institutional measures to be taken during the implementation
and operation of the proposed project to eliminate adverse environmental impacts, offset them or reduce them to
acceptable levels. The EMP should also include the actions needed to implement these measures, including the
following features:
Mitigation based on the environmental impacts reported in the EIA, the EMP should describe with technical details
each mitigation measure.
The EMP should then include monitoring objectives that specifies the type of monitoring activities that will be
linked to the mitigation measures. Specifically, the monitoring section of the EMP provides:

measured, the methods to be used, sampling locations, frequency of measurements, detection limits (where
appropriate), and definition of thresholds that will signal the need for corrective actions;

measures and to furnish information on the progress and results of mitigation. The EMP should also provide a specific
description of institutional arrangements i.e. who is responsible for carrying out the mitigating and monitoring measures
(for operation, supervision, enforcement, monitoring of implementation, remedial action, financing, reporting, and staff
training). Additionally, the EMP should include an estimate of the costs of the measures and activities recommended. It
should consider compensatory measures if mitigation measures are not feasible or cost effective.

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 CHAPTER 4: SOILD WASTE MANAGEMENT
Solid Waste Management

4.1 Introduction
Solid wastes are all the wastes arising from human and animal activities that are normally solid and that are
discarded as useless or unwanted. (or) The term solid waste includes all those solid and semi solid materials
that are discarded by a community. The purpose of this chapter is to (1) identify various types of solid wastes
and their sources, (2) to examine the physical and chemical compositions of waste, (3) elements involved in
the management of these wastes.
4.1.1 Types and sources of solid wastes
The term solid waste is all inclusive and encompasses all sources, types of classifications, composition and
properties. Various types of solid wastes that are generated are
 Municipal wastes
 Industrial wastes
 Hazardous wastes

The solid waste generated through domestic and commercial activities is classified as municipal solid waste
(MSW), and also called as refuse. The solid waste generated by industries is known as industrial solid waste.
Solid waste generated by agricultural activities, a large portion of which may also become a part of municipal
solid waste. The municipal solid waste is disposed off by the municipal corporations and such local bodies;
while the industrial solid waste is disposed off by the respective industries.
Classification of materials comprising municipal solid waste
 Food waste: The animal, fruit, or vegetable residue resulting from the handling, preparation, cooking,
and eating of foods. Because food wastes are putrescible, they will decompose rapidly, especially in
warm weather.
 Rubbish: Combustible and noncombustible solid wastes, excluding food wastes or other putrescible
materials. Typically combustible materials consists of materials such as paper, cardboards, plastics,
textiles, rubber, leather, wood, furniture and garden trimmings. Noncombustible rubbish consists of
items such as glass, crockery, tin cans, aluminum cans, ferrous and non ferrous metals, dirt and
construction wastes.
 Ashes and residues: Materials remaining from the burning of wood, coal, coke and other combustible
wastes. Residues from power plants normally are not included in category. Ashes and residues are
normally composed of fine, powdery material, cinders, clinkers and small amount of burned and
partially burned materials.
  Demolition and construction wastes: Wastes from razed buildings and other structures are classified as
demolition wastes, wastes from the construction remodeling and repairing of residential, commercial,
and industrial buildings and similar structures are classified as construction wastes. These wastes may
include dirt, stones, concrete, bricks, plaster, lumber, shingles, and plumbing, heating, and electric
parts.
 Special wastes: Wastes such as street sweepings, roadside litter, catch basins debris, dead animals, and
abandoned vehicles are classified as special wastes.
 Treatment plant wastes: the solid and semisolid wastes from water, wastewater and industrial waste
treatment facilities are included in this classification.

Classification of Industrial solid wastes

The solid wastes produced by industries can be broadly divided into following two categories:
 Non – hazardous solid waste; and
 Hazardous solid waste

Non – hazardous solid waste: The non – hazardous solid wastes generated by various industries can be
further sub – divided into biodegradable and non- biodegradable wastes.
Industrial wastes
Industrial wastes are those wastes arising from industrial activities and typically include rubbish, ashes,
demolition and construction wastes, special wastes, and hazardous wastes.
General sources of municipal solid wastes
Source Location where wastes are Types of solid wastes
generated
Residential Single family and multi Food wastes, rubbish ashes,
family, low medium and high special wastes
rise apartments
Commercial Stores, restaurants, markets, Food wastes, rubbish, ashes
office, buildings, hotels, demolition and construction
motels wastes, special wastes
Open areas Streets, alleys, parks, vacant Special wastes, rubbish
lots, play grounds, beaches
Treatment plant sites Water, wastewater and Treatment plant wastes,
industrial treatment processes principally composed of

26
 etc residual sludges.

4.1.2 COMPOSITION CHARACTERISTIC & CLASSIFICATION OF SOLID WASTE

PHYSICAL COMPOSITION :
Information and data on the physical composition of solid wastes including
(1) Identification of the individual components that make up municipal solid wastes
(2) Analysis of particle size
(3) Moisture content
(4) Density of solid wastes are presented below.
Individual Components
Components that typically make up most municipal solid wastes and their relative distribution are reported in the
below table

Particle Size
The size of the component materials in solid wastes is of importance in the recovery of materials, especially with
mechanical means such as trommel screens and magnetic separators. A general indication of the particle size
distribution.
Moisture Content
The moisture content of solid wastes usually is expresses as the mass of moisture per unit mass of wet or dry
material. In the wet – mass method of measurement, the moisture in a sample is expressed as a percentage of wet
mass of the material; in the dry – mass method, it is expressed as a percentage of the dry mass of the material. In
the equation form, the wet – mass moisture content is expressed as follows:
Moisture content (٪) = (a-b/a)100
a = initial mass of sample as delivered
b = mass of sample
Density
Typical densities for various wastes as found in containers are reported in below table. Because the densities of
solid wastes vary markedly with geographic location, season of the year, and the length of the time in storage
great care should be used in selecting typical values.

4.1.3 CHEMICAL COMPOSITION :

28
Information on the chemical composition of solid wastes is important in evaluating alternative processing and
energy recovery options. If solid wastes are to be used as fuel, the four most important properties to be
known are:
1. Proximate analysis
a) Moisture (loss at 1050c for 1 h)
b) Volatile matter (additional loss on ignition at 9500c)
c) Ash (residue after burning)
d) Fixed carbon (remainder)
2. Fusing point of ash
3. Ultimate analysis, percent of C(carbon), H(hydrogen), O(oxygen), N(nitrogen), S(sulfur), and ash
4. Heating value (energy value)

4.1.4 Treatment and Disposal of solid wastes

In general, the following scientifically managed methods can be used for disposal of solid waste
1 Uncontrolled dumping or non-engineered disposal
2 Composting
3 Incineration
4 Pyrolysis
5 Sanitary land filling, also called controlled tripping

(i) Uncontrolled dumping or non-engineered disposal: this is the most common method being practised in
many parts of the world. In this method, wastes are dumped at a designated site without any environmental
control. They tend to remain there for a long period of time, pose health risks and cause environmental
degradation. Due to the adverse health and environmental impact associated with it, the non-engineered
disposal is not considered a viable and safe option.
(iii) Composting: This is a biological process of decomposition in which organisms, under controlled
conditions of ventilation, temperature and moisture, convert the organic portion of solid waste into humus-like
material. If this process is carried out effectively, what we get as the final product is a stable, odour-free soil
conditioner. Generally, the option of composting is considered, when a considerable amount of biodegradable
waste is available in the waste stream and there is use or market for composts. Composting can be either
centralised or small-scale. Centralised composting plants are possible, if adequate skilled workforce and
equipments are available. And, small-scale composting practices can be effective at household level, but this
needs public awareness.
(iv) Incineration: This refers to the controlled burning of wastes, at a high temperature (roughly 1200 –
1500C), which sterilises and stabilises the waste in addition to reducing its volume. In the process, most of the
combustible materials (i.e., self-sustaining combustible matter, which saves the energy needed to maintain the
combustion) such as paper or plastics get converted into carbon dioxide and ash. Incineration may be used as a
disposal option, when land filling is not possible and the waste composition is highly combustible. An
appropriate technology, infrastructure and skilled workforce are required to operate and maintain the plant.
We will discuss in detail the process, technology and environmental concerns of incineration, which is
generally limited to hospital and other biological wastes
(vii) Pyrolysis: This is the thermal degradation of carbonaceous material to gaseous, liquid and solid fraction
in the absence of oxygen. This occurs at a temperature between 200 and 900C. The product of pyrolysis is a
gas of relatively high calorific value of 20,000 joules per gram with oils, tars and solid burned residue (Ali, et
al 1999).
(ii) Sanitary landfill: Unlike the non-engineered disposal, sanitary landfill is a fully engineered disposal
option in that the selected location or wasteland is carefully engineered in advance before it is pressed into
service. Operators of sanitary landfills can minimize the effects of leachate (i.e., polluted water which flows
from a landfill) and gas production through proper site selection, preparation and management. This particular
option of waste disposal is suitable when the land is available at an affordable price, and adequate workforce
and technical resources are available to operate and manage the site.
DESIGN OF LANDFILLING WITH SOLID WASTES
Landfilling involves the controlled disposal of solid wastes on or in the upper layer of the earth’s mantle.
Important aspects/factors that must be considered in evaluating potential landfill sites include:
Factor Remarks
Available land area site should have useful life greater than 1 year
Haul distance Will have significant impact on operating costs
Soil condition and topography Cover material must be available at or near the site
Surface water hydrology Impacts drainage requirements
Geologic and hydrologic Probably most important factors in establishment of landfill site,
conditions especially with respect to site preparation
Climatic conditions Provisions must be made for wet weather conditions
Local environmental Noise, odor, dust, vector and aesthetic factors control
conditions requirements.
Ultimate use of site Affects long-term management of site

LANDFILLING METHODS AND OPERATIONS

30
The principal methods used for landfilling dry areas may be classified as:
(1) Area
(2) Trench
(3) Depression
The area method is used when terrain is unsuitable for excavation of trenches on which to place the solid
wastes. The filling operation usually stated by building an earthen levee against which wastes are placed in
thin layers and compacted. Each layer is compacted until the thickness of the compacted wastes reaches a
height varying from 2 to 3 meters.
The trench method of landfilling is ideally suited where an adequate depth of cover material is available at the
site and where the water table is well below the surface.
The depression landfills vary with the geometry of the site, the characteristics of the cover material, the
hydrology and geology of the site, and access to the site. At locations where natural or artificial depressions
exist, it is often possible to use them effectively for landfilling operation
Occurrence of Gases and leachates in landfills
The following biological, physical and chemical events occur when solid wastes are placed in sanitary
landfills.
1. Biological decay of organic materials, either aerobically and an aerobically, with the evolution of gases
and liquids
2. Chemical oxidation of waste material.
3. Escape of gases from the fill.
4. Movement of liquids caused by differential head
5. Uneven settlement caused by consolidation of materials into voids.
Gases in landfills: Gases found in landfills include air, ammonia, carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide,
hydrogen, hydrogen sulphide, methane, nitrogen and oxygen. Carbon dioxide and methane are principal gases
produced from an aerobic decomposition of organic solid waste components.
Leachates in landfills: Leachate may be defined as liquid that percolate through solid waste and has extracted
dissolved or suspended materials from it. In most landfills, the liquid portion of the leachate is composed of
the liquid produced from the decomposition of wastes and liquid that has entered the landfill from external
sources such as drainage, rainfall, groundwater etc.
Gas Movement and Control: The lateral movement of gases produced in a landfill can be controlled by
installing gas vents, made of materials that are more permeable than the surrounding soil.In the trench vent, a
trench is dug as deep as the solid wastes and filled with gravel. A well vent consisting of a perforated pipe
surrounding with gravel installed through the waste fill to control the lateral movement of gases. Such pipe
vent will collect and convey the gases to riser pipes for venting. If the gases are to be collected for recovery
for its heating value, then the riser pipe may be connected to main for pumping, to the processing plant.
Control of leachate movement
As leachate percolates through the underlying strata, many of the chemical and biological constituents
originally contained in it is removed by the filtering and adsorptive action of the material composing the
strata. The use of clay has been favored method of reducing or eliminating the percolation of leachate.
Membrane liners have also been used, but they are expensive and require care so that they will not be
damaged during the filling operations. Equally important in controlling the movement of leachate is the
elimination of surface – water infiltration, which is the major contributor to the total volume of leachate. With
the use of impermeable clay layer, and appropriate surface slope (1 to 2 percent) and adequate drainage,
surface infiltration can be controlled effectively.
IMPORTANT DESIGN CONSIDERATION
1. Land requirements
2. Types of wastes that must
be handled
3. Evaluation of seepage
potential
4. Design of drainage and
seepage control facilities
5. Development of a general
operation plan
6. Design of solid waste
filling plan
7. Determination of
equipment requirements

Factor Remarks
Access Paved all – weather access roads to landfill site; temporary roads to unloading
areas
Cell design and Will vary depending on terrain, landfilling method, and whether gas is to be
construction recovered
Cover material Maximize use of on – site earths materials; approximately 1 cubic meter of
cover material is required for every 4 to 6 meter cube of solid wastes
Drainage Install drainage ditches to divert surface – water runoff
Equipment Vary with size of landfills
requirements

32
 Fire prevention Water on site; if non – potable, outlets must be marked clearly; proper cell
separation prevents continuous burns
Ground water Divert any underground springs; if required, install sealants for leachate
protection control; install wells for gas and groundwater monitoring
Land area Area should be large enough to hold all wastes for a minimum of 1 year
Landfilling method Selection of method will vary with terrain and available cover
Litter control Use movable fences at unloading areas; crews should pick up at least once per
month
Operation plan With or without the disposal of treatment plant sludge’s and recovery of gas.
Spread and Spread and compact wastes in 0.6 m
compaction
Unloading areas Keep small, generally under 30 m
Communication Telephone for emergencies
Days and hours of Usual practice 5 to 6d/week and 8 to 10 h/day
operation
Employee facilities Restrooms and drinking water should be provided
Operational records Tonnage, transactions, and billing if a disposal fee is charged
Salvage No scavenging; salvage should occur away from the unloading areas; no
salvage storage on – site
Scales Essential for record keeping

4.2 HAZARDOUS WASTES:

Wastes that pose a substantial danger immediately or over a period of time to human, plant, or animal life are
classified as hazardous wastes
4.2.1 Sources of Hazardous solid waste
Groups of waste are considered in the following five general categories:
(i) Radioactive substance: Substances that emit ionising radiation are radioactive. Such substances are
hazardous because prolonged exposure to radiation often results in damage to living organisms. Radioactive
substances are of special concern because they persist for a long period. The period in which radiation occurs
is commonly measured and expressed as half-life, i.e., the time required for the radioactivity of a given
amount of the substance to decay to half its initial value. For example, uranium compounds have half-lives
that range from 72 years for U232 to 23,420,000 years for U236.
(ii) Chemicals: Most hazardous chemical wastes can be classified into four groups: synthetic organics,
inorganic metals, salts, acids and bases, and flammables and explosives. Some of the chemicals are hazardous
because they are highly toxic to most life forms. When such hazardous compounds are present in a waste
stream at levels equal to, or greater than, their threshold levels, the entire waste stream is identified as
hazardous.
(iii) Biomedical wastes: The principal sources of hazardous biological wastes are hospitals and biological
research facilities. The ability to infect other living organisms and the ability to produce toxins are the most
significant characteristics of hazardous biological wastes. This group mainly includes malignant tissues
discarded during surgical procedures and contaminated materials, such as hypodermic needles, bandages and
outdated drugs. This waste can also be generated as a by-product of industrial biological conversion processes.
(iv) Flammable wastes: Most flammable wastes are also identified as hazardous chemical wastes. This dual
grouping is necessary because of the high potential hazard in storing, collecting and disposing of flammable
wastes. These wastes may be liquid, gaseous or solid, but most often they are liquids. Typical examples
include organic solvents, oils, plasticisers and organic sludges.
(v) Explosives: Explosive hazardous wastes are mainly ordnance (artillery) materials, i.e., the wastes resulting
from ordnance manufacturing and some industrial gases. Similar to flammables, these wastes also have a high
potential for hazard in storage, collection and disposal, and therefore, they should be considered separately in
addition to being listed as hazardous chemicals. These wastes may exist in solid, liquid or gaseous form.
vi) Household hazardous wastes: Household wastes such as cleaning chemicals, batteries, nail polish etc in
MSW constitute hazardous waste. Especially batteries contain mercury which are alkaline which is dangerous
enough to kill people. Generic household hazardous material include non-chlorinated organic, chlorinated
organic, pesticides, latex paint, oil based paints, waste oil, automobile battery and household battery.
Common Hazardous Wastes: Community Source

4.2.2 Characteristics of hazardous wastes

(i) Ignitability (EPA Waste Identification Number D001): A waste is an ignitable hazardous waste, if it has a
flash point of less than 60C; readily catches fire and burns so vigorously as to create a hazard; or is an
ignitable compressed gas or an oxidiser. Naphtha, lacquer thinner, epoxy resins, adhesives and oil based paints
are all examples of ignitable hazardous wastes.
(ii) Corrosivity (EPA Waste Identification Number D002): A liquid waste which has a pH of less than or
equal to 2 or greater than or equal to 12.5 is considered to be a corrosive hazardous waste. Sodium hydroxide,
a caustic solution with a high pH, is often used by many industries to clean or degrease metal parts
(iii) Reactivity (EPA Waste Identification Number D003): A material is considered a reactive hazardous
waste, if it is unstable, reacts violently with water, generates toxic gases when exposed to water or corrosive

34
materials, or if it is capable of detonation or explosion when exposed to heat or a flame. Examples of reactive
wastes would be waste gunpowder, sodium metal or wastes containing cyanides or sulphides.
(iv) Toxicity (EPA Waste Identification Number D004): To determine if a waste is a toxic hazardous waste, a
representative sample of the material must be subjected to a test conducted in a certified laboratory. The toxic
characteristic identifies wastes that are likely to leach dangerous concentrations of toxic chemicals into ground
water.
4.3.3 TREATMENT & DISPOSAL
Regardless of their form (i.e., solid, liquid, or gas), most hazardous waste is disposed off either near the
surface or by deep burial includes deep well injection, land burial, ocean disposal

A three stage hierarchy of options for handling hazardous wastes are:

1) The top tier includes in plant options such as process manipulation, recycle and reuse options that reduce
the production of hazardous waste in the first place. It also contains most desirable options.

2) Middle stage highlights processes that convert hazardous waste to less hazardous or non hazardous
substances that include

a) Incineration

b) Land treatment

c) Ocean and atmospheric assimilation

d) Chemical, physical and biological treatments

e) Thermal treatments

3) Last stage which is least preferred or desirable tier that is perpetual storage cheapest alternative. Few
process include landfill, underground injection, arid region unsaturated zone, surface impoundments, salt
formations and waste piles.
The various options for hazardous waste treatment can be categorised under physical, chemical, thermal and
biological treatments.
Physical and chemical treatment
Physical and chemical treatments are an essential part of most hazardous waste treatment operations, and the
treatments include the following (Freeman, 1988):
(i) Filtration and separation: Filtration is a method for separating solid particles from a liquid using a porous
medium. The driving force in filtration is a pressure gradient, caused by gravity, centrifugal force, vacuum, or
pressure greater than atmospheric pressure. The application of filtration for treatment of hazardous waste fall
into the following categories:
Clarification, in which suspended solid particles less than 100 ppm (parts per million) concentration are
removed from an aqueous stream.
Dewatering of slurries of typically 1% to 30 % solids by weight. Here, the aim is to concentrate the solids
into a phase or solid form for disposal or further treatment. The slurry can be dewatered by cake filtration and
the effluent from the settling step can be filtered by depth filtration prior to discharge.

(ii) Chemical precipitation: This is a process by which the soluble substance is converted to an insoluble
form either by a chemical reaction or by change in the composition of the solvent to diminish the solubility of
the substance in it.
(iii) Chemical oxidation and reduction (redox): In these reactions, the oxidation state of one reactant is
raised, while that of the other reactant is lowered. When electrons are removed from an ion, atom, or
molecule, the substance is oxidised and when electrons are added to a substance, it is reduced. Such reactions
are used in treatment of metal-bearing wastes, sulphides, cyanides and chromium and in the treatment of many
organic wastes such as phenols, pesticides and sulphur containing compounds.
(iv) Solidification and stabilisation: Solidification and stabilisation are treatment processes designed to
improve waste handling and physical characteristics, decrease surface area across which pollutants can
transfer or leach, limit the solubility or detoxify the hazardous constituent. To understand this technology, it is
important for us to understand the following terms:
Solidification: This refers to a process in which materials are added to the waste to produce a solid. It may or
may not involve a chemical bonding between the toxic contaminant and the additive.

Stabilisation: This refers to a process by which a waste is converted to a more chemically stable form.
Subsuming solidification, stabilisation represents the use of a chemical reaction to transform the toxic
component to a new, non-toxic compound or substance.

Chemical fixation: This implies the transformation of toxic contaminants to a new non-toxic compound. The
term has been misused to describe processes, which do not involve chemical bonding of the contaminant to
the binder.
Thermal treatment
The two main thermal treatments used with regard to hazardous wastes are:
(i) Incineration: Incineration can be regarded as either a pre-treatment of hazardous waste, prior to final
disposal or as a means of valorising waste by recovering energy. It includes both the burning of
mixed solid waste or burning of selected parts of the waste stream as a fuel.

36
 (ii) Pyrolysis: This is defined as the chemical decomposition or change brought about by heating in the
absence of oxygen. This is a thermal process for transformation of solid and liquid carbonaceous
materials into gaseous components and the solid residue containing fixed carbon and ash. The
application of pyrolysis to hazardous waste treatment leads to a two-step process for disposal. In
the first step, wastes are heated separating the volatile contents (e.g., combustible gases, water
vapour, etc.) from non-volatile char and ash. In the second step volatile components are burned
under proper conditions to assure incineration of all hazardous components (Freeman, M. H. et al.,
1988).
Biological treatment
(i) Land treatment: This is a waste treatment and disposal process, where a waste is mixed with or
incorporated into the surface soil and is degraded, transformed or immobilised through proper management. In
land treatment, the organic fraction must be biodegradable at reasonable rates to minimise environmental
problems associated with migration of hazardous waste constituents.
(iv) Aerobic and anaerobic treatment: In aerobic treatment, under proper conditions, microorganisms
grow. They need a carbon and energy source, which many hazardous wastes satisfy, nutrients such as
nitrogen, phosphorus and trace metals and a source of oxygen.
Anaerobic treatment is a sequential biologically destructive process in which hydrocarbons are converted, in
the absence of free oxygen, from complex to simpler molecules, and ultimately to carbon dioxide and
methane. The process is mediated through enzyme catalysis and depends on maintaining a balance of
population within a specific set of