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VOLUME 3
1450-1699

Science
and
Its
Times
Understanding the
Social Significance of
Scientific Discovery
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VOLUME 3
1450-1699

Science
and
Its
Times
Understanding the
Social Significance of
Scientific Discovery

Ne il S c hlager, Editor
J o s h L a u e r, A s s o c i a t e E d i t o r

Produced by Schlager Information Group

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Science
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1450-1699 Barbara Yarrow, Graphic Services Manager
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ISBN: 0-7876-3937-0

Printed in the United States of America

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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Science and its times : understanding the social significance of scientific discovery /
Neil Schlager, editor.
p.cm.
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 0-7876-3933-8 (vol. 1 : alk. paper) — ISBN 0-7876-3934-6 (vol. 2 : alk. paper) —
ISBN 0-7876-3935-4 (vol. 3 : alk. paper) — ISBN 0-7876-3936-2 (vol. 4 : alk. paper) —
ISBN 0-7876-3937-0 (vol. 5 : alk. paper) — ISBN 0-7876-3938-9 (vol. 6 : alk. paper) —
ISBN 0-7876-3939-7 (vol. 7 : alk. paper) — ISBN 0-7876-3932-X (set : hardcover)
1. Science—Social aspects—History. I. Schlager, Neil, 1966-
Q175.46 .S35 2001
509—dc21 00-037542
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Contents

Preface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ix Pedro Cabral and the Portuguese Settlement

of Brazil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
Advisory Board . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xi Vasco Núñez de Balboa Reaches
the Pacific Ocean . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
Contributors. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xiii The First Maritime Circumnavigation
of the Globe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
Introduction: 1450-1699 . . . . . . . . xvii European Contact Overwhelms the Inca
Empire: Francisco Pizarro’s Conquest
Chronology: 1450-1699 . . . . . . . . . xxi of Peru . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
Exploring the Amazon River . . . . . . . . . . . 49
Willem Barents Searches for the Northeast
Passage and Finds Svalbard Instead. . . .
Exploration and Discovery . . 51
The Discovery of Baffin Bay . . . . . . . . . . . 54
Chronology of Key Events . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
Semyon Dezhnyov Finds the
Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
Bering Strait—Eighty Years
Topical Essays
before Bering. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
Spanish Exploration and Colonization . . . . . . 3 Diogo Cão and the Portuguese in
Portugal Launches Age of Discovery . . . . . . . 7 West Africa . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
Dutch Exploration and Colonization . . . . . . . 9 Bartolomeu Dias and the Opening of
Overview of English Exploration . . . . . . . . . 12 the Indian Ocean Trade Route to India,
The Voyages of Christopher Columbus: 1487-1488 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
European Contact with the New World Vasco da Gama Establishes the First
and the Age of Exploration . . . . . . . . . . 15 Ocean Trade Route from Europe to
Juan Ponce de León Explores Florida and the India and Asia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
Bahama Channel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19 Willem Jansz Lands on the Australian
Alonso Alvarez de Piñeda explores the Gulf Mainland and Sets Off a Century of
of Mexico and Is the First European to Dutch Exploration of the Region . . . . . . . 65
See the Mississippi River . . . . . . . . . . . 22 The Voyages of Abel Janszoon Tasman . . . . . . 67
Hernando de Soto and the Spanish Exploration Introduction of the Mercator World Map
of the American Southeast, 1539-1542 . . . . 24 Revolutionizes Nautical Navigation . . . . . 69
Coronado’s Search for the Seven Cities of Gold
Biographical Sketches . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
Leads to Spanish Dominion over
Biographical Mentions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
Southwestern North America . . . . . . . . . 26
Bibliography of Primary Sources . . . . . . . . . 109
Spanish Florida and the Founding of
St. Augustine. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
The English Establish a Colony in Life Sciences and Medicine
Jamestown, Virginia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31 Chronology of Key Events . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
John Cabot’s Exploration of North America . . . 33 Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
The Search for a Northwest Passage . . . . . . . 36 Topical Essays
North America’s First Permanent Philosophy of Science: Baconian and Cartesian
European Colony . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38 Approaches . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114

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Theory and Experiment Redefine Medical Marin Mersenne Leads an International

Contents Practice and Philosophy . . . . . . . . . . . 116 Effort to Understand Cycloids. . . . . . . . 247
Advances in Midwifery and Obstetrics . . . . . 119 Mathematicians Revolutionize the
1450-1699 Advances in Understanding the Female Understanding of Equations . . . . . . . . . 249
Reproductive System . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122 Girard Desargues and Projective Geometry . . 251
The Medical Role of Women: Women as Mathematical Induction Provides a Tool
Patients and Practitioners . . . . . . . . . . 124 for Proving Large Problems by
Mechanical Printing and Its Impact on Proceeding through the Solution of
Medicine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127 Smaller Increments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 254
The Development and Impact of Medical The Emergence of the Calculus . . . . . . . . . 256
Illustrations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130 The Enduring and Revolutionary Impact of
The Invention of the Microscope . . . . . . . . 132 Pierre de Fermat’s Last Theorem . . . . . . 259
The Alliance of Science and Art in Early Mathematics, Communication, and
Modern Europe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135 Community . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 262
Advancements in Surgery . . . . . . . . . . . . 138 Mathematicians Develop New Ways to
Empirics, Quacks, and Alternative Calculate π . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 264
Medical Practices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141 Mastering the Seas: Advances in Trigonometry
William Harvey and the Discovery of the and Their Impact upon Astronomy,
Human Circulatory System . . . . . . . . . 144 Cartography, and Maritime Navigation . . . 267

The Beginnings of Blood Transfusion. . . . . . 147 Mathematics, Science, and the Society
of Jesus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 270
Progress in Understanding Human
Anatomy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
Mathematical Challenges and Contests . . . . . 272

Advances in Understanding the Biographical Sketches . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 275

Nervous System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153 Biographical Mentions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 301
Paracelsian Medicine Leads to a New Bibliography of Primary Sources . . . . . . . . . 307
Understanding of Therapy . . . . . . . . . . 155
The Exchange of Plant and Animal Species
Between the New World and Old World . . 158
Physical Sciences
Chronology of Key Events . . . . . . . . . . . . . 311
The Impact of European Diseases on
Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 312
Native Americans . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160
Topical Essays
The Appearance of Syphilis in the 1490s . . . . 163
The Development of Zoology . . . . . . . . . . 167 Science and Christianity during the
Sixteenth and Seventeenth Centuries . . . . 314
Advances in Botany . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169
Nicolaus Copernicus Begins a Revolution in
Renaissance Botanical and Zoological
Astronomy with His Heliocentric Model
Gardens . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172
of the Solar System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 318
Biographical Sketches . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174 The Gregorian Reform of the Calendar . . . . 321
Biographical Mentions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 210 Newton’s Law of Universal Gravitation . . . . . 324
Bibliography of Primary Sources . . . . . . . . . 220 Isaac Newton’s Principia Mathematica Greatly
Influences the Scientific World and the
Society Beyond It . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 326
Mathematics From Alchemy to Chemistry . . . . . . . . . . 329
Chronology of Key Events . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227
Advances in Geological Science, 1450-1699 . . 332
Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 228
Christiaan Huygens Makes Fundamental
Topical Essays
Contributions to Mechanics, Astronomy,
Advancements in Notation Enhance the Horology, and Optics . . . . . . . . . . . . 334
Translation and Precision of Mathematics . 230 The Emergence of Scientific Societies . . . . . 337
The Reappearance of Analysis in Mathematics . 232 Development of Stellar Astronomy . . . . . . . 339
John Napier Discovers Logarithms . . . . . . . 234 Observing and Defining Comets . . . . . . . . 342
Militarizing Mathematics . . . . . . . . . . . . 237 The Rise of the Phlogiston Theory of Fire . . . 346
Algebraic Solution of Cubic and Seventeenth-century Experimental and
Quartic Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 239 Theoretical Advances Regarding the
The Development of Analytic Geometry . . . . 241 Nature of Light Lay the Foundations
The Printing of Important Mathematics of Modern Optics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 348
Texts Leads the Way to the Scientific The Founding of England’s Royal
Revolution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243 Observatory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 351

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Revival of Corpuscular Theories during the The Origins and Development of the
Seventeenth Century . . . . . . . . . . . . . 354 Magic Lantern . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 429 Contents
Advances in Electricity and Magnetism. . . . . 357 William Lee and the Stocking Knitting Frame:
Micro- and Macroinventions . . . . . . . . 432 1450-1699
Biographical Sketches . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 360
Advances in Metallurgy . . . . . . . . . . . . . 435
Biographical Mentions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 387
Development of the Horse-Drawn Coach . . . 438
Bibliography of Primary Sources . . . . . . . . . 398
Systematic Crop Rotation Transforms
Agriculture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 440
Technology and Invention The Development of Key Instruments
Chronology of Key Events . . . . . . . . . . . . . 401 for Science . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 443
Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 402 The Measure of Time . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 446
Topical Essays Development of the Self-Regulating Oven . . . 449

The Birth of Print Culture: The Invention of Denis Papin Invents the Pressure Cooker . . . . 451

the Printing Press in Western Europe . . . . 404

Andrea Palladio and Developments in
Western Architecture . . . . . . . . . . . . 453
The Advent of Newspapers . . . . . . . . . . . 411
The Palace of Versailles . . . . . . . . . . . . . 457
Advances in Firearms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 413
Development of the Midi Canal . . . . . . . . 459
The Military Revolution . . . . . . . . . . . . . 415
Inventing the Submarine . . . . . . . . . . . . 418 Biographical Sketches . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 462
The Invention of Spectacles . . . . . . . . . . . 420 Biographical Mentions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 481
Camera Obscura: Ancestor of Modern Bibliography of Primary Sources . . . . . . . . . 492
Photography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 423
Antonio Neri Reveals the Secrets of General Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . 495
Glassmaking and Helps Make High
Quality Glass Available to the World . . . . 426 Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 497

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Preface

Volume 1: 2000 B.C.-699 A.D.

T
he interaction of science and society is
increasingly a focal point of high school Volume 2: 700-1449
studies, and with good reason: by explor- Volume 3: 1450-1699
ing the achievements of science within their his-
torical context, students can better understand a Volume 4: 1700-1799
given event, era, or culture. This cross-discipli- Volume 5: 1800-1899
nary approach to science is at the heart of Sci- Volume 6: 1900-1949
ence and Its Times.
Volume 7: 1950-present
Readers of Science and Its Times will find a
comprehensive treatment of the history of sci- Dividing the history of science according to
ence, including specific events, issues, and trends such strict chronological subsets has its own
through history as well as the scientists who set drawbacks. Many scientific events—and scien-
in motion—or who were influenced by—those tists themselves—overlap two different time
events. From the ancient world’s invention of the periods. Also, throughout history it has been
plowshare and development of seafaring vessels; common for the impact of a certain scientific
to the Renaissance-era conflict between the advancement to fall much later than the
Catholic Church and scientists advocating a sun- advancement itself. Readers looking for informa-
centered solar system; to the development of tion about a topic should begin their search by
modern surgery in the nineteenth century; and checking the index at the back of each volume.
to the mass migration of European scientists to Readers perusing more than one volume may
the United States as a result of Adolf Hitler’s Nazi find the same scientist featured in two different
regime in Germany during the 1930s and 1940s, volumes.
science’s involvement in human progress—and
Readers should also be aware that many sci-
sometimes brutality—is indisputable.
entists worked in more than one discipline dur-
While science has had an enormous impact ing their lives. In such cases, scientists may be
on society, that impact has often worked in the featured in two different chapters in the same
opposite direction, with social norms greatly volume. To facilitate searches for a specific per-
influencing the course of scientific achievement son or subject, main entries on a given person or
through the ages. In the same way, just as history subject are indicated by bold-faced page num-
can not be viewed as an unbroken line of ever- bers in the index.
expanding progress, neither can science be seen
as a string of ever-more amazing triumphs. Science Within each volume, material is divided
and Its Times aims to present the history of science into chapters according to subject area. For vol-
within its historical context—a context marked umes 5, 6, and 7, these areas are: Exploration
not only by genius and stunning invention but and Discovery, Life Sciences, Mathematics, Med-
also by war, disease, bigotry, and persecution. icine, Physical Sciences, and Technology and
Invention. For volumes 1, 2, 3, and 4, readers
will find that the Life Sciences and Medicine
Format of the Series chapters have been combined into a single sec-
Science and Its Times is divided into seven tion, reflecting the historical union of these dis-
volumes, each covering a distinct time period: ciplines before 1800.

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Arrangement of Volume 3: 1450-1699 listings feature key books and articles

Preface Volume 3 begins with two notable sections
pertaining to the subject area.

1450-1699 in the frontmatter: a general introduction to sci- Following the final chapter are two addi-
ence and society during the period, and a gener- tional sections: a general bibliography of sources
al chronology that presents key scientific events related to the history of science, and a general
during the period alongside key world historical subject index. Readers are urged to make heavy
events. use of the index, because many scientists and
The volume is then organized into five topics are discussed in several different entries.
chapters, corresponding to the five subject areas A note should be made about the arrange-
listed above in “Format of the Series.” Within ment of individual entries within each chapter:
each chapter, readers will find the following while the long and short biographical sketches
entry types: are arranged alphabetically according to the sci-
Chronology of Key Events: Notable entist’s surname, the topical essays lend them-
events in the subject area during the selves to no such easy arrangement. Again, read-
period are featured in this section. ers looking for a specific topic should consult
the index. Readers wanting to browse the list of
Overview: This essay provides an essays in a given subject area can refer to the
overview of important trends, issues, table of contents in the book’s frontmatter.
and scientists in the subject area during
the period.
Topical Essays: Ranging between 1,500 Additional Features
and 2,000 words, these essays discuss Throughout each volume readers will find
notable events, issues, and trends in a sidebars whose purpose is to feature interesting
given subject area. Each essay includes events or issues that otherwise might be over-
a Further Reading section that points looked. These sidebars add an engaging element
users to additional sources of informa- to the more straightforward presentation of sci-
tion on the topic, including books, arti- ence and its times in the rest of the entries. In
cles, and web sites. addition, each volume contains photographs,
Biographical Sketches: Key scientists illustrations, and maps scattered throughout the
during the era are featured in entries chapters.
ranging between 500 and 1,000 words
in length.
Comments and Suggestions
Biographical Mentions: Additional
Your comments on this series and sugges-
brief biographical entries on notable
tions for future editions are welcome. Please
scientists during the era.
write: The Editor, Science and Its Times, Gale
Bibliography of Primary Source Docu- Group, 27500 Drake Road, Farmington Hills,
ments: These annotated bibliographic MI 48331.

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Advisory Board

Amir Alexander
Research Fellow
Center for 17th and 18th Century Studies
UCLA

Amy Sue Bix

Associate Professor of History
Iowa State University

Elizabeth Fee
Chief, History of Medicine Division
National Library of Medicine

Lois N. Magner
Professor Emerita
Purdue University

Henry Petroski
A.S. Vesic Professor of Civil Engineering and
Professor of History
Duke University

F. Jamil Ragep
Associate Professor of the History of Science
University of Oklahoma

David L. Roberts
Post-Doctoral Fellow, National Academy of
Education

Morton L. Schagrin
Emeritus Professor of Philosophy and History of
Science
SUNY College at Fredonia

Hilda K. Weisburg
Library Media Specialist
Morristown High School, Morristown, NJ

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Contributors

Mark H. Allenbaugh Keith Ferrell

Lecturer Freelance Writer
George Washington University
Randolph Fillmore
James A. Altena Freelance Science Writer
The University of Chicago
Richard Fitzgerald
Peter J. Andrews Freelance Writer
Freelance Writer
Maura C. Flannery
Kenneth E. Barber Professor of Biology
Professor of Biology St. John’s University, New York
Western Oklahoma State College
Katrina Ford
Bob Batchelor Post-graduate Student
Writer Victoria University of Wellington, New Zealand
Arter & Hadden LLP
Donald R. Franceschetti
Kristy Wilson Bowers Distinguished Service Professor of Physics and
University of Maryland Chemistry
The University of Memphis
Sherri Chasin Calvo
Freelance Writer Jean-François Gauvin
Historian of Science
Matt Dowd Musée Stewart au Fort de l’île Sainte-Hélène,
Graduate Student Montréal
University of Notre Dame
Brook Ellen Hall
Thomas Drucker Professor of Biology
Graduate Student, Department of Philosophy California State University at Sacramento
University of Wisconsin
Diane K. Hawkins
H. J. Eisenman Head, Reference Services—Health Sciences Library
Professor of History SUNY Upstate Medical University
University of Missouri-Rolla
Robert Hendrick
Ellen Elghobashi Professor of History
Freelance Writer St. John’s University, New York

Loren Butler Feffer James J. Hoffmann

Independent Scholar Diablo Valley College

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Leslie Hutchinson William McPeak

Contributors Freelance Writer Independent Scholar
Institute for Historical Study (San Francisco)
1450-1699
Matt Kadane
Ph.D. Candidate Lolly Merrell
Brown University Freelance Writer

P. Andrew Karam Leslie Mertz

Environmental Medicine Department Biologist and Freelance Science Writer
University of Rochester
Kelli Miller
Freelance Writer
Evelyn B. Kelly
Professor of Education
J. William Moncrief
Saint Leo University, Florida
Professor of Chemistry
Lyon College
Judson Knight
Freelance Writer Stacey R. Murray
Freelance Writer
Lyndall Landauer
Professor of History Lisa Nocks
Lake Tahoe Community College Historian of Technology and Culture

Josh Lauer Stephen D. Norton

Editor and Writer Committee on the History & Philosophy of Science
President, Lauer InfoText Inc. University of Maryland, College Park

Adrienne Wilmoth Lerner Glyn Parry

Department of History Sr. Lecturer in History
Vanderbilt University Victoria University of Wellington, New Zealand

Michelle Rose
Brenda Wilmoth Lerner Freelance Science Writer
Science Correspondent
Neil Schlager
K. Lee Lerner Editor and Writer
Prof. Fellow (r), Science Research & Policy Institute President, Schlager Information Group
Advanced Physics, Chemistry and Mathematics,
Shaw School Keir B. Sterling
Historian, U.S. Army Combined Arms Support
Eric v. d. Luft Command
Curator of Historical Collections Fort Lee, Virginia
SUNY Upstate Medical University
Gary S. Stoudt
Professor of Mathematics
Lois N. Magner
Indiana University of Pennsylvania
Professor Emerita
Purdue University
Zeno G. Swijtink
Professor of Philosophy
Amy Lewis Marquis Sonoma State University
Freelance Writer
Dean Swinford
Ann T. Marsden Ph.D. Candidate
Writer University of Florida

Kyla Maslaniec Lana Thompson

Freelance Writer Freelance Writer

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Philippa Tucker Stephanie Watson

Post-graduate Student Freelance Writer Contributors
Victoria University of Wellington, New Zealand
Giselle Weiss 1450-1699
David Tulloch Freelance Writer
Graduate Student
Victoria University of Wellington, New Zealand Michael T. Yancey
Freelance Writer
Roger Turner
Brown University

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Introduction: 1450–1699

Overview could not be stopped, and the social upheavals

that accompanied scientific and technological
The years between 1450 and 1699 were a
advance would transform society at every level.
time of worldwide upheaval and change, of dis-
While theoretical science altered fundamental
covery and rediscovery, of exploration and
beliefs, technological advances brought a higher
invention. During this period the boundaries of
standard of living, advances in medicine,
man’s physical world expanded, intellectual
progress in hygiene and creature comfort, and
horizons broadened almost beyond belief, and a
an array of new products and capabilities. As
technological explosion put into motion an
always, technological advances were also applied
ongoing wave of learning, advancement, and
to warfare, often with devastating effectiveness.
innovation that has continued, albeit fitfully and
chaotically at times, to this very day. In short, this period encompassed one of
the great shifts in human perspective, the Scien-
During these two and a half centuries, science
tific Revolution, and laid most of the ground-
itself, particularly in the West, underwent a dra-
work for another major change, the Industrial
matic evolution, becoming evermore central to
Revolution of the 1700s and 1800s.
human endeavor, and expanding its scope to
encompass a more accurate view of the world and
the universe in which it is located. The age-old The Renaissance Expands
belief that both man and the earth were the center
The Renaissance, that stunning period of
of the universe crumbled, though not without
rebirth and renewal that began roughly around
resistance, as scientists employed new tools and
1400, gathered force in the latter half of the fif-
techniques to explore the skies above and the inte-
teenth century. What had been a slow climb out
rior of the human body. Moving virtually hand in
of the Dark Ages 500 years before now became a
hand with science were advances in mathematics,
race toward enlightenment, and the acquisition of
which gave scientists new tools to measure and
knowledge became one of the great undertakings
calculate the forces that shape the world.
of mankind. Scientists, who had previously
Technology, the application of science to worked independently, or for patrons who sought
practical ends, made greater progress during to control their knowledge, began to work coop-
these centuries than during all the preceding cen- eratively in the first suggestions of scientific soci-
turies of human existence. Key to it all was the eties, the initial impulses toward a community of
development of the printing press, which provid- science that transcended national boundaries.
ed near-universal access to learning. Knowledge The ability of explorers—and increasingly
had been made available to everyone who could traders and settlers—to transcend those borders
read, and the effectiveness of printing for captur- in the centuries before 1450 proved one of the
ing and disseminating information insured that it great spurs to scientific, technical, and cultural
would continue to spread throughout the world. advance. During the twelfth century both Chi-
The spread of learning proved a great threat nese and Europeans used their knowledge of
to religious and political power, and much effort magnetism to produce the first crude compass-
was expended to prohibit “improper” investiga- es; later incarnations would make possible the
tions or speculations. The effort proved fruit- voyages of exploration to the unknown. The
less—the march of science against ignorance Chinese were the first to invent gunpowder,

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which increased the capacity of nations make Myths and legends grew up about the stars, and
Introduction war on one another, lifting combat to previously central among them was the concept that man
unimaginable levels of destructiveness. and the Earth were the center of the universe.
1450-1699 That changed in 1543, barely a hundred years
Pure knowledge traveled from nation to
nation as well during those years between the after Gutenberg, when Polish astronomer Nico-
Dark Ages and the Renaissance. Perhaps most laus Copernicus (1473-1543) cast aside thou-
significant bit of knowledge to make the journey sands of years of human centrality. The Earth
was the use of numerals, which Europeans revolved around the Sun, Copernicus said. Many
acquired from Arabs, who had borrowed them did not want to hear him. One of his supporters,
from Hindu mathematicians. Knowledge trav- Italian astronomer Galileo Galilei (1564-1642),
eled through time as well: As the Dark Ages was forced by the Catholic Church to recant the
receded, scholars began to rediscover the great Copernican view despite evidence of its accuracy.
works of ancient scholars, scientists, and histori- It was the nature of observational astrono-
ans, and translated them for the modern world. my, however, that while such recantations served
By 1450, especially in Europe, the recre- political and social ends, they could not with-
ation of the past, the expansion of borders in the stand the steady accretion of proof. For this is
present, the rise of the scientific method, and the essence of the Scientific Revolution: evi-
the roots of higher mathematics came together, dence, observation, and experiment produce
lighting a fuse that ignited a period of ferocious verifiable results that, even if they conflict with
progress unlike anything that had gone before. long-held articles of faith, are demonstrably
true. Copernicus set in motion the greatest of all
revolutions, the shift from acceptance based on
The Greatest Invention faith and tradition, to acceptance based on
Knowledge that cannot be shared is almost objective, rational proof.
meaningless. Disseminating information in an age The workings of the universe themselves
of handwritten manuscripts, however, was labori- rapidly became the focus of much scientific effort.
ous. In 1450 Johann Gutenberg (c. 1398-1468) Galileo himself applied the scientific method—
changed the world forever when he invented observation, experimentation, analysis, verifica-
movable type. Gutenberg’s printing press enabled tion—to the workings of gravity. (The Scientific
the rapid duplication of pages of text (and num- Method itself would not be codified until 1620, by
bers and symbols). No longer would knowledge English philosopher Francis Bacon [1561-1626].)
be restricted to those who had access to rare, Astronomers throughout the world began using
hand-copied manuscripts. Books could now be new and improved tools—telescopes (invented in
mass-produced and mass-distributed. Knowledge 1698) equipped with lenses that were themselves
could travel wherever people went. the product of improvements and refinements in
Gutenberg’s revolution was immediate and glassmaking—to discover much of the richness of
overwhelming. In 1454 he printed 300 copies of our solar system. Galileo found moons orbiting
the Bible (an edition many still consider the Jupiter and explored the vast starfield of the Milky
most beautiful book ever published). By the end Way. Astronomers including Tycho Brahe (1546-
of the century the number of books available 1601) and Johannes Kepler (1571-1630) married
had exploded, and the price had plummeted. observational astronomy to higher mathematics
This technological revolution was also an educa- and began determining the nature of planetary
tional revolution, so that as the number of books orbits. The universe itself had been opened to our
increased, so did the number of people able to explorations.
read them. Inexpensive, widely available books
were the key to progress in the next two cen-
Realm of Numbers
turies, and they continue to affect the world
even in our modern, electronic age. Five and a The universe of numbers likewise expanded
half centuries after the debut of movable type, during this period. If observation is the essence of
Gutenberg’s invention can still be called the science, then mathematics is its heart. Mathemati-
most influential in all of history. cal proofs of observed phenomena became vital to
scientific consensus—agreement that experimen-
tal or observational results were accurate. For
The Greatest Discovery mathematics to approach the new complexities
From the very beginnings of human history, that observers reported, however, new methods
the night skies exerted a phenomenal influence. were needed, beginning with the great effort to

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develop equations that could solve problems in without air resistance to affect the results, all
which some values are unknown or variable. bodies fall at the same rate. From these experi- Introduction
Virtually all of modern mathematics rests ments and others came English mathematician
John Wallis’s (1616-1703) 1668 revelation of the 1450-1699
upon advances made during the period between
1440 and 1699. After a period in which ancient law of conservation of momentum: momentum
mathematics were consolidated, an explosion of can neither be created nor destroyed.
knowledge continued almost unabated for more By 1687 Newton’s studies of gravity and
than a century. Negative numbers were intro- bodies in motion had produced his three laws of
duced in 1545, and trigonometric tables just six motion, defining the rules that govern inertia,
years later. Decimal fractions arrived in 1586 as force as the product of mass and acceleration,
a result of the work of Dutch mathematician and the nature of actions and equal and opposite
Simon Stevin (1548-1620). By 1591 algebraic reactions.
symbols were being introduced. In 1614 loga- Modern physics was born.
rithms simplified the calculations of complex
numbers; eight years later lograrithmic tables
were built into a mechanical device called a slide The Universe Within
rule, an early precursor of the calculator and
Even as scores of scientists and scholars cast
computer. The first mechanical adding machine
their interests outward to the larger universe, oth-
was built by French mathematician Blaise Pascal
ers looked inward, to the worlds within our bod-
(1623-1662) in 1642.
ies. In 1543 (the same year Copernicus upset
Mathematics’s analytical power took a large notions of the universe) Flemish anatomist
leap forward in 1637 with the development of Andreas Vesalius (1514-1564) radically revised
analytic geometry, which married algebra to and improved human knowledge of human
geometry. This development, in turn, led to the anatomy. Two years later the French barber
greatest of all mathematical advances, the simul- Ambroise Paré (1510-1590) published an account
taneous development by Isaac Newton (1642- of new surgical methods, including tying off rather
1727) and Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz (1646- than cauterizing (burning) severed arteries to stop
1716) of calculus in the late 1660s. The true them from bleeding, and other improvements that
beginning of modern higher mathematics, calcu- would alter the face of medical care.
lus proved a supple tool for constantly varying
In 1590 the infinitesimally small became
elements, such as the positions of bodies in
visible when the first microscope was invented.
motion. Calculus also proved essential to
In 1665 Robert Hooke revealed that he had
approaching questions of planetary orbits and
found tiny chambers in a piece of cork exam-
gravity over distance.
ined under a microscope. He called these self-
contained chambers “cells.” In 1628 English
physician William Harvey (1578-1657) explored
Matters of Gravity the nature of the circulatory system in an influ-
The relationship between astronomy and ential book, Exercitatio Anatomica de Motu Cordis
mathematics was especially apparent in the et Sanguinis in Animalibus (An Anatomical Exer-
many scientific studies of gravity and bodies in cise Concerning the Motion of the Heart and
motion. Galileo himself applied his observations Blood in Animals). By 1658 corpuscles had been
of gravity to the workings of the pendulum, and discovered, and capillaries were identified just
in 1581 began to measure the time it took a pen- two years later. In 1668 Italian physician
dulum to complete its arc. (Decades later, fur- Francesco Redi (1626-1697) disproved long-
ther pendulum experiments would result in dra- held beliefs about spontaneous generation—the
matic advances in timekeeping and the first ability of life to rise from nonliving matter.
accurate clocks—themselves among the most Dutch scientist Anton van Leeuwenhoek
revolutionary of all inventions.) (1632-1723) made perhaps the most startling
More directly related to gravity itself were discovery of all when he used the microscope to
Galileo’s famous experiments with falling and reveal the existence of protozoans, which he
rolling objects, experiments that established the called animalcules. He also used his microscope
constant attraction of gravitational force. In to view different types of bacteria, although he
1657 English physicist Robert Hooke (1635- did not recognize their importance. His discov-
1703) conducted similar experiments, perform- eries launched a campaign of microscopic explo-
ing some of them in vacuum and proving that, ration that continues today.

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The Chemical World In 1519 the greatest of all voyages was

Exploration Chemistry, the combination of elements to
undertaken when Ferdinand Magellan (c. 1480-
1521) undertook a the first circumnavigation of
1450-1699 form new materials, likewise came of age during
the world, taking five ships and 270 men with
this time. Irish physicist and chemist Robert Boyle
him. Although Magellan was killed in the Philip-
(1627-1691) rejected the superstitions and half-
pines, four of the ships were lost, and only 17
truths of ancient science, arguing that the four
men returned to Spain in 1522, the voyage was
Aristotelian elements or earth, air, fire, and water
undeniably historic. Never again would geo-
could not be the building blocks of the physical
graphical barriers limit human expansion. The
world. He proposed instead that all matter was
voyage also confirmed the ancient Greek
made up of “primary particles,” which could com-
Eratosthones’s calculation of Earth’s circumfer-
bine to form compounds, which he called “cor-
ence as 25,000 miles (40,234 km).
puscles.” This systematic approach eventually led
to the discovery of chemical elements. Exploration was followed by settlement. Euro-
peans eventually colonized the New World and set
Throughout this period, advances were
in motion a cycle of trade and further exploration
made in identifying and understanding the dif-
that would lead over the next two centuries to the
ferent forms elements could take, and the differ-
emergence of North America as the richest land on
ent uses to which those forms could be put. As
the planet. The explorers, traders, merchants, and
early as 1592 the fact that some materials
settlers brought books with them—knowledge
expand or contract with temperature changes
every bit as valuable a cargo as people or materials.
was used to create primitive thermometers. By
The Scientific Revolution, like those who engen-
1624 experimentation showed how materials
dered it, knew no boundaries.
could change from liquids to gases. In 1643 the
first barometer was developed, leading to further
experiments with air pressure. Better under- The Modern Age Begins
standing of differences in pressure and the
nature of gases led the development of air No brief survey can hope to encompass all
pumps in the mid-1600s. the scientific, technological, and social progress
that occurred between 1450 and 1699. The Sci-
Air pumps made vacuum experiments pos- entific Revolution gave birth to an unparalleled
sible, and they, coupled with science’s increased expansion of technological capability, which in
understanding of liquids and gases, particularly turn elevated the lives of all. Machines enabled
steam, led by 1698 to the development of the more work to be done, and the results of that
first water pumps. These would prove to be the work were distributed—slowly, and against
key invention that led to the Industrial Revolu- much social resistance—to more and more peo-
tion of the next century. ple. The arts were likewise affected, with great
paintings, works of music, and above all drama
reflecting our new understanding of ourselves
Exploring and Expanding
and our place in the universe.
Even as scholars explored the scientific
world, others explored the physical world. By Hardship accompanied advance as igno-
the end of the fifteenth century Christopher rance, slavery, and warfare continued. But they
Columbus (1451-1506) had traveled from were also opposed: The Scientific Revolution
Europe to the New World, Vasco da Gama (c. deposed ancient ignorance and superstition and
1460-1524) had sailed from Lisbon around the replaced them with reason, giving rise to new
Cape of Good Hope to India, and Amerigo schools of thought, a heightened understanding
Vespucci (1454-1512) had begun mapping the of humanity’s place in the universe, and the
coast of South America. By 1513 Vasco Núñez importance of the individual within humanity.
de Balboa (1475-1519) had crossed Panama and Newton himself, acknowledging the schol-
found the Pacific Ocean, and Juan Ponce de ars who had come before him, said “If I have
Léon (1460-1521) had begun the settlement of seen further it is by standing on ye shoulders of
Florida. At roughly the same time a Portuguese Giants.” It is no overstatement to say that the
ship reached China and established an outpost century and a half between 1450 and 1699 were
there. By 1519 Hernán Cortés (1485-1547) had an age of giants—in the sciences, in the tech-
launched his brutal conquest of Mexico. nologies, and indeed in all of human endeavor.

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Chronology: 1450–1699

1450 Johann Gutenberg invents a print- 1588 The English fleet destroys the Span-
ing press with movable type, an event that ish Armada, establishing English naval
will lead to an explosion of knowledge as supremacy.
new ideas become much easier to dissemi-
1603 Japan is pacified and united under
nate.
the Tokugawa Shogunate, which takes
1453 Constantinople falls to the Turks, measures to isolate the country from Euro-
bringing an end to more than 1,100 years pean influences.
of Byzantine rule.
1618-48 The Thirty Years’ War involves
1492 Christopher Columbus encounters most of Europe in a protracted political
the New World. and religious struggle, fought mainly in
Germany; hostilities conclude with the
1500 Hindu-Arabic numerals come into
Holy Roman Empire virtually destroyed,
general use in Europe, replacing Roman
Hapsburg power eclipsed, and France the
numerals.
chief power on the continent.
1500-20 During the High Renaissance,
1628 English physician William Harvey,
numerous artists—among them Michelan-
considered the founder of modern physi-
gelo, Leonardo da Vinci, and Raphael—
ology, first demonstrates the correct theory
create their most memorable works.
of blood circulation in De Motu Cordis et
1517 Martin Luther posts his 95 theses Circulatione Sanguinis.
on the door of Wittenberg’s Castle Church,
1637 French philosopher René Descartes’s
a seminal event in the Reformation.
Discours de la méthode applies a mechanis-
1519-22 Ferdinand Magellan leads the tic view to science and medicine, establish-
first circumnavigation of the globe and ing a worldview that dominates the study
discovers the Strait of Magellan at the of man for some time.
southern tip of South America.
1642-48 Civil war in England results in
1532 Niccolo Machiavelli writes The the establishment of a dictatorship under
Prince, which provides rulers with a model Oliver Cromwell, but ultimately leads to
for achieving and maintaining power. increased power for the middle class and
Parliament.
1534 King Henry VIII officially breaks
with Rome, establishing the Church of 1644 China’s last imperial dynasty, the
England. Ch’ing or Manchu, assumes power.
1543 Nicolaus Copernicus’s publication 1669 Isaac Newton circulates a paper,
of De Revolutionibus Orbium, in which he “De Analysi per Aequationes Numero Ter-
proposes a heliocentric or Sun-centered minorum Infinitas,” in which he lays the
universe, sparks the beginnings of the Sci- foundations for differential and integral
entific Revolution. calculus; four years later, and completely

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Chronology independent of Newton, G. W. Leibniz in 1687 Isaac Newton publishes Philosophiae

Germany also develops calculus. Naturalis Principia Mathematica, generally
1450-1699 considered the greatest scientific work
1681 France builds the Languedoc Canal, ever written, in which he outlines his
also known as the Canal du Midi, a 150- three laws of motion and offers an equa-
mile (241-km) waterway considered the tion that becomes the law of universal
greatest feat of civil engineering between gravitation.
Roman times and the nineteenth century.

1683 The Ottoman Empire invades 1688 England’s Glorious Revolution estab-
Hapsburg lands in Eastern Europe and lishes constitutional government under the
lays siege to Vienna. joint rule of King William and Queen Mary.

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Exploration and Discovery

Chronology


1488 Portuguese navigator Bartolomeu 1595 Flemish geographer Gerardus Mer-
Dias first sails around the Cape of Good cator introduces the use of cylindrical pro-
Hope; a decade later, Vasco da Gama will jection—later dubbed Mercator projec-
use this route to become the first Euro- tion—to depict Earth’s spherical surface
pean to travel by sea to India. on flat paper.

1492 Christopher Columbus discovers 1605 Willem Jansz is the first European
the New World. to set foot on the Australian mainland.
1607 John Smith leads the establishment
1494 The Treaty of Tordesillas divides the of the first permanent English colony in
New World between Spain and Portugal. the New World, at Jamestown in Virginia.
1497 John Cabot is the first European, 1616 While searching for the Northwest
other than Norse adventures some 500 Passage, William Baffin explores Green-
years before, to set foot on North America. land and Baffin Island, and ventures fur-
ther north—within some 800 miles (1,287
1507 Cartographer Martin Waldseemüller km) of the North Pole—than any explorer
becomes the first to call the New World will until the nineteenth century.
“America,” after explorer Amerigo Vespucci.
1648 Semyon Dezhnev is the first to sail
1513 Vasco Núñez de Balboa becomes through the sea channel between Siberia
the first European to see the Pacific Ocean. and Alaska, proving that Asia and North
America are not connected; however, be-
1519-22 Ferdinand Magellan leads the cause Dezhnev’s records are not found
first circumnavigation of the globe, and until much later, Vitus Bering—for whom
discovers the Strait of Magellan at the the strait is named—receives credit for the
southern tip of South America. discovery.

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Overview:
Exploration
& Discovery Exploration and Discovery 1450-1699
1450-1699


As the civilizations of the world developed and (1454-1512) rediscovered North America on his
expanded, so, too, did man’s desire to explore return voyage from Brazil; John Cabot (1450?-
and conquer new lands and peoples. The Vikings 1499?), the first European since the Vikings to
were prime examples of this need to discover make landfall in the northern reaches of North
and conquer, first with their raids throughout America—Newfoundland and Nova Scotia—
Europe from the middle of the eighth century, around 1497; and Ferdinand Magellan (1480?-
and later with their epic voyages for the adven- 1521) led the first circumnavigation of the globe
ture of discovering new lands, which they did in (1519-1522), though was killed by natives in
North America in the late tenth century. Other the Philippines before he could return. These
civilizations that turned to exploration for the expeditions rapidly added details to maps of the
purpose of expanding their empires included world, as did others in the Pacific Ocean in the
Genghis Khan’s (1162?-1227) Mongols, whose late sixteenth and early seventeenth century
vast empire stretched across Asia. The Crusades when Australia, New Zealand, and the Fiji Is-
of the eleventh, twelfth, and thirteenth centuries lands were discovered by Dutch sailors looking
brought European military expeditions to the to expand lines of commerce for their nation.
Holy Land, introducing Islamic culture (and the
science of cartography) to the West. With the The oceanic exploration begun with Henry
journeys of Marco Polo (1254-1324) in the thir- the Navigator led to a quest for wealth and ad-
teenth and fourteenth centuries, the European venture and to the Spanish tradition of conquis-
spirit of exploration was further inspired. Polo’s tadors—adventurers, part soldier, part sailor, in-
tales of the Great Khan and the wealth of the terested in the myths and legends of gold,
East—its silks and spices—spurred the nations spices, and new lands to conquer. Their desire
of Europe into a period known as the Age of Dis- for conquest and the building of empires also
covery, with a focus on quests to seek out new concealed the objective of converting those they
lands and trade routes by sea. conquered to Christianity, thus beginning an era
of colonization and commerce in the New
Apart from the Norse voyagers, all official World. The first Spaniard to disrupt an estab-
early European explorers had one goal: the dis- lished New World civilization was Hernando
covery of a route to China and the Indies. The Cortés (1485-1547), who conquered the Aztec
two main objectives of this goal were the riches empire in Mexico (1518). Eventually the Span-
of the Indies and the conversion of native “infi- ish occupied Mexico, sending out expeditions to
dels” to Christianity. So began a tradition of Eu- the southwestern parts of North America, such
ropean maritime discovery. The person who as that of Francisco de Coronado (1510?-1554),
most encouraged fifteenth century sea explo- who discovered the Grand Canyon (1540).
ration was Portuguese Prince Henry (1394-
1460), known as Henry the Navigator, who es- Overland exploration by the conquistadors
tablished a “navigational” school at Sagres, near led to critical geographic discoveries. Alvar Nunez
Cabo de São, Portugal. By the time of his death, Cabeza de Vaca (1490?-1560?) and Hernando de
expeditions under his sponsorship had explored Soto (1496?-1542) led expeditions to the south-
southward along the coast of Africa as far as eastern sections of North America. Vasco Nuñez
Gambia. de Balboa (1475-1519) and Diego de Almagro
(1474?-1538) led expeditions to South America,
Explorer Bartolomeu Dias (1450?-1500) where Francisco Pizarro (1475-1541) eventually
was the next great Portuguese navigator; he dis- conquered the Incas (1532). Two significant ex-
covered the Cape of Good Hope in 1488 after he peditions were conducted along the Amazon
was blown around it while outrunning a storm. River, the first by Francisco de Orellana (1511?-
Others soon followed in his wake: Vasco da 1546), who made a 4,000-mile (6,437-km) jour-
Gama (1460?-1524) rounded Africa and reached ney along the Amazon to the Atlantic Ocean
India in 1498, opening the Indian Ocean to (1539-1541), and the second by Pedro Teixeira
trade; Christopher Columbus (1451?-1506) dis- (1570?-1640), who in 1639 spent 10 months sur-
covered the “New World” in 1492, but was con- veying the river. In addition to their contributions
vinced he had reached Asia; Amerigo Vespucci to geography and political expansion, the Spanish

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conquistadors also helped establish the first per- first recorded attempt to discover the Northwest
manent European settlement on Cuba in 1512. In Passage was made by Italian Sebastian Cabot Exploration
1565 the first permanent European settlement in (1476?-1557) for British investors. While unsuc- & Discovery
North America was founded in St. Augustine by cessful, his voyage spurred others such as Jacques
the Spanish. Cartier (1491-1557), who discovered the Gulf of 1450-1699

With the Spanish and Portuguese establish- St. Lawrence (1534) and the St. Lawrence River
ing settlements in South America and Mexico, (1535) during his search; Martin Frobisher
the French, British, and Dutch looked to North (1540-1594), who sailed up the coast of Green-
America. As settlements were planned, explorers land toward what is now Baffin Island and shared
such as Henry Hudson (?-1611) ventured north the first meeting between Englishmen and Eski-
and then inland, where Etienne Brulé (1592?- mos (1576); and John Davis (1550?-1650), who
1632?) discovered and explored the Great led three voyages to discover the Northwest Pas-
Lakes—Huron (1611), Ontario (1615), and Su- sage between 1585-87 and reached just over
perior (1621). In 1603 French explorer Samuel 1,100 miles (1,770 km) from the North Pole. In
de Champlain (1567?-1635) founded the first 1616 William Baffin (1586?-1622) came within
settlement in Canada at Montreal. A few years 800 miles (1,287 km) of the North Pole on an ex-
later, the British founded Jamestown in Virginia pedition that resulted in the discovery of Baffin
(1607), followed by New Plymouth (1620), Bay and Baffin Island. Other expeditions searched
Salem (1628), and Boston (1630). The Dutch for a Northeast sea route to China—and were as
founded New Amsterdam, site of present-day unsuccessful, though they resulted in trade routes
New York City, in 1626. With the colonies came between England and Russia. As with explo-
opportunities for trade and commerce, as new rations further west in North America, it would
crops such as tobacco and sugar cane impacted remain for later explorers to discover answers to
the economies of Europe. the mysteries of the Arctic.

In North America attempts were made to In the 1700s European explorers had ex-
reach the Pacific Ocean by traveling overland, panded their knowledge of the world, defining
including that of René Robert Cavelier, Sieur de its boundaries and cataloging its natural shape.
La Salle (1643-1687), who reached the Missis- With much of the Atlantic Ocean and its coast-
sippi (1681) and followed it to the Gulf of Mexi- lines surveyed, explorers turned to the larger Pa-
co to lay claim to Louisiana. Frenchman Jean cific Ocean and began to survey and lay claim to
Nicollet de Belleborne (1598?-1642) explored islands in its waters and adjoining lands. Expe-
between the St. Lawrence and Mississippi rivers, ditions ventured further into the interiors of
and Belgian friar Louis Hennepin (1626-1705?) North America and Africa. Others made great
explored the upper Mississippi (1679) and was strides in compiling more accurate geographic
the first European to see Niagara Falls. At the and meteorological data and maps of the world.
end of the seventeenth century, the unknown Exciting developments were made in the fields
territory west of the Mississippi would remain of archaeology, geology, anthropology, ethnology,
for later explorers to discover. and other natural sciences. By the end of the
While explorers were beginning to establish eighteenth century the world seemed smaller
settlements in North America, others were mak- due to the knowledge gained by its explorers.
ing the first attempts to explore the cold northern
Atlantic—in search of a passage to the East. The ANN T. MARSDEN

Spanish Exploration and Colonization

Overview ropean powers. Spanish fleets returned from the
New World with holds full of gold, silver, and
Beginning in 1492 with the first voyage of precious gemstones while Spanish priests trav-
Christopher Columbus (1451?-1506), Spanish eled the world to convert and save the souls of
explorers and conquistadors built a colonial em- the native populations. However, Spain’s time of
pire that turned Spain into one of the great Eu- dominance was to be relatively short-lived; only

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two centuries later, Spain’s European power was found influence in Spain’s management of her
Exploration in decline, and a century after that, virtually all overseas possessions.
& Discovery her colonies were in open revolt. Much of the
Spain’s religious fervor was no less under-
reason for this sequence of events, and for the
standable than was her elevation of the military
1450-1699 subsequent history of former Spanish territories
to a position of prominence in society. Spain’s re-
can be traced back to the reasons for and the na-
cent emergence from seven centuries of Moorish
ture of Spanish imperialism.
rule had only served to emphasize to her the im-
portance of the Christian Church (this was be-
Background fore the Protestant Reformation), and religious
For almost 800 years, Arabs occupied and ruled belief was an important fact of daily life. Then,
the Iberian Peninsula. For over a century, a suc- in 1517, Martin Luther (1483-1546) tacked his
cession of Spanish rulers fought the Moors, famous 95 theses to the door of a church in Ger-
gradually pushing them back and reestablishing many, launching the Reformation, which was to
Spain as a Christian nation. This goal was finally subject Europe to centuries of religious blood-
achieved in 1492, when the Moorish bastion of shed as Protestants and Catholics battled for su-
Granada finally surrendered after a decade of premacy. Against this backdrop, Spain’s desire to
siege. In that same year, Spain expelled thou- spread the Catholic Church overseas is entirely
sands of Jews, a Spaniard was elected Pope, and understandable, especially given Protestant Eng-
another Spaniard published the first formal land’s later colonization of North America.
grammar of any European language. And The Spanish did not treat their New World
Genoan navigator Christopher Columbus sailed possessions kindly. The conquistadors came to
on a voyage of discovery to find a more direct conquer new territories for power and riches.
route to the Orient. All of these factors turned They overthrew the Inca and the Aztecs, plus a
out to have great importance for the next 300 host of less-advanced civilizations. Spanish settlers
years of Spanish history, and for all subsequent came to make a fortune and return to Spain, not
Latin American history. to stay in a new home. They felt that many chores
Columbus returned to Spain, convinced he were beneath their dignity, so they employed or
had succeeded in finding the Orient and not re- enslaved the native populations to till the land,
alizing his discovery was, instead, much greater. mine precious metals, and do the other menial
He was quickly followed by others: Francisco work of empire. In this, they were a microcosm of
Pizzaro (1475-1541), Vasco Núñez de Balboa the Spanish government, and their colonial style
(1475-1519), Hernan Cortés (1485-1547), and was to have significant ramifications for both the
others. Within a few decades, Spain had ex- Spanish colonies and for Spain herself.
plored most of South and Central America, and
had found the Americas to be rich with precious
metals and stones. Meanwhile, Spanish priests
Impact
discovered a new continent full of, in their opin- During the Age of Exploration and subsequent
ion, savages whose souls needed to be saved. So years, there were five major colonial powers:
Spain descended on the Americas with a cross in England, Spain, France, Portugal, and Holland.
one hand and a gun in the other, determined to Each of these nations had a different motivation
convert the natives while stripping their lands to for establishing overseas colonies, and each
fill the Spanish treasury. treated her colonies differently. Most of their for-
mer colonies still bear an unmistakable imprint
While this description may sound unneces-
of their colonial heritage, made of equal parts of
sarily harsh, Spain’s actions are understandable
the motivations of their parent country in estab-
to some degree. Spain had just emerged from
lishing colonies and the manner in which they
centuries of domination by a foreign power and
were treated before independence.
(by their lights) heathen religion. They earned
their liberty by force of arms and, they believed, In general, the Dutch came to trade, the Por-
divine help. This belief seemed vindicated when tuguese to explore and to trade, the English to ex-
a Spaniard became Pope in the very year the last pand, the French to counter English maneuvers,
Moors were defeated, cementing in the national and the Spanish to get rich. Another generalization
consciousness the link between religion and mil- is that the English and French settlers came look-
itary power. This, plus Spain’s late emergence ing for freedom and opportunity in a new home,
from medieval feudalism, helped mold the na- the Portuguese and Dutch settlers came to work
tional character that was to have such a pro- what was, in effect, an “overseas assignment” be-

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Exploration
& Discovery
1450-1699

Fifteenth-century woodcut depicting a Spanish ship in Hispaniola.(Corbis Corporation. Reproduced with permission.)

fore returning home again, and the Spanish came of wealth to Spain, making Spain one of the most
to take what they could to advance themselves, powerful and most feared nations in Europe.
their families, their religion, and their nation. However, this money was not used wisely, in part
because Spain was not expecting it and her gov-
During their centuries of domination, the ernment was not ready for it, similar to how a
Spanish colonies returned an incredible amount child is not ready to inherit and manage a million

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dollars. So Spain spent her wealth building up a Venezuela and Mexico, continued their progeni-
Exploration large army and larger navy, waging wars, subdu- tor’s profligate ways with national wealth; in
& Discovery ing a continent, and defending her colonies both cases, vast amounts of revenue from petro-
against opportunistic attack. At the same time, leum and mineral deposits has been either
1450-1699 Spain’s European ambitions led to her dominat- squandered or vanished.
ing large sections of Europe, only to lose them in Although Spain’s power was broken in the
later years through war or political maneuvering. wake of the Armada’s defeat, she remained a
Because she spent her money unwisely, power to be reckoned with until her defeat in
Spain almost immediately went into debt, if that the Spanish-American War in 1898-99. During
can be believed. She began borrowing against this time, she continued to play a role in Euro-
future treasure, primarily from foreign govern- pean politics and wars, including the Napoleon-
ments because Spain’s Catholics were not per- ic Wars, though usually in a supporting role.
mitted to lend money, and she had expelled her
It is also noteworthy that the treasure
Jews, who had no Biblical injunction against
brought back from the New World, while it did
lending money. So most of Spain’s New World
not often benefit Spain, did benefit Spain’s Euro-
revenues passed through Spain and ended up in
pean lenders. In spite of the incredible imported
France, Switzerland, and the other nations of
wealth, Spain defaulted on loans several times in
Europe while the Spanish economy and people
the late 1500s and early 1600s, and some of her
benefited little. In effect, Spain’s mismanagement
military defeats were due to army mutinies over
of her great wealth drove her into bankruptcy,
lack of pay. In particular, the Dutch, the Swiss,
and Spanish power began to decline. In 1588
and the French held Spanish loans, but the
the seemingly invincible Spanish Armada failed
Spanish borrowed from just about any govern-
to defeat the English navy, while at the same
ment with which they were not actively at war.
time, her New World possessions had been re-
This money, in turn, was often put to good use
peatedly attacked by English ships led, more
by the recipient nations, helping to build their
often than not, by Sir Francis Drake (1540?-
economies.
1596). Although Spanish power would continue
to be feared for more than a century longer, by It is probably safe to say that Spanish aims
the start of the seventeenth century it was al- in exploring and colonizing Latin America were
ready apparent that Spanish power would not not bad, but they turned out badly. Arriving
last forever. with the near-absolutism of the zealot, Spanish
missionaries were determined to convert native
Spain’s colonies were perhaps most dramat-
populations to Catholicism, in part to combat
ically influenced by Spanish practices. As noted
the spread of Protestantism in Europe. And, re-
above, they were settled largely by men who
cently emerged from a long and bloody religious
came to the New World simply to conquer, con-
war against the Moors, Spanish settlers were
vert, or become rich. This was a direct out-
more than willing to believe in the advantages of
growth of the period in which Spain found her-
a powerful central government, a strong military,
self at that time. By the time of the Latin Ameri-
and the necessity of military conquest to tame a
can revolutions in the last part of the eighteenth
new continent. In addition, a strongly patriar-
century and the first part of the nineteenth,
chal society gave familial lands to the oldest son,
these characteristics were deeply ingrained into
leaving younger sons often destitute and eager to
the national psyches of virtually all Latin Ameri-
spend a few years in the Americas to make their
can nations, and they remain visible today. Most
fortune, which they tended to do with the labor
Latin American nations are devoutly Roman
of native populations. This almost inevitably led
Catholic. The military has a prominence in
to the establishment of strong central govern-
most of them that is almost unique among the
ments presiding over largely Catholic nations
world’s democracies, and Latin American poli-
and supported by a large, strong military—ex-
tics and government are still strongly reminis-
actly the pattern seen in many Latin American
cent of the Spanish feudal heritage, in which a
nations for nearly two centuries. In addition,
strong leader dominated the nation’s political
Spain’s mismanagement of her imported wealth
machinery. This was seen in Chile and Argenti-
led just as inevitably to her economic and mili-
na in the 1970s and 1980s, also in Panama,
tary downturn, taking Spain from a prominent
Nicaragua, and El Salvador during this same
position in European power to that of a second-
time frame, and continues to be the case in
class power within just a few centuries.
Peru, Venezuela, Mexico, Cuba, and other na-
tions today. Some of these nations, in particular P. ANDREW KARAM

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Further Reading Kennedy, Paul. The Rise and Fall of the Great Powers. New
Copeland, John, Ralph Kite, and Lynne Sandstedt. Civi-
York: Random House, 1987. Exploration
lización y Cultura. New York: Holt, Rinehart, and Manchester, William. A World Lit Only by Fire: Portrait of & Discovery
Winston, 1989. an Age. Boston: Little, Brown, 1992.
Crow, John. The Epic of Latin America. Berkeley: Universi- Wood, Peter. The Spanish Main. Alexandria, VA: Time-Life 1450-1699
ty of California Press, 1992. Books, 1979.

Portugal Launches Age of Discovery

Overview The Moors, in fact, still held the territory south
of Lisbon as late as 1200.
Over a period of about 150 years, the tiny na-
tion of Portugal founded Brazil, discovered the Despite foreign conflicts, the people of Por-
sea route around Africa to India, and established tugal were relatively tolerant. Portugal’s popula-
colonies and trading posts in Tangiers, Angola, tion originated from a variety of different tribes,
the Congo, the Gulf of Ormuz, India, the Spice including Celtic, African, Iberian, English, and
Islands, and China. For most of that time, Portu- Germanic. This encouraged a cultural broad-
gal dominated trade between Asia and Western mindedness that gave the Portuguese critical ac-
Europe, undercutting the economies of flourish- cess to tools like the compass (from Islamic
ing trading cities, including Naples and Genoa. countries) and maps (from Jews).
Henry the Navigator (1394-1460) set up a pro-
totypical research center in Sagres where maps By the fifteenth century, Portugal was united
were systematically charted and both sailing internally and at peace with Spain. At the same
vessels and techniques that made exploration time, it was hemmed in by the Moors to the
possible were invented. With these tools, Por- south. The possibilities for expansion and trade
tugal was able to secure luxury goods from the were revealed when Henry the Navigator went
East, to spread Christianity, and to increase its on a crusade that seized the city of Ceuta in
wealth, influence, and power. When the power 1415. This trading center was filled with shops,
shifted, it went to other European countries precious metals, jewels, and spices. However,
that followed Portugal’s successful lead. Hol- the captured city’s trade stopped with the depar-
land, England, France, and Spain joined in a ture of the Moors, and Portugal was left with a
scramble to discover, explore and claim new hollow victory. If Portugal could find a route
lands that lasted all the way to Captain James around the Moors to the East, it could partici-
Cook’s (1728-1779) final voyage. pate in this rich trade directly.
Their primary trading need was pepper,
which both helped preserve food and made
Background heavily salted meat palatable. Because of Portu-
Portugal’s geography, politics, and personality gal’s location, goods from the East went through
came together to encourage it to become a nauti- many middlemen, and the costs to the Por-
cal power. The country faces outward to the At- tuguese were high. With direct access to the
lantic, with 1,118 miles (1,800 km) of coastline. East, Portugal hoped to lower prices and capture
But, looking eastward toward the most vibrant a portion of the wealth of trading. But trade was
trading centers, Portugal found itself relatively not the only reason exploration became a na-
far away, with difficult land routes and no coast- tional goal for the Portuguese. In fact, it was 20
line on the Mediterranean. While to the west, years before the acquisition of African slaves
Portugal had navigable rivers and deep, natural brought the first returns on their investments.
ports, including Lisbon and Setubal, to provide There was another reason—conversions.
safe harbor, to the east were disadvantages of
Portugal was at the forefront of the struggle
cost, time, and hazard.
between Christian and Islamic religion. Like
One such hazard was enemies, including Spain, many of its territories had been held by
the kingdoms that became Spain on its own Islamic powers. Islamic strongholds were just
peninsula and the powerful Moors to the south. across the Gulf of Cadiz, and the Popes were for-

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Exploration
& Discovery
1450-1699

Seventeenth-century Portuguese colonialists in East Africa. (Corbis Corporation. Reproduced with permission.)

mally blessing crusades against the Moors. and a new kind of ship, the caravel, was devel-
Though there was a political basis for the enmi- oped. Quick, lightweight, and able to sail wind-
ty, there was also a rising tide of religious fervor ward, the caravel become the key vehicle for dis-
within Portugal that led to forced conversions covery. Christopher Columbus’s (1451?-1506)
and trials of inquisition. Within this context, the Nina and Pinta were both caravels. Most signifi-
zeal for gaining religious converts rose, and the cantly, Henry systematically sent voyage after
spread of Christianity became an important mo- voyage down along the coast of Africa. This was
tivation for exploration. unprecedented. He persisted even when the only
benefit to Portugal was increase in the extent of
To this was added the curious legend of
known geography. Progress came to a halt when
Prester John, a wise and powerful Christian leader
Henry’s captains came to a bump on the coastline
located in the East. The story probably originated
known as Cape Bojador. This was purportedly a
from misinformation about the Mongol Empire, a
point of no return; to pass it meant being killed
bogus letter from Prester John to European rulers,
or lost forever. Fifteen times over the course of
and wishful thinking. But the Portuguese accept-
10 years captains were sent to take on this chal-
ed the existence of Prester John as fact, and pur-
lenge for king and country, and 15 times they
sued a strategy to link up with this Christian ally
came back with word that it was impossible. Fi-
and outflank the followers of Islam. Rather than
nally, Henry made Gil Eannes (?-1435?) swear
being contained and controlled by the Moors,
that he would not return unless he had gone
Portugal would contain and control its rival.
south of the Cape and, in 1435, Eannes rounded
Besides trade and conversions, curiosity was Cape Bojador, opening up territories south for
also a powerful motive for exploration that further exploration. By Henry’s death in 1460,
should not be underestimated. Henry the Navi- the Portuguese had gone all the way to what
gator had seen the economic stakes in Ceuta and would become Liberia, 1,864 miles (3,000 km)
had sacrificed a ransomed brother to the cause of into unknown territory; by 1482, the Portuguese
the spread of Christianity. But he was also hungry had gone as far as the Congo; by 1485,
for new knowledge, and Portugal’s adventures in Bartholomeu Dias (1450?-1500) had rounded
exploration really began with his leadership and the Cape of Good Hope; and by 1499 Vasco da
his financial backing of a center for exploration Gama (1460?-1524) had completed his trip to
in Sagres. It was there that better maps were India. For the next hundred years, Portugal dom-
drawn, navigational instruments were adopted, inated the spice trade and was a world power.

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Impact Portugal can be credited with more than

With its many voyages, Portugal initiated the Age
just political and economic leadership in the Exploration
of Discovery. The Portuguese brought knowledge
Age of Discovery. The Portuguese also devel- & Discovery
oped the tools and processes for exploration.
as well as wealth. They dispelled superstition and
Prince Henry the Navigator’s center in Sagres 1450-1699
changed the political balance within Europe. For
improved ship design, transformed mapmaking
the Portuguese themselves, the most important
into a rigorous discipline, and spurred the
geopolitical legacy is the nation of Brazil, the
adoption of key navigational tools, including
largest, most powerful country in South America.
the compass (which others had superstitiously
But the indirect results are of even greater signifi-
avoided) and the sextant. The Portuguese had a
cance. Portugal’s success encouraged others,
program of exploration that was systematic, ob-
most notably the Dutch, the English, the French,
jective, cumulative, patient, and determined.
and the Spanish, to engage in exploration and
This approach, which was adopted by other na-
colonization. Portugal’s competition with Spain
tions, produced success over and over again. It
led to a Papal decree, the Treaty of Tordesillas
also created a model for scientific exploration;
(1494), that secured Portugal’s claims in Africa
Sagres had many of the same values and proce-
and the East and brought Spanish culture to
dures that are part of the culture of today’s re-
most of Latin America. In fact, the political and
search centers.
cultural map of the Western Hemisphere was
drawn during this era, and its shape is largely the Though the Portuguese never linked up with
result of forces set loose by Portugal. Prester John, their plot to outflank the Moors suc-
Unfortunately, discovery included slavery ceeded. This went beyond a short-term trading
and colonization. The slave trade that the Por- advantage and political security. Thanks to com-
tuguese initiated in Africa grew quickly. One munication with the East, the rise of scientific
thousand slaves had already been brought to techniques, access to classical manuscripts, and
Portuguese territory by 1448, and the Por- the wealth of the New World, the dominance of
tuguese continued to deal in slaves for two cen- Portugal, and more broadly Western Europe, in
turies. The Portuguese base at Elmina (Ghana) worldwide culture began. Islamic culture, lacking
became an infamous link in the chain that newer technology and relatively weaker in trade,
brought millions of Africans to the Americas. went into decline and receded as a global pres-
Built in 1482, it was captured by the Dutch in ence and as a threat to Europe.
1637 and taken by the British in 1664. By the PETER J. ANDREWS
1700s, 30,000 slaves were passing through
Elmina each year.
Trading centers from Angola to India to Further Reading
China were established at the point of a gun. Asimov, Isaac. Isaac Asimov’s Biographical Encyclopedia of
Though the Portuguese were generally not as Science & Technology. New York: Doubleday, 1976.
thorough-going as the Spanish conquistadors, Boorstin, Daniel J. The Discoverers. New York: Vintage,
they did establish patterns of violence and dis- 1985.
trust that persist today in Portuguese former Cuyvers, Luc. Into the Rising Sun: Vasco Da Gama and the
colonies, such as East Timor and Angola, as well Search for the Sea Route to the East. New York: TV
as in the former colonies of their imitators. Books, 1999.

Dutch Exploration and Colonization

Overview chants and bankers made Amsterdam the eco-
In the sixteenth century the United Provinces of nomic center of Europe, and the Dutch navy was
the Netherlands rose from the status of a Span- a power to be reckoned with. The Dutch empire
ish possession to a great European power. Dutch was built on industry and trade, and Dutch mer-
ships carried goods throughout the world for chants were remarkably pragmatic in political
virtually every European nation, Dutch mer- and economic matters. As a result, Dutch power

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chants provided ample tax revenues from which

Exploration the Dutch government could wage war, protect
& Discovery its borders, establish colonies, and care for its
citizens. It also provided a large supply of
1450-1699 money for lending at favorable interest rates,
which, in turn, helped the Dutch government fi-
nance its activities when tax revenues were not
sufficient. These three factors reinforced each
other and enabled the Netherlands to achieve a
prominence that belied its relatively small size
and population.
During the seventeenth and eighteenth cen-
turies Europe was in a nearly constant state of
war. Alliances developed and shifted continually
between England, France, Spain, the Nether-
lands, Sweden, and smaller states as the European
nations first built themselves and then jockeyed
for power and dominance. The Dutch and Eng-
lish fought three wars before allying against a
French-Spanish force trying to reunite the
Netherlands with Spain. Other alliances were
made and broken over the years as nations sought
Seventeenth-century Dutch explorers encounter Chilean the most advantageous situation for themselves in
natives at Cape Horn. (Corbis Corbis. Reproduced with the shifting European political scene.
permission.)
Against this backdrop the Dutch were busy
defending their borders and carefully building
grew more rapidly than English or French and,
their trade empire. Sturdy Dutch merchant ships
when Holland’s power had peaked, it did not
carried most of Europe’s trade, even trading with
decline as precipitously as did Spain’s. These
their enemy, the Spanish, if the potential profit
same traits have helped make the Netherlands
outweighed their risks (and, ironically, helping
one of the world’s most prosperous and egalitari-
deplete Spain’s treasury, which helped contribute
an nations, a country that remains an economic
to Spain’s downfall). As Dutch merchants and
powerhouse today.
shipbuilders grew more confident in their re-
spective crafts, Dutch ships began to sail further
Background afield, and the Dutch saw economic advantage
When Charles V of Spain was crowned the Holy in establishing their own colonies, rather than
Roman Emperor in 1519, among his holdings simply carrying goods for others.
was the territory of the Netherlands, which he Although the Dutch colonial empire did not
had inherited through his paternal grandmother, come close to matching the scope of English,
Mary of Burgundy. Apparently this arrangement French, or Spanish possessions, Dutch colonies
did not sit well with the Dutch who, by century’s were carefully selected and tenaciously defend-
end, had successfully freed themselves from ed. After abandoning their North American
Spanish domination and had become a formida- colonies (in what is now New York), the Dutch
ble military and economic power. established outposts in the Caribbean, South
Dutch success was due to a number of po- America (what is now Suriname), South Africa,
litical, economic, and military factors. Politically, and what is now Indonesia. Holland also estab-
the Dutch were the only European nation at that lished a trading center in Japan, one of only a
time with a republican government, rather than few European nations to do so. Between 1598
an absolute monarchy. This gave each citizen a and 1605, 150 Dutch ships sailed to the
greater stake in the nation’s success, and a Caribbean each year. Another 25 ships carried
greater responsibility for helping the country to goods to and from Africa, 20 left for Brazil, and
do well. This also gave more power to the Dutch 10 plied trade routes to the East Indies. Some of
merchants, whose shrewd business sense and these ships served Dutch colonies, some the
pragmatism led them to a position of promi- colonies of other nations. All added to Dutch
nence in Europe. The success of Dutch mer- wealth and power.

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Impact time the Netherlands was one of the wealthiest

The Dutch were not explorers in the same sense
nations in Europe. In addition to carrying cargo Exploration
as other European nations. Unlike England, Por-
for most European nations, the Dutch also im- & Discovery
ported raw materials, turning them into finished
tugal, and Spain, they were not prone to sailing
goods that were subsequently exported at a tidy 1450-1699
forth on voyages of discovery, planting their flag
profit. And Holland’s role in trade helped make
wherever they set foot, and claiming lands for
Amsterdam one of Europe’s financial centers,
the Dutch crown. They were, at heart, shrewd
further adding to Dutch revenue.
and pragmatic businessmen, expanding cau-
tiously and carefully, reluctant to commit them- All of this income enabled them to fortify
selves to the large investment a colony entailed their borders and hire foreign mercenaries to
unless the potential financial gain warranted the protect against the attempted depredations of
risk. This is not to say that every single Dutch their neighbors. With all their shipbuilding ex-
move was carefully considered and weighed, but perience, the Dutch shipyards built an impres-
in general the Dutch sailed for profit and not for sive navy that helped with national defense, es-
glory. This caution left an indelible mark on corted Dutch merchant vessels, and protected
Dutch colonies, Dutch power, and the current Dutch colonies from foreign incursions. For a
Dutch nation. time the Dutch navy was the world’s most pow-
Dutch aims in colonizing new territories erful, and the Dutch army was more than ade-
were primarily commercial: maximize profit and quate to defend its borders against any European
minimize financial risk. Unlike the English in power. There is little doubt that none of this
North America and (later) in South Africa, they would have been possible without the steady
had little interest in establishing colonies with a stream of revenue from Dutch commerce, in-
high degree of political autonomy. Instead, their cluding that from its overseas possessions.
preference was to establish colonial governments Although Dutch military power was rarely
that would help organize the efforts of the native sufficient to dominate European politics, it was
populations and the colonists so that the enough to guarantee the nation’s security against
colonies could ship raw materials back to the both land and sea attack by any great power.
Netherlands on a regular and continuing basis. And, as all the great powers of the time discov-
This, however, helped make the Dutch poor ered, the Netherlands’s entry into a contest was
colonial masters, as they tended to place great often sufficient to tip the balance of power
demands on Dutch colonists and native popula- against its foes. This gave the Netherlands politi-
tions. At the same time, the Dutch tended to de- cal “muscle” that was belied by its small size and
molish the existing tribal or political structure, population.
ruling almost entirely with Dutch nationals. This As their overt political and military power
combination tended to not only anger the native was eclipsed by that of England and France, the
populations, but also left them in a disadvan- Dutch seem to have settled (not entirely willing-
taged position when Dutch colonial rule ended. ly) into a different role in European politics. Al-
This is most obvious in Indonesia, which, since though the term “power broker” is not entirely
Dutch rule ended in the mid-twentieth century, apt, it is also not entirely inappropriate because
has been subject to an endless succession of cor- Dutch involvement in any close issue could be
rupt governments. sufficient to decide the matter. From this, the
Unlike the Spanish, the Dutch did expect Dutch seem to have grown into a philosophy of
their colonies to produce goods on a relatively judicious international involvement which, in
sustainable basis, and the Dutch colonists ex- conjunction with their still-considerable eco-
pected that a great deal of hard work would be nomic might, gives them a continuing promi-
involved. In addition, the Dutch were never as nent role in many international organizations,
adamantly religious as the Spanish, and religious including NATO and the United Nations.
proselytizing and conversion was not a primary As noted above, the Dutch tended to man-
focus of Dutch overseas efforts. So, although the age their colonies for long-term profitability
Dutch were not ideal colonial masters, they were rather than short-term gain. Part of this no
better than the Spanish, and they did not plun- doubt stemmed from their having established
der their possessions as the Spanish did. colonies largely in areas that did not appear to
The Dutch focus on commerce led to huge have great mineral wealth, but in which spices
revenues that poured into the Dutch economy or tropical hardwoods could be harvested. This
and government coffers, and in a short period of forced them to manage their resources with an

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eye towards some degree of sustainability, for if In summary, the Dutch left their shores to es-
Exploration they harvested every single spice plant, their rev- tablish the trade and commerce that helped make
& Discovery enue source would disappear. In turn, this as- them a respected European power. Dutch traders
sured the Dutch a long-term source of income, were more interested in financial return than ex-
1450-1699 and this income helped cushion the Dutch when ploration or national glory, so they were as happy
they were militarily overtaken by other great Eu- to be ferrying French trade goods as they were es-
ropean powers. This is also one of the reasons tablishing their own colonies, and their explo-
that the Netherlands remains economically rations were never as extensive as those of other
strong and politically influential to this day. European powers. As colonial masters, they were
better than some and not as good as others, but
Finally, all of these events had a distinct im- they left their colonies largely unready for self-
pact on the Dutch people, which still reverber- rule. As a result, though the Netherlands remains
ates. The Netherlands remains one of the most economically and politically strong today, its for-
egalitarian and affluent nations on Earth, and mer colonies have not fared as well.
still wields what seems a disproportionate
amount of influence in European and world af- P. ANDREW KARAM
fairs. A great deal of this stems from the Dutch
policy of engagement with foreign nations, ei-
ther through treaties, membership in interna- Further Reading
tional organizations, or foreign aid. All of this Kennedy, Paul. The Rise and Fall of the Great Powers. New
helps to make the Netherlands a very cos- York: Random House, 1987.
mopolitan nation in which a large number of cit- Manchester, William. A World Lit Only by Fire: Portrait of
izens have an active interest in world affairs. an Age. Little, Brown, 1992.

Overview of English Exploration

Overview “spices,” which referred to dyes and perfumes as
well as condiments such as pepper, cloves, nut-
Until the mid-sixteenth century Spain and Portu-
meg, mace, cinnamon, and ginger, were highly
gal were the two main European seapowers; the
prized. Europe had been trading with the East for
English had little interest in overseas exploration.
these items since medieval times, but the trade
Yet, by the end of the seventeenth century, Eng-
had been conducted through the merchants of
land had become a powerful presence on the seas
the Ottoman Empire. European merchants want-
with a sphere of influence that had expanded to
ed to improve their profits by eliminating the
include settlements in North America, the West
middlemen and trading directly with the Orient.
Indies, and India. While individual motives for
Portugal found a route to the Indian Ocean by
exploration were mixed, the main impetus was
sailing around Africa that enabled them to trade
economic—the search for riches. The English
directly with the East; Spain’s attempt to reach
were not interested in discovery for its own sake,
Asia from the West resulted instead in the their
but sought the opportunities for trade that were
dominance of Central and South America.
opened up by new markets and new routes to ex-
isting markets. Accordingly, English merchants, English merchants and explorers sought
not the British crown, were the driving force be- their own sea routes to Asia via the northeast
hind many of England’s overseas ventures. Eng- and the northwest. The first of these set sail In
lish exploration, however, was also shaped by po- 1497, when John Cabot (c. 1450-c. 1500) set
litical considerations and was often proposed and out to discover a Northwest Passage, similar to
supported under the guise of religious motives. Christopher Columbus’s quest a few years earli-
er. He reached Newfoundland, but believed that
he had arrived in northeast Asia. (His mistake
Background was soon corrected.) England’s interest in explo-
European demand for goods from the East ration waned during the rule of Henry VIII
spurred the first voyages of discovery. Imports of (1491-1547), and resumed in earnest during the
silk from China, cotton cloth from India, and 1550s, thanks, ironically, to Spanish support.

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Exploration
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1450-1699

Queen Elizabeth knights English explorer Francis Drake. (Baldwin H. Ward & Kathryn C. Ward/Corbis. Reproduced
with permission.)

Philip II of Spain (1527-1598), husband of Eng- reformation in the sixteenth century, the desire
land’s Queen Mary I (1516-1558), arranged for to export Protestantism through overseas explo-
Stephen Borough (1525-1584) to be trained in ration was mainly a consequence of rivalry with
Atlantic navigation at the Spanish maritime Catholic Spain and Portugal.
academy at Seville, and he taught his newly ac- Still another motive for exploration and ex-
quired skills to other English sailors. pansion was an emerging sense of national pride
Because English exploration focused on the and interest. In particular, Francis Drake’s (c.
north, they contributed greatly to Europe’s emerg- 1540-1596) circumnavigation of the globe
ing knowledge of world geography. Although (1577-1580) fueled English confidence in the
they didn’t reach the Orient, English westward quest for mastery of the seas both to the East
forays established trade interests and settlements and the West. Influential individuals, notably
in the West Indies and along the east coast of John Dee (1527-1609) and Richard Hakluyt (c.
North America in the early seventeenth century. 1552-1616), began to envision a vast sea-based
English merchants remained interested in Asia, as empire as the nation’s destiny. The defeat of the
well. In 1600 the English East India Company Spanish Armada in 1588 further reinforced Eng-
was formed as Portuguese dominance of Asian land’s sense of national pride in seafaring.
trade began to decline. After the Dutch won the English voyages of exploration were strongly
struggle for the East Indies and their spices, the influenced by the crown’s diplomatic policies to-
English shifted their focus to China and India. ward other European powers, and those policies
Their presence on the subcontinent allowed them increasingly recognized the importance of trade.
to increase their presence in India when the rul- The prevailing economic philosophy of the era,
ing Mughal Empire began to collapse in 1707. called mercantilism, encouraged this. According
Profit was not the only motive for explo- to this doctrine, the world’s store of wealth (such
ration. Religious goals—particularly the desire as precious metals) was finite and measurable;
to convert indigenous peoples to Christianity— the expansion of one nation’s trade volume was
often prompted those who planned or advocated thought invariably to diminish that of other na-
voyages. English explorers and adventurers, tions. Therefore, power and trade were inextrica-
however, were generally more interested in trad- bly linked, with nations jealously guarding their
ing with the people they encountered than in own trade routes and bases while trying to en-
converting them. Following England’s religious croach upon or diminish those of others.

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This was particularly evident in England’s sugar farms. So many workers were needed to
Exploration Atlantic ventures. When the crown wanted to man the growing plantations that a slave society
& Discovery appease Spain, exploration through Spanish ter- was soon in place, vastly outnumbering the
ritory was curtailed. After relations with Spain whites who owned and worked them. This tran-
1450-1699 deteriorated, however, territorial claims were ig- sition to a slave- and sugar-based economy is
nored: English buccaneers, such as Francis known as the sugar revolution.
Drake, preyed on Spanish ships and seized their English merchants, investors, and colonists
cargo in a literal trade war. These raiders also reaped the benefits of England’s tobacco and
helped to pave the way for English colonization sugar trade, importing them from North Ameri-
of the West Indies in the 1620s by undermining ca and the West Indies, and selling them to the
Spanish control of the region. rest of Europe. The government benefited from
customs duties on this trade, and the overseas
settlements themselves were a growing market
Impact for goods produced in England.
English overseas ventures had a significant eco- Exploration and subsequent colonization
nomic effect. During this period, merchants orga- also enabled religious dissidents to emigrate and
nized and financed voyages. The crown granted establish settlements where they could live and
them licenses to explore and trade, and benefited worship according to their beliefs. New England
by taxing the profits. By the latter half of the six- was settled by Protestants in the early seventeenth
teenth century, however, voyages became too century, and Maryland welcomed many persecut-
complex for one individual or even a small group ed Catholics and other Christians after its charter
to finance. To obtain the necessary resources a was granted in 1632. While emigration for reli-
new type of organization emerged: the joint-stock gious freedom was not a new concept, previous
company, which allowed many investors to pool dissidents had gone to other parts of Europe. By
their resources. The first of these ventures was establishing themselves in North America they
formed in 1553, when a group of merchants fund- were able to retain their English culture while
ed an expedition to search for a Northeast Passage achieving a measure of self-governance. This rela-
to China. Although one of the group’s two ships tive independence made England’s colonies
was lost, the other managed to reach Russia, and unique; other European powers preferred to re-
set up trade with Moscow. Two years later the tain much more direct control over their colonies.
group formed the Muscovy Company, and was
given sole rights to trade with Russia. English colonization and the introduction of
new crops took place alongside a wider process
At the beginning of this period England’s now termed the Columbian exchange, the ex-
manufacture and export of woolen cloth to Eu- change of plants, animals, microbes, and people
rope dominated the economy, and foreign mer- between Europe and the Americas. The process
chants controlled much of England’s trade. By transformed the diets, economies, and cultures
the end of the seventeenth century, however, of both continents. One especially devastating
England increasingly exploited the new re- effect of this exchange, unfortunately, was the
sources made available by exploration, particu- ravaging of America’s indigenous populations by
larly tobacco and sugar. new diseases, particularly smallpox.
First cultivated in the Caribbean in the six- While England’s overseas ventures need to
teenth century, tobacco farming in Virginia be seen in the context of European discovery as
began in 1612. The crop was produced and ex- a whole, its specific contribution was in north-
ported back to England in such quantities that ern exploration, part of a commercial enterprise
by the mid-seventeenth century it became signif- to reach the wealthy markets of the Orient. Al-
icantly cheaper. What had formerly been expen- though these voyages failed to discover a pas-
sive indulgence of the wealthy became a wide- sage to the East, the English focused instead on
spread habit. new opportunities for trade and colonization in
The development of sugar production fol- the Americas. In addition, their unsuccessful bid
lowed a similar route. Following its introduction to gain control of the spice trade in the East in
to Barbados around 1640, sugar grown on the seventeenth century resulted in their entry
British plantations in the West Indies quickly be- into India instead. Ironically, these “failures” en-
came the dominant crop. British colonials, many abled England to emerge as a major European
of them loyalists fleeing the civil war in England, seapower by the end of this period.
bought large tracts of land and established huge PHILIPPA TUCKER

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Further Reading James, Lawrence. The Rise and Fall of the British Empire.
Andrews, Kenneth R. Trade, Plunder and Settlement: Maritime
London: Little, Brown and Company, 1994. Exploration
Enterprise and the Genesis of the British Empire 1480-1630.
Lloyd, T.O. The British Empire 1558-1995. 2nd ed. Ox-
& Discovery
Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1984.
ford: Oxford University Press, 1996.
1450-1699
Crosby, Alfred W. Jr. The Columbian Exchange: Biological
and Cultural Consequences of 1492. Westport, CT: Scammell, G.V. The First Imperial Age: European Overseas
Greenwood Publishing Company, 1972. Expansion c.1400-1715. London: Unwin Hyman, 1989.

The Voyages of Christopher Columbus:

European Contact with the New World and
the Age of Exploration


Overview reputation as a master navigator. His voyages,
however, rarely strayed from well-known coast-
In A.D. 1000, Viking Norsemen commanded by
lines, and Columbus himself is rumored to have
Leif Eriksson (fl. eleventh century) landed on the
bragged about his scant use of navigational in-
shores of Newfoundland and established tempo-
struments and his reliance on intuition.
rary settlements there. Four hundred years
would pass before another generation of explor- Columbus moved his residence to Spain in
ers, equipped with the navigational and techno- 1486 and began to lobby the Spanish monarchs
logical innovations of the Renaissance, rediscov- for a commission. His stated objectives were to
ered the New World. Christopher Columbus find more expedient trade routes to the East and
(1451-1506), an Italian-born Spanish explorer, is carry the banners of both Spain and Christianity,
popularly held to be the first European to cross but he acknowledged early on the possibility of
the Atlantic Ocean and make landfall in the finding the long-legendary antipodal continent
Americas. Historical myth asserts that Columbus terra australis incognito. After two failed attempts
discovered the New World inadvertently while to gain the support of Spanish monarchs King
attempting to find a more expedient and safe sea Ferdinand and Queen Isabella, Columbus was
passage to the trading ports of Asia and that the finally granted patronage in 1492 and given a
greatest fruit of his voyage was disproving the commission of three ships with which to pursue
theory that Earth is flat. Neither of these popular his quest for transatlantic trade routes.
legends associated with Columbus is entirely ac- The first voyage commenced at Palos,
curate. The initial impetus for his voyages re- Spain, where Columbus’s three ships, the Niña,
mains widely disputed, and even prior to his Pinta, and Santa María, were fitted. Contrary to
voyages to the New World, the “flat-Earth” myth legend, Queen Isabella did not sell her jewels to
was criticized not only by the leading scholars of fund the expedition; in fact, Columbus himself
the sciences but on a more practical level by put up a third of the venture’s cost. Columbus
sailors, navigators, and astronomers. left Spain on August 3, 1492, and sailed south to
catch the northeast tradewinds, with which he
had become familiar on previous merchant voy-
Background ages to the Canary Islands. On October 12 land
Christopher Columbus began his career as a was sighted from the deck of the Pinta. (The lo-
mariner in the Portuguese merchant fleet. First cations of this original sighting and Columbus’s
employed as a chartmaker, Columbus quickly subsequent first landfall remain uncertain.) The
climbed through the ranks and became an agent fleet pressed on and within a fortnight landed in
for a mercantile and luxury goods firm in Cuba, which Columbus convinced himself was
Genoa, Italy. Between 1477 and 1485, Colum- the mainland of Cathay (China) despite the no-
bus’s trade voyages ranged from Iceland to the table absence of great cities described by earlier
Gold Coast of equatorial West Africa. During travelers to the East.
these years, he learned the business of trade, Setting sail again, Columbus decided to
studied the Atlantic wind systems, and gained a turn south, thereby missing the North American

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1450-1699

Christopher Columbus arrives in the New World. (Corbis Corporation. Reproduced with permission.)

mainland by the narrowest of margins. He land- tation and his commission upon returning to
ed next in present-day Haiti, naming the island Europe. When the Santa María, ran aground in
La Isla Española, (Hispaniola) and claiming it for December, Columbus used its salvaged wood
Spain. There Columbus plundered enough gold and provisions to construct a crude fort, which
and silver from the indigenous Taino people he named La Navidad. To secure Spain’s claim to
(whom he called Indians) to save both his repu- the island, Columbus garrisoned the fort with

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39 men, who were instructed to hold it until his south again, this time with six ships, landing on
return. Because the Taino seemed friendly and the Island of Trinidad and the Coast of Exploration
regarded the Europeans as gods, Columbus was Venezuela—his only contact with the continen- & Discovery
sure there would be no problem. “[T]hey are the tal New World. Landing on the Paria Peninsula,
most timorous creatures there are in the world,” he claimed the land for Spain, then sent some of 1450-1699
he wrote, and the sailors should be in no danger his men to investigate the northern branches of
“if they know how to behave themselves.” the Orinoco River. Columbus noted that the
great influx of freshwater into the gulf signaled
With Columbus in the Niña, the remaining
that he had indeed landed upon an uncharted
two ships began the voyage home. They rode the
continent. However, he found neither a passage
westerlies to the Azores, but were then caught in
a storm and separated. Columbus was forced to
land in Portugal, and made the rest of the jour-
ney back to Spanish court over land, bringing
with him the somewhat meager spoils of his
WAS THE WORLD EVER FLAT?
journey. The Pinta arrived in Spain only hours
after Columbus.

Despite his limited success, the crown was

M
sufficiently impressed with Columbus to extend odern legend has it that Christopher Columbus risked life
his commission and outfit him for successive and limb, sailing off into the unknown in defiance of the
voyages. His next fleet, comprised of 17 ships day’s conventional wisdom that held the world was flat.
and as many as 1,500 personnel, left Cádiz on According to this story, Columbus was nearly alone in believing that if
September 25, 1493. They made landfall in Do- he sailed west he would find Asia—not sail off the edge of the world.
minica in the Lesser Antilles in November 1493.
In fact, this story is far from the truth because, when Columbus sailed,
He expertly directed the fleet to return to His-
paniola, demonstrating his prowess as a naviga- people had understood for centuries that the world was round.
tor. When the men went ashore at La Navidad, Among the first to suggest that Earth was round was the Pythagoran
however, they found that the fort had been de- school in ancient Greece, sometime around 500 B.C. The Pythagorans
stroyed and the men killed. Despite Columbus’s made several observations, including the fact that Earth’s shadow on
warnings, they had not “behaved themselves,” the Moon during a lunar eclipse is round, not straight. They also noted
and in retaliation for their abuse and cruelty had
that when a ship sails out of sight, the hull disappears first followed by
been slaughtered by the Taino.
the sails, instead of the ship simply growing increasingly smaller. By
Realizing that the native population was about 240 B.C., Eratosthenes not only accepted the roundness of
now hostile to the European presence and
Earth, but calculated its diameter at about 28,500 miles (45,866 km),
strengthening in their defiance, he exacted a
harsh revenge on the Taino for the Navidad mas- not far from what we now know to be accurate. When Columbus
sacre, taking many captives. He then launched a sailed, the true debate was not about the shape of Earth but about its
ruthless campaign of conquest for the entire is- size. Thinking Earth to be only about 17,000 miles (27,359 km)
land of Hispaniola, established a brutal governor- around, Columbus calculated he could travel across the Atlantic,
ship, and built several more forts on the island. reaching Asia in only a few months or less. He saw land at about the
Determined to make this voyage more visi- right time. What he didn’t realize is that a new continent and another
bly successful than the last, Columbus sent 12 of ocean still lay between him and the Orient.
his ships back to Spain, conveying small sam- P. ANDREW KARAM
ples of the riches of Hispaniola and some cap-
tured Taino (most of whom did not survive the
voyage) to the king and queen. The ships also
brought news of the massacre, along with grum-
to India nor gold, both of which he had expect-
blings about what could most charitably be
ed at latitudes that far south. Columbus re-
called Columbus’s “management style.”
turned to Hispaniola, only to find the colony in
Leaving his brothers Bartholomeo and Gia- dire straits.
como in charge, Columbus went back to Spain
in 1496, and immediately urged the Spanish His brothers’ rule had by now become intol-
monarchs to fund another voyage to the New erable, especially to the Taino populace, who
World. His request was granted, and Columbus were rapidly being enslaved. Even the island’s
once again set out as an explorer. He ventured Spanish settlers were bristling with hostility for

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the pair. Their discontent eventually burgeoned ture are manifold, and almost impossible to
Exploration into open rebellion and pleas to the Spanish evaluate fully.
& Discovery court for intercession. When Columbus arrived,
Contrary to popular belief, Columbus’s voy-
he attempted to restore order with his usual
1450-1699
ages did not debunk the notion of a flat Earth.
harsh tactics, including hanging. Soon, however,
Long before Columbus, mathematicians and
the Spanish chief justice arrived, and the results
cosmologists of ancient Greece had proposed a
of his investigation did not flatter the Columbus
spherical Earth. In the European Middle Ages,
family. The brothers were shackled and shipped
the epistemologies of St. Isidore of Seville also
unceremoniously back to Spain, where Colum-
suggested a spheroid model of Earth. Moorish
bus was stripped of his governorship of Hispan-
mathematicians and astronomers confirmed the
iola in 1499. He was permitted, however, to keep
work of Isidore until the resurgence of classical
his title “Admiral of the Sea” as well as the privi-
scholarship in the thirteenth and fourteenth cen-
leges bestowed upon him after the first voyages.
turies revived the ancient idea. Columbus’s rea-
Columbus was given a token commission of four
soning, which led him to believe that a transat-
ships and barred from returning to Hispaniola.
lantic passage to India existed, was based upon
Undeterred, and suffering from a variety of ail-
the knowledge that the surface of Earth is
ments (some of which may have been psycholog-
curved. He suspected, based on the travels of
ical), he again sailed for the Caribbean in 1502.
Marco Polo (c. 1254-1324), that the lands of the
Despite the royal edict keeping him from East were vast enough to wrap around a signifi-
the island, he demanded entrance to Hispaniola, cant portion of the globe. Columbus’s earliest
but was refused by the governor. He then turned calculations put the eastern coastline of these
his attentions to a transcaribbean crossing, a dif- lands 1,500 miles (2,414 km) off the coast of the
ficult task that enabled him to chart the region Azores—a distance shorter than that from the
as a whole. Columbus then probed the eastern Azores to the present-day Virgin Islands.
Panamanian coastline for a passage to India. Dis-
appointed and riddled with hardships, Colum- The ultimate legacy of the voyages of Colum-
bus turned his fleet, which by now consisted of bus—the rediscovery of the New World—was the
only two ships, back to Hispaniola. Disregarding product of a series of miscalculations. Even with-
Columbus’s advice, the navigator plotted the out knowing which lands were across the At-
wrong course, beaching the ships and stranding lantic, Columbus grievously miscalculated the
Columbus and his crewmen in Jamaica for a distance to Cathay and the span of the Atlantic
year. After their rescue in June of 1504, Colum- Ocean. According to his calculations and early
bus returned to Spain. He died in 1506, before charts, the islands upon which he landed exactly
he could make another voyage. His remains matched his projections for the locations of
were eventually interred in the Cathedral of Cipango (Japan) and Cathay. This miscalculation
Santo Domingo, Hispaniola. in distance may have been initially willful on his
part in order to gain the support of the crown and
his crewman. Afterward, however, he refused to
Impact alter his assertion that he had reached Cipango
and Cathay. Despite overwhelming evidence that
The impact of Columbus’s travels seems self-evi-
he had discovered new lands, Columbus’s stead-
dent. His landing in America ushered in the Age
fast public denial of that possibility was perhaps
of Exploration, sparking a frenzy of European
his greatest miscalculation. The voyages of other
exploration and colonization. As more explorers
explorers, and evidence in Columbus’s personal
took to the sea, improvements in sailing vessels,
writings, established firmly that Columbus had
navigation, cartography, and geography rapidly
indeed made contact with the New World.
followed. Permanent settlements in the New
World revolutionized trade—and the European Researching the material remains of Colum-
economy. The quest for gold gave way to agri- bus’s voyage is difficult; few direct remnants of
culture and the cultivation of luxury goods such Columbus’s voyages exist beyond his personal
as cocoa, coffee, corn, cotton, tobacco, and logs and scant contemporary accounts. Archaeo-
sugar. The rapid and relentless expansion of logical remains are equally scarce. Though na-
these markets also expanded the African slave tive sites contemporary to Columbus’s first voy-
trade. In Europe, the procurement, import, and age have been excavated in Haiti, his original
export of trade goods and slaves spawned the landing site has yet to be located. Evidence sug-
rise of merchant companies, stock ventures, and gests that another site that founded by Colum-
banking. The ramifications of Columbus’s ven- bus, Concepción de la Vega, might be the pre-

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sent town of La Vega Vieja, Dominican Republic. opathological analysis, to assess more accurately
There is, however, some proof of Columbus’s the effect of European diseases upon indigenous Exploration
fourth voyage and his landing in Jamaica. Exca- populations. There is also a growing interest in & Discovery
vations at Sevilla la Nueva have even yielded evi- the transport of New World diseases to Europe,
dence of his beached caravels. As excavations and the introduction of African diseases through 1450-1699
continue in the Caribbean, the material record of the slave trade.
Columbus’s travels will perhaps supply new in-
There exists a great temptation to ascribe
sight into existing historical accounts.
the faults of European contact with the New
Five hundred years after Columbus’s discov- World to Columbus himself. However, Colum-
ery (or rediscovery) of America, there is still bus was a product of his time, whose brutality
great debate over his ultimate legacy to the New and religious zealotry was most likely garnered
World. Recent work by archaeologists and an- from the political and social climate that sur-
thropologists and heightened political and social rounded him. The ongoing war against the
regard for the roles of Native Americans and Spanish Moors and their defeat in 1492, the re-
Africans Americans in the shaping of the history lentless persecution of Spanish Jews (whose con-
of the New World has altered the portrayal of fiscated estates almost certainly helped fund
the European explorer as hero. Once focused Columbus’s voyages), and the turmoil that sur-
largely upon the progress of European conquest rounded the unification of Aragon, Castile, and
and colonization, scholarship surrounding the Leon all surely influenced Columbus. In the de-
arrival of Europeans in the New World now ad- bate surrounding the legacy of his voyages, his-
dresses not only the plight of the European ex- tory must recognize the full scope of the impact
plorers and settlers, but also their effect upon in- of European contact with the New World, as
digenous peoples and landscape. Many histori- well as the personal accomplishments of Colum-
ans and archaeologists prefer the terms bus as sailor and brilliant navigator.
“encounter” and “European contact” to “discov-
ADRIENNE WILMOTH LERNER
ery,” recognizing that Columbus and his con-
temporaries interacted with native cultures that
long predated their arrival.
Further Reading
Columbus’s voyages opened the New World Bedini, S.A., and David Buisseret. Christopher Columbus
to colonization and trade—and disease. The and the Age of Exploration: An Encyclopedia. Da Capo
study of trade between the New World and the Press, 1998.
Old also encompasses its human impact. In their Paiewonsky, Michael. Conquest of Eden (1493-1515).
surveys of contact-era sites, archaeologists now Rome: Mapes Monde, 1990.
often study of the evidence of disease and trau- Wright, Ronald. Stolen Continents: The “New World”
ma on human remains, a technique called pale- through Indian Eyes. Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1993.

Juan Ponce de León Explores Florida

and the Bahama Channel


Overview nomic philosophy called mercantilism, and an in-
Unknown to the indigenous people of the New terest in converting the religious beliefs of native
World, their destiny was being determined by po- populations. Mercantilism was the idea that if a
litical and economic forces taking place across the nation was not self-sufficient in its affairs, then its
Atlantic Ocean in Europe. Toward the end of the neighbors would dominate it. The two areas that
fifteenth century, thousands of daring adventurers seemed ripe for establishing this ideal were the
would be crossing the ocean to conquer within a Middle East and the Americas. Many of the Span-
few centuries what had taken the Indians thou- ish conquistadors headed for the New World
sands to years to inhabit. This “Age of Explo- seeking wealth and adventure. One such man was
ration” was fostered by technological advance- Don Juan Ponce de León (1460?-1521), com-
ments in maritime practices, the belief in an eco- monly referred to as simply Ponce de León.

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Background chance to find his Fountain of Youth. He eventu-

Exploration Ponce de León was a Spanish conqueror and ex-
ally returned to Spain where he secured the title
& Discovery plorer. He was born in Spain around 1460. He is
of governor of Florida with permission to colo-
nize the area.
well known for claiming and naming what is
1450-1699
now Florida, being the first European to discov- Indian insurrections prevented Ponce de
er Mexico, conquering and governing Puerto León from returning to Florida until 1521, when
Rico, and searching endlessly for the mythical he attempted to establish a colony there. Upon
Fountain of Youth. While there are some author- landing, he was struck by a Seminole arrow dur-
ities who dispute the claim that he was indeed ing an Indian attack, and the colonists were re-
searching for the Fountain of Youth, Ponce de pelled. He was rushed back to Cuba in order to
León’s name has been associated with this en- seek medical help, but died soon after his ar-
deavor more often than with anything else. rival. It took many years and countless numbers
of lives before Europeans were able to colonize
While details involving Ponce de León’s
the area.
family background are sketchy, it is believed that
he was born into a noble family. He was an ex-
perienced soldier, having fought against the Impact
Moors; he later traveled to the New World in
1493 as part of Christopher Columbus’s (1451- Ponce de León is credited as being the first Eu-
1506) second voyage. In 1502, while in the ropean to discover both Mexico and the United
West Indies serving as a captain under the gov- States. Specifically, he named Florida and took
ernor of Hispaniola, Ponce de León suppressed possession of it in the name of Spain. However,
an Indian uprising and was rewarded by being there is ample evidence that Europeans had pre-
named the provincial governor of the eastern viously been to Florida on slave-trading mis-
part of Hispaniola. However, he was dissatisfied sions. Because the people enslaved on Hispanola
with political life and looked for further con- and other islands were dying due to disease and
quests in Puerto Rico. After exploring and set- inhumane treatment, expeditions were formed
tling that island, he was named governor but to gather replacements. It is believed that some
was displaced by the political maneuverings of of these made it to the Florida coast. This
his rivals. Though Ponce de León needed little would, at least in part, explain why the native
encouragement, the Spanish crown implored population in this area was so aggressive. They
him to seek out new lands and opportunities, had experienced previous interactions with Eu-
which led to his exploration of Florida. ropeans that result in disaster, so they vehement-
ly defended themselves.
As legend has it, Ponce de León learned of a
Expeditions similar to those conducted by
miraculous spring that could rejuvenate those
Ponce de León in Florida served to motivate
who drank from it. While the Indian who told
thousands of Spanish peasants to join the military.
him about it had never seen it, he indicated that
The discovery of riches and wealth enticed these
a number of his comrades had left to seek it and
peasants to travel to the New World in search of a
had never returned. The Indian reasoned that
new life. A successful colonial mission could pos-
they must have found the Fountain of Youth.
sibly lead to a governorship or a pension for the
Ponce de León was quite interested in finding
participants. If one were particularly lucky, he
this place, so he led a privately outfitted expedi-
could procure untold riches. Other men were
tion from Puerto Rico in March of 1513. In April
drawn to the New World by promises of adven-
of that year, after investigating various islands,
ture. They looked for quick advancement in the
he landed on the coast of Florida near the site of
military and diplomatic careers. Still others came
modern-day Daytona Beach. He claimed the
on a mission of God. These men wanted to con-
land for his king. Ponce de León initially as-
vert the native population to Catholicism. By con-
sumed that he had landed on an island, not a
verting the Americas to God, they believed they
large continent. When he first sighted land it
would receive eternal blessings.
was during the Easter season known as pascua
florida. Because of the flowers that he saw and in The discovery of Florida did not initially
the spirit of the season, he named the newly dis- prove to be a huge downfall for the natives.
covered land la florida. He mapped a part of the They fought well and resisted early efforts to col-
Florida coast, but never ventured to the interior onize the land. Five years after Ponce de León’s
because he was under constant attack from Indi- ill-fated attempt in 1521, Spanish explorer Lucas
ans. Ponce de León was never even given a Vázquez de Ayllon (1475?-1526) sought to es-

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Exploration
& Discovery
1450-1699

Spanish explorers attack native inhabitants of Florida. (Corbis Corporation. Reproduced with permission.)

tablish a colony in Florida. In addition to 600 the expedition was first attacked by Indians,
colonists, he brought a contingent of African then the Spanish missed a connection with their
slaves with him. This is the first record of slaves ships. Building rafts in an attempt to sail to Mex-
being used in the United States. The settlement ico, they were beset by a hurricane, which killed
lasted for less than two months when an upris- their leader; only 80 men made it safely to the
ing of the slaves killed the majority of the popu- Texan coastline. The death rate continued to
lation and just 150 survivors made it safely climb until 1536, when the remaining five of the
away. The next conquistador to test himself and expedition arrived safely in Mexico, more than
his men in Florida was Pánfilo de Narváez eight years after they had landed in Florida.
(1480?-1528), who landed near Tampa Bay with After many other failed attempts at colonization,
300 men and 40 horses in 1528. His expedition it was reported that Florida would be too diffi-
has become famous because it was chronicled by cult to colonize, and there was nothing of value
one of the five surviving members, Álvar Núñez to be had. Furthermore, there should be no fear
Cabeza de Vaca, in what is regarded as one of that any other country would try to colonize it
the greatest stories of survival ever written. because of the previously stated conditions. This
Cabeza de Vaca’s descriptions are the first surviv- stood as the official Spanish position until the
ing documents from a European regarding the French attempted to establish a settlement in
interior of Florida. According to Cabeza de Vaca, Florida.

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Eventually, modern weaponry and unfamiliar the first to describe the Gulf Stream (the
Exploration disease overwhelmed the Native Americans, and world’s strongest ocean current). While he was
& Discovery like most other indigenous populations, they were trying to sail south with the prevailing wind,
overrun by the Europeans. Ponce de León had his vessel was in a current so strong that he was
1450-1699 opened the door for explorers like Spaniard Her- actually going backwards. He was able to extri-
nando de Soto (1500?-1542), who marched cate himself from the current and found a
throughout the southeastern portion of the United countercurrent running south closer to the
States looking for treasure and exploring the coun- coast. The Gulf Stream is part of a general
tryside. The most significant result of de Soto’s clockwise-rotating system of currents in the
march was the devastation of several native popu- North Atlantic. It is fed by the westward-flow-
lations. Many native warriors were severely injured ing North Equatorial Current moving from
or killed following confrontations with the Span- North Africa to the West Indies. In the region
ish, and entire villages were wiped out, though not Ponce de León discovered, it flows roughly par-
as the result of warfare, but from the introduction allel to the eastern coast of the United States in
of European diseases against which the Indians a northerly direction. This current made Flori-
had no natural immunity. These included such dis- da a valuable asset because the Gulf Stream
eases as smallpox, measles, and the flu. could be used to help propel ships from North
America to Europe.
Ponce de León also popularized the use of
ferocious dogs as warriors against native popula- JAMES J. HOFFMANN
tions. These fierce dogs would terrorize the na-
tives, as they were not accustomed to such at-
tacks. His most famous dog was one that he Further Reading
owned personally, named Berezillo. His dog was
Berger, Josef. Discoverers of the New World. New York:
so valued and renowned throughout the American Heritage Publishing Co., Inc., 1960.
Caribbean that Ponce de León even awarded
Faber, Harold. The Discoverers of America. New York:
him soldier’s pay. Macmillan Publishing Company, 1992.
Another important discovery associated Quinn, David. North America: From Earliest Discovery to
with Florida and Ponce de León is that he was First Settlements. New York: Harper Row, 1977.

Alonso Alvarez de Piñeda explores the

Gulf of Mexico and Is the First European to
See the Mississippi River


Overview contributed to the exploration of the Mississippi
later by Hernando de Soto (c. 1496-1542),
The Gulf of Mexico was the first real entry point
opening North America to its era of European
to the North American mainland, but by the
discovery.
time Christopher Columbus (c. 1451-1506)
came to America in 1492, it was still unex-
plored. The sixteenth century, however, saw a Background
rapid increase in Spanish exploration of the
Americas, with Vasco Núñez de Balboa (1475- In 1492 Christopher Columbus landed on the
1519), Juan Ponce de León (c. 1460-1521), and northeastern shore of Cuba, and unable to ex-
Hernán Cortés (1485-1547) headlining the plore the Gulf side of the island successfully,
major conquests of Cuba, Mexico, and South claimed that Cuba was actually a peninsula, and
America. But it was a lesser known and less-fa- that no body of water—the Gulf of Mexico—ex-
bled explorer, Alonso Alvarez de Piñeda (d. isted. In fact, all of the great bodies of water
1520), who first sailed the entire Gulf of Mexico were thought by the Spanish to be one sea,
coastline, spotting the Mississippi River and called “el mar oceana,” or “the Ocean Sea.”
confirming that Florida was not an island, as Columbus, like many of the explorers of the
was previously believed. Piñeda’s observations early sixteenth century, was looking for gold,

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habitable islands, and strategic trading ports for traveled to its tip, never encountering the al-
Spain, who had “split” the world with Portugal leged channel that would send him across to the Exploration
to explore and exploit. The Spanish were prolif- South Sea. He may not have found the passage, & Discovery
ic: Juan Ponce de León, in 1508, landed in Puer- but Alvarez de Piñeda discovered that Florida
to Rico, and eventually became governor of the was indeed a peninsula. 1450-1699
island. By 1510, Diego Velásquez de Cuéllar
The ships turned back to the west, follow-
(1465-1524) had invaded Cuba, planning to
ing along the coast, recording observations of
conquer the island, and engaged in bloody com-
Alabama’s coastal islands and the exit of the Mis-
bat with the Arawak tribe, eventually defeating
sissippi River, which purged a wide, strong cur-
them and taking control the island. In the mean
rent of muddy water into the Gulf. All along the
time, Ponce de León explored the coast of Flori-
coast Alvarez noted small native villages, fertile
da, supposedly in search of the “Fountain of
land, ports, and rivers. By observing the jewels
Youth” among other objectives, and declared the
worn by the Native Americans along his route,
peninsula an island. Ponce de León theorized
he determined that the rivers held “fine gold.”
that a channel of water ran across the state, and
He also noted that the people he encountered
it would be the impetus for Alvarez de Piñeda’s
were friendly, and would therefore be easily con-
explorations a decade later.
verted to the Catholic faith, a habit of the Span-
Hernán Cortés, a violent, impulsive man, ish conquistadors. Alvarez de Piñeda also
set out from Cuba to explore the mainland of claimed to have seen giants and dwarfs among
Mexico in order to confirm reports of the exis- the Indians he met.
tence of large, native civilizations in the interior. At this point, after sailing along Texas and
His plan, however, was to conquer these tribes claiming it for Spain, Alvarez encountered Cortés
and search for gold, and he eventually would in the beginnings of his conquest of the Aztec
terrorize the Aztecs throughout Mexico. While Empire. He sailed up the Veracruz coast and the
planning his strategy, he heard about a plan to Rio Panuco about 20 miles (32 km). Here the
send four ships from Jamaica to explore the un- ships stayed for 40 days, where the crew resup-
known northern coast. The man responsible for plied and fortified the vessels. Alvarez then re-
the ships was Governor Francisco de Garay of turned to Jamaica and presented Garay with his
Jamaica, a Spanish business man of sorts who rough sketch of the Gulf of Mexico, the first of its
had lucked into his appointed position in Ja- kind that didn’t speculate on the land forms and
maica after the previous governor had died. bodies of water en route, but actually confirmed
Garay, who had sailed with Columbus on his them. Alvarez had proven Florida’s geography
journey to the West Indies, had been in and out and discovered the greatest river in America.
of debt before he left for Jamaica and intended to
employ the conquered native population there to
develop sugar cane and cotton and build the is- Impact
land’s economy. Much to his disappointment, The officials representing King Charles V of
most of the natives had left, and his agriculture Spain received the map, and claimed that Garay,
plans failed. Having used a good portion of his Velásquez, and Ponce de León had collectively
money, and facing debt again, he finally got per- solved the geographic questions of the Gulf of
mission to obtain four ships for exploration of Mexico. Garay was given permission to colonize
the lands north of him. He was to search be- the land that Alvarez de Piñeda had observed,
tween Ponce de León’s discoveries and those of which was the Texas gulf coast, and call it
Velásquez for the purported channel across Flori- “Amichel.” He sent three ships back, with 240
da that connected what was the Gulf of Mexico soldiers, horses, and musketeers with Alvarez de
to the “South Sea,” or the Atlantic Ocean. Piñeda as captain. Although the Huasteca Indi-
ans were friendly on Alvarez’s first journey, they
While Garay was organizing his expedition,
turned violent when he landed with his men. Al-
he elected Alonso Alvarez de Piñeda to lead the
though no records have proven the crew’s fate, it
ships along the coast. Alvarez left Jamaica in
is believed that the Huasteca killed all of the sol-
March of 1519. By now, Cortés had begun his
diers, horses, and Alvarez de Piñeda.
attacks on the Aztecs, and was thick into the in-
terior of Mexico. Alvarez left through the Yu- Garay, in Jamaica, had no idea of the mas-
catan channel and sailed north until he spotted sacre by the Huasteca. In fact, he dispatched two
what is now western Florida. Assuming it was additional ships with more supplies for the new
an island, as Ponce de León had claimed, he colonizers. The captain of this effort, Miguel

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Diaz de Aux, arrived on the coast but found no tribes along the shore. In the end it was the Mis-
Exploration indication that Piñeda had settled. While sailing sissippi floods that beat down the Spanish, and
& Discovery down the coast, still searching, his ships were de Soto, who was buried there, never established
caught in a squall, and he brought them ashore, his empire. Nevertheless, the initial discoveries
1450-1699 only to have his men join Cortés’s ongoing con- by Alvarez along the Gulf Coast were the first
quest of the Aztecs. steps in the long and turbulent history of the
It wasn’t until 1539, when Hernando de European colonization of the Americas.
Soto sailed back to Florida, that the Mississippi LOLLY MERRELL
River was more thoroughly explored. In 1541 he
arrived at the river south of what is now Mem-
phis, Tennessee. While de Soto had hoped to Further Reading
conquer the Indians and find gold in their river, Weddle, Robert S. Spanish Sea. College Station, TX: Texas
he and his crew were repeatedly attacked by A&M University Press, 1985.

Hernando de Soto and the Spanish Exploration

of the American Southeast, 1539-1542


Overview Background
By the end of the first third of the sixteenth In 1537 de Soto appealed to the King of Spain to
century, Spanish conquistadors and explorers be granted control of the New World territorial
had already claimed substantial lands in the province that stretched from Rio de Las Palmas
New World. These ventures had yielded the in South America to Florida. De Soto won his
“discovery” of new fruits, exotic spices, and claim and was also granted the governorship of
whole civilizations. In Spain both the Crown Cuba. However, his appointment stipulated that,
and some individuals had already begun to within a year, he had to personally re-conquer
profit from plundering gold and luxury trade and occupy Spanish Florida at his own expense.
items from newly claimed lands. However, vast Previous ventures to South America with Pizarro
tracts of land claimed under the banner of had earned de Soto tremendous wealth and pres-
Spain had yet to be fully explored. One such tige; as a result, he found several willing financial
region was Spanish Florida and the American partners for the venture, some of who accompa-
Southeast. Both tactical advantage, namely the nied de Soto on the actual voyage. He assembled
conquest of more territory than rival European and armada of 10 ships and 600 men. In April of
nations, and the widely spun legend of “cities 1538 his fleet departed from the port of San
of gold” pushed Spain to invest in the explo- Lucar, Spain, for the shores of the New World.
ration of its claims in this region. Following the He landed in Cuba, remaining on the island for a
initial voyage of Juan Ponce de León (1460- few months to gather supplies, rest his men, and
1521), young, veteran explorer Hernando de plan his expedition in Florida.
Soto (1496-1542) was chosen to return to
Florida and solidify Spain’s claim and expand De Soto landed in Florida in May of 1539
the territory. De Soto had accompanied Fran- and claimed formal possession of the land on
cisco Pizarro (c. 1475-1541) on earlier voyages June 3 despite ongoing hostility between his
to South America and had grown rich from men and some of the neighboring Indian tribes.
trade with—and exploitation of—the Inca. Welcomed by one local Native American chief,
Hoping to gain the same wealth and renown de Soto and his crew wintered in the village of
from his venture to North America, de Soto Apalache before beginning their expedition. De
embarked on an ambitious sea and land ven- Soto supposed that great indigenous civiliza-
ture. The resulting expedition was one of the tions, like those he encountered on voyages to
most devastating episodes in the history of Eu- South America, lay in the region’s interior. Deter-
ropean contact with the New World. mined to garner further plunder for both his

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own interests and for the Spanish court, de Soto the remnants of de Soto’s fleet. They made their
and his men headed northward through present- way to Mexico via handmade rafts and eventual- Exploration
day Georgia. Once reaching the Piedmont, or ly caught passage back to Spain. De Soto’s sec- & Discovery
the Appalachian foothills, de Soto turned his ond in command, Luis de Moscoso, arrived at
forces westward, exploring the Carolinas and the Spanish court over a year and half after de 1450-1699
Tennessee. Though he located the Tennessee Soto’s death.
River, de Soto had failed to find the material
wealth and plunder after which he sought.
Impact
Disappointed and weary, in 1540 de Soto
attempted to head south to Mobile Bay in Alaba- De Soto’s exploration of the Southeast was mon-
ma to rendezvous with his ships. Two hundred umental in scope. He covered territory from the
miles (322 km) south of the Tennessee River, de Gulf of Mexico coast north to the Appalachian
Soto and his men encountered a warrior band Mountains, from the Florida shores of the At-
led by Chief Tuscaloosa. The Native American lantic to slightly west of the Mississippi River.
forces were ill equipped to fight the Spaniards, He discovered major coastal inlets and inland
and the ensuring battle proved disastrous for waterways, such as the Tennessee and Mississip-
Tuscaloosa’s men. The clash was perhaps the pi rivers, which paved the way not only for fu-
bloodiest single encounter between Native ture exploration of the American eastern interior
Americans and whites in American history. Crip- but its eventual settlement as well.
pled by the encounter with Tuscaloosa and run- The records that de Soto kept of his expedi-
ning short on supplies, de Soto continued to tion through the interior of the American South-
head south, believing that he would not meet east are renowned for their detailed descriptions
with further resistance. A few miles from the of landmarks, geographic locations, and the var-
headwaters of Mobile Bay, however, the indige- ious indigenous peoples that he and his crew en-
nous peoples at Mauvilia (Mobile) confronted de countered. The work is thought to have been
Soto’s men. The local Native Americans were entrusted to one of the expedition officers after
decimated, and the Spanish forces were weak- de Soto’s death. From the chronicles, the first
ened severely. Losing most of his men, supplies, charts of the interior of the Southeast were de-
and plunder, de Soto rashly decided to extend vised. Future expedition not only relied on the
his expedition and recoup his losses instead of geographic information provided in the work,
immediately returning to Spain. but also utilized information on de Soto’s deal-
After regrouping with some of his fleet and ings with different Indian groups.
resting for a month, de Soto again pushed north- In the 1930s de Soto’s detailed records of his
ward—though this time the decision would travels in the Southeast became the subject of not
prove fatal. His expedition was plagued by Indi- only historical, but also scientific, study. The
an attacks as they made their way through west- chronicles were studied, with careful attention
ern Alabama and Mississippi. On May 21, 1541, paid to the distances and landmarks they de-
de Soto became the first European to sight the scribed, in conjunction with old maps, other
Mississippi River. He encountered the river records, and reports from several known archae-
south of Memphis, Tennessee, and instead of fol- ological sites in order to determine de Soto’s pre-
lowing the river and charting its path to the Gulf cise path thorough North America. Surveyors
of Mexico, de Soto crossed the river into charted positions using old Spanish units of mea-
Arkansas in search of more wealth. The expedi- sure. Archaeologists attempted to locate artifact
tion was fruitless and de Soto lost more of his al- assemblages that reflected Spanish contact with
ready diminished crew to fatigue and disease. local tribes. The result was the unveiling of the
Resolved to finally reunite with his fleet and re- de Soto Trail—a detailed and mostly accurate re-
turn to Spain, de Soto decided to turn back and tracing of the de Soto expedition. Active archaeo-
follow the Mississippi River southward. De Soto logical survey continues along the trail today.
fell ill, most likely with Yellow Fever, and died in
As de Soto pushed his way through the
Louisiana on May 21, 1542, exactly one year
Southeast in search of gold, he abducted Native
after first sighting the Mississippi River.
guides to lead his expedition. However, the Na-
The surviving members of de Soto’s crew tive peoples of the Southeast did not possess the
endured perhaps the most trying part of their gold wealth of the highly advanced Incan civi-
travels after de Soto’s demise. Continuing their lizations de Soto had encountered on his earlier
way southward, they were unable to return to ventures in Peru. Reports from the de Soto expe-

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dition, when the surviving members finally re- ration was the introduction of European disease
Exploration turned to Spain, changed the nature of Euro- that swept through Native populations that were
& Discovery pean involvement in America. The failure of the not able to fend off foreign contagions. The
de Soto expedition to locate gold and other pre- grand sweep of de Soto’s venture, as well as trav-
1450-1699 cious metals in the Southeast made evident that el among the Indians themselves, drastically in-
the value of Spanish Florida was not in plunder, creased the number of people who were exposed
but in the actual land itself. Future expeditions to bubonic plague, smallpox, and various fevers.
to Spanish Florida largely focused on the estab- The onset of foreign diseases aided in the frag-
lishment of various settlements, missions, and mentation of large Indian towns as people fled
ports of trade. Furthermore, de Soto’s expedition to escape illness, and in several decades, the
shaped the geographical boundaries of Spanish great mound-building chiefdoms of the Ameri-
territories in the American Southeast. Violent can Southeast all but vanished. In the two cen-
encounters with indigenous tribes in Alabama turies after de Soto’s travels, an estimated 90% of
convinced de Soto to abandon plans to establish the Indian population that existed before Euro-
Mobile as the chief city of the Spanish territories pean contact was decimated.
in the region. Future Spanish expeditions paid
ADRIENNE WILMOTH LERNER
little attention to the area, which was eventually
claimed and settled by the French.
The de Soto expedition left a legacy of deci- Further Reading
mation and destruction. The expedition proved
Clayton, Lawrence, Vernon James Knight, Jr., and Ed-
disastrous and costly, its redeeming and ultimate ward C. Moore. The de Soto Chronicles: The Expedition
value not recognized until years later. The few of Hernando de Soto to North America, 1519-1543.
surviving men from de Soto’s crew, who made Tuscaloosa: University of Alabama Press, 1996.
their way first to Mexico and then to Spain, re- Worth, John. The Timucuan Chiefdoms of Spanish Florida.
turned to a Spanish Crown leery of their accom- Vols. 1-2. Gainesville: University of Florida Press,
plishments in the New World and angry about 1998.
the loss of money and human lives. In the New Wright, Ronald. Stolen Continents: The New World through
World the inadvertent consequence of explo- Indian Eyes. Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1993.

Coronado’s Search for the Seven Cities of

Gold Leads to Spanish Dominion over
Southwestern North America


Overview the Quivira Indians in central Kansas. Coronado
made one of the most significant expeditions of
The year 1542 was the great climax of the Span- the remarkable era of the opening of the West-
ish age of discovery—a year in which Spain had ern Hemisphere by Europeans. Coronado’s expe-
expeditions under way stretching halfway dition gave Spain what is now known as the
around the globe. Soon after the making of the southwestern United States.
Spanish empire in the New World with the dis-
coveries of Christopher Columbus (1451-
1506), the great colonial effort moved towards Background
establishing roots on the northern and southern Although Francisco Vázquez de Coronado (c.
continents of North America. Francisco Vázquez 1510-1554) is generally credited with being the
de Coronado led the last of these expeditions in first European to arrive in what is now known as
search of new lands in North America for Spain. the southwestern United States, other Spaniards
In 1540 he led a two-year epic journey that gave preceded this expedition by 13 years. In 1527 a
him and his companions the distinction of being Spanish ship carrying 400 people sank off the
the first Europeans to explore California, to see coast of Florida (possibly Texas), and four sur-
the Grand Canyon, to live among Pueblo Indi- vivors spent nine years traveling west across the
ans, and to explore the Great Plains homeland of continent. These men were members of a Span-

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ish expedition dispatched to explore the inner horses. Their arrows and spears bounced off of the
lands of the North American continent. One of Spaniards’ metal armor. The better-armed and Exploration
the survivors, Cabeza de Vaca (c. 1490-1556), mounted Spaniards entered the pueblo and finally & Discovery
wrote about how he and the others adapted and the Zuni retreated, leaving Coronado and his men
developed an unusual sensitivity to the native standing in an empty village. 1450-1699
people, accepting their help and surviving for 13 Following this encounter, Coronado and his
years in an unknown land. men discovered no gold in the Zuni pueblos.
The four men eventually reached the Gulf of However, they did find ample food, producing
California and then headed south, until they ar- fields, and a social system that was based on
rived in the village of Culiacan in southern Mex- sharing and working together. From their base at
ico. They told stories of what they had seen (or Zuni, in hopes of redeeming the expedition,
heard about, or imagined)—seven huge cities Coronado sent out scouting parties to investigate
whose houses were made of turquoise and gold, and hopefully find the illusive gold that had sent
the fabled “Seven Cities of Cibola.” The odyssey them into new unexplored lands.
of Cabeza de Vaca and his men set in motion the Pedro de Tovar was sent to the Hopi pueblo
rumors of “opulent countries” to the north, and at Tuysayan near the Grand Canyon. Meanwhile,
four years later the mammoth expedition led by Garcia Lopez de Cardenas was sent out to find
Francisco Vázquez de Coronado was authorized. the great river that Tovar had heard about from
In early 1540 Coronado led some 300 sol- the Hopi people. Cardenas retraced Tovar’s route
diers, up from Compostela, New Spain. An to the Hopi mesas and there acquired some Indi-
eager and well-appointed army, if a somewhat an guides. They eventually arrived at the south
inexperienced one, it consisted not only of rim of the Grand Canyon. At first the discovers’
Spaniards but of Portuguese, Italians, and a eyes were deceived by the scale of the canyon.
Frenchman, a German, a Scot, and three The Colorado River “looked like a brook” even
women. On foot in the front ranks were Fray though the Hopi guides told them that it was
Marcos and four Franciscan padres, and bring- very wide and swift. Cardenas sent three of his
ing up the rear were 700 “Indian allies” who most agile men to climb down to the river.
went along as servants, wranglers, and herds- These men spent a full day inching along a ridge
man of the sheep, horses, and cattle brought and got “a third of the way down” before they
along for food and transport. The expedition had to turn back.
would follow the coast of the Gulf of California Melchor Diaz, another of Coronado’s men,
northward towards the state of Sonora, entering had instructions to travel west into an unex-
present-day Arizona and into New Mexico. plored desert, find the flotilla of another Spanish
In July 1540 Coronado and his advance ship, and collect supplies. Diaz negotiated a
party of soldiers encountered the Zuni pueblo route to the Colorado River, and there he found
Hawikuh, which already had experienced an en- a message stating that the ship had sailed back
counter with the Spanish the previous year; one to Mexico. He then decided to travel upstream
of the survivors of Cabeza de Vaca’s expedition and traversed an area of sand dunes in the Mo-
was killed by Zuni warriors. Coronado arrived at jave Desert of present-day California.
the Zuni pueblo with the hope that he had finally Winter quarters were set up in Tiguex, a
“found” one of the famed cities of gold. Arriving large pueblo along the Rio Grande River. During
at the high point of Zuni summer ceremonies, this tumultuous winter of a near full-scale war
the Zuni people were not receptive to Coronado’s against the Indians, Coronado met an Indian,
declaration of the requirimiento—the standard called the Turk, who informed him of Quivera, a
Spanish speech to native peoples, which in- city rich with silver and gold. Coronado, in an
formed them that the Catholic Church was “ the attempt to salvage the expedition, decided to
ruler and superior of the whole world.” Corona- look for Quivera, taking the Turk on as his
do warned the Zuni that if they failed to obey or- guide. He traversed the Texas panhandle and
ders, “with the help of God we shall make war marched on further north. The Turk led Corona-
against you and take you and your wives and do on a wild goose chase that ultimately led to
children and shall make slaves of them.” his death. When Quivera was found it was yet
Coronado ordered his men to attack the another disappointment, as the Quivera Indians
pueblo. The Zuni warriors fought bravely, but they were not rich in gold and silver, and the village
could not stop the Spaniards. They were terrified consisted mostly of thatched huts. However, as
by the sound of the loud guns and the charging at the Zuni pueblos, there was an abundance of

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cultivated crops, buffalo, and a sophisticated so- However, Coronado dispelled this idea and es-
Exploration cial system. Coronado’s men were the first Euro- tablished the idea of a vast land mass separating
& Discovery peans to see the great herds of buffalo inhabiting the Gulf of California from the Gulf of Mexico.
the vast plains. By a strange misunderstanding, the Euro-
1450-1699
The Spaniards returned to Tiguex, where pean mapmakers reversed the direction of Coro-
they spent another winter. In 1542 Coronado nado’s route. The location of the pueblos were
went back to Mexico, roughly following the same reversed, and the province of Quivera was shift-
route he had come. Fewer than 100 of the origi- ed to the shores of the Pacific ocean, where for
nal 300 men returned. Many of the soldiers— several decades it roamed up and down the
weary, disgruntled, and fearing punishment be- map. The Rio Grande, the great river that today
cause of their failure to find any treasure—de- marks the boundary between Mexico and the
serted the expedition, as did the Catholic friars, southwestern states, was shown as flowing west
who decided to stay in New Mexico to convert into the Pacific Ocean in northern California.
the Native American tribes to Christianity. Relatively unimportant though these curious
mistakes of the mapmakers may have been, they
make it clear that Coronado contributed more to
Impact North American geography than Europeans
Initially for Spain, it made no great difference could easily digest.
that Coronado had discovered vast fertile territo- There has been a widespread misconception
ries and staked the claim to the entire south- that Coronado introduced the horse to the Plains
western quadrant of the North American conti- Indians. In the available written records of the
nent. Gold and silver had not been found, and expedition there are few notations of the disap-
that alone condemned the journey to failure and pearance of horses. In fact, in the accounts of the
a pointless endeavor. However, exploration was Spanish expeditions in the later sixteenth and
a necessary first step to the colonization, ex- early seventeenth century, no mention is made of
ploitation, and social development of new lands horses or mounted Indians. It seems likely that
in the New World. To the geographic map Coro- the horses were descended from stock that
nado added Cibola, Tusayan, Tigeux, the Llanos strayed or were obtained from Spanish settle-
del Ciloba, and Quivera, regions that became ments after the permanent colonization of New
known as the Southwest or the Spanish Border- Mexico and Texas in the seventeenth century.
lands. Historical tradition in this vast area, from The expedition of Coronado left a rich legacy
Nebraska to California, traces its lineage to the for Spain and opened up the settlement of south-
expedition of Coronado. western North America by European colonizers.
A notable contribution of the Coronado ex-
LESLIE HUTCHINSON
pedition to North American geography was the
discovery of the Continental Divide—the water-
shed between the Pacific and the Atlantic Oceans Further Reading
from which two river systems run in opposite di- Bolton, Herbert. Coronado: Knight of Pueblos and Plains.
rections. It was also Coronado who first acquired Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1949.
a relatively accurate knowledge of the immensity Horgan, Paul. Conquistadors in North American History. New
of the southwestern part of the North American York: Farrar, Straus and Company, New York, 1963.
continent. European maps at the time showed Udall, Stewart L. Majestic Journey: Coronado’s Inland Empire.
the oceans north of Mexico as close together. Albuquerque: Museum of New Mexico Press, 1987.

Spanish Florida
and the Founding of St. Augustine


Overview shores of present-day northern Florida on East-
In search of the legendary Fountain of Youth, er, March 27, 1513. He claimed the territory for
Juan Ponce de León (1460-1521) landed on the his native Spain, but did not leave a lasting set-

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Exploration
& Discovery
1450-1699

Sixteenth-century diagram of the Spanish fort at St. Augustine, established by Pedro Menéndez de Avilés. (Bettmann/
Corbis. Reproduced with permission.)

tlement at his point of first contact. The Spanish but no initial plans for a more permanent fort
Crown sent six subsequent expeditions back to structure were made.
Florida to relocate the area of Ponce de León’s
The location chosen for Spanish fort and set-
landing and establish a settlement, but none
tlement was not selected by accident. The Span-
were successful. Nearly 50 years passed until St.
ish were not the first to settle the area around St.
Augustine, Florida, was founded by a new gen-
Augustine. French Protestants, known as
eration of Spanish explorers, Christian mission-
Huguenots, established Ft. Caroline in 1564. The
aries, and European settlers. From its inception,
group, originally led by Jean Ribault, was
St. Augustine was plagued by siege, Indian up-
plagued by problems of disease and supply
rising, disease, and territorial boarder disputes.
shortages. Nonetheless, the French colony sur-
However, the small Spanish settlement, which
vived for over a year. Menéndez de Avilés’s com-
predated the British settlement at Jamestown
mission entailed ensuring that Spain’s coastlines
(1607) by 42 years, thrived under the steward-
in the New World were free from interfering set-
ship of three nations to become the oldest con-
tlements from rival European nations—most es-
tinuously inhabited settlement in America.
pecially France. Spain perceived the small colony
as a threat to Spanish shipping interests between
Background their colonies in the Caribbean and Europe. Con-
trol of northern Florida was thought to be vital.
Pedro Menéndez de Avilés (1519-1574) was
In 1565 soldiers under the command of Menén-
commissioned by King Philip II of Spain to re-
dez de Avilés seized control of Ft. Caroline.
secure Spanish possessions near present-day
Menéndez de Avilés ordered most of the colony
Jacksonville. In July of 1565 Menéndez de Avilés
to be massacred, hanging the bodies of victims of
led a fleet of 11 ships and 1,900 men to Florida.
in trees with the inscription “Not as Frenchmen,
On August 28, the Feast of St. Augustine, he en-
but as heretics.” Incorporating the settlement
tered a bay near the delta of the St. Johns River.
that he had founded and the former French set-
Upon making landfall 11 days later, the explorer
tlement on the St. Johns River, the Spanish se-
rededicated the land to Spain and ordered his
cured their dominion over northern Florida.
men to build a fort, which he named St. Augus-
tine after the Catholic holy day. The fort was Menéndez de Avilés continued to fulfill his
built on the site of the local indigenous village of obligations to the King of Spain by establishing a
Seloy. The existing village was hastily fortified, string of Spanish forts along the Northern Flori-

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da, Georgia, and South Carolina coastlines. route—and the possibility for substantial eco-
Exploration Menéndez de Avilés was recalled to Spain in nomic prosperity. In 1586 English buccaneer
& Discovery 1567, but his colony at St. Augustine thrived. and mariner Sir Frances Drake (c. 1540-1596)
The other outposts, however, did not fare as well landed in St. Augustine and burned the town in
1450-1699 as St. Augustine and within the span of 150 an attempt to gain control of the region. Despite
years had all been incorporated into French and the immense damage caused to the town, Drake
then British territories. St. Augustine was left as was ultimately unsuccessful. In 1668 pirate cap-
the northernmost of these original outposts, and tain John Davis attacked the city, killing 64 in-
in 1672 with the construction of a stone fort, the habitants. These periodic raids by privateers
Castillo de San Marcos, it became one of the were detrimental to the economic growth of St.
most heavily armed and guarded forts in Span- Augustine. Davis’s raid not only encouraged the
ish Florida, its strategic location acting as the Spanish to reroute some trade to other ports in
first line of defense for Spanish territories in Spanish Florida, but also pointed to the need for
North America. a more stalwart defense system for the city.
After the British established colonies to the The massive stone fort that the Spanish
north in Georgia and South Carolina, St. Augus- constructed to guard St. Augustine, the Castillo
tine was the site of ongoing attempts of the de San Marcos, was itself an engineering mar-
British to gain land from rival Spain. In 1702 vel. Though the pointed design of the fort was
Governor James Moore of South Carolina laid fairly standard, the Spanish could not find the
siege to the city. Following closely two years building materials with which they were accus-
later, Governor James Edward Oglethorpe of tomed to using in the construction of such mas-
Georgia attacked St. Augustine. Neither attempt sive defense works. Quarrying hard stones and
to take the city was successful. moving them to St. Augustine proved to be im-
practical. Thus, the builders of the Castillo de
In 1763 Spain ceded Florida to England in
San Marcos utilized coquina (a compact, dense-
exchange for regaining control over the capital
ly packed, concrete-like material of shell and
of Cuba. The British ruled St. Augustine for a
hardened sediment), which could be locally
20-year period that coincided with the American
quarried on nearby Anastasia Island and ferried
Revolution. Florida, as a British possession, re-
across to St. Augustine. The material was solid
mained loyal to the British Crown. When the
enough to be used like stone, but it had a
Revolution ended, Florida was granted back to
unique ability to “swallow” enemy cannon fire
Spain until the United States purchased the ter-
with little or no damage to the integrity of the
ritory in 1821. The Castillo de San Marcos was
fort’s walls. This use of indigenous coquina, a
renamed Ft. Marion, and St. Augustine was
strategic location near the confluence of the San
firmly under American control. The period after
Sebastian and St. John’s rivers, and a strong mil-
the American take-over of Florida marked a dif-
itary presence allowed Castillo de San Marcos to
ficult time for St. Augustine. An epidemic of Yel-
withstand repeated enemy attacks. As a Span-
low Fever swept the town in 1821, and a Native
ish, British, and United States outpost, the fort
uprising in 1836 culminated in the Seminole
never fell into enemy hands until 1862 during
War. No longer an active mission, trade hub, or
the American Civil War.
large garrison town, the often-troubled economy
of the city ground to a halt. Several archaeological investigations, over a
span of decades, have helped to locate Ponce de
León’s landing area, the French colony, the settle-
Impact ment established by Menéndez de Avilés, and se-
Though St. Augustine was precariously close to ries of city fortifications, walls, and structures
borders with rival colonies, the ongoing struggle from various other periods. Recently, there has
among the Spanish, French, British, and later been a renewed interest in investigating the pre-
the Americans, for dominion over the area were contact and proto-historic (the earliest years of
due mainly to the town’s prized location on European contact with the New World) sites in
shipping and trade routes. The Atlantic currents the St. Augustine area. Archaeological investiga-
near St. Augustine allowed ships that disem- tions have yielded valuable information about the
barked from the town to make more expedient structure and nature of the society of the indige-
voyages to Europe than those that left similar nous peoples who settled the area before Euro-
New World ports just 100 miles (161 km) away. peans. Studying these early settlements will facili-
Control of the town granted the owner domin- tate archaeologists and historians in interpreting
ion over the Atlantic access waters to this trade how Native American, and later African slave, so-

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cieties changed as a result of European conquest. Further Reading

Paleopathology research, the study of the effects Landers, Jane G., and Peter H. Wood. Black Society in Exploration
of disease on ancient remains, will aid in under- Spanish Florida. Urbana: University of Illinois Press, & Discovery
standing the transfer and dissemination of various 1999.
foreign diseases, and their devastating impact on Various. Oldest City. St. Augustine, FL: St. Augustine His- 1450-1699
indigenous, slave, and immigrant populations. torical Society, 1983.

ADRIENNE WILMOTH LERNER

The English Establish a Colony in

Jamestown, Virginia


Overview
After a few failed expeditions across the Atlantic,
English colonists established the settlement of
Jamestown, Virginia, in 1607. The representative
legislature instituted there in 1624 was the first of
its kind in America. Captain John Smith (1580?-
1631), an early leader of the colony who had re-
turned to England in 1609, published the first
major English account of the New World in 1624.
As the first successful English colony in the Amer-
icas, Jamestown helped establish Virginia as a
major player in the history of the United States.

Background
Although Europeans had for centuries regarded
themselves as having discovered the Americas,
the continents were not empty of human inhabi-
tants when the first sailing ships arrived from
across the Atlantic. Virginia’s coastal regions
were populated by the Powhatan Confederacy, a
part of the Algonquin language group. Other
parts of Virginia were inhabited by tribes that John Smith. (National Portrait Gallery. Reproduced with
spoke Siouan and Iroquoian languages. Alto- permission.)
gether, there were about 18,000 Native Ameri-
cans in Virginia at that time; half lived in the colonies in America. Expeditions were sent to
areas around the Chesapeake Bay. the eastern United States, and Raleigh named
Relations between the Native Americans the area Virginia in honor of Elizabeth, who was
and Europeans were often difficult. The Euro- known as the Virgin Queen. However, without
peans saw the natives, whom they called Indi- enough supplies to make a proper start, the ear-
ans, as savage heathens to be Christianized, and liest attempts failed. The Virginia Company of
considered the land unexploited and ripe for London was chartered by King James I in 1606
colonization. The indigenous people naturally to make a fresh start on colonization.
saw things differently. The first European settle-
ment in Virginia, established by Jesuits from Impact
Spain, was destroyed in an Indian raid a few
On December 20 of that year, Captain Christo-
months later.
pher Newport set out from England with three
In 1584 Queen Elizabeth I granted Sir Wal- ships, the Susan Constant, the Godspeed, and the
ter Raleigh (1554-1618) authority to establish Discovery. On board the ships were 144 men and

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boys, recruited with the goals of converting the to produce income, its prospects were much
Exploration Indians to Christianity, searching for gold and sil- brighter. Corn and hogs were also grown suc-
& Discovery ver, looking for a waterway to the Pacific Ocean, cessfully at Jamestown. These remain important
and growing agricultural products to send back agricultural products in Virginia today.
1450-1699 to England. They were ill prepared for a hard life;
most were from the upper class, had few practi- Rolfe also contributed to the welfare of the
cal skills, and little experience with manual labor. colony by marrying Pocahontas (1595?-1617),
On May 14, 1607, they set up an encampment daughter of Powhatan, a powerful chief, in
on a peninsula about 60 mile (96.6 km) upriver 1614. The marriage inaugurated a period of
from the Chesapeake Bay on Virginia’s coast. This peace between the Native Americans and the
settlement, which was to become the first perma- English. However, after Powhatan died four
nent English colony in the New World, was years later, relations deteriorated between the
named Jamestown after the King. settlers and the new chief, Opechancanough.
Opechancanough perceived that as the colony
The site of the colony was chosen because it prospered and grew, his people were being
seemed as if it would be easy to defend, and the squeezed out of their territory. He led an attack
water around it was deep enough for the ships in 1622 in which 347 colonists were massacred.
to drop anchor near the shore. But the area
turned out to be swampy and mosquito-infest- Still, by this time the colony was fairly well
ed, and the drinking water from the James River established. Settlers had been granted land of
was brackish and muddy. Both contributed to their own. A ship full of young women had been
disease, and lack of sufficient food weakened the sent over from England for the colonists to
colonists further. Two-thirds died of malnutri- marry. Having become householders with farms
tion, malaria, pneumonia, or dysentery. and families, the settlers were far more likely to
stay. In 1619 Dutch traders brought the first
Captain John Smith, a veteran of military African slaves to Virginia, at the same time in-
exploits in the Netherlands, Hungary, and creasing the colony’s prosperity and opening a
Turkey, took over as leader of the settlement in sad chapter in the history of the region and of
1608. He held the situation together by trading the future United States.
for food with the Powhatans and forcing the re-
luctant men to take part in the physical labor That same year, the first representative legis-
needed to establish the colony and build up its lature in America was formed on instructions
defenses. from the Virginia Company. Called the House of
Another setback for the colony was Smith’s Burgesses, it met with the governor and his
return to England in 1609 for medical treatment council in a lawmaking body called the General
after his gunpowder bag caught fire. The winter Assembly of Virginia. The House of Burgesses
after his departure nearly put an end to served as the model for many of the colonial and
Jamestown. Conflict with the Indians meant state legislatures that were to follow.
both bloody attacks and an end to trade. Sup- Meanwhile, Captain John Smith had recov-
plies ran low. Fire, drought, and disease took ered from his wounds and returned to America
their toll. Many more settlers died in what be- in 1614, exploring the region of New England, a
came known as the “starving time.” name he coined. In his later years, he lived in
That spring, the remaining colonists pre- London and wrote about his adventurous life.
pared to give up and return to England. Just in His principal work, The Generall Historie of Vir-
time, at Hampton Roads, they met the incoming ginia, New England, and the Summer Isles, was
ships of Governor Thomas West (1577-1618), published in 1624. It was the first significant ac-
bearing additional settlers and replenished sup- count of the New World in English.
plies. Like Smith, West was an effective leader.
In 1626 James I revoked the charter of the
Without these two men, it is unlikely that
Virginia Company and declared Virginia a royal
Jamestown would have survived.
colony. Some of the royal governors dispatched
One of the Jamestown colonists, John Rolfe from England had quarrelsome relationships
(1585-1622), began raising tobacco in 1612. He with the colonists. Sir William Berkeley (1606-
grew a type of tobacco from Trinidad that was 1677), who arrived in 1642, was an exception.
sweeter than the native Virginian plant, and de- However, he was ousted 10 years later, after
veloped a method of curing the tobacco so that King Charles I was overthrown by Oliver
it could be exported. Once the colony had a way Cromwell in the English Civil War.

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During the Cromwellian period, the colony James Madison, and James Monroe—were born
was generally left to run its own affairs. Its pop- there. Its large territory included regions that Exploration
ulation was augmented by a number of royalists eventually became all or part of eight other & Discovery
fleeing England. With the restoration of the states: Illinois, Indiana, Michigan, Wisconsin,
monarchy in 1660, Berkeley was re-appointed, Minnesota, Ohio, Kentucky, and West Virginia. 1450-1699
but this time his tenure was not as successful. Virginia’s current capital, Richmond, was the
The population center was moving west to the capital of the Confederacy during the Civil War.
edge of Virginia’s Piedmont region, and many The peninsula on which Jamestown was es-
objected to Berkeley’s allowing wealthy coastal tablished eventually became an island, as the
families, known as the Tidewater aristocracy, to tides eroded the neck of land. For many years it
rule the colony. The Piedmont settlers wanted was believed that the remains of the 1607 fort
protection from Native Americans, fewer regula- were underwater, but in 1996 archaeologists dis-
tions imposed upon them from the east, and covered evidence of the fort on the island as well
freedom from British restrictions on colonial as artifacts from the settlement. Today the island
trade. In 1676 a group of colonists rebelled, led is part of the Colonial National Historical Park,
by a young planter named Nathaniel Bacon visited by more than a million people every year.
(1647-1676). Jamestown was burned to the Meanwhile, archaeological research continues to
ground. The settlement was rebuilt, but the shed light on this important early colony.
statehouse was again destroyed, this time by an
accidental fire, in 1698. SHERRI CHASIN CALVO

As a consequence, the capital of the Virginia

colony was moved from Jamestown to Williams- Further Reading
burg, and the earlier settlement was deserted. It Bridenbaugh, Carl. Jamestown, 1544-1699. New York:
had served its purpose as the English foothold in Oxford University Press, 1980.
the New World. At the start of the eighteenth Friddell, Guy. We Began at Jamestown. Richmond, VA:
century, Virginia was the largest North American Dietz Press, 1968.
colony, with a population of about 58,000. Hume, Ivor Noel. The Virginia Adventure: Roanoke to
James Towne. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1994.
Virginia continued to play a pivotal role in Vaughan, Alden T. American Genesis: Captain John Smith
American history. Four of the first five presi- and the Founding of Virginia. Boston: Little, Brown and
dents—George Washington, Thomas Jefferson, Company, 1975.

John Cabot’s Exploration of North America

Overview that he had moved to Spain—to be a part of the
exploration of the Atlantic Ocean and the lands
In 1497 John Cabot (1450?-1499?), an Italian ex-
on the other side, presumed at that time to be
plorer sailing for England, reached land somewhere
parts of Asia. He had been unsuccessful in con-
in the northern part of North America. Although
vincing the Spanish and Portuguese to hire him,
unsuccessful in his attempt to reach Asia, his land-
so he hoped to improve his luck in England.
fall gave England a territorial claim in the New
World that would be the basis for her eventual col-
Approaching the English king, Henry VII,
onization of parts of that continent. In addition,
Cabot offered to find a northern route to the
Cabot’s son, Sebastian (1476?-1557), became the
Orient, challenging the Spanish route blazed by
first of many explorers who attempted to sail across
Christopher Columbus (1451?-1506) a few
the top of the world in an effort to find a Northwest
years earlier. Henry, who had barely missed the
Passage from Europe to the wealth of Asia.
opportunity to sponsor Columbus’s trip, jumped
at the chance, provided Cabot could find some
Background financial backing. In exchange for promises of
In 1494 John Cabot (born Giovanni Caboto) an import monopoly from the Crown, a group of
moved his family to England from Valencia, Bristol merchants underwrote Cabot’s voyage,
Spain. He moved to England for the same reason and the King issued a letter of patent authorizing

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this discovery alone justified his trip, for the

Exploration Grand Banks has been one of the world’s most
& Discovery productive fishing grounds for several centuries.
When he returned to England, Cabot re-
1450-1699
ported his failure to prove he had landed in Asia
and, from there, faded from history. In fact, it is
not even certain when or where he died. Howev-
er, his discoveries were to have a profound and
lasting impact on England and the world.

Impact
Although Cabot, like Columbus and so many
others, was unsuccessful in discovering a short
and easy route to Asia, his voyages were signifi-
cant for a number of reasons. Among these are:
1. His territorial claims for the English
Crown gave England a toehold in the
New World.
2. His son, Sebastian, was encouraged
by his father to continue exploring,
John Cabot. (Corbis Corporation. Reproduced with beginning the quest for the elusive
permission.) Northwest Passage.
3. His work helped prove that North
America was a new continent, one
Cabot to claim any lands he found for England.
that proved every bit as rich as Asia.
What none knew was that Cabot had made the
same error as Columbus; he believed what he The letter of patent Cabot received from
read, and his reading said that the world was ac- Henry VII allowed him to take possession of
tually only 17,000 miles (27,359 km) around, lands “which before that time were unknown to
not the 24,000 miles (38,624 km) we now know all Christians” for the English Crown. North
it to be. Between England and Asia lay not only America certainly qualified, and Cabot claimed
one ocean, but two, and a continent as well. everything he could for England. The next claim,
based on Jacques Cartier’s (1491-1557) 1535-
Cabot set sail for Asia in the spring of 1497, 1536 explorations of the Saint Lawrence River,
making landfall on June 24 of that year. The established France as a colonial power along this
exact place of his landing is not known; con- river and into what is now Quebec. Thus, the fu-
vincing cases have been put forth for virtually ture of Canada was set, even though England did
every reasonable location between Maine and not pursue its claim to these new lands for nearly
Labrador. What is known for certain is that he a century. One result of these competing claims
realized he had discovered a new continent, that was the French and Indian War in which George
he was the first European to land in North Washington (1732-1799) gained most of his
America since the Vikings, and that he claimed early military experience. Another outcome is
the territories he found for England. still seen today, in Canada’s perennial conflict be-
tween the French-speaking Quebecois and the
Upon his return to England, Cabot an-
English-speaking populations that settled the rest
nounced his discoveries and immediately found
of Canada. There is some irony, too, that this ter-
backing for a larger expedition the next year.
ritorial claim not only helped give England its
With five ships this time, he again set sail and
North American colonies, but at the same time
again landed on the shores of the New World.
set in motion events that would eventually lead
This time, however, he traveled some way to the
to training the man who would help take them
south in search of Japan or China. Failing to find
away. However, at the time of Cabot’s landing,
them again, he returned to England. On his way,
none of this could even be envisioned.
his small flotilla crossed a part of ocean swarm-
ing with fish, what is now known as the Grand Although it is interesting to speculate about
Banks. Although he did not realize it at the time, how world history might have changed had

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Cabot not landed in North America, this is more status as a full-fledged continent was fairly well
properly the realm of speculative fiction. It is en- established. However, it was to be some time be- Exploration
tirely likely that England would have found some fore the English saw it as anything other than an & Discovery
pretext to launch her settlements in precisely the impediment hampering their ready access to Asia.
same locations as in fact occurred, though possi- 1450-1699
In fact, it is hard today to fathom England’s
bly without the strategic advantage granted by
near-obsession with ignoring America in favor of
also possessing the port of Halifax in Nova Sco-
trade with Asia. However, at the time Asia repre-
tia. Although these claims may have been con-
sented a known commodity. Beginning with
tested more vigorously, the history of North
Marco Polo (1254?-1324), some fortunate Euro-
America probably would not have changed much
pean nations and city-states had grown wealthy
because England’s rivals were largely interested in
on Asian trade, and the British had been left out
different parts of the Americas. Spain had already
because of their status as a relatively weak and
claimed almost the entirety of South and Central
poor nation on the outskirts of Europe. At that
America, plus a large part of the American South-
time, European power and civilization was cen-
west and Florida, while the French had staked a
tered on the Mediterranean and, without a
claim to the lion’s share of what is now Canada.
strong navy, England simply could not open
This left the Dutch as England’s only serious ri-
trade routes of its own, or compete with the es-
vals in North America, primarily for what is now
tablished Mediterranean powers. So, rather than
New York, and they elected to withdraw and
try, the English opted instead to seek alternate
concentrate on their possessions in South Africa
routes to these riches, and looked to the West.
and the Dutch East Indies rather than to contest
England was hoping to find a new route to the
English claims in North America.
Orient that would be faster and safer than exist-
Also important was the effect that Cabot’s ing routes. By doing this, the English hoped to
voyages had on his son, Sebastian. Instead of share in the wealth generated in China, Japan,
being discouraged by the perception that his fa- and the Spice Islands.
ther had failed in his voyages, Sebastian went on
to try to discover a Northwest Passage, across the It was only after a century or so of fruitless
“top” of the new continent and leading to Asia. To effort that England finally realized that the North
this end, in 1508 Sebastian Cabot set out on a self- American continent could be the key to wealth,
financed expedition to find a passage to Asia. This too. With the establishment of its North Ameri-
time, he was well aware of the fact that North can colonies, England began profiting from to-
America was, in fact, not Asia but a new continent bacco, timber, fish, and other goods. At the same
entirely, and he seems to have purposely set out to time, British sea power was in the ascendancy,
find a northern route to Asia across this new conti- and England began to project this power
nent. Although he failed in this attempt, he set in throughout the world. It is also worth remem-
motion countless attempts by those who were to bering that, in spite of the American Revolution,
follow him for nearly four more centuries. Success British influence in North America continued
would not come until 1906, when Roald Amund- until the passage of the British North America
sen (1872-1928) was able to successfully thread Act in 1867. This gave Britain nearly three cen-
his way through the tortuous channels that com- turies of domination over the American
prise the Canadian Arctic islands. Between Cabot colonies, and nearly a century more of colonial
and Amundsen, the Northwest Passage claimed influence in North America. The North Ameri-
scores of lives and many ships. In that time, too, can colonies were among England’s first overseas
the Northwest Passage went from being an impor- possessions, starting England on the path to
tant goal to a near-afterthought because, in the in- global empire in the nineteenth century, and en-
terim, other routes to Asia were pioneered and riching its treasury at the same time.
made both routine and profitable. P. ANDREW KARAM
The other major result of Cabot’s discover-
ies—the realization that North America was a
continent in its own right—was made somewhat Further Reading
gradually. Many, including Sebastian Cabot, Lehane, Brendan. The Northwest Passage. Alexandria, VA:
seemed to grasp this more quickly than others, Time-Life Books, 1981.
but maps until the 1700s continued to show Morison, Samuel E. The European Discovery of America.
North America connected to Siberia. However, in New York: Oxford University Press, 1971.
spite of this purported land connection, by the Morison, Samuel E. The Great Explorers. New York: Ox-
middle of the sixteenth century, North America’s ford University Press, 1978.

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The Search for a Northwest Passage

Exploration
& Discovery
1450-1699 Overview ventures brought him fame in his hometown, but
even before the accolades had died down, he was
Jacques Cartier (1491-1557) explored northern
preparing for his next trip.
North America with hopes of finding gold and
precious metals, and possibly a cross-continental In May of 1535, he again crossed the At-
passage connecting the Atlantic and Pacific lantic for North America. He led three ships car-
oceans. He never realized those goals, but he did rying a crew of 110 men, plus the two native
find something of great value: a water passage Americans who had learned the French language
into Canada’s interior. His discovery in the well enough during their overseas stay to serve
1530s of the Gulf of St. Lawrence and the St. as interpreters. Cartier immediately led the ships
Lawrence River gave the Europeans, and specifi- back to the Gulf of St. Lawrence where he hoped
cally the French, access to the interior of the to find the waterway to Canada’s interior and
continent for the first time. This also provided possibly across the continent. The interpreters
the first views of the areas that would eventually guided him to the St. Lawrence estuary in Au-
become the sites of such major Canadian cities gust. With the discovery made, Cartier sailed his
as Montreal and Quebec. ships more than 200 miles (322 km) into the
waterway and up to the Iroquois village of
Stadacona. From there, they continued by long-
Background boat for another 100-plus miles (161 km) to the
Before Cartier’s voyages to Canada, North Amer- Iroquois village of Hochelaga. From a hill near
ica was known to the Europeans mostly from its Hochelaga, which he named Mont Réal, Cartier
eastern coastline. Fishermen sailed its ocean wa- could see impassable rapids on the river beyond.
ters, but had neither need nor desire to venture At that point, he decided to return to Stadacona
far onto land or even to explore inland water- to spend the winter months.
ways. Descriptions of the coast were poor and Cartier returned to France in May of 1536
maps were rudimentary and used mainly to di- with news of the St. Lawrence River and its po-
rect them across the Atlantic and to a desired lo- tential as a route to China. He also brought back
cation off of North America, but not to skirt to France another 10 Indians, including the chief
along the rugged shoreline, into its bays or whose sons had made the trip a year earlier.
around its many islands. The fishermen of the Based on stories told to him by his Indian inter-
day were satisfied to know only as much as preters, Cartier believed that if he traveled along
needed to safely navigate the coastal waters, to the river just a bit farther, he might find that the
locate a safe harbor when necessary, and to find waterway traversed the whole continent or at the
the prime fishing grounds. very least revealed a wealth of precious metals.
The Frenchman Cartier sought something King François I was excited by the prospect and
more. He went to Canada with a different idea, had planned to send the explorer back to Canada
and approached the coastline with the eye of a as soon as possible. While plans were under way,
navigator, geographer, and explorer. however, a war broke out between France and
the Habsburg Empire, and the return trip was
Trained as a navigator in Dieppe, northwest
postponed until 1541. While waiting for the voy-
of Paris, Cartier made his first well-documented
age back to their homeland, all but one of the 10
voyage in 1534 as the leader of an expedition to
visiting Indians died in France.
find precious metals in North America. Although
he found no gold on the six-month journey, he When Cartier did set sail again for the New
did discover the Magdalen and Prince Edward is- World, he was billed as the chief pilot under ex-
lands, and spent considerable time investigating pedition commander and French nobleman Jean
the Gulf of St. Lawrence. His records indicate François de la Rocque de Roberval. The expedi-
that he was close to the mouth of the St. tion included 1,500 men, including settlers for
Lawrence River, but he was either slightly too far Canadian outposts, and eight ships. Cartier took
north of it or the weather prevented him from the first ship out and arrived in Canada earlier
spotting the waterway. While in Canada he be- than Roberval. He waited out the winter in an
friended an Iroquois chief and brought two of area north of Stadacona. The remainder of the
the chief’s sons with him to France. Cartier’s ad- fleet overwintered in Newfoundland. During the

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Exploration
& Discovery
1450-1699

Jacques Cartier encounters native people of the St. Lawrence River region. (The Granger Collection, Ltd. Reproduced
with permission.)

winter months, Cartier discovered what he mation he collected helped to create the most ac-
thought to be gold and diamonds. (As it turned curate maps of the period. Atlases of the day soon
out, they were mimics of little or no value.) He included details of the entire Gulf of St. Lawrence
decided to return to France with his finds, and and the great river. In addition, his explorations
was on his way back when he ran into Roberval of the eastern coast of northern North America
in Newfoundland. Roberval ordered him to re- led to discoveries of Prince Edward and Anticosti
turn to the mainland to help him set up a islands, Gaspé Bay, and other sites.
colony. Cartier disobeyed, however, and made
his way back to France, where he took a home It was his discovery of the St. Lawrence
in the country. Cartier never left France again. River, however, that was the most influential.
Once discovered and charted, it became for the
French the most important and well-used en-
Impact trance point into North America. As the fur
trade blossomed into a major financial institu-
Cartier’s major achievements were the discover-
tion, the route garnered additional importance.
ies of the Gulf of St. Lawrence, the estuary lead-
The river became the major trade route for the
ing into the St. Lawrence River and the river it-
French, and cemented France’s major role in the
self. The St. Lawrence waterway opened the first
development of Canada. As long as the French
passage to take explorers and traders deep into
controlled the waterway, it also served as a polit-
Canada’s interior. In fact, his voyage along the
ical barrier to the expansion of other nations
river brought him farther inland than any North
into the North American interior. As a result,
American explorer had yet attained. Along the
France for many years held title to the major ex-
way, Cartier stopped at the Iroquois villages of
plorations of Canada and what would become
Stadacona and Hochelaga, both of which would
the Midwestern portion of the United States.
eventually become the sites of major Canadian
Even today, the influence of France and its ex-
cities. The city of Quebec now straddles Stada-
plorers are still visible in many of the names of
cona, and Montreal encompasses Hochelaga and
Canadian and Midwestern U.S. towns and cities.
the Cartier-named Mont Réal.
Had Cartier been able to bypass the rapids he
The impact of his discovery and his meticu- saw outside of modern-day Montreal, the river
lous descriptions of the entire St. Lawrence water would have taken him to Lake Ontario, the first
system was far-reaching. The geographical infor- in the chain of Great Lakes.

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Beyond his geographical achievements, and his ability to form relationships with the na-
Exploration Cartier influenced future explorers in another tive people helped not only to open Canada to
& Discovery way. His stay in Stadacona from late fall of 1535 exploration, but to create the climate for France
to spring of 1536 represented the first time that to become highly influential in the development
1450-1699 Europeans had overwintered in Canada. The of Canada and the Midwestern United States.
cold was more than he and his crew expected,
LESLIE A. MERTZ
but the most severe consequence of the winter
months was the scurvy suffered by more than
90% of his crew. Fortunately for Cartier’s men,
Further Reading
the Iroquois had a remedy. They brewed a drink
Baker, Daniel B., ed. Explorers and Discovers of the World,
made from the bark of a cedar tree and served it
first edition. Detroit: Gale Research, 1993.
to the crew. Laden with vitamin C, the curative
Biggar, H. The Voyages of Jacques Cartier. Ottawa: Public
beverage brought all but 25 crewmen back from
Archives of Canada, 1924.
the brink of death. Based on Cartier’s winter ex-
perience, other Europeans who came to Canada Byers, Paula K. Encyclopedia of World Biography, second
edition. Detroit: Gale Research, 1998.
were able to prepare better for the long winter
days and nights. Edmonds, J., commissioning ed. Oxford Atlas of Explo-
ration. New York: Oxford University Press, 1996.
Cartier’s experiences as an expedition Morison, S. The European Discovery of America: The North-
leader, his skills as a navigator and geographer, ern Voyages. New York: Oxford University Press, 1971.

North America’s
First Permanent European Colony


Overview larly the Hurons and Montagnais, for assisting
his explorations of the countryside, and noted
Although Samuel de Champlain (1567-1635)
information that they had provided about the
was not the first European to explore the coast-
existence of expansive inland waters. He mistak-
line of Canada, he was arguably the most influ-
enly believed that these waters, now known to
ential. Noted as the geographer who generated a
be the Great Lakes, might provide a cross-conti-
set of the most complete maps of the coast,
nental passage from the Atlantic Ocean to the
Champlain charted the seaboard from Nova Sco-
Pacific. Discovery of such a passage was desired
tia to Rhode Island. He also explored what
for its potential to open up a shorter trade route
would become major trade routes along the in-
to and from China.
land rivers of Canada, was likely the first Euro-
pean to see the Great Lakes, and helped estab- Champlain’s interest in exploring the lands
lish colonies at Quebec and Annapolis Royal. of North America heightened when he returned
to Canada less than a year later as geographer
aboard an expedition led by Pierre du Gua de
Background Monts. During this expedition, and the subse-
quent two years that Champlain spent living in
Champlain began his explorations of New
the largely unknown continent, he spent a great
France, or Canada, in 1603 as a member of an
deal of time touring the area and taking meticu-
expedition led by François Grave Du Pont. Du
lous notes. From these, he created a general map
Pont’s charge was to sail up the St. Lawrence
of St. Croix and Annapolis Royal in Nova Scotia.
River system. The expedition made its way to
Although not perfect, this map was much more
what is now Montreal in the summer of 1603.
accurate and contained more detail than previ-
That voyage lasted less than a year, but Cham-
ous maps of the area.
plain was so taken by the Canadian expanse that
he wrote a book about his experiences in the After a short return trip to France in 1607,
wilderness that same year. The book was titled Champlain went back to Canada. He took on
Des Sauvages, ou, Voyage de Samuel Champlain. In the monumental task of establishing a fort at
the book, he credited the native people, particu- Quebec (near the site of an already existing Iro-

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quois village) in 1608, serving as its administra- er founded what was to become one of the largest
tor, and within two years generating enough in- and most influential cities in all of Canada. Exploration
terest in the site to have it acknowledged as his Beyond his geographical contributions, & Discovery
country’s North American fur-trading center. De- Champlain was one of the first explorers to not
spite his duties in Quebec, Champlain contin- only form working relationships with the native 1450-1699
ued his explorations. In 1615, he traveled up the people, but to try to understand their cultures.
Ottawa River and, with the help of another Indi- His book, Des Sauvages, ou, Voyage de Samuel
an guide—a tribal chief this time—he saw Lake Champlain, contains never-before-printed ethno-
Huron for the first time. He ventured along the graphic detail about the American Indians. Unlike
shoreline of this “Fresh Water Sea,” meeting with many other explorers of his time who feared—
other small groups of Indians and learning about and often slaughtered—the Indians they encoun-
their cultures. tered, Champlain understood the importance of
Although he conducted other explorations creating alliances. It was through such friendships
afterward, he turned a great deal of attention to that he was able to safely travel through the wa-
his responsibilities in Quebec. There, he hired terways and forests of the North American interi-
younger explorers, including such men as Eti- or, and how he learned of the Great Lakes.
enne Brûlé (1592?-1633) and Jean Nicollet Champlain’s ability to relate well with the
(1598-1642), to become interpreters between Indians also allowed him to locate the native
the French and native American populations, population’s long-standing trading routes. Those
and to help expand France’s trading circle into trading routes became the pathways of the Euro-
Canada’s interior. pean explorers as they began to trek farther onto
the North American continent.
A war between England and France resulted
in Champlain’s ouster from not only Quebec, His expeditions into Canada’s interior
but from Canada as well, for about four years. opened the door to the exploration of America’s
As soon as the two countries struck a deal and Midwest, as well. His discovery of Lake Huron,
France regained Quebec, Champlain returned to and his belief that it might be the cross-conti-
live out his life in his adopted home. He died on nental passageway to the Pacific Ocean and
December 25, 1635. China, combined to fuel the exploration of
Michigan and Wisconsin. One of his hired inter-
preters/explorers, Etienne Brûlé, became the first
Impact European to set foot in what is now Michigan.
Jean Nicollet pressed on to Lake Michigan and
Champlain’s explorations of the eastern seaboard
into Green Bay. During his trip, Nicollet learned
of Canada and the northern United States, along
about the existence of a great river, the Missis-
with his attention to detail and his skills as a geo-
sippi, and that discovery led to additional explo-
grapher, provided the most accurate maps to that
ration of the area in ensuing years.
time of the coastline from Nova Scotia well into
New England. His voyages along the St. LESLIE A. MERTZ
Lawrence and Ottawa rivers also generated the
maps necessary to set up primary trading routes
Further Reading
through the waterways, and helped to assure
France’s place as one of the foremost trading na- Baker, Daniel B., ed. Explorers and Discovers of the World,
first edition. Detroit: Gale Research, 1993.
tions of the world. His geographical expertise be-
came widely respected through the publication Biggar, H., ed. The Works of Samuel de Champlain. 6 vols.
Toronto: The Champlain Society, 1927-35.
of his 1632 map of the web of waterways con-
necting the Atlantic Ocean with the Great Lakes. Byers, Paula K . Encyclopedia of World Biography, second
edition. Detroit: Gale Research, 1998.
France’s name in trading was further elevated Edmonds, J., commissioning ed. Oxford Atlas of Explo-
when Champlain established and governed Que- ration. New York: Oxford University Press, 1996.
bec. Through his insistence about the potential Morison, S. Samuel de Champlain: Father of New France.
benefits of the fort as a trading center, the explor- Boston: Little, Brown & Co., 1972.

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Pedro Cabral and the

Exploration
& Discovery Portuguese Settlement of Brazil
1450-1699


Overview Europe had also experienced centuries of re-
ligious and dynastic wars. One lasting effect of
The exploration of Brazil by Pedro Cabral
these struggles was the growth of military tech-
(1467-1520) established the nation of Portugal
nology. On the eve of Western expansion, the
as a major power on the continent of South
major nations of the Atlantic coast began to ex-
America. This would have a profound effect on
pand their military capabilities beyond that of
the Native American people in the region and
their potential rivals. On the Iberian Peninsula,
would eventually establish the modern culture
Spain and Portugal began to compete against
of Latin America.
each other for control of the lucrative spice trade.
In 1492, the Spanish monarchy decided to fund
Background an expedition based upon the belief that India
Pedro Cabral is accepted as the first European to could be reached by sailing west. This voyage of
recognize the vast potential of what is now exploration was headed by Christopher Colum-
Brazil. This was part of the vast expansion of Eu- bus (1456-1501) and resulted in the discovery of
rope around the globe, which began in the fif- the Western Hemisphere. In 1498, Vasco da
teenth century. Events had been pushing Europe Gama (1460-1524) sailed around the Cape of
outward for at least five centuries. By the turn of Good Hope, reached India, and returned home
the millennium, Western Civilization had begun with a cargo worth sixty times the cost of his voy-
to recover from the destruction of the fall of the age. His great successes pushed the Portuguese
Roman Empire. Advances were made in agricul- government to fund a second trip in 1500. Ex-
ture, communication, and transportation that al- hausted from the physical and emotional stress of
lowed Europeans to develop a sound economy. the first voyage, da Gama recommended that
Pedro Cabral lead the second expedition.
By the end of the eleventh century, Pope
Urban II (1035-1099) called for a holy crusade
to free Jerusalem from Islamic domination. Impact
These holy wars would be a turning point in In 1500, Cabral began his voyage to India. His
Western Civilization. Although they were tragic ships were blown off course by strong westerly
military disasters, the Crusades reintroduced winds, and he ended up off the coast of Brazil.
Europe to the products of the East, especially The dense vegetation along the coast proved a
perfumes, spice, and silk. formidable obstacle to the early Portuguese ex-
The Islamic world system controlled the plorers. The first years of contact were known as
movement of these precious items first through the “factory period.” During this time, fortified
the Indian Ocean and then across Southwest warehouses or factories were constructed to
Asia by caravan. Monopolies were established house and protect the products extracted from
with certain Italian city-states, and these were so the Brazilian forests. The most important re-
successful that they provided the financial basis source in the early years was Brazilwood. Over
for the great Southern Italian Renaissance. It was the centuries Europeans had decimated their
also during this period that the great inland forests, first for fuel, and then for their massive
Asian empire of the Mongols began to collapse. shipbuilding programs. Brazilwood provided the
This disrupted trade along the great Eurasian Portuguese with much needed lumber for the
Silk Road, which reduced the flow of goods into construction and repair of their maritime fleet.
Europe. The capture of Constantinople in 1453 The climate and soil of Brazil was also compati-
established the Ottoman Empire as a major force ble to the cultivation of sugar, which was an im-
in the world. This new strategic reality forced portant commodity because it could be stored
many of the Italian city-states to establish mili- for long periods and shipped great distances
tary and economic alliances with the Ottomans. without spoiling. The government initially
These treaties provided the nations of Western turned this program over to a group of mer-
Europe with the incentive to find an all-water chants from Lisbon. However, they proved un-
route to the East and to break the monopoly of able to handle the task, and the production of
this Islamic/Italian connection. sugar reverted back to the crown.

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In addition, Brazil became a strategic prob-

lem for the Lisbon government. The great poten- Exploration
tial wealth of the Western hemisphere created & Discovery
intense competition among Spain, France, and
Portugal. Both countries challenged the Por- 1450-1699
tuguese for the ultimate control of Brazil’s re-
sources. This competition drastically changed
the way the Lisbon Government viewed its
colony. The crown decided that a permanent set-
tlement would have to be established to coun-
teract any potential attempts by Spain or France
to gain control of Brazil. The government sent
four hundred settlers to create this defensive
force. The colony not only had permanent work-
ing settlements but also patrolled the coast and
undertook the exploration of the Amazon and
LaPlatta rivers. The impact of these settlements
led to serious changes to the entire region.
In the early sixteenth century, Portugal and
the rest of Europe were still recovering from the
effects of the Bubonic Plague on their popula-
tions. The Black Death created a labor shortage
throughout Europe, thus there was no incentive Pedro Álvares Cabral. (Corbis Corporation. Reproduced
for people to emigrate to the New World. The with permission.)
government had to look to its prisons to provide
settlers for the new colony; so a vast majority of lives; others perished as a result of European dis-
the inhabitants were either criminals or political eases. This was part of what has come to be
prisoners. These were obviously not the type of known as the “Great Dying.” It soon became ob-
people that insured a successful colonial experi- vious that another source of labor was needed to
ence. This was especially true in the production keep the colony in operation. Since the Por-
of sugar. The cultivation and harvesting of sugar tuguese had a long established relationship with
required large numbers of people who were will- the tribes of West Africa, they decided to use
ing to perform the strenuous tasks required to African slaves from the western region of the
send the crop to the factory. This work was also continent. These tribes had an extensive slave
rigorous and required long, uninterrupted hours trade network that coincided with the movement
of labor to process the cane into refined sugar. It of Islam into the continent. The crown took ad-
became quite obvious that a new a source of vantage of the situation to establish a slave trad-
labor had to be found. Initially the Portuguese ing system to supply their settlements in Brazil
tried to use Indian slaves. The source of these with a much needed labor force. African slaves
slaves was the dominant Native American tribe were strong, intelligent, and used to working in a
in the region. They had practiced their own form subtropical climate. The success of the Por-
of slavery for generations, and they were most tuguese sugar industry rested upon the labor of
willing to become the providers for the Por- these West Africans.
tuguese. Initially slavery posed an ethical prob-
lem for the Lisbon government. Christianity had The massive relocation of Atlantic peoples
always preached the equality of all people in the was part of a larger historical phenomenon
eyes of God, and Jesuit missionaries were sent to known as the “Columbian Exchange.” This was
Brazil to convert the native population. The Por- the most extensive biological and demographic
tuguese adopted the same principles they had redistribution in the history of the world. Since
used in their reconquest against the Moslems. If the Western Hemisphere had been isolated from
the Indians accepted Christianity, they would be the Old World, the Native American population
protected from forced labor, but if they refused had not been exposed to many of the world’s
this new religion they were forced into bondage. deadliest diseases. When the Portuguese estab-
The cultural shock of bondage broke the spirit of lished permanent settlements in Brazil, they ex-
many Native American slaves. In response to the posed the indigenous population to smallpox
terrible working conditions many took their own and measles. With the introduction of slavery

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from West Africa, malaria was also unleashed Further Reading

Exploration against an unsuspecting population. Demogra- Crosby, Alfred. The Columbian Exchange: The Biological
& Discovery phers suspect that the Native American popula- and Cultural Consequences of 1492. Westport, CT:
tion in Brazil was reduced from about 2.5 mil- Greenwood Press, 1972.
1450-1699 lion to under 500,000. This demographic disas-
Crosby, Alfred. Ecological Imperialism: The Biological Ex-
ter affected Brazil in two ways: it reduced the
pansion of Europe ,900-1900. Cambridge, MA: Harvard
Indian population by 80%, which prohibited the University Press, 1986.
people of Brazil from organizing a successful re-
sistance to European settlement; and it created Curtin, Philip. D. Cross-Cultural Trade In World History.
an entirely new Latin American culture. This New York: Cambridge University Press, 1984.
new civilization is a hybrid of three different
Frank, Andre Gunder. ReORIENT: Global Economy in the
continents, Europe, Africa, and South America. Asian Age. Berkeley: University of California Press,
In addition, the new European-dominated class 1998.
structure that was created remains in place to
the present day. Morison, Samuel Eliot. The Great Explorers: The European
Discovery of America. New York: Oxford University
RICHARD D. FITZGERALD Press, 1978.

Vasco Núñez de Balboa

Reaches the Pacific Ocean


Overview cumulated much debt. He wished to leave the
country and seek his fortune elsewhere but was
Unknown to the indigenous people of the New
told he could not leave the island with outstand-
World, their destiny was being determined by po-
ing debts. He decided to bribe some men getting
litical and economic forces taking place across the
ready to leave on an expedition so that he and his
Atlantic Ocean in Europe. Toward the end of the
faithful dog could stowaway in a barrel. The voy-
fifteenth century, thousands of daring adventurers
age was organized in 1510 by Martín Fernández
would be crossing the ocean to conquer within a
de Enciso (1470?-1528) to bring aid and rein-
few centuries what had taken the Indians thou-
forcements to a colony off the coast of Uraba (pre-
sands to years to inhabit. This “Age of Explo-
sent-day Colombia). When they arrived, the
ration” was fostered by technological advance-
colony was in ruins and there were few survivors.
ments in maritime practices, the belief in an eco-
The Indians in the area were hostile and used ar-
nomic philosophy called mercantilism, and an
rows with tips that were soaked in poison. On the
interest in converting the religious beliefs of na-
advice of Balboa the settlers moved across the Gulf
tive populations. Mercantilism was the idea that if
of Uraba to an area known as Darien. This area
a nation was not self-sufficient in its affairs, then
was much less hostile, and they founded the town
its neighbors would dominate it. The two areas
of Antigua. Balboa began to accumulate wealth
that seemed ripe for establishing this ideal were
from the Indians by befriending them or, if that
the Middle East and the Americas. Many of the
was not successful, by going to war with them.
Spanish conquistadors headed for the New World
Eventually Balboa was elected as the comagistrate
seeking wealth and adventure. One such man was
of the settlement. He was later named by the king
Vasco Núñez de Balboa (1475-1519).
as interim governor and captain general of Darien.

Background Balboa meanwhile had organized a series of

Balboa came from the ranks of that lower nobility expeditions to hunt for gold and slaves. His In-
whose sons often sought their fortunes in the West dian policy combined the use of barter, every
Indies. In 1500 he was part of an expedition led kind of force, including torture, to extract infor-
by Rodrigo de Bastidas (b. 1460?), which explored mation, and the tactic of divide and conquer by
the coast of present-day Colombia. Balboa then forming alliances with certain tribes against oth-
settled in Hispaniola and was given a farm to tend. ers. He was able to do this because of his vast
Balboa did not enjoy the agrarian lifestyle and ac- knowledge of the area. The Indians of Darien

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were more timid that those of Uraba, so they Impact

were easily subdued.
Expeditions similar to those conducted by Bal-
Exploration
One day, in a fit of rage over the Spanish boa on the Isthmus of Panama served to motivate & Discovery
love of gold, an angry Indian told of both a land thousands of Spanish peasants to join the mili-
1450-1699
to the south by a sea and a province infinitely tary. The discovery of riches and wealth enticed
rich in gold. It is thought that these references these peasants to travel to the New World in
were to the Pacific Ocean and perhaps to the search of a new life. A successful colonial mission
Inca Empire. The conquest of that land, their in- could possibly lead to a governorship or a pen-
formants declared, would require 1,000 men. sion for the participants. If one were extremely
Balboa dispatched men to request reinforce- lucky, he could amass untold riches. Other men
ments; the news they brought created much ex- were drawn to the New World by promises of ad-
citement, and a large expedition was promptly venture. They looked for quick advancement in
organized. But Balboa was not given command the military and for diplomatic careers. Still oth-
of the expedition because he had fallen out of ers came on a mission of God. These men want-
favor with King Ferdinand II. Instead, that posi- ed to convert the native population to Catholi-
tion went to an elderly, powerful nobleman, Pe- cism. By converting the Americas to God, they
drarias (1440?-1531). The expedition, number- believed they would receive eternal blessings.
ing over 2,000 persons, left Spain in April 1514.
One legacy that Balboa tried to leave was his
Balboa decided to move ahead without rein- treatment of the indigenous people. Balboa had
forcements and sailed on September 1, 1513, to a reputation for treating the natives with respect,
Acla, at the narrowest part of the Panama isth- fostering relationships and keeping promises
mus. His troop numbered nearly 200 Spaniards that he had made. He respected the native gov-
and hundreds of Indian carriers. They marched ernments and societies and listened to them in
across the isthmus through dense jungles, rivers, order to increase his knowledge of the land. He
and swamps. Finally on September 27, 1513, helped to settle disputes between various native
after ascending a hill by himself, Balboa sighted factions and gained the trust of most. This did
the South Sea, or the Pacific Ocean. Some days not mean that he would not be swift and cruel if
later he reached the shore of the Pacific at the he felt it necessary. He often used torture to ex-
Gulf of San Miguel and took possession of the tract information not readily revealed and had
South Sea and the adjacent lands for his king. He numerous dogs in his command to use as execu-
then retraced his steps and returned in January tioners to tear Indian victims to pieces. One was
of 1514. Once the king was informed of Balboa’s his own Leoncico, who was such a respected
feat, he immediately appointed Balboa the gover- warrior that he was given a soldier’s full rate of
nor of the South Sea and Panama, but Balboa re- pay. However, Balboa’s style of governing was
mained subject to the authority of Pedrarias. largely ignored by most people who came to the
New World, and the native populations were
When Pedrarias finally arrived in Darien in treated for the most part as nonentities. Despite
June of 1514, relations between the men were Balboa’s treatment, many of the Indians in the
strained. As a show of good faith, Pedrarias be- New World were eventually overwhelmed with
trothed his daughter Maria in Spain to Balboa. modern weaponry and unfamiliar diseases.
But the underlying causes of friction remained. While many natives were destroyed during con-
Highly suspicious and jealous of Balboa, Pe- frontations with Europeans, even those under
drarias implemented policies that were meant to the rule of Balboa could not withstand the on-
impede Balboa. After much effort, he granted slaught of disease. Entire villages were wiped out
Balboa permission to explore the Gulf of San with the introduction of European diseases
Miguel. Soon thereafter, the king decided to have against which the Indians had no natural immu-
a judicial review of Pedrarias, as it was believed nity. These included smallpox, measles, and the
he was unfit to govern. One of the chief witness- flu. Thus, one unintended legacy of Balboa is the
es against Pedrarias would be Balboa. Pedrarias destruction of entire populations of indigenous
feared that Balboa’s presence and testimony people by the introduction of disease.
would contribute to his demise, so he decided to
eliminate his rival. Summoned home, Balboa was Balboa was the first European to see the
seized and charged with rebellion, high treason, eastern shore of the great South Sea (the Pacific
and mistreatment of Indians. After a mock trial, Ocean), on September 13, 1513. While he is
Balboa was found guilty, condemned to death, often erroneously credited for naming it, it was
and decapitated in January of 1519. actually named by the Portuguese explorer Fer-

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dinand Magellan (1480?-1521) during his cir- tions and at the same time relieved them of
Exploration cumnavigation of the globe. He named it as such much of their riches. At the same time, Portugal
& Discovery because its waters seemed so calm. He named was becoming rich from its newly established
the body of water Pacifica (meaning peaceful). sea trade routes to India. Thus Portugal and
1450-1699 Balboa claimed the Pacific Ocean and all its Spain had taken the early lead in the race for
shores for Spain. This one act opened the way riches from far-away lands. The English, Dutch,
for Spanish exploration and conquest along the and French, who argued that the seas should be
western coast of South America, giving Spain a open and that possession of land should depend
solid foothold in this region of the world. It was on occupation, would soon challenge this posi-
through Balboa’s conquest of this region and the tion. Before long all five of these countries
information he gained through exploration that would vie for supremacy of these lands.
conquests further south could be made, such as
that over the Incas. JAMES J. HOFFMANN

The conquistadors of Spain were generally

single-minded and brutal in their obsession with
gold and riches in this part of the world. Balboa Further Reading
was mayor of the first profitable settlement in Berger, Josef. Discoverers of the New World. New York:
the Americas, but his type of rule was seldom American Heritage Publishing Co., Inc., 1960.
seen in the New World. Most of the conquista- Faber, Harold. The Discoverers of America. New York:
dors were driven by their greed and lust for Macmillan Publishing Company, 1992.
gold, often turning on each other to gain a share. Lomask, Milton. Exploration: Great Lives. New York:
They quickly decimated large Indian popula- Macmillan Publishing Company, 1988.

The First Maritime Circumnavigation

of the Globe


Overview South America while following a standard mar-
itime practice of sailing the currents of the At-
Fewer than three decades after Christopher
lantic Ocean far to the west before circling back
Columbus (1451-1506) made his voyage to the
to Africa. In 1500, Pedro Álvares Cabral (c.
New World, Ferdinand Magellan (c. 1480-1521)
1467-1520) made first landfall on the continent
set sail in 1519 with nearly 600 men and five
near Salvador, Brazil. Although the land was al-
ships on a voyage to the Spice Islands (East In-
ready occupied with native people, the Euro-
dies) via a westward route from Spain. Magellan,
peans as a whole did not view them as having
undervalued by the Portuguese crown, made the
any rights to the continent, and Cabral claimed
trip under the Spanish flag. They crossed the At-
the land for the Portuguese crown in accordance
lantic, sailed down the eastern coast of South
with a recent treaty between the rivals of Portu-
America, rounded the southern tip of the conti-
gal and Spain.
nent through the shortcut now called the Strait
of Magellan and named the Pacific Ocean before When Magellan set sail in 1519, only six
reaching the eastern shores of Asia. Although years had passed since the first European crew
Magellan died partway through the trip, one of had actually viewed the Pacific Ocean. Vasco
the five ships in the fleet completed what became Núñez de Balboa (1475-1519) saw the ocean
the first circumnavigation of the globe in 1522. first in 1513 when he passed through the Darien
Isthmus in Central America. He named the
Background ocean the South Sea.
At the time of the Magellan voyage around the Magellan approached the King of Spain with
world, Europeans had known for less than two a proposal for a voyage to the Spice Islands by
decades that South America existed, let alone way of the southern tip of South America. Al-
the Pacific Ocean on the other side of the conti- though he was Portuguese and had sailed under
nent. A Portuguese mariner first discovered the Portuguese crown for more than a decade,

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Magellan was under-appreciated in his home of the ship’s boats. It was only after a bloody bat-
country. Denied promotion and falsely accused of tle that Magellan was able to take back the boat Exploration
corruption, Magellan turned to his country’s rival and set off again. Their next stop was Cebu in & Discovery
to fund the expedition. The king of Spain agreed. the Philippines. Here, Magellan formed what
Magellan spent a year preparing, then began the was to become a fatal relationship with the king 1450-1699
trip on September 8, 1519, with a 560-man crew of the island. The explorer agreed to take part in
aboard five ships. The excursion from Spain to the king’s attack on a nearby island, and died
South America took three months. Magellan then after sustaining wounds from a poisoned arrow,
led the fleet down the east coast, exploring inlets two spears, and at least one lance.
and bays along the way in search of a shortcut
The crew continued without him, making
across the continent. Finding none, he continued
the decision to return home by continuing their
down toward the tip of the continent.
westward route into Portuguese waters. Appar-
The fleet encountered difficulties almost as ently, their desire to return to Spain overrode
soon as it reached South America. In addition to their fear of the Portuguese. The crew aban-
harsh weather conditions that forced the men to doned one of the three ships. Of the two re-
overwinter in the southern reaches of the conti- maining ships, the Trinidad tried to return across
nent, the voyage was fraught with internal bick- the Pacific against prevailing winds, but was
ering, plotting and attempted mutinies. One un- forced back. It was captured by the Portuguese
successful attempt to overthrow Magellan’s com- and its crew jailed. In 1525, after being released
mand ended with the marooning of numerous from the Portuguese jail, four members of the
crewmembers on the eastern coast of what is ill-fated Trinidad crew found their way back to
now Venezuela along with the beheading of the Spain.
ship captains behind the plot. The winter season Juan Sebastián de Elcano took command of
also claimed one of the five ships in the fleet. the other ship, the Victoria. He rounded the
When spring came, the fleet started out Cape of Good Hope and successfully brought
again. Magellan continued to take the ships in the ship back to Spain on September 8, 1522,
and out of the bays dotting the coast in his quest three years to the day since the voyage set out.
to find a shortcut across the continent. When his The final crew numbered only 18 men. De El-
crew became tired of the lost time with these cano received numerous accolades, including
side trips, Magellan fabricated a story about a honors from the king and a monument in his
map describing a shortcut and convinced the hometown. The monument consists of a globe
crew to try one last time. It was on this ex- with the inscription: “The first one to circle me.”
ploratory trip that they discovered what is now
known as the Strait of Magellan, a channel that,
it was later learned, shaved several hundred Impact
miles from their voyage around the tip of the The Magellan-led journey was important for a
continent. While exploring the strait, the crew of number of reasons. Magellan’s insistence on ex-
one of the four remaining ships mutinied, ploring the numerous bays along the eastern
turned the ship around and set off for home. coast of South America allowed for the creation
of detailed maps that allowed future expeditions
The now-three-ship fleet pressed on, enter-
to find refuge from rough waters and storms. His
ing the Pacific Ocean on November 20. Magel-
discovery of the Strait of Magellan became a
lan and his crew dubbed the watery expanse the
widely used navigational route around the south-
Pacific, because it was so calm and peaceful in
ern edge of South America. The strait offered
comparison with the Atlantic they had just left.
shelter from the southern waters of the Atlantic,
Magellan wrongly assumed that the Pacific and also eliminated approximately 500 miles
was a small ocean and that they would be in the (805 km) from the trip around the continent.
Spice Islands in a matter of days. Days turned to
The long voyage across the Pacific Ocean
weeks and to months. Rations dwindled, and
gave Europeans a sense of the sea’s massive size.
sickness followed. Before they struck land on
Before Magellan’s trip, Europeans were under the
Guam more than three months after they had
mistaken impression that the Pacific was a small
entered the waters of the Pacific, 19 of the men
body of water that would allow quick passage to
had died from scurvy.
the East Indies. Magellan’s more-than-three-
Their troubles didn’t end there. After land- month voyage helped European mapmakers to
ing in Guam, some of the native people took one not only reveal its true extent (covering a third of

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Earth’s surface), but to understand much more Cebu, his intentions died with him on the
Exploration about the relative sizes and locations of Earth’s Philippine island. The discovery of the Wester-
& Discovery land masses. It also provided evidence of the lies opened the trade route between Europe and
reaches of the human race. At nearly every site the East Indies.
1450-1699 where Magellan landed, he met native people. England made the second circumnavigation
Almost all of even the most remote islands in- of the globe in 1577-1580. Francis Drake (c.
evitably carried human populations. These dis- 1540-1596) led the expedition, which had the
coveries often proved to be detrimental to the purpose of locating a cross-continental strait
local people, however, as many lost their free- somewhere around the area now known as
doms and many others lost their lives to the ego- northern California. Without luck, Drake
tistical-thinking members of European nations. rounded the Americas at the southern tip of
South America, sailed past the Strait of Magellan
On an economical level, Magellan’s voyage and confirmed Magellan’s notion that the strait
opened the doors to trade with the East Indies. separated the main continent from a large island,
Although the route around South America was now called Tierra del Fuego.
too long and dangerous to make sense financial-
LESLIE A. MERTZ
ly, the circumnavigation whetted the European
appetite for expeditions and explorations into
and beyond the Pacific. Nations stepped up ef- Further Reading
forts to travel back and forth across the Pacific Baker, Daniel B., ed. Explorers and Discovers of the World,
by way of the Darien Isthmus in Central Ameri- first edition. Detroit: Gale Research, 1993.
ca or via other shortcut routes. More than four Byers, Paula K. Encyclopedia of World Biography, second
decades after the circumnavigation of the globe, edition. Detroit: Gale Research, 1998.
the Spanish discovered a route—known as the Edmonds, J., commissioning ed. Oxford Atlas of Explo-
Westerlies—to carry their sailing ships back ration. New York: Oxford University Press, 1996.
from the East Indies and to the Americas. Al- Hildebrand, A. Magellan. New York: Harcourt, Brace and
though some historians believe that Magellan Co., 1924.
might have learned of the west-to-east route Nowell, C., ed. Magellan’s Voyage Around the World: Three
across the Pacific and was heading northward Contemporary Accounts. Evanston, Ill.: Northwestern
toward that route when he landed the fleet in University Press, 1962.

European Contact Overwhelms the Inca

Empire: Francisco Pizarro’s Conquest of Peru


Overview the Middle East and the Americas. Many of the
Spanish conquistadors headed for the New World
Unknown to the indigenous people of the New
seeking wealth and adventure. One such conquis-
World, their destiny was being determined by po-
tador was Francisco Pizarro (1470?-1541).
litical and economic forces taking place across the
Atlantic Ocean in Europe. Toward the end of the
fifteenth century, thousands of daring adventurers
would be crossing the ocean to conquer within a Background
few centuries what had taken the Indians thou- Spanish interest in the west coast of South Ameri-
sands to years to inhabit. This “Age of Explo- ca grew after Vasco Núñez de Balboa (1475-1519)
ration” was fostered by technological advance- discovered the Pacific Ocean in 1513 and brought
ments in maritime practices, the belief in an eco- back tales of untold riches. In 1523, Pizarro,
nomic philosophy called mercantilism, and an Diego de Almagro (1475?-1538), and Hernando
interest in converting the religious beliefs of na- de Luque undertook the initial exploration of Peru
tive populations. Mercantilism was the idea that if that eventually led to its conquest. Their initial
a nation was not self-sufficient in its affairs, then contract called for them to divide their shares
its neighbors would dominate it. The two areas equally. By 1527 they were convinced of the
that seemed ripe for establishing this ideal were wealth of the Inca Empire. Failing to secure help

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Exploration
& Discovery
1450-1699

Spanish conquistadors battle native peoples in the New World. (Historical Picture Archive/Corbis. Reproduced with
permission.)

in the New World, Pizarro returned to Spain, Atahuallpa arrived at Cajamarca with an
where he received authorization from emperor army of about 30,000 men. Confident that the
Charles V to conquer and govern the area extend- Spanish would not attempt an attack, he saw no
ing 600 miles south from Panama. When Pizarro reason not to accept their invitation into the vil-
returned with his brothers to deliver the news, Al- lage square. He entered the village square car-
magro became incensed at Pizarro, claiming that ried on a litter and surrounded by 5,000 men.
Pizarro was trying to cheat him out of his fair He was approached by a priest who asked him if
share of the spoils. Despite this conflict Almagro he would accept God and the King of Spain. He
continued to collaborate with Pizarro, and they was then given a Bible. According to scholars, he
were working together when the expedition em- promptly glanced at a few pages and then cast
barked for Peru in late 1530 with 180 men. the book to the ground. The priest then im-
plored Pizarro to strike down the heathens; with
When Pizarro arrived in Peru, he estab- that, Pizarro lunched a surprise attack. Soldiers
lished a base at San Miguel on the north coast of came bursting out of buildings, horsemen came
Peru. He crossed the mountains to seek an inter- flying through doors, and canons and arquebus-
view with Atahuallpa, the Inca Sun King who es opened fire, cutting down the Inca by the
had been victorious in the recent civil war. It is hundreds. The Inca were so overwhelmed that
clear that the Spanish understood the implica- many tried to flee the square only to find them-
tions of that war as they were dealing with emis- selves being suffocated by the weight of the oth-
saries from both factions. The actions of the ers trying to escape. Despite the overwhelming
Spanish were to just cover all the bases, but this numbers of the Inca, they were not prepared for
may have been puzzling to Atahuallpa. At the such a fight. The battle lasted less than an hour,
same time Pizarro was deposing leaders who and the Inca lost 5,000 men and had just as
were loyal to Atahuallpa, he was sending mes- many injuries. But most importantly, Atahuallpa
sages that recognized him as the legitimate ruler. was captured by Pizarro himself.
Prior to the meeting set up in Cajamarca, the
Spaniards indicated that they would come to the While in prison, Atahuallpa was allowed to
aid of Atahuallpa against any group that op- carry on much of his daily existence. Realizing
posed his rule. Atahuallpa clearly underestimat- that it was gold that the Spanish were after, he
ed the Spanish when he agreed to meet with agreed to fill a room with gold and two others
them on November 16, 1532. with silver as a ransom. The enormous ransom

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was raised, but Pizarro feared that to release lightened when it came to military strategy. Many
Exploration Atahuallpa would mean certain death for the warriors were severely injured or killed following
& Discovery Incan ruler, so they had him executed after a confrontations with the Spanish, and entire vil-
mock trial. Realizing that Atahuallpa’s death was lages were wiped out, not as the result of warfare,
1450-1699 a mistake because it weakened their position, but from the introduction of European diseases
the Spaniards approved the coronation of a new against which the Indians had no natural immu-
leader, Topa Huallpa. He was subsequently poi- nity. These included such diseases as smallpox,
soned, so the Spanish placed Manco Inca on the measles, and the flu. The native population had a
thrown. The real Spanish conquest of Peru then difficult enough time defending themselves
began in earnest. The Spanish prevented Manco against a known enemy like the Spanish, but it
Inca from having any real power, and he soon was impossible to protect themselves from the
realized that the Inca needed to fight for their invisible attacks from these diseases.
freedom or at least die trying. He led a year-long Another factor that greatly favored the
rebellion against the city of Cuzco, which had Spanish over the Inca was the constant struggle
been occupied by the Spanish. In the end, the between neighboring factions. The civilization
Spanish weaponry and war tactics were too ad- seemed to always be at war with someone, and
vanced for the Inca to overcome with just sheer therefore the indigenous populations did not
numbers. The Spanish won, and the Incan peo- fight for common goals. This pattern of dis-
ple were subjected to the perils of slavery, many persed regional groups that frequently were at
of them literally being worked to death mining war with one another may have facilitated the
their own precious metals. relatively effortless Spanish victory because the
people would not or could not band together.
Impact Spain was obsessed with its quest for gold
and riches from the New World. The Spanish
Expeditions similar to those conducted by
were single-minded and brutal in their efforts to
Pizarro in Peru served to motivate thousands of
obtain their prize. Villages were often taken by
Spanish peasants to join the military. The dis-
force until Spain had moved the Americas from a
covery of riches and wealth enticed these peas-
conglomeration of thousands of separate tribes to
ants to travel to the New World in search of a
hundreds of scattered remnants, leaving Spain as
new life. A successful colonial mission could
the ruling power. One could not have been pre-
possibly lead to a governorship, wealth, or a
dicted how quickly the Spanish would rise to
pension for the participants. If one were particu-
power and how far they would extend their in-
larly lucky, he could procure riches beyond his
fluence. Within 50 years they had become the
wildest imagination. Other men were drawn to
richest, most influential nation in the world. The
the New World by promises of adventure. They
pushed their way inland and established
looked for quick advancement in the military
footholds to expand their territory with ruthless
and diplomatic careers. Still others came on a
efficiency. They believed it was their divine right
mission of God. These men wanted to convert
to expand their empire and even had papal ap-
the native population to Catholicism. By con-
proval for their conquests. They were ruthless
verting the Americas to God, they believed they
and unyielding in their endeavors and built
would receive eternal blessings.
themselves the enviable position of controlling
The discovery of the Inca Civilization in much of the known gold and silver in the New
Peru proved to be a huge downfall for the na- World. At the same time, Portugal was getting
tives. In what would be their first contact with rich through the sea trade routes to India and the
Europeans, nearly 5,000 were killed in just over Orient. Thus Portugal and Spain had taken the
30 minutes. With their leader captured, the pop- early lead in the race for riches from far-away
ulace did not know what to do. They were intel- lands. The English, Dutch, and French, who ar-
ligent, loyal subjects willing to do anything for gued that the seas should be open and that pos-
their human god, but they were not trained to session of land should depend on occupation,
think and act for themselves. They offered little would soon challenge this position. Soon all five
resistance to the Spanish onslaught. In fact, many of these countries would vie for supremacy of
people lament that that was the day the Inca civi- these lands. Because Spain had such a vast area
lization died. While that is probably an overstate- to defend, it could not adequately protect its in-
ment, things changed drastically from that day terests in some areas. This paved the way for the
forward. The Spanish had superior technology English, Dutch, and French to step in and seize
with their weapons and were much more en- command of much of the trade in that area.

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Thus, although Spain pioneered the way and Faber, Harold. The Discoverers of America. New York:
showed tremendous immediate profit, in some Macmillan Publishing Company, 1992. Exploration
instances, it was other countries that would reap Marrin, Albert. Inca & Spaniard: Pizarro and the Conquest & Discovery
the long-term benefits. of Peru. New York: Macmillan Publishing Company,
1989. 1450-1699
JAMES J. HOFFMANN Wilcox, Desmond. The Ten Who Dared. Boston, MA: Lit-
tle, Brown and Company, 1977.

Further Reading
Berger, Josef. Discoverers of the New World. New York:
American Heritage Publishing Co., Inc., 1960.

Exploring the Amazon River

Overview Ecuador, Bolivia, Columbia, Brazil, and
Venezuela) was reserved for Spain. By 1530 the
Portuguese captain Pedro de Teixeira (1587-
first Portuguese colonists were sent to Brazil to
1641) led the first full-length upstream explo-
cultivate indigenous crops and to introduce sug-
ration of the Amazon River in 1637. Taking al-
arcane to the region.
most two years to complete, the expedition cov-
ered more than 3,500 land and nautical miles In 1540 the first European expedition down
(5,633 km). Teixeira’s voyage was the first to sys- the Amazon was led by Spaniard Francisco de
tematically document the Amazon from its silt- Orellana (c. 1511-1546), starting down the
laden outlet in Belém, northern Brazil, to the Napo River in what is now Ecuador, and finally
headwaters of its source in the Andes Moun- reaching the Atlantic Ocean in northern Brazil,
tains. The expedition established Portuguese territory reserved for Portuguese exploration.
dominance in the vast Amazon basin area of The Papal decree was difficult to interpret with
South America, and brought knowledge of the the technology of the day, as Spain and Portugal
river that Portuguese explorers called the “Rio both held different interpretations of where the
Mar,” or river sea, to the world. Political impact line crossed the coasts of the New World. Other
of the expedition reached across Western Eu- European nations also did not accept the Papal
rope, Brazil, and the vast sought-after lands and ruling, which prohibited them from any con-
riches of South America. The human impact of quest of the territory divided among Portugal
Teixeira’s expedition included comprised both and Spain. The French formed a colony in what
the Portuguese royalty (and, ultimately their is now French Guyana, the Dutch in what is
subjects), as well as the indigenous peoples of now Surinam. Both colonies were near the
South America and Africa. mouth of the Amazon. Soon, the English and
Irish also colonized areas within the Amazon
basin and built commercial outposts for trading.
Background
In 1580 Portugal was annexed by Spain.
Portugal was slow to enter the race for explo-
Spain’s King Philip IV became monarch over
ration of the New World, as most Portuguese as-
both of the rival nations. By the early 1600s
sets were committed to solidifying and main-
Spain was entrenched in a drawn-out war
taining Portugal’s interests in Asia. In 1494 the
against France and summoned the help of Por-
Treaty of Tordesillas was engineered by Pope
tugal to rid the Amazon region from foreign
Alexander VI, who feared conflict between two
merchants and colonizers. Pedro de Teixeira
Catholic nations committed to expansion. The
served in the ruthless campaign, as the Por-
treaty divided the unexplored New World, in-
tuguese attacked Dutch and English trading out-
cluding South America, between Spain and Por-
posts along the Amazon. European colonists
tugal. Portugal was prohibited to explore be-
were killed or imprisoned, and their primitive
yond a meridian drawn 1,000 miles (1,609 km)
homes and businesses were destroyed.
west of the Cape Verde Islands. Essentially, the
eastern half of South America was reserved for In 1637 Teixeira was chosen to lead an ex-
Portugal. Peru, (along with what is now part of pedition to explore the Amazon from its mouth

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at Pará (now Belém) to its source. Officially, the Teixeira was welcomed with an appointment as
Exploration mission was prompted by a group of starving Je- governor of the state of Pará. He did not have
& Discovery suits who had arrived near Belém from deep in the opportunity to serve a lengthy term, howev-
the Amazon basin. The Jesuits relayed accounts er, as he died within a year of returning from his
1450-1699 of their attempts to return hampered by endless, voyage up and down the Amazon.
confusing river tributaries and hostile indige-
nous peoples. Teixeira mounted an organized
Impact
expedition with over 2,000 men in 47 boats and
canoes. Accompanying Teixeira were men Teixeira’s act of possession caused controversy
skilled in cartography (mapmaking) and naviga- among the two Iberian nations for over a hun-
tion. The expedition left Pará in October 1637, dred years. In 1640 Portugal broke its alliance
and began its slow, deliberate journey docu- with Spain and declared its independence. The
menting the Amazon and its tributaries. After Portuguese monarchy was restored with the
only a few months Teixeira squelched a possible crowning of King Joao IV in late 1640, breaking
mutiny of his crew. While surveying a particular its alliance with Spain’s King Phillip IV. During
tributary, the crew observed a village of native the 60-year alliance with Spain, Portugal’s em-
people wearing bracelets and holding objects pire greatly deteriorated, as the Portuguese aided
that appeared to be made of gold. The crew ex- Spain in its wars with England and Holland. The
pressed a desire to stay for a time at the village two countries reciprocated by attacking Portu-
they named Aldeia do Ouro (village of gold), gal’s holdings in Asia. Portugal lost its commer-
and consented to continue the mission only after cial monopoly in the Far East to Holland. Portu-
Teixeira’s assurance that they would return later gal also lost its burgeoning commercial interest
on the downriver portion of the excursion. in India to England. With the Portuguese empire
greatly reduced, holdings in Brazil became more
Teixeira and his men reached the upper
important. Teixeira’s claim encompassed almost
Amazon basin in early 1638 and continued in a
the entire Amazon basin and greatly enlarged
northwestern direction up the Napo River, an
Portugal’s influence in Brazil. Acuna, upon re-
Amazon tributary that reaches into Peru. When
porting to his superiors in Seville, advised Spain
the party reached the junction of the Aguarico
to defray ambitions in Brazil, lest they fight the
River, Teixeira formed a small party to journey
Portuguese as well as the Dutch. Even after the
overland to Quito, a colonial Peruvian capital in
Dutch attacked Rio de Janeiro and Baia, the res-
what is now Ecuador. In Peru Teixeira presented
olute Portuguese held Brazil.
the report of his journey along with maps to the
surprised Spanish colonial officials. The Spanish The accurate surveys and maps made by
Viceroy in Peru, Chinchon, ordered Teixeira and Teixeira’s party aided the Portuguese in their ne-
his Portuguese crew to return to Belém via the gotiations with the Spanish, and helped open
same route they ascended the Amazon. Chin- Brazil for colonization. After Teixeira, many ex-
chon also ordered the Spanish Jesuit Cristobal peditions were sent to the interior during the
de Acuna (1597?-1676) to accompany Teixeira seventeenth century. By the late 1600s and into
on his return journey, and to record a vivid, ana- the 1700s, when gold and diamonds were dis-
lytical account of the expedition downstream for covered in villages along the Amazon, a gold
Spanish authorities in Seville. rush from all over the world to Brazil was
On the return journey, reportedly near the sparked. The Portuguese crown lavished the
junction of the Napo and Aguarico Rivers, Teix- new-found riches on the restored monarchy,
eira held a ceremony claiming the western Ama- building baroque palaces, and buying expensive
zon region for Portugal. This act of possession imported goods. The ideas of social reform and
defied the Papal ruling of over a hundred years of building the middle class that were a priority
prior by more than 1,000 miles (1,609 km). Re- in Portuguese politics before the Iberian union
portedly, Teixeira had orders from the Por- were set aside as the Portuguese crown enjoyed
tuguese governor Noronha to claim the territory Brazil’s riches.
before the start of the expedition. The Spanish Amazon gold also encouraged the world to
Jesuit Acuna did not record Teixeira’s act of pos- update its commercial relations with Portugal.
session in his diary of the journey. As the expe- The English allowed Portugal a preferential tariff
dition made its way downriver, the crew, anx- on wine imported from Portugal. In return, Por-
ious to return home, chose not to delay at the tugal subsidized English exports and paid for the
village where the gold was observed. The suc- resulting trade imbalance with Brazilian gold.
cessful expedition returned to Pará in late 1639. Portugal intensified the cultivation of sugar, cot-

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ton, and spices in Brazil for export. Port towns measles, and unfamiliar cold-type viruses deci-
and trading establishments boomed along the mated whole tribes. Syphilis spread quickly Exploration
coast of Brazil and near the mouth of the Ama- among indigenous peoples. Native culture was al- & Discovery
zon. The riches from the interior of the Amazon tered by the introduction of Christianity, often
continued to pose challenges to bring to market, conflicting with engrained native customs allow- 1450-1699
and Teixeira’s expedition maps served as guides. ing for living in harmony with the environment.
Many indigenous tribes, however, refused the
The human cost of Brazilian colonization en- counsel or aid of the early Jesuit missionaries.
hanced by Teixeira’s expedition is often consid-
ered by historians. The expansion of agriculture BRENDA WILMOTH LERNER

required a greatly increased labor force. This need

culminated in the importation and enslavement
of Africans, mostly from Angola. The Spanish and Further Reading
Portuguese Jesuits defended the native peoples of de Bare, Capistrano. Chapters of Brazil’s Colonial History,
the Amazon against enslavement. Nevertheless, 1500-1800. New York: Oxford university Press, 1997.
many of the native peoples of the Amazon were McAlister, Lye. Spain and Portugal in the New World 1492-
forever changed by the presence of the first Euro- 1700. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press,
pean explorers. The Spanish and Portuguese in- 1984.
troduced modern weapons, Christianity, and Eu- Smith, Anthony. Exploration of the Amazon. Chicago: Uni-
ropean diseases to native Amazonians. Smallpox, versity of Chicago Press, 1994.

Willem Barents Searches for the Northeast

Passage and Finds Svalbard Instead


Overview to India a decade later. Meanwhile Christopher
Columbus (1451-1506) had planted the Spanish
The sixteenth century saw the rise of two new
flag in the New World, and after him came hordes
Western European powers, England and Hol-
of Spanish explorers and adventures. While Spain
land, each of which had hopes of building inter-
and Portugal prospered from their colonies, two
national trading empires. Both, however, recog-
other emerging powers of Western Europe—Eng-
nized that Spanish and Portuguese dominance
land and Holland—cast about for ways to devel-
prevented them from plying the routes to the
op their own international trade routes.
Americas, Africa, and Asia already claimed by the
Iberian powers; thus was born the idea of finding “There is one way [left] to discover,” wrote
a northern passage to Cathay or China. England English merchant Robert Thorne in 1527,
was the first to send expeditions, both along the “which is into the North. For out of Spain they
northeastern and later the northwestern routes. have discovered all the Indies and seas occiden-
Each of these efforts was doomed to failure, and tal, and out of Portugal all the Indies and seas
finally England gave up the quest. It was at that oriental.” This need became increasingly press-
point that Holland stepped in, sending a captain ing by the mid-sixteenth century, as Turkish pi-
named Willem Barents (1550-1597) on a voyage rates threatened Mediterranean sea lanes and the
to find the Northeast Passage. Iberian powers sought to strengthen their con-
trol over the routes they had discovered. Thus
was born the idea of a northern passage, a route
Background
to Cathay either by the northwest—along the is-
Spain and Portugal inaugurated the great era of lands to the north of what is now Canada—or
European exploration, and the first century of by the northeast, around Siberia to China.
that age belonged almost exclusively to them.
Portugal’s Bartolomeu Dias (c. 1450-1500) The first efforts to find the northern passage
rounded the Cape of Good Hope at the southern fell to the English, whose monarchs (unlike their
tip of Africa in 1487-88, opening the way for counterparts in Lisbon and Madrid) had yet to
Vasco da Gama’s (c. 1460-1524) historic voyage see the value of overseas exploration. Instead,

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Exploration
& Discovery
1450-1699

Willem Barents and his crew prepare to winter at Ice Haven, Novaya Zemlya. (The Granger Collection, Ltd.
Reproduced with permission.)

these early attempts were almost entirely the re- Hudson (d. 1611) perished. The 1631 voyage of
sult of investment by private individuals, with Luke Fox (1586-1635) and Thomas James
the guidance of scientific minds who saw the en- marked the last pre-twentieth-century attempt
terprise as one that would benefit knowledge as to find the Northwest Passage, and the last Eng-
much as commerce. Initially the English favored lish effort to find any northerly route at all. Now
the northeastern route, and in 1553 Sir Hugh it was the turn of the Dutch.
Willoughby (d. 1554) set sail past Norway’s
North Cape with three ships bound for Cathay. In 1594 a group of merchants in Amster-
They made it as far as Novaya Zemlya, a group dam commissioned the first Dutch effort to find
of islands to the north of Russia, where they all the Northeast Passage, an expedition led by
died from a combination of cold and scurvy. A Willem Barents. A native of Tar Schelling, an is-
1556 expedition by Stephen Burrough (1525- land off the coast of the northern Netherlands,
1584) got as far as the Kara Sea, but Burrough Barents had spent much of his earlier career sail-
was luckier than Willoughby: he and his crew ing in the Mediterranean, and published a travel
managed to winter in the White Sea before re- guide on that subject in 1595. In the meantime,
turning home the following spring. on June 5, 1594, he and his crew set sail from
the Dutch island of Texel on what would be the
first of three attempts to find the Northeast Pas-
In the years that followed, various English- sage. The expedition soon encountered treacher-
men debated the advisability of the northwest- ous ice floes, and returned to Holland.
ern and northeastern routes, and for a time the
former gained the upper hand. Unsuccessful ex- In 1595 the Dutch parliamentary body, the
peditions by Sir Martin Frobisher (c. 1535- States General, financed a second expedition.
1594), however, combined with an effort by the This time there were two boats, one commanded
Turks to cut off land routes through Persia, in- by Barents and the other by Jan Huyghen van
fluenced a return to the Northeast Passage. The Linschoten (1563-1611), who had earlier distin-
result was a 1580 expedition by Charles Jack- guished himself in voyages to the East Indies.
man and Arthur Pet, a disastrous effort that took The expedition set off late, in July, and got no
the life of the former. So England again devoted further than the earlier one had. As a result, the
itself to finding the Northwest Passage, sending States General lost interest in funding a third ef-
expeditions such as the one in which Henry fort, but the City of Amsterdam stepped into the

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breach, and in 1596 commissioned yet another beautiful creation by God,” in December. Yet
attempt to find the Northeast Passage. there were small blessings in this barren land- Exploration
Barents was appointed as commander of the scape: the surrounding area yielded foxes and & Discovery
expedition, with two captains named Heemskerk bears for food and skins, and plenty of wood for
fuel. Early in their time there, the men killed a 1450-1699
and Rijp as his immediate subordinates. The two
ships set sail on May 15, and initially the journey polar bear and set its frozen body upright in
seemed to go well. They even discovered new front of their cabin to ward off other creatures.
lands: Svalbard, a group of islands comprising When spring finally came, the group pre-
some 24,000 square miles (about 65,000 square pared for the return trip. By then many of them
kilometers) to the north of Norway. (The archipel- had died, and many more—Barents included—
ago is sometimes mistakenly called Spitsbergen, were sick. Lacking the option of using their ship,
which is actually the name of the largest of its is- they set out in two open boats, but Barents and
land groups.) Despite this promising beginning, another man died before they had gotten far
however, disputes between Barents and Rijp soon from Novaya Zemlya. The survivors eventually
led to a parting of the ways. Rijp sailed northward, reached the mainland, where they met a native
where he ran into icefields and decided to return (probably a member of the nomadic Samoyed
to Holland, while Barents, Heemskerk, and the people) with whom they communicated by using
other ship continued eastward. sign language. They learned that the man had
seen another boat in the area, and this gave them
They landed on Novaya Zemlya, circled the
hope, which turned out to be justified: after 11
island, and found that the ice would not allow
more weeks in the open boat, they were discov-
them to go any further. Nor could they leave,
ered by Rijp, who had returned to the area.
and they were forced to winter in a bay on the
east coast of the largest island. Historical ac-
counts vary on the subject of where the men Impact
found the wood with which they built the
The Barents expedition effectively ended all at-
dwelling where they spent the winter: some
tempts to find a northern passage either to the
writers maintain that they found driftwood,
east or the west. Only in 1878-79 would Baron
while others hold that they broke up parts of the
Nils Nordenskiöld (1832-1901) of Sweden final-
ship. If the latter was true, it would not have
ly traverse the Northeast Passage in the Vega,
made much difference in the long run, because
and not until the twentieth century would Roald
the gathering ice exerted such pressure on the
Amundsen (1872-1928) succeed in making the
vessel that it eventually cracked, and was useless
Northwest Passage. Even then, during a three-
to them when the spring thaw came.
year journey that ended in 1906, Amundsen his
In the meantime, Barents and his crew crew were trapped on several occasions, and
passed a winter of almost inconceivable misery might have perished if they had not possessed
and hardship in their cabin, ironically named more modern technology and knowledge than
the “safe home” or “het Behouden Huys.” Lack- that to which Barents had access.
ing knowledge of igloo-building, which would By then the quest for both northern pas-
have provided them with better insulation than sages had been revealed as futile; driven by fan-
the wood cabin, the men were literally freezing tasies that could never find fulfillment, and re-
in their beds even as a roaring fire polluted the sulting in enormous cost of human lives. But
air of the dwelling and made breathing difficult. Barents’s efforts, in a larger sense, were far from a
At one point they opened a crate containing dead end. This series of expeditions, despite
linen, cargo intended for Cathay, to give them- their failure, only increased Dutch determina-
selves a change of underwear; but they the made tion to build a trading empire on the high seas,
mistake of trying to wash their clothes, and the and as it turned out, this readiness coincided
latter froze like stiff boards. with opportunity. Spain and Portugal, once
Men were dying of cold and scurvy, and overwhelmingly dominant in the realm of explo-
even for those in the best of health, the sound of ration and foreign trade, began to turn inward,
constantly shifting ice outside made sleep diffi- beset by problems such as the defeat of Spanish
cult at best. Watches froze, and they had only an Armada by the English in 1588. England found-
hourglass to keep track of the time as the long ed its East India Company in 1600, and Holland
night of winter settled over the Arctic. Gerrit de the Dutch East India Company two years later.
Veer, a sailor who kept a journal during this In the decades that followed, Dutch mariners
time, lamented the passing of the Sun, “the most would build colonies in the East Indies, fatten-

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ing the coffers of trading houses in Amsterdam Cathay. During the 1990s Dutch and Russian ar-
Exploration and Rotterdam, and spawning the era of pros- chaeologists conducted research on the remains
& Discovery perity so memorably evoked in the canvases of of “het Behouden Huys,” while scholars began to
Rembrandt van Rijn (1606-1669). reconsider Barents’s ill-fated voyage as the begin-
1450-1699 ning of a “golden age” of trade between Russia
Eventually the sea to the west of Novaya
and Western Europe.
Zemlya would be named for Barents—who with
his crew is remembered as the first European to An ironic footnote to the Barents story came
spend an entire winter in the Arctic—and Sval- in the summer of 2000, when a group of Russ-
bard would become an important (if sparsely ian sailors was trapped in a submarine deep be-
populated) island group. A number of European neath the Barents Sea. Unlike the man for whom
nations, eager for whaling and later mining their watery grave had been named, the 118
rights, vied for possession of it in the period from sailors aboard the Kursk did not die in obscurity;
the seventeenth to the early twentieth centuries, they perished as the world watched, through
and after a bitter battle, Norway claimed the area satellite television and Internet updates. Yet in
in 1925. The area was the site of heavy Nazi the end, they were as helpless as Barents and his
bombing during World War II, and following the crew had been four centuries before.
war the Soviet Union took advantage of an inter-
JUDSON KNIGHT
national treaty governing Spitsbergen to establish
mining rights on part of the island. Today the re-
gion, described firsthand by English journalist
Tim Moore in his 1999 bestseller Frost on My Further Reading
Moustache, is of primary interest for environmen- Heide, Albert van der. “Dutch Explorer Sought Northerly
tal studies and research involving extreme cold. Route to the Indies.” http://www.godutch.com/her-
ald/Feature/barentsz.htm (August 17, 2000).
In the nineteenth century a Norwegian seal
Moore, Tim. Frost on My Moustache: The Arctic Adventures
hunter discovered the encampment where Bar- of a Lord and a Loafer. New York: St. Martin’s Press,
ents and his men endured the harrowing winter 1999.
of 1596-1597. Among other things he found a “A Voyage through Time: The Story of Barents’s Winter-
pitiful note from Barents, explaining that he had ing Hut.” http://icarus.cc.uic.edu/~jzeebe1/barents.
been detained in his efforts to find a route to htm (August 17, 2000).

The Discovery of Baffin Bay

Overview found paths to the treasured lands of China and
southeast Asia by routes around South America
William Baffin (c. 1584-1622) was one of many
and Africa. Their control of these southern pas-
explorers who searched the waters of northern
sages left other European nations, including
North America for a cross-continental North-
France and England, to place their focus on
west Passage linking the Atlantic and Pacific
finding a passage through the northern reaches
oceans. Baffin is noted as a highly skilled naviga-
of either North America or Asia. With the great
tor and ship pilot who discovered Baffin Bay,
riches of eastern Asia at stake, the desire to find
traveled to the northernmost reaches of the con-
Northeast or Northwest passages was intense.
tinent, and became the first to determine longi-
tude at sea. Although he never found the pas-
sage, he came close by charting the Lancaster The search began in earnest in the late
Sound. More than two centuries later, explorers 1500s and early 1600s with the voyages of Eng-
identified the sound as an entrance to the North- lishman Martin Frobisher (c. 1535-1594) in
west Passage. 1576, John Davis (c. 1550-1605) in 1585-1587,
and Henry Hudson (1565?-1611) in 1610.
Through these expeditions, the explorers collec-
Background tively discovered straits, sounds, and bays, some
By the time of Baffin’s voyages in the early of which retain their names today. Baffin joined
1600s, the Spanish and Portuguese had already the quest to find the Northwest passage in 1615

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as the chief pilot on the Discovery, the ship made the next, allowing explorers to follow previous
famous by Hudson’s historic voyage of 1610. men’s paths into Canada’s northern waters and Exploration
Baffin joined the Discovery under the com-
along her inland straits, and then press farther. & Discovery
mand of explorer Robert Bylot, and the men set Baffin’s first recorded voyage in 1612 took
1450-1699
sail from England on March 15, 1615. They had him to the west coast of Greenland. During the
hoped to scour the coast of Hudson Bay for entry next two years, he took part in two whaling trips
to the Northwest Passage, but when they neared to islands east of Greenland. With a familiarity
Hudson Bay in the autumn, they found it packed for the area, this inquisitive navigator was pre-
in by ice. Instead, Baffin made numerous obser- pared to serve as chief pilot of the 1615 and
vations, kept meticulous notes and charted as far 1616 voyages with Bylot. The 1615 trip up the
as possible along the Hudson Strait. He also col- Hudson Strait helped verify Hudson’s important
lected enough information to conclude that the discovery of the bay named in his honor, and
passage wasn’t accessible via the Hudson Bay. He provided critical detail of the Hudson Strait. Per-
was later found to have been correct. haps most important, it also discounted the
Hudson Bay as a potential entrance to the
After returning to England long enough to
Northwest Passage, and encouraged further ex-
put together another expedition, Baffin and Bylot
ploration of the Canadian Arctic.
returned to North America in 1616 to search far-
ther north for a passage. They sailed to the west While his trip to Hudson Bay was notewor-
of Greenland into what is now known as Baffin thy, his 1616 voyage to Baffin Bay brought him
Bay. Exploring its entire coastline, Baffin again fame. Although explorers and fishermen had
made detailed geographical descriptions of the rounded the massive expanse of Greenland and
surrounding area. The navigator noted and chart- viewed its adjacent southwestern waters, the ex-
ed the presence of the large Lancaster Sound on pedition of Baffin and Bylot penetrated much
the west coast of the bay, but failed to identify it farther north into the remote Baffin Bay. Baffin
as an entry point for the Northwest Passage. was careful in his descriptions of the geography
While exploring the coast of the bay, he also kept of the coast. The results of the circumnavigation
precise records of his astronomical observations, of the bay were extremely accurate maps of its
tidal changes and compass readings. Before it coastline, including explicit notations of Lan-
was over, the voyage took the expedition to with- caster Sound. Despite Baffin’s reputation as a
in 800 miles (1,287 km) of the North Pole, a lati- skilled recorder of geographical features, howev-
tude farther north than any other European ex- er, Baffin Bay was eventually removed from some
plorer had ventured or would venture for more maps because future generations of mapmakers
than 200 years. The five-month expedition re- doubted its existence. The next major explorer
turned to England in August. to tour the northwestern waters off Greenland
verified the bay’s presence, but not until 1818.
In 1617, Baffin signed on with an expedition
run by the East India Company. He left with Baffin discounted Baffin Bay as an entry
hopes of finding the Northwest Passage from the point to the Northwest Passage. Incorrect in this
Pacific side rather than the Atlantic, but was dis- conclusion, his report still had an impact on fu-
appointed. The expedition headed eastward as ture exploration by turning attention away from
far as India, but never even entered the Pacific the isolated bay and to other northern areas of
Ocean before its return in 1619. Undaunted, he both North America and Asia. In the meantime,
set sail on a company ship again in 1620. This the Portuguese and Spanish were able to main-
expedition had a fatal ending for Baffin, who was tain their hold on trade with the nations of east-
killed during a battle with a Portuguese strong- ern Asia.
hold in the Persian Gulf on January 20, 1622. On the scientific front, Baffin’s keen observa-
tional and proficient record-keeping skills pro-
vided important insights into navigation. Until
Impact the 1616 voyage, ship captains and navigators
With each expedition into northern North had to rely on imprecise estimates and educated
America, European explorers provided a glimpse guesses to determine their exact east-west loca-
into the unknown reaches of Canada and the tion. Baffin solved the problem by watching how
Canadian Arctic. The stories of their adventures, the Moon tracked across the night sky. Specifical-
along with ship logs, navigational notes and geo- ly, he measured the distance of the Moon in de-
graphical descriptions continued to build upon grees from some other celestial body that re-
one another. Each expedition paved the way for mained more fixed in the sky, such as a star. Tak-

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ing into account the Moon’s sweeping arc across vation, navigation and record-keeping opened up
Exploration the sky each night, and the distance between the the Canadian Arctic to exploration, generated ex-
& Discovery Moon and the fixed object, he was able to calcu- ceptional detail for future maps, solved the puzzle
late the near-exact location of the ship. This cal- of longitude determination at sea, and provided
1450-1699 culation made by Baffin is often heralded as the information that helped scientists understand
first time that longitude was determined at sea. more about the Earth’s magnetic field.
His records of deviations in his compass LESLIE A. MERTZ
readings also proved to be significant as scientists
began to study Earth’s magnetic field and partic-
ularly variations in its magnetic north. Studies Further Reading
now indicate that magnetic north and true north Baker, Daniel B., ed. Explorers and Discovers of the World,
can vary by several degrees, and the amount of first edition. Detroit: Gale Research, 1993.
that variation can change from year to year. The
Byers, Paula K. Encyclopedia of World Biography, second
information Baffin collected made future Arctic edition. Detroit: Gale Research, 1998.
explorers aware that their compasses might not
Crouse, N. The Search for the Northwest Passage. New
always point to true north, instead fading off by a York: Columbia University Press, 1934.
few degrees. Such a variation could potentially
Edmonds, J., commissioning ed. Oxford Atlas of Explo-
veer a ship off-course by many miles. ration. New York: Oxford University Press, 1996.
Overall, Baffin made many contributions to Markham, C., ed. The Voyages of William Baffin, 1612-
navigation and exploration. His mastery in obser- 1622. London: Hakluyt Society, 1881.

Semyon Dezhnyov Finds the Bering Strait—

Eighty Years before Bering


Overview icy seas above Siberia. By then sailors had long
since recognized that the Northeast Passage was
In 1728 Vitus Bering (1681-1741) discovered
only for adventures, and as a trade route had no
the strait that bears his name, a body of water
value. But a number of unintended effects result-
just 53 miles (85 kilometers) wide at its narrow-
ed from the effort to discover the passage,
est point, which separates the Asian and North
among them the growth of trade with Russia and
American land masses. But Bering was not the
subsequent Russian efforts at exploration.
first European to pass through the Bering Strait:
Semyon Ivanov Dezhnyov (c. 1605-1673), a A 1553 English expedition led by Hugh
Cossack whose surname is sometimes rendered Willoughby (d. 1554) had proved a failure, but
as Dezhnev, had done so 80 years before, in in the course of it his chief pilot, Richard Chan-
1648. Dezhnyov, however, did not know what cellor (d. 1556), had landed at the port now
he had accomplished; nor, thanks to a number known as Archangel and traveled over land to
of factors—not least of which was czarist secrecy Moscow some 1,500 miles (2,400 kilometers).
concerning Russian exploration efforts—did the The result of this contact was the formation in
rest of the world. 1555 of the Muscovy Company, an English en-
terprise aimed at Russian trade. The Muscovy
Company prospered for nearly a century, but in
Background 1649, Russia’s czar ended its trading privileges.
In an attempt to compete with Spain and Portu- By then Russia itself had become heavily in-
gal as trading powers during the sixteenth cen- volved in trade and exploration, and no doubt
tury, both England and Holland launched efforts the czar’s action resulted from a desire to keep
to locate the Northeast Passage, a sea route from more of the profits in Russian hands. From the
Europe through the Arctic Ocean to East Asia. late sixteenth century, Russians had begun seek-
These attempts would meet with disaster, and in ing routes eastward, through the largely unex-
fact it would not be until the nineteenth century plored regions of Siberia, but here again govern-
that anyone managed to successfully traverse the ment control proved an impediment to explo-

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ration—only this time the exploration was being The two men set out again in June 1648
conducted by Russians. Thus in 1616 and 1619, with seven boats and more than 100 men. They Exploration
the czar closed an Arctic trade route via the Gulf reached the mouth of the Kolyma in July, and & Discovery
of Ob. soon afterward rounded what is sometimes
called the East Cape. The latter is also known as 1450-1699
Meanwhile, in 1581-1582, the Cossack
leader Yermak Timofeyevich (d. 1584 or 1585) Mys Dezhneva, or Cape Dezhnev, and though
had crossed the Urals, conquering the Tatar they did not know it, they had just passed the
khanate of Sibir and thus opening the region to easternmost tip of the Asian continent. Nor did
Russian fur traders. In the years that followed, a they realize that they had crossed from the Arctic
number of Russian adventurers explored river- to the Pacific Ocean, thus proving that Asia and
ine routes, though because most rivers in Siberia North America are two separate land masses.
flow generally north-south rather than east-west, At the time, the men had far more pressing
these could only take them so far in their quest concerns on their minds. They had already lost
to reach the Pacific. By 1633 Cossacks were four of the boats, and after entering the Pacific,
using the Lena and Kolyma rivers, which they another was lost. The remaining two boats land-
bridged by overland travel, to ply the route be- ed, and were promptly attacked by native
tween the Arctic and Pacific oceans. Chukchis. As a result, Popov was wounded—his
It is important to note that at this point, no boat was later lost as well—and Dezhnyov be-
one knew where the northeastern corner of the came commander of the expedition. Finally
Asian land mass ended, and where the north- Dezhnyov, his crew now reduced to just 25 men,
western portion of the North American one landed south of the Anadyr River. More men
began. For all anyone knew, in fact, the two died in an attempt to travel up the Anadyr dur-
could be connected—as indeed they were ing the winter, and only when summer came
20,000 to 35,000 years ago, when the Ice Age was Dezhnyov able, with his 12 remaining men,
caused a drop in sea level, and permitted the mi- to make the journey.
gration of the Siberian tribes who later became Halfway up the river, Dezhnyov and his
known as Native Americans. This knowledge, crew built a fort, which became Anadyrsk, the
too, lay far in the future when Dezhnyov set off focal point of later Russian exploration in east-
on his voyage in 1648. ern Siberia. They were finally met by Stadukhin,
By then in his early forties, Dezhnyov had who had reached the Anadyr overland from the
spent much of his career in Siberia, where he Kolyma, in 1650. The meeting was not, howev-
served the czar in posts at Tobolsk and er, a happy one: by then Dezhnyov had begun
Yeniseysk. In 1638 he moved to Yakutsk, the collecting tribute from the local tribes—a prac-
principal Russian post along the Lena in eastern tice typical of Cossacks in Siberia—and
Siberia, and it may have been during this time Stadukhin was jealous of his profits.
that he took a native Yakut wife, with whom he Two years later, in 1662, Dezhnyov sailed
had a son. He moved still further east, to the down the Anadyr to the Gulf of Anadyr, where
Yana River, in 1640-1641, and during the follow- he found a large pile of walrus tusks. He re-
ing winter took part in an expedition along the turned to Moscow in 1664 with tales of large
upper Indigirka River led by Mikhail Stadukhin. treasures of ivory to be gained in the Far East,
In 1643 he followed the river to its mouth on the and this spawned further exploration efforts. By
Arctic, then sailed east to the Alazeya River. A 1666 he was back in Yakutsk, but eventually re-
year later, he was on the lower Kolyma. turned to Moscow, where he died in 1672 or
Up to this point, Dezhnyov had followed 1673. Later his son served Vladimir Atlasov in
the established path of Russian explorers, tra- the conquest of Kamchatka.
versing north-south rivers to the Arctic, then
sailing a little further east to the next river. In
1647, Fyodor Alekseyev Popov invited him to Impact
take part in a voyage from the mouth of the Though he was celebrated in his time, word of
Kolyma to that of the Anadyr. Since the former Dezhnyov’s findings gradually assumed the sta-
river empties into the Arctic and the latter into tus of legend rather than fact. Only in 1736 did
the Pacific, this meant that they would have to German historian Gerhard Friedrich Müller,
round the eastern tip of Siberia. The attempt studying archives at Yakutsk, uncover evidence
failed, however, as heavy ice in the region pre- of the groundbreaking expedition. Much had
vented them from completing the voyage. happened in the meantime: Czar Peter the Great

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(1672-1725) had taken an interest in eastward Bering in the strait that bears his name. In this
Exploration exploration, and in the year of his death com- place, the Soviet Union and the United States, so
& Discovery missioned Bering to make his historic voyage. In widely separated by ideology, were geographical-
1733 Russia launched one of the greatest efforts ly at their closest point: just 2 miles (3 kilome-
1450-1699 in the history of Arctic exploration, the decade- ters) separates the Russian Big Diomede from
long Great Northern Expedition. The latter, in the American Little Diomede.
which Bering himself perished, resulted in the With the end of the Cold War, the waters of
mapping of virtually all of the Arctic and north- the Bering Strait again became peaceful, with
ern Pacific coastline. disputes confined chiefly to questions over fish-
By the time of the next notable venture into ing rights. By the end of the twentieth century,
the Bering Strait, by Captain James Cook (1728- an international group with a site on the Internet
1779) during his crew’s last voyage (1776- called for the construction of a tunnel under the
1780), Dezhnyov’s role in discovering the Bering Bering Strait, which would once again link the
Strait had been recognized. In 1898 the Russian Asian and North American land masses.
government named the easternmost point of JUDSON KNIGHT
Asia Mys Dezhneva in his honor, but he was
never accorded full worldwide recognition for
his efforts. Further Reading
“Bering Strait Tunnel Project.” http://www.arctic.net/
During the Cold War between the Soviet ~snnr/tunnel/ (August 17, 2000.)
Union and the United States in the latter half of
Fisher, Raymond H., ed. The Voyage of Semen Dezhnev in
the twentieth century, the Bering Strait acquired 1648: Bering’s Precursor. London: Hakluyt Society, 1981.
new significance as a strategic barrier between
Lantzeff, George V., and Richard A. Pierce. Eastward to
the two superpowers. Some observers noted a Empire: Exploration and Conquest on the Russian Open
physical irony in the existence of the Diomede Frontier, to 1750. Montreal: McGill-Queen’s University
Islands, two tiny spots of land discovered by Press, 1973.

Diogo Cão and the

Portuguese in West Africa


Overview Peninsula also played a major role in their mar-
itime policy. The initial success against the Mus-
The voyage of Diogo Cão (1450-1487) up the
lims in Europe gave the Lisbon government the
Congo River established the Portuguese as a
confidence to extend the battle to North Africa.
major power in West Africa, and especially in the
Landings against Islamic strongholds were car-
Congo. As a result of this journey, political and
ried out for two reasons. Initially they were con-
economic alliances would be created that would
ducted to reestablish Christianity in the area, but
change the history of both West Africa and South
eventually the Portuguese began fighting a fif-
America, the most important of which centered
teenth-century “Cold War” against the Islamic
on plantation agriculture and the use of slave
empire. Their long-range goals were to contain
labor. This would eventually result in the estab-
any future spread of Islam and eventually to roll
lishment of new cultures on both continents.
back Muslim presence in North Africa. In time
the Portuguese would come to recognize their
presence in the area as a way to gain control of
Background the lucrative African gold trade. After years of
By the late fifteenth century, the Portuguese es- failing to penetrate the interior of the continent,
tablished themselves as a naval presence in the the monarchy hoped it could acquire gold by
Atlantic Ocean and had developed a highly suc- controlling the caravan routes of North Africa.
cessful fishing industry that extended into The Portuguese also found a new and growing
Northern Europe. The Reconquest or wars market for pepper in Northern Europe. By the
against the Islamic presence on the Iberian 1450s, the cattle herds of the continent were so

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large that the farmers were unable to keep them The country or civilization that dominated the
fed throughout the winter. Every autumn hun- area would control a significant portion of the Exploration
dreds of livestock were butchered and pepper world’s trade. This also allowed the Portuguese & Discovery
was used to preserve the meat. The attempt to to strike another blow for Christianity in its
control the flow of this precious substance be- struggle against Islam. Until the arrival of da 1450-1699
came the third reason for the aggressive expan- Gama the Indian Ocean was alternatively domi-
sionist policy of the Lisbon government. nated by the Chinese and Moslem civilizations,
The Portuguese were also at the forefront of with Islam the most recent. The Moslem navy
research and development in navigational and was no match for Portuguese technology, there-
marine technology. Prince Henry the Navigator fore the balance of power in the area shifted to
(1394-1460) created the first modern think tank the Lisbon government. This new geostragetic
and invited experts from all over Europe to come situation transferred the control of the trade in
to Lisbon to work and research under optimum spice and other commodities to the Portuguese,
conditions. His scholars collected a wealth of in- and they quickly established themselves as the
formation about the winds and currents of the dominant power in the region. They created a
Atlantic. He also created an extensive library series of strategic fortifications to control this
dedicated to the science of cartography. Although trade. Some were constructed to control the flow
Henry was a fierce nationalist and anti-Muslim, of goods from the interior of Asia and Africa to
he did respect the scientific accomplishments of ports on the Indian Ocean. Among the most im-
other civilizations. He encouraged his scholars to portant were Macao in China, Goa in India, and
research in the fields of both Chinese and Islamic Mombassa in Africa. The Portuguese also gained
marine technology. This enabled the European control of strategic “choke points” where the
Community to become proficient with both the flow of trade could be shut down by the nation
compass and the astrolabe. These two instru- that dominated these waterways. The Strait of
ments gave Portuguese navigators the ability to Hormuz at the eastern end of the Persian Gulf
acquire accurate information concerning direc- and the Strait of Malacca at the tip of the Mayla
tion and location north or south of the equator, Peninsula were two of the most critical points.
which gave Portuguese captains greater opportu- The Portuguese soon discovered that despite
nity to successfully sail the world’s oceans. Mem- their technological superiority, the task of con-
bers of Henry’s group also helped perfect the trolling such a wide expanse of territory so far
most important advancement in fifteenth century from the Iberian Peninsula was impossible to
marine engineering, the caravel. This ship was maintain. The government in Lisbon decided to
the state-of-the-art vessel of exploration; it was concentrate its attention closer to home.
both fast and reliable. The triangular lateen sail
allowed the pilot of the ship to take advantage of
the wind no matter what direction it was blow- Impact
ing. Improvements in the construction of the Brazil and West Africa were perceived to be
hull, including the ability to manufacture the more promising areas of economic growth and
keel from one piece of lumber, enabled the car- would eventually become linked to Portuguese
avel to successfully sail the rough waters of the imperialistic ambitions. The turning point in
Atlantic. Finally, the size of the ship allowed it to Africa came when Diogo Cão began to explore
navigate very narrow and shallow harbors with- the Congo River in 1482 and eventually came
out running aground. These advancements gave into contact with the tribal state of Kongo. The
the Portuguese the technological advantage they leaders of this African political unit were strong
needed to dominate the world’s sea-lanes in the and confident, thus they were able to deal with
middle of the fifteenth century. Their influence the Portuguese on an equal footing. The power
was extended first by Bartolomeu Dias (1450- of the government was based upon its control of
1500) when he rounded the Cape of Good Hope the flow of important goods from across Africa.
and again by Vasco da Gama (1460-1524) when A single ruler, referred to as a “Big Man,” at-
he reached India. tempted to regulate this important business. He
Based upon the success of da Gama, the was far from an absolute ruler, and like his Euro-
Portuguese intended to dominate trade in the pean counterparts he had to deal with many
Indian Ocean. This body of water provided a challenges to his power. Two groups, which
route for goods moving from China, South Asia, could prove to be a particular danger, were the
Southeast Asia, Southwest Asia, and Africa. It secular elite running the government and the re-
was truly the world’s first international sea-lane. ligious leadership. When the Portuguese arrived

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in 1485 the Kongo was locked in a struggle over could be used to overthrow the existing power
Exploration succession. They were soon perceived as poten- structure. This established a culture of rebellion
& Discovery tial political allies, and when Cão threw his sup- that destroyed the peace and security of the re-
port behind the successful pretender Portugal’s gion. In the end, the populations of both Africa
1450-1699 position in the area was solidified. and Brazil suffered greatly from the imperialistic
drive of the Portuguese.
An alliance was established between the
crown and Kongo government. The Portuguese These problems would extend into the late
supported the new leadership with military assis- nineteenth and twentieth centuries. When Eu-
tance and in turn they received slaves. The suc- rope’s second age of imperialism began in the
cess of plantation agriculture in Brazil created a 1870s, Africa was still recovering from the dis-
market for slave labor. The work was so strenu- ruption of this fifteenth century invasion. The
ous that the lifespan of the slaves was very short. vast damage that was caused to the continent as
The work was performed predominately by men, a result of slavery, disease, and political destabi-
so there were few women to provide replace- lization prevented the African people from de-
ments for the plantation. This would significantly fending themselves against another wave of col-
impact the cultural and historical development of onization. Much of the current political, social,
both South America and West Africa. Disease and economic turmoil found on the continent
from both Europe and Africa reduced the indige- today can be traced historically to this first wave
nous population by as much as 80%. A new of imperialism.
Latin American culture was produced from the RICHARD D. FITZGERALD
influx of people from Europe and Africa. West
Africa on the other hand was completely torn
apart by the slave trade. The “Big Men” from the Further Reading
Kongo extended their slave raids deeper and
Abu-Lughod, Janet. Before European Hegemony: The World
deeper into the interior. Year after year young, System A.D. 1250-1350. New York: Oxford University
strong, and intelligent African males would be Press, 1889.
taken to satisfy the needs of plantation agricul-
Crosby, Alfred. The Columbian Exchange: The Biological
ture. This produced history’s greatest population and Cultural Consequences of 1492. Westport, CT:
drain and deprived Africa of its youth and vitali- Greenwood Press, 1972.
ty. In time it also helped to destabilize the Kongo Curtin, Philip. Cross-Cultural Trade In World History. New
government. So profitable was the slave trade York: Cambridge University Press, 1984.
that individual merchants tried to undercut the Morison, Samuel Eliot. The Great Explorers: The European
Portuguese government’s monopoly. They pro- Discovery of America. New York: Oxford University
vided anti-government forces with weapons that Press, 1978.

Bartolomeu Dias and the Opening of the

Indian Ocean Trade Route to India, 1487-88


Overview ration and colonization of the world and the be-
ginning of another.
The Portuguese Bartolomeu Dias (c. 1450-1500)
lies at a crossroad in the history of exploration.
For more than 50 years before he set sail to what
would become the Cape of Good Hope, Portugal Background
had explored to its own profit along most of the By going beyond the southern tip of Africa, Bar-
western coast of Africa. When Dias reached the tolomeu Dias fulfilled a hope of many cen-
Cape in 1487, he triggered a completely new se- turies—circumnavigating that great continent.
ries of explorations in the Indian Ocean. His His exploit, however, was not something that
achievement should thus be seen as the end of came out of the blue, the result of a lone bucca-
one epoch in the history of European explo- neer’s ship in search of great treasures. Rather, it

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was part of a grand orchestrated strategy that chain of geographical discoveries triggered noth-
would give Portugal complete control of the ing less than the seventeenth-century Scientific Exploration
eastward trading routes to India before the turn Revolution and the rise of modern science. & Discovery
of the sixteenth century. What Dias actually ac-
complished was to lead the tiny Iberic nation to 1450-1699
the threshold of the Indian Ocean—which was Impact
crossed ten years later by his countryman Vasco By reaching what Diogo Cão (fl. 1480-1486) be-
da Gama (c. 1469-1524). Although Dias was fol- fore him missed by many leagues, Dias opened
lowing in the footsteps of skilled and daring Por- an entire new vista of exploration. In fact, when
tuguese seamen, his achievement was only made his weather-beaten caravels landed in Lisbon
possible because of innovative breakthroughs in harbor in 1488 after more than a year at sea, the
seamanship. news of his rounding the Cape of Good Hope
disappointed an explorer whose dream was also
As a matter of fact, the second half of the fif- to get to Asia, but by going westward across the
teenth century saw the art of navigation radically Atlantic. His name was Christopher Columbus
transformed. Prince Henry the Navigator (1394- (c. 1451-1506). Contemporary with Dias,
1460), architect and patron of the epoch-making Columbus was at that moment in Portugal try-
explorations along the coast of Africa, ques- ing for a second time to convince King John II
tioned mathematicians and astronomers (Jews, (1455-1495) of the viability of his westward ex-
Arabs, and Christians alike) to resolve a number pedition. Even though the Italian impressed the
of problems involving navigation on the high King with his “industry and good talent,” it be-
seas, first and foremost establishing one’s lati- came rather apparent to the former—since a sea
tude south of the Equator where one loses sight route to the Indies around Africa was now found
of the Pole Star—the latter always a key naviga- to be practicable—that his project was superflu-
tion tool for mariners. These scholars provided ous. Columbus left Portugal to find again his
seamen with new theoretical and practical tools good fortune under the aegis of the Spanish
that enabled them to calculate their latitude any- crown. Thus, Dias’s achievement delayed once
where south of the Equator by measuring the al- more Columbus’s own discovery.
titude of the Sun at noon. And so, armed with a
cross-staff and mathematical tables to calculate It took a few years of convincing, but
the declination of the Sun (the so-called “Regi- Columbus finally accomplished his life-long
ments of the Sun), Prince Henry’s sailors were dream and came back in 1493 with the news
capable of finding their way along the west coast that he discovered an alternate route to the Ori-
of the African continent. Shipbuilding also ent (Columbus did not know at that moment
changed considerably; without the strength and that he had landed on a new continent). Spain
maneuverability of the newly designed caravels, claimed these new discovered lands for itself,
Dias’s discovery would have been virtually im- but so did Portugal, saying, for instance, that
possible due in most part to unfavorable cur- they were not far enough away from the Azores
rents and winds (whirling, that is, counter- (islands belonging to Portugal) to be out of their
clockwise south of the Equator). jurisdiction. The Pope had to settle the differ-
ence, which resulted in the signing of the fa-
When Bartolomeu Dias set sail on a journey mous Treaty of Tordesillas (June 7, 1494). Since
that lead him past the Cape of Good Hope, Por- the discovery of Dias, it was pivotal for the Por-
tugal had already discovered and conquered tuguese crown to keep intact the gate to the In-
most of western Africa. There is no question that dian Ocean by the circumnavigation of Africa.
political, economic, and religious motives were at For Spain, it was important to lay claim on these
the foundation of such territorial expansion. The new lands (whether or not they were part of a
outcome for science, though, was somewhat un- New World or Asia) to ensure that Portugal
expected. The Portuguese—by sailing beyond would not be alone to profit from these new dis-
Cape Bojador (Gil Eannes, 1434) and into the coveries. Hence it was ruled that a meridian line,
mysterious and treacherous “Sea of Darkness”— drawn from pole to pole 370 leagues (1,185
discovered new lands and new stars, and some miles or 1,907 km) west of the Cape Verde Is-
unheard-of plants and animals. Never before in lands, would separate the world between the
history had the scientific authority of the ancient two Iberic countries, leaving out all the other
scientists, and most of all the geography of Ptole- European nations. Spain was given exclusive
my, been challenged by such a wealth of ob- rights to all newly discovered and undiscovered
served facts. For some historians of science this lands in the region west of the line, while Por-

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tuguese expeditions were to keep to the east of making discovery of the Cape of Good Hope,
Exploration the line. Neither power, of course, was to occu- Dias would meet his destiny.
& Discovery py any territory already in the hands of a Christ- João de Barros (c. 1496-1570), a sixteenth-
ian ruler. The treaty thus affirmed Portugal’s ex- century Portuguese historian, gave an account of
1450-1699 clusive rights to Dias’s discovery and eastward that fatal day of May 29, 1500: “This happened
sea route to the Indies. suddenly: the wind burst down in an instant so
The running disputes between Spain and furiously that there was no time for the seamen
Portugal, however, postponed for a full decade to work the sails, and four vessels were over-
the fulfillment of Prince Henry’s cherished pro- whelmed, one of which was that of Bartolomeu
ject: to colonize, Christianize, and take control Dias; he who had passed so many dangers at sea
of the economic trade between Europe and the in the discoveries he had made, principally of
empire of silk and spices. During his journey, the Cabo de Boa Esperanqa. But this fury of the
when Dias realized that he had passed the wind ended his life and those of other fellow
southern tip of Africa, he had wanted to pursue mariners, casting them into the great abyss of
the exploration further. But his crew was becom- that ocean sea ... giving human bodies as food
ing restless and longing for home. It was Vasco for the fishes of those waters.”
da Gama, 10 years later, who was chosen by the Bartolomeu Dias’s explorations are often
new king Manuel I (1469-1521) to reach India. overlooked in comparison to the fame earned by
When he left in 1497, Dias escorted him as far such explorers as Columbus or Ferdinand Mag-
as Cape Verde Islands, but in a subordinate posi- ellan (c. 1480-1521). Dias has the great merit of
tion. Da Gama was then left on his own to fur- having found the gates to the sea-route to India
ther Dias’s previous discoveries. In later years even though it was da Gama who forced them
the success of da Gama’s oriental mission was open. But most of all let us not forget that, re-
considered to be so significant for Portugal that gardless of the great achievements of other ex-
Luis da Camões (1524?-1580) composed an plorers before and after Dias, it was as a result of
epic poem, Os Lusiadas (The Lusiads,” 1572), these earliest ocean voyages that scientific in-
narrating the voyage. struments (and later technology) were made
Bartolomeu Dias was involved in one final vital to scientific knowledge and progress. The
important geographical discovery, owing in good development of increasingly accurate tools of
part to the sea route promptly adopted to reach science to measure time and space went hand in
the Cape of Good Hope. Indeed, because of the hand with the new geographical discoveries, and
strong opposing currents and winds found along hence to ever clearer depictions of the universe.
the coast of Africa in the South Atlantic, it was
JEAN-FRANÇOIS GAUVIN
easier to sail far to the southwest of the Azores
and afterward veer to the east (in order to catch
the now favorable currents and winds) than to Further Reading
follow the said coast all the way down to the
Cape. Under the leadership of Pedro Álvares Books
Cabral (c. 1460-1526), an armada of 13 ships Axelson, Eric. Congo to Cape: Early Portuguese Explorers.
(composed of seamen, priests, soldiers, and mer- New York: Barnes and Noble, 1973.
chants) left Portugal in 1500 en route to Calicut, Axelson, Eric. Portuguese in South-East Africa, 1488-1600.
India, to civilize, Christianize, and trade. One of Johannesburg: C. Struik, 1973.
the caravel’s captains was Dias. On their way to Hooykaas, Reyer. “The Portuguese Discoveries and the
the Cape, and mostly because they miscalculated Rise of Modern Science.” In Selected Studies in the His-
the longitude, they went so far to the southwest tory of Science. Coimbra, 1983: 579-98.
that they saw land and forests unnoticed before. Lamb, Ursula, ed. The Globe Encircled and the World Re-
The trees were bright red, like glowing embers, vealed. Aldershot, Hampshire, UK: Variorum, 1995.
hence the name given to the new territory: Brazil.
Internert Sites
Since the Treaty of Tordesillas was still enforced, “The European Voyages of Exploration: The Fifteenth
Portugal could claim these newfound lands. and Sixteenth Centuries.” http://www.acs.ucalgary.ca/
Some time later, in the vicinity of his epoch- HIST/tutor/eurvoya/index.html.

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Vasco da Gama Establishes the First Ocean

Exploration
Trade Route from Europe to India and Asia & Discovery

1450-1699

Overview coast would impede his progress, so he boldly set

a course that took him far from land, sailing in un-
Prince Henry the Navigator (1394-1460) of Por-
charted waters. The explorers rounded the south-
tugal is often credited with initiating the “Age of
ern tip of Africa, which da Gama named the Cape
Discovery.” This was the term given to the quest
of Good Hope, on November 22. At this point
of European countries to seek out new lands and
they no longer need the storeship, so it was bro-
trade routes by sea. Prince Henry had multiple
ken up and burned. They continued sailing up the
motives for this endeavor. He wanted to estab-
eastern African coast but stopped because many of
lish new routes of trade, find a possible route to
the crews were sick with scurvy. The expedition
attack the Moors from the rear, test new ad-
rested a month so that the men could heal and the
vances in shipbuilding and navigational aids,
ships could be repaired.
and fulfill his curiosity regarding the world. He
commissioned numerous expeditions through- On March 2 the fleet reached the island of
out the fifteenth century to explore and chart the Mozambique. They were treated friendly because
African coast. Although Prince Henry died in the inhabitants believed the Portuguese sailors
1460, his legacy was firmly established and ex- were Muslims like themselves. While in port, da
ploration continued. Gama learned that the natives traded with Arab
merchants, and the Sultan of Mozambique sup-
King John II of Portugal sought to establish
plied da Gama with a pilot to help guide them.
both a land route and a sea route to India. The
The expedition reached Malindi (present-day
sea route was to go around the southern tip of
Kenya) on April 14, and another pilot who knew
Africa, which was not even believed to exist by
the route to Calicut was taken aboard. He proved
some at that time. In 1487 Portuguese navigator
to be very skilled, and they safely made the
Bartholomeu Dias (1450?-1500) rounded the
treacherous crossing to Calicut in less than a
cape of Africa in stormy seas and began sailing in
month. They were now in the most important
a northeast direction to reach what is now South
trading center in Southern India at that time and
Africa. Dias had shown that there was indeed a
were initially welcomed by Zamorin, the Hindu
possible route to India via the southern tip of
ruler. Da Gama could not persuade him to make
Africa. Upon his return voyage, he set up a pillar
a trade agreement, though, partly because of the
on the Cape to commemorate its discovery.
cheap gifts that da Gama had brought and partly
Although Spanish explorer Christopher because the Muslim merchants were extremely
Columbus (1451-1506) claimed to have reached hostile to the Christian sailors. As tensions
India by a much easier westerly route in 1492, mounted, da Gama left for Malindi in late August
interest in the route around Africa was renewed with little to show for his efforts.
when the validity of his contention came under
The crossing to Malindi was extremely
close scrutiny. Although the land that Columbus
harsh. The pilot had abandoned them in Calicut,
discovered would prove to be very important—
so they were forced to traverse their way back on
he had discovered America—he had not found
their own. The weather was uncooperative, and
the rich land of India that was so desperately
they were not prepared for a return trip that
sought by many. In 1497 a Portuguese captain
would last three times as long as the initial voy-
named Vasco da Gama (1469?-1524) put togeth-
age. Most of the men contracted scurvy and
er an expedition in an attempt to sail around the
many died, while the others were nearing death
southern edge of Africa to the port of Calicut, lo-
when they finally arrived in Malindi. There, the
cated on the west coast of India.
Sultan helped the crew by providing life-giving
oranges and allowing the crew a chance to heal.
Background He also gave them gifts to bring back home. Be-
Da Gama sailed from Lisbon on July 8, 1497, with cause da Gama had lost so many men, he or-
a four-vessel fleet consisting of two medium-sized dered one of the ships burned before they began
sailing ships, a caravel (a small, fast ship), and a their long journey home.
large storeship. Because of previous voyages, da The remaining two ships set out for home
Gama knew that the currents along the African and skirted the Cape of Good Hope on March 20.

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They were later separated by a storm, with one The Portuguese discovered very important
Exploration ship eventually reaching Portugal on July 10. Da sea routes that had not previously been used by
& Discovery Gama’s ship continued on to the Azores, and he other people. In their quest, they had signifi-
reached his original starting point, Lisbon, on cantly advanced maritime knowledge, including
1450-1699 September 9. While he was hailed as a hero and fine-tuning systematic nautical practices, fur-
his achievement was remarkable—for he had thering scientific and technical innovations, in-
traveled some 27,000 miles (43,452 km) by creasing cartographical and navigational skills,
sea—the trip had taken a great toll. He returned and fostering a spirit of adventure and en-
with only half of his ships and less than half of his durance. These achievements are important con-
men. One casualty was especially hard on him: he tributions to world history and had a significant
had lost his brother, Paulo, to sickness on the last influence on other nations of Europe.
leg of the journey. Although da Gama had re- Although the Portuguese benefited tremen-
turned with a small amount of tradable goods, he dously from their expeditions, they did so to the
brought back a much more valuable commodity, detriment of the people living both in that area
a sea route to India. The door was open, and the and even some living far from it. Much of the
Portuguese intended to use it to their fullest. area and trade that the Portuguese controlled
came at the expense of Moslem merchants who
had been trading in that area for centuries. Ad-
Impact
ditionally, Venice had a virtual monopoly on
The discovery of a sea route to India proved to be trade in that area from land routes, and much of
extremely valuable to the Portuguese. They their wealth was derived from it. Although there
amassed huge profits in a limited amount of time were other factors that helped its downfall, ulti-
due to their exclusive hold on commerce in that mately it was Portugal’s establishment of trade in
area. Da Gama opened a passage for his country- India that led to its demise.
men to follow, and the route was one of the most
Portugal was single-minded and brutal in its
closely guarded secrets of that era. Pedro Álvares
obsession for this part of the world. Ports and
Cabral (1460?-1526) traveled to the Orient within
towns were taken by force until Portugal had
a year of da Gama’s return and established a trade
moved India from a mere trading post to a full-
treaty with Calicut, which gave the Portuguese a
fledged colony. It could not have been predicted
foothold on the commerce of that area. Things did
how quickly the Portuguese would rise to power
not go smoothly, however, and after some serious
and how far they would extend their influence.
fighting, Cabral moved on to another port,
Within 50 years they had established trade with
Cochin. The ruler of this port was the bitter rival
ports as far away as Japan and all points in be-
of those at Calicut, so Cabral was able to trade
tween. They pushed their way inland and estab-
quite easily by playing the ruling parties against
lished footholds to expand their territory. They
one another. He also set up a depot, where trading
believed it was their divine right to expand their
could take place and where ships could unload.
empire and even had papal approval for their
This pattern set the precedent for trading in that
conquests. They were ruthless and unyielding in
area. The Portuguese would play the various mer-
their endeavors and built themselves the envi-
cantile factions against each other to get what they
able position of controlling the trade routes to
wanted, and if that was not successful, they would
India and the Orient. At the same time, Spain
use force. Although more than half the fleet and
was becoming rich from their conquests in
men were lost, Cabral returned ladened with
America. Thus Portugal and Spain had taken the
spice, which was sold at a huge profit. Expeditions
early lead in the race for riches from far-away
became annual events, and Portugal profited
lands. The English, Dutch, and French, who ar-
greatly from these trips. Portugal was now at the
gued that the seas should be open and that pos-
forefront of maritime European commerce.
session of land should depend on occupation,
These expeditions to India and the Far East would soon challenge this position. Soon all five
had tremendous impact on the European popu- of these countries would vie for supremacy of
lation. The supply of exotic goods such as spices these lands. And because Portugal was so single-
was higher than it had ever been. While still ex- minded and had set up such a wide-ranging
pensive, these types of items were now available. trading network, it was soon overextended and
In addition, many people profited from the sale could not adequately protect its interests. This
of such items. These voyages set all of Europe paved the way for the English, Dutch, and
ablaze with thoughts of exotic lands just waiting French to step in and seize command of much
to have treasure plucked from them. of the trade in that area. Thus, although Portugal

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pioneered the way and showed tremendous im- Further Reading

mediate profit, it was other countries that would Berger, Josef. Discovers of the New World. New York: Exploration
reap the long-term benefits. American Heritage Publishing Co., Inc., 1960. & Discovery
JAMES J. HOFFMANN Lomask, Milton. Exploration: Great Lives. New York:
Macmillan Publishing Company, 1988. 1450-1699
Syme, Ronald. Vasco de Gama. Sailor Toward the Sunrise.
New York: Morrow Publishing, 1960.

Willem Jansz Lands on the Australian

Mainland and Sets Off a Century of Dutch
Exploration of the Region


Overview Portugal should promote trade and spread the
Christian faith to India, Portuguese mariners
In 1606 Dutchman Willem Jansz (1570-?) ar-
ventured into the Atlantic Ocean and around
rived on the Australian mainland, becoming per-
Africa’s Cape of Good Hope in search of a pas-
haps the first European to do so. His achieve-
sage to India and the Spice Islands. Within a cen-
ment did not lead to Dutch rule of the area, as
tury, Portugal had established a colonial empire
the Dutch were not interested in colonizing it.
in South America and in the Pacific Far East.
Nevertheless, his voyage was a milestone be-
cause it launched almost a century of successful On their voyages to the Dutch East Indies,
Dutch exploration of Australia. Portuguese sailors were sometimes blown off
course by treacherous winds in the Indian
Ocean and found themselves along the shore-
Background
line of an unknown land somewhere southeast
Scholars, including the ancient Greeks and Ro- of the Dutch East Indies. The mariners charted
mans, had long contended that a continent must part of the northern and eastern coasts of the
exist in the Southern Hemisphere to balance the territory and named this region “Java La
large land areas in the Northern Hemisphere. Grande.” Sixteenth-century cartographers were
Ptolemy’s (fl. A.D. 127-145) world map in the certain that Java La Grande was the southern
second century and later Renaissance maps de- continent that had long been sought. One of the
picted a Pacific terra australis, Latin for “south- Dieppe maps, the 1536 Dauphin Map, shows a
ern land.” Gerardus Mercator’s (1512-1594) rough outline of northeastern Australia as chart-
1541 map of the world referred similarly to a ed by Portuguese sailors. Decades later, the nar-
territory south of Indonesia. row waterway between New Guinea and north-
Some sixteenth-century Portuguese maps western Australia was named Torres Strait after
clearly depict the outline of the northern part of Portuguese navigator Luis Vaez de Torres (d.
Australia. The most important are the Dieppe 1613); de Torres sailed under the Spanish flag
maps, so-named after the then-famous carto- through the passage north of Cape York only a
graphic center located in Dieppe, France. The few months after Willem Jansz. At the time,
Dieppe maps were well known to eminent geogra- Torres made no special mention of the landmass
phers of France and England until the mid-nine- he must have seen to the south because, as
teenth century; moreover, they were accepted as some historians claim, he was already aware of
proof that Portugal had seen and charted the coast terra australis from earlier Portuguese explorers
of Australia some 60 years before Jansz. and maps.

Portugal’s impressive maritime history can Besides the Dieppe maps, however, there is
be traced to Prince Henry the Navigator (1394- simply no other tangible evidence that points to
1460) and to the great Portuguese explorers of a Portuguese discovery of Australia. Therefore,
the late fifteenth century, such as Vasco da Gama historians still credit the Netherlands and
(c. 1460-1524) and Bartolomeu Dias (c. 1450- Willem Jansz with the first documented sighting
1500). Inspired by Prince Henry’s dream that of Australia in 1606.

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In November 1605 Jansz set out to explore honor of Hartog’s ship. Today a small island in
Exploration the area southeast of the Spice Islands. Jansz re- the bay is still called Dirk Hartog Island. The
& Discovery ceived his orders from Jan Willem Verschoor, a Dutchman returned several times, in 1618,
director of the Dutch East India Company in 1619, and 1620, for further exploration of Aus-
1450-1699 Bantam on the island of Java (today Indonesia). tralia’s western coast. In 1696 Willem de Vlam-
Jansz’s mission was to explore the new region ingh landed in the same area as Hartog had. He
and to determine its trade possibilities with the found Hartog’s plate, copied the words onto a
Netherlands. Commanding the Duifken (Dove), new plate and added his own, describing his
Jansz sailed in March 1606 across what was later visit. (Hartog’s original plate now resides in the
named the Torres Strait. He and his crew then Rijksmuseum in Amsterdam.) Vlamingh contin-
continued for 200 miles (322 km) along an un- ued with his expedition and discovered a river,
charted coastline. After losing a man in a clash later named the Black Swan River. He took with
with Aborigines (native Australians), Jansz spot- him live black swans, a species unusual enough
ted a land projection that he named Cape Keer- to have caused quite a sensation when he re-
Weer (Turn Again). Unbeknownst to them, Jansz turned with them to Batavia (present-day Jakar-
and his crew had actually discovered what is ta, Indonesia).
today known as Cape York, the northeastern tip
In addition to Dirk Hartog Island, another
of Australia. Jansz eventually lost nine men in
small island off Australia’s west coast is named
battles with the Aborigines.
after a Dutch explorer. In 1619 Frederik de
After the Duifken returned to New Guinea, Houtman (1571-1627) and Jacob Dedel sailed
Dutch cartographer Hessel Gerritsz traced the vessels Dordrecht and Amsterdam along Aus-
Jansz’s voyage and in 1622 drew a map of Aus- tralia’s western shore and described the danger-
tralia that showed the continent as a tiny bit of ous shoals off the coast, a site of numerous ship-
land in the midst of the surrounding sea. Gerrit- wrecks. There, Houtman Island was named in
sz’s map, although distorted like previous maps memory of the captain of the Dordrecht.
of Australia, was important because it charted
the earliest documented exploration of the con- In January 1623 Dutch East Indies Gover-
tinent. A more accurate map would not be nor General Jan Pietersz Coen ordered Jan
drawn for more than a hundred years, when Carstens to command an expedition to explore
British seaman James Cook (1728-1779) cir- New Guinea. The Arnhem, captained by Willem
cumnavigated Australia. van Colster, and the Pera, commanded by
Carstens, landed at Cape York on January 21,
1623. In April Carstens explored the area inland
Impact from the Cape and became the first white man
Jansz’s expedition proved to be the catalyst for a to penetrate the interior part of Australia. How-
concerted Dutch effort to explore the region. In ever, natives killed him and some of his crew.
fact, Dutch explorers who followed Jansz were Part of Australia’s Northern Territory is named
so numerous that Australia was called New Hol- Arnhem Land to commemorate Carstens’s expe-
land for almost 200 years. However, because the dition in 1623 that explored the western shore
Dutch had no interest in colonizing the territory, of the Gulf of Carpentaria.
their interest in the region was gradually In October 1628 Francisco Pelsaert sailed
eclipsed by the British. the Batavia from Texel, on the northwestern
Following Jansz’s 1606 expedition, the next coast of the Netherlands, to the Dutch East In-
notable Dutch landing on Australia occurred a dies. The vessel shipwrecked June 4, 1629, on
decade later. In 1616 Dutchman Dirck Hartog the Abrolos reefs, the same dangerous shoals
(fl. 1610s), commanding the Eendracht, was ac- southwest of Dirk Hartog Island that had been
cidentally blown off course as he was sailing described by Frederik de Houtman. While Pel-
from the Cape of Good Hope to the Dutch East saert explored the shore for water and food,
Indies. For three days he explored the western some of his crew mutinied. Pelsaert punished
coast of Australia from 35° to 2° south latitude. the instigators and after returning to Europe,
At a place that is today called Shark Bay, Hartog wrote about his ordeal. Pelsaert’s gripping tale of
left a tin (or perhaps pewter) plate inscribed the shipwreck, mutiny, and his days spent on
with handwriting that described his ship’s arrival the mainland is one of the earliest about the dis-
at the Bay on October 25, 1616. Until the eigh- covery of Australia and includes the following of
teenth century a stretch of land running parallel the kangaroo: “...a species of cat, which are very
to Shark Bay was called Eendrachtsland, in strange creatures—the forepaws are very short—

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and its hindlegs are upwards of half an ell, and it ars belittled the Dutch role in Australian history
walks on these alone.” Pelsaert’s is the first and decried any claim that Portugal could have Exploration
known description of the Australian marsupial. discovered Australia. Several Australian histori- & Discovery
ans engaged in an academic battle over the verac-
Finally, by 1636, with the information gath- 1450-1699
ity of the Dieppe maps. Hampered by being un-
ered from the many Dutch sightings of Australian
familiar with the Portuguese language and blind-
territory, including the Leeuwin (1622), the Gulden
ed by a deep-seatedpro-British prejudice, a few
Zeepard (1627), and William De Witt’s voyage in
historians claimed that the maps were a six-
1628, cartographers were able to draw more accu-
teenth-century hoax. Otherwise brilliant scholars
rate maps of Australia. In 1642 Anthony van
went to extremes to discredit the maps as plausi-
Diemen (1593-1645), governor-general of the
ble evidence that Portugal had discovered Aus-
Dutch East Indies, dispatched fellow Dutchman,
tralia. These misconceptions were gradually rec-
the brilliant Abel Tasman (1603-1659), on an ex-
tified and the authenticity of the Dieppe maps
pedition to Australia. Tasman’s voyages took him
acknowledged. Historians now not only agree
to the southern coast of Australia and on to New
that Willem Jansz sighted Australia in 1606, but
Zealand. The body of water between the latter two
by the late twentieth century they had recog-
countries was named the Tasman Sea; the island
nized that the intrepid Portuguese navigators of
off the southwestern coast was called Van
the sixteenth century most likely did, too.
Diemen’s Land and then later received its present-
day name, Tasmania. ELLEN ELGHOBASHI

Despite their extensive exploration of Aus-

tralia, the Dutch showed no interest in coloniz- Further Reading
ing New Holland. When Britain became the
world’s supreme naval power in the eighteenth Books
century, James Cook claimed Australia for Britain Eisler, William. The Furthest Shore. New York: Cambridge
University Press, 1995.
in 1770. Subsequently settled by the English,
Australia became part of the British Empire. McIntyre, Kenneth Gordon. The Secret Discovery of Aus-
tralia. Souvenir Press, 1977.
Proud of their English heritage, Australians came
to think of Cook as the true discoverer of Aus- Internet Sites
tralia. This pro-British bias was especially evident “European Discovery of Australia.” http://www.finalword.
by the early twentieth century, when some schol- com/Touring_Australia/gta_www/gta_011a.htm.

The Voyages of Abel Janszoon Tasman

Overview Hemisphere in order to expand commerce and
accumulate wealth. The discovery of land up to
It was a long-held belief prior to the seventeenth
this point had been merely coincidental, despite
century that there existed a huge continent in
the fact that there was some idea of what was to
the Southern Hemisphere that would balance
be found in the Indian Ocean and the South Pa-
the large continents of the Northern Hemi-
cific Ocean. The western and northern borders of
sphere. It was commonly known as the great un-
New Holland (present-day Australia) were
known southern continent and was called either
known to exist, but it was not known what laid
Terra Australia Incognita or Nondum Cognita. It
beyond these. In fact, it was speculated by many
was boldly drawn by cartographers, even though
that these were actually the coastal regions of the
there was no evidence of its existence. The dis-
theoretical great southern continent. Others felt
covery of North and South America further fu-
that this was actually part of a large island and
eled the conjecture that below the equator was a
could be circumnavigated. However, these and
huge continent, which had yet to be discovered
many other questions on the geography of the
and explored.
area were unanswered and this is what drove
Anthony van Diemen (1593-1645), as gov- most of the exploration of this area at that time.
ernor-general at Batavia in Dutch East Indies, After one abortive expedition where the leader
was intent on the exploration of the Southern died shortly after the start, van Diemen decided

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to send a expedition north toward Japan in order Diemen’s land. Eventually the explorers gave up
Exploration to find the rumored “shores of gold and silver.” and continued east.
& Discovery While this adventure proved also to be unsuc- On the 13th of December Tasman saw land
cessful, it was noteworthy on three major points. again, having reached the shore of South Island,
1450-1699 First, the captain on all of the ships was Dutch New Zealand. He anchored in an area he termed
explorer Abel Janszoon Tasman (1603?-1659?). Murderer’s Bay, because three Dutchmen were
Second, nearly half of the men were lost due to killed there when their small boat was rammed
the disease scurvy. Third, although the expedi- by a native canoe. Tasman determined that he
tion was deemed a failure by the Dutch East would not be able to befriend the local native
India Company, it was acknowledged that the re- population and continued on to the North Island.
gion needed further exploration.
Tasman could not find suitable fresh water
Frans Jacobszoon Visscher was a noted geo- in New Zealand, so the explorers turned north-
grapher in the employ of the Company. He re- east, discovering Tonga in early 1643. There
viewed the known regions and competently de- they found fresh water, and Tasman was treated
signed the scope for expeditions to solve the well by the natives. He now turned northwest
great southland problem and help support Dutch and soon discovered the Fiji islands. These is-
interests in the region. Visscher envisioned a lands were uncharted, and Tasman questioned
search for the great southland which would ini- whether their position was calculated correctly.
tially track eastward, then turn northward, re- Tasman suggested returning to Batavia; the ship’s
verse the initial direction back to the west, and committee agreed.
then return to the point of origin by going south.
Thus, if no land was found, the journey would They chose a northerly route home, and after
take the explorers in a great square. Tasman was some anxious weeks during which they were un-
chosen to head the expedition, which was slated able to determine their position due to weather,
to begin in August of 1642. they eventually were able to deduce their correct
position. They took some time to explore the
coast of New Guinea and determined that there
was no passage through it. Tasman returned to
Background
Batavia in June, completing a ten-month voyage.
Tasman was given two ships (the Heemskerk and During this time, he had completely circumnavi-
the Zeehaen) and was told to sail initially to gated the continent of Australia without ever
Mauritius. From there, he was instructed to sail catching a glimpse of its land.
south in search of the southern continent. It
Van Diemen was not especially pleased with
should be noted that the main focus of this ex-
the results of the voyage since no new trade
pedition was not exploration, but rather to find
routes or sources of wealth had been discovered.
better trade routes and search for new sources of
However, he was still interested in resolving sev-
wealth and commerce. Tasman was given explic-
eral issues around New Guinea and New Hol-
it directions on the route he should take, keep-
land, so he outfitted Tasman with three ships, the
ing in mind the objectives of the expedition. As
Limmen, the Zeemeuw, and the Bracq for another
an example, if possible, Tasman was supposed to
expedition in February of 1644. There is little in-
at one point head for the Chilean coast in an at-
formation on this voyage except for the fact that
tempt to discover an advantageous route by
the explorers charted the northern coast of Aus-
which Dutch interests could snatch trade from
tralia and returned in October of the same year.
the Spanish in this region of the world. Tasman
While Tasman noted the presence of natives, he
was not to disclose the importance placed on sil-
did not seek to trade with them. The Dutch East
ver and gold should he encounter possible trad-
Indies Company, which had sponsored Tasman’s
ing sources, and he was to treat all natives in the
voyage, again was not happy because there was
most friendly manner possible.
no return on their investment. Thus Tasman’s ef-
With Visscher on board, Tasman sailed for forts were not highly regarded by the company.
Mauritius from Batavia on August 14, 1642. In
Mauritius, he refitted his ships and set off on the
intended course on October 8th. Weather forced Impact
a change in plans, and Tasman came upon Van Tasman had set a new standard for Dutch explo-
Diemen’s Land (presently Tasmania) in late No- ration on his voyages, but his expeditions were
vember. Again the weather was a problem, and it deemed to have been relatively fruitless and creat-
was difficult to explore the eastern coast of van ed little excitement for the Dutch East India Com-

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pany. In fact, he was looked upon with some satisfied with Tasman. He had looked for imme-
scorn by the stockholders and many officials. The diate results in the extension of trade, or at least Exploration
voyages resulted in no new trading partnerships, for the finding of the New Guinea strait, and, & Discovery
and there were no major resources or wealth un- disappointed in this, he could not appreciate the
covered, which would be of obvious benefit to the importance of the discoveries from a geographi- 1450-1699
company. Furthermore, in his first voyage, Tasman cal standpoint. As a direct result of Tasman’s
had not proven there was a passage through the voyages, the Dutch were reluctant to undertake
south ocean to Chile, which was one of the origi- any costly expeditions unless it could readily be
nal objectives of the expedition. One positive of proven that there would be immediate and sub-
his first voyage was that he had only lost ten men stantial profits. Because of this attitude, Tasman
on the entire trip and over half of those were due had completed the last great Dutch exploration.
to natural causes. This was remarkable in a day
The legacy that Tasman left is a much-im-
and age where many expeditions would return
proved understanding of the geography of the
with only a handful of men. There were a few
South Seas. While not all of the assumptions
promising details from the first voyage, and Tas-
proved to be correct, Tasman had proved that
man was thought of highly enough to figure
New Holland did not extend indefinitely to the
prominently in a second expedition.
east, but that it was an extremely large island.
The second voyage proved to be even a big- He now separated the real land from the legend.
ger disappointment than the first. In a dispatch He had also shown that, in fact, there was no
to the company’s council, van Diemen expressed large continent in that area of the world. He had
his disappointment and discontent that the ex- discovered many islands and charted that region
pedition had not discovered a passage through of the world better than anyone had previously.
New Guinea. He further stated that Tasman had This stimulated a keen interest in the area and
done nothing but sail along the coasts and had helped to drive the exploration of this area in
gained no knowledge of the country and its pro- the future.
ductions; according to van Diemen, Tasman
claimed that the explorers did not have enough JAMES J. HOFFMANN

manpower to venture onto land in the face of

the savages. Van Diemen went on to state that
Tasman in his two voyages had circumnavigated Further Reading
the hitherto unknown South Land, which was Allen, Oliver E. The Pacific Navigators. Alexandria, VA:
calculated to have an extent of 8,000 miles Time Life Books, 1980.
(12,875 km) of coast, yet in so great a country, Beaglehole, J. C. The Exploration of the Pacific. London:
with such a variety of climates, he had found Adam & Charles Black, 1966.
nothing of great importance and profit for the Sharp, Andrew. The Voyages of Abel Janszoon Tasman. Ox-
company. It was plain that van Diemen was dis- ford: Clarendon Press, 1968.

Introduction of the Mercator World Map

Revolutionizes Nautical Navigation


Overview forms the same angle with all the meridians, and
became the basis for modern day navigational
In 1569, Flemish cartographer Gerardus Merca-
charts.
tor (1512-1594) broke away from the teachings
of Greek mathematician and astronomer Ptole-
my (90-168) and published a world map, which
introduced a new system of projection for ma- Background
rine charts featuring true bearings, or rhumb- The practice of cartography, or map-making,
lines, between any two points. His system pre- can be traced back to early examples from
sented a revolutionary cylindrical projection Babylon, Egypt, and China, where the first
where a straight line between any two points maps were printed. European map-making can

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Exploration
& Discovery
1450-1699

A map of Iceland by Gerardus Mercator. (Corbis Corporation. Reproduced with permission.)

be traced to early Greek culture and the most tolano, a harbor-finding manual of the Middle
significant contributions to the study of geogra- Ages, Portolan charts, printed on goat and
phy were made by Claudius Ptolemaeus known sheepskin and very rare and expensive, were the
as Ptolemy, a Greek astronomer and mathe- first charts developed exclusively for nautical
matician. Ptolemy created an eight-volume car- use. Common in the Mediterranean, the Por-
tographical work entitled Geographike Hhegesis tolan chart eventually covered the upper coasts
or Guide to Geography , which featured his own of Africa and those of northern Europe.
research as well as that of his predecessors.
These included Eratosthenes of Cyrene (c. 276- About the same time as Portolan charts
c. 194 B. C.), who developed an accurate mea- were being enhanced to include Africa, Prince
sure of the circumference of the globe; Crates Henry of Portugal (1394-1460), known as
of Mallus (fl. early second century B . C.), who Prince Henry the Navigator, established his
formalized the concept of a globe; Hipparchus “navigational” school at Sagres near Cabo de
(fl. late second century B.C.), who worked out a São, Portugal. The school employed cartogra-
grid of Earth; and Poseidonius (c. 135-c. 51 phers, including Portolan chart-makers, to de-
B . C .), who developed a “corrected” figure of
velop new maps based on data collected during
Earth’s circumference, which was smaller and expeditions sponsored by Prince Henry. By the
less accurate than that of Eratosthenes and, un- time of his death, expeditions under his spon-
fortunately, was the figure chosen by Ptolemy sorship had rediscovered Madeira and the
to represent the circumference of the globe. Azores in the Atlantic and had explored south-
ward along the coast of Africa as far as Gambia.
The cartographic principles established by As information from these discoveries were
Ptolemy became the fundamental elements of added to the cartographic record, more Euro-
geography for centuries. His Geography was pean countries became interested in maritime
translated to Latin in the early fifteenth century exploration and Prince Henry’s lasting contribu-
and maps of his world were constructed and be- tion (influenced by his accomplishments and the
came the model for Renaissance exploration. Be- tales of the thirteenth century explorer Marco
fore that, however, two developments of the Polo (c.1254-1324)) was to instigate a tradition
twelfth and thirteenth century had an impact on of European maritime discovery.
navigation and cartography: the magnetic com-
pass, in use in Western Europe by the late Men like Bartolomeu Dias (c.1450-1500),
1100s, and Portolan charts. Based on the por- who discovered the Cape of Good Hope; Vasco

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da Gama (c.1460-1524), who rounded Africa sailing of the shortest distance between two
and reached India in 1498; Christopher points. Because the compass bearings could be Exploration
Columbus (1451-1506), who discovered North plotted as straight segments on Mercator’s map, & Discovery
America but was convinced he had reached a ship’s course could be found by laying a
Asia; and Amerigo Vespucci (1454-1512), who straight rule across it. The map, of which only 1450-1699
rediscovered North America on his return from four copies survived, was made up of 24 sheets
Brazil, all contributed to events which would with dimensions being 131 x 208 cm. Intended
radically alter the world map of the time. The for navigators, it also represented the land sur-
1519-1522 circumnavigation of the globe by faces of the globe as accurately as possible based
Ferdinand Magellan brought back better un- on current geographical data gathered on expe-
derstanding of the expanse of the Americas and ditions around the world. Mercator regarded his
the Pacific Ocean. These momentous discover- world map as one part of a coordinated scheme
ies by European explorers were matched by the of cartographical research that culminated in the
invention of printing in Europe and the first posthumous publication of his greatest work, his
European printed map. By 1507, much of the Atlas (1595), a collection of maps which includ-
geographic knowledge and recent discoveries ed 27 originally prepared by Ptolemy (with cor-
appeared on a world map, one of the first ever rections and commentary by Mercator), and his
printed, published by Martin Waldseemüller own maps of the countries of Europe and the
(c.1475-1522) of Germany. His map depicted world. Mercator is credited with coining the
the new continent discovered across the At- phrase atlas for a collection of maps.
lantic as a separate entity and named America
Although sailors were slow to adopt the
in honor of Vespucci.
new Mercator mapping device, the projection
As men explored the oceans and coastlines of was eventually used by some of the most impor-
the world, they found that the Portolan charts tant explorers of the time. The concept of Mer-
were inadequate for navigation over the expanses cator’s projection was embraced by scientists
of oceans. The need for a chart of latitudes and who were determined to discover the mathemat-
longitudes instead of directions and distances ical reasoning behind it. Because Mercator did
prompted Renaissance mathematicians to experi- not explain his map—he merely included a
ment with various map projections to accommo- graphical device showing how it could be used
date both the new geographical data and the to solve the nautical triangle—it was not practi-
problem with navigation. This new scientific ap- cal for chart-makers and sailors. His solution
proach to cartography stimulated one Flemish was not perfect; it approximated longitude be-
cartographer to abandon the teachings of Ptolemy cause neither the knowledge of the true size and
and develop a new system for navigation charts. shape (many still, despite vast evidence to the
contrary, believed the world to be flat) of the
Impact globe nor the mathematical resources of his time
were adequate to permit great accuracy.
The growing volume of new geographical data
persuaded Gerardus Mercator (1512-1594) to The problem of determining longitude de-
abandon the time-honored theories of Ptolemy layed the use of Mercator’s charts until two Eng-
and other cartographers and to construct his lish mathematicians developed a solution using
maps and globes to reflect the latest observations trigonometric tables. Thomas Harriot (1560-
and geographic knowledge. Using his back- 1621), working privately for Sir Walter Raleigh
ground in mathematics, Mercator sought a prac- (c. 1554-1618), and Edward Wright (1558-
tical solution to represent the curved meridians 1615), constructed tables of meridional parts, by
and parallels of the globe on the flat surface of a which lines of latitude on a Mercator chart could
chart. This problem was especially significant to be spaced. The compass bearing, or plot, on a
mariners who were beginning to explore the vast Mercator chart is thus determined using the dif-
expanse of the world’s oceans after centuries of ference in meridional parts and longitude.
sticking to the coast lines. (Wright published his table in 1599 and is often
given sole credit for the solution.)
Compiling data from Spanish and Por-
tuguese charts with his mathematical system of Despite the table of meridional parts, deter-
projection, Mercator published his world map mining longitude was still problematic for
for navigation at sea in 1569. The cylindrical sailors and would require the invention of an ac-
projection enabled navigators to compute a curate chronometer, which was accomplished in
compass bearing in a straight line, enabling the 1759 by English inventor John Harrison (1693-

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1776). Harrison’s seagoing chronometer was em- maps of the globe. The use of modern technolo-
Exploration ployed by James Cook (1728-1779) during his gies in the maritime realm, such as global posi-
& Discovery circumnavigation of the globe. The charts Cook tioning systems and highly sophisticated radar,
compiled during his voyage were so accurate has significantly changed the work of a navigator
1450-1699 and detailed that they changed the nature of on the seas and oceans of the world. The Merca-
navigation and cartography forever. In 1884, the tor map is still used, but it has been overshad-
countries of the world agreed to adopt the owed by these commonplace modern inventions.
meridian of Greenwich, England, as the Prime
ANN T. MARSDEN
Meridian (0°), making longitude constant on all
future navigational charts around the globe.
Further Reading
Today, nearly all navigational charts are con-
structed using the Mercator projection with the Books
exception of maps of large areas, such as the en- Crone, Gerald Roe. Maps and Their Makers. Folkestone,
tire Pacific Ocean, or charts of the Polar regions. UK.: Wm Dawson & Sons Ltd, 1978.
However, modern cartography owes much to the May, W.E. A History of Marine Navigation. New York: W.W.
inventions of other scientists, such as photogra- Norton & Company, Inc., 1973.
phy, the airplane, the computer, and space tech- Tooley, Ronald Vere. Maps and Map-makers. London: B.T.
nology. The advent of aerial photography, first Batsford, 1987.
from balloon, then airplane, and now satellite, Internet Sites
has had a tremendous impact on the develop- “The History of Navigation.” http://boatsafe.com/kids/
ment of more accurate and infinitely detailed navigation.htm.

Biographical Sketches


Alonso Alvarez de Piñeda was his attention to detail. He not only stopped
numerous times along the unfamiliar coastline,
1494-1519 but made comprehensive maps of each area he
Spanish Navigator encountered with notes about the settlers and
their cultures.

A ccording to meager historical references,

Captain Alonso Alvarez de Piñeda’s life was
short but exceedingly eventful and productive.
Before leaving the Caribbean, Francisco
Garay gave Alvarez de Piñeda instructions to in-
The only actual mention of his date of birth ap- tercept the flotilla commanded by Hérnan
pears in a biography of his immediate superior, Cortés (1485-1547) in Vera Cruz. His plan was
Francisco de Garay. It states that Piñeda was born to claim that portion of Mexico for Spain and to
in Spain in 1494 in the village of Centernera. oust Cortés. This mistake in military judgment
was soon evident when Alvarez de Piñeda an-
His adventures began when Garay (who was chored his ships and sent men ashore to take
then governor of Jamaica in the Caribbean) command. The plan backfired when Cortés cap-
commissioned Alvarez de Piñeda to command a tured the landing force and sent Alvarez de Piñe-
flotilla of four vessels with the express purpose da and his flotilla packing.
of finding the imagined Southwest Passage water They resumed their voyage along the coast
route to the Orient and the subsequent treasures of Texas and Alvarez de Piñeda is further credit-
of China and other Asian civilizations. It was a ed with the discovery of what is now Corpus
huge responsibility for a captain who was only Christi. He gave the settlement this name to
25 years of age. honor the Catholic feast day of Corpus Christi.
Alvarez de Piñeda took his assignment seri- He also went ashore at another settlement in
ously. He spent the next nine months sailing south Texas and was instrumental in colonizing
along the coast of present-day western Florida the area that is now Brownsville.
and all around the gulf to Vera Cruz, Mexico. Because his vessels were all badly in need of
The remarkable talent of this young explorer repairs, Captain Alvarez de Piñeda anchored his

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fleet at the mouth of what he called Rio de las discoveries about the geography of the northern
Palmas, now believed to have been the Rio reaches of the New World. During two of his Exploration
Grande. He remained there 40 days while his most noteworthy expeditions—both with ex- & Discovery
men secured the supplies needed for repairing plorer Robert Bylot as commander—Baffin
the damaged vessels. searched the waters now known as Hudson Bay 1450-1699
or Baffin Bay for entrances to the Northwest Pas-
Alvarez de Piñeda used this sailing break to
sage, which would connect the Atlantic Ocean
travel inland and discover any inhabitants who
to the Pacific. One of his expeditions with Bylot
might aid him in his mapping work. From archive
led the men and their crew to within 800 miles
records of the time, it appears that he traveled
(1,287 km) of the North Pole—the northern-
about 18 miles (29 km) inland along the river and
most point ever reached in the Canadian Arctic.
reported encountering approximately 40 different
The record stood for more than two centuries.
Indian tribes, many of whom were wearing orna-
Baffin’s exploits in the Canadian Arctic are now
ments made of gold. This encouraged him to make
immortalized in the names of Baffin Bay and Baf-
written recommendations to Governor Garay that
fin Island.
colonists be sent to the area and, in the name of
Spain, to claim the entire coastal landmass from Baffin was born around 1584 in or near
Texas to Florida under the name “Amichel.” London, but little else is known of him until he
Although written accounts of these events took the position of chief pilot for a Greenland-
are lacking, there was an unexpected discovery bound ship in 1612. He continued his adven-
that turned speculation into historical fact. In tures by taking positions in 1613 and 1614
1974 the Harlingen Naval Reserve Unit was ex- aboard ships funded by the whaling outfit
cavating for Civil War artifacts on behalf of the named the Muscovy Company. During these
Rio Grande Valley Museum. While digging for voyages, the English pilot was able to learn
these treasures, they came upon a clay tablet with about the coasts of the Spitsbergen Islands in the
a Spanish inscription that translated into English icy waters about 500 miles (805 km) east of
as: “Here [. . .] Capt. Alonso Alvarez de Piñeda in Greenland.
1519 with 270 men and 4 of Garay’s Ships.” Baffin’s experience in the Arctic helped him
According to Bernal Diaz del Castillo (one attain the title of chief pilot for an expedition
of Piñeda’s officers), Captain Alvarez de Piñeda commanded by Robert Bylot. The men set sail
died as a result of wounds he received while on March 15, 1615, aboard the Discovery, a ship
fighting Indians on the Panuco River. He was 25 made famous by explorer Henry Hudson (c.
years of age when he was reported dead. 1565-1611) when he discovered what is now
known as Hudson Bay in 1610-1611. Baffin and
Although Piñeda’s career was very short, it Bylot planned to lead the Discovery back to Hud-
was of great importance to all who followed him son Bay with the express purpose of determining
in that he proved—without a doubt—that the whether a Northwest Passage originated from its
coast of the Gulf of Mexico was a solid landmass waters. They got as far as the Hudson Strait, but
with no possibility of a water passage to any- were forced back by thick ice before they could
where else on the continent. enter Hudson Bay. Nonetheless, Baffin’s observa-
Scholars are indebted to Clotilde P. Garcia, tions during the trip allowed him to conclude
M.D., of Corpus Christi, Texas, for much of the that the Northwest Passage did not connect with
known historical information about Alvarez de Hudson Bay. He was right.
Piñeda. Her years of research were conducted in
Baffin and Bylot returned to England for a
order to prepare a paper to qualify for the is-
short time before leaving on the Discovery for the
suance of a historical marker for Captain Alonso
Canadian Arctic on March 26, 1616. During this
Alvarez de Piñeda in Corpus Christi.
expedition, they ventured into a large expanse of
BROOK HALL water west of Greenland to a point farther north
than any other North American explorers had
gone. Baffin charted the serpentine coastline of
William Baffin the bay and the large adjacent island, both of
1584-1622 which now carry his name. He also charted and
English Navigator, Ship Pilot, and Explorer named the Lancaster Sound, which connects to
the bay on the west. The sound was later shown

W hile searching for the elusive Northwest

Passage, William Baffin made important
to be an entry point for the Northwest Passage,
Baffin never identified it as such.

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Although unsuccessful in the discovery of a

Exploration Northwest Passage, Baffin’s charts of the Hudson
& Discovery Strait and Baffin Bay provided important new in-
formation. He is also credited with making a sig-
1450-1699 nificant navigational finding during the voyage
by determining longitude at sea. His method in-
volved calculating the distance of the moon from
another more fixed celestial object. In addition,
he maintained careful records on his observa-
tions of the Moon and stars, the tides and even
the variations in his compass readings as they
neared the Earth’s magnetic pole. The latter
helped future scientists to learn more about the
pole’s variations from year to year.
After he returned to England, Baffin contin-
ued his quest to find a Northwest Passage. He
began a two-year voyage on February 4, 1617,
in hopes of finding the passage from the Pacific
side of the continent. The ship, commissioned
by the East India Company, never traveled as far
as the Pacific, however. Undeterred, he set out
on another East India Company expedition in
1620. Almost two years into the voyage, the fleet Vasco Núñez de Balboa. (Library of Congress.
engaged in a battle with Portuguese adversaries Reproduced with permission.)
in the Persian Gulf. Baffin died in combat there
on January 20, 1622. gence and sheer willpower, he persuaded the re-
maining members of the colony to relocate
LESLIE A. MERTZ
across the Gulf of Uraba to Darien on the Isth-
mus of present-day Panama. Once there, he es-
Vasco Núñez de Balboa tablished the town of Santa Maria de la Antigua,
the first permanent settlement in Central Ameri-
1475-1519
ca. The town elected two magistrates, one of
Spanish Conquistador whom was Balboa. With the departure of Enciso
to Hispanola, Balboa quickly moved to become
V asco Núñez de Balboa was a Spanish con-
quistador who explored Central America,
was the first to establish a permanent settlement
the leader of the settlement. King Ferdinand of
Spain declared Balboa the interim governor and
captain general of the area in December of 1511;
in Central America, and was the first European
Balboa was 36.
to see the Pacific Ocean.
Balboa began to explore and ultimately
Balboa was a descendent of the Galician
dominate the area, subjugating the Indians to
family of nobles in Castile; he began his life at
slavery and sometimes torture to extract infor-
Jerez de los Caballeros in the province of Es-
mation about other Indian tribes. His treatment
tremadura. He grew up in a time when many
of the Indians was marked by force and by a
from his social class were sailing to the New
policy designed to make the tribes war with
World to seek their fortune; he set out on his
themselves, making Balboa’s task of domination
own in 1500. He sailed to present-day Colombia
all the easier.
with Rodrigo de Bastidas (b. 1460?) but eventu-
ally moved to Hispaniola (present-day Haiti) to Balboa and the Spaniards were told by the
try his hand at pioneer farming. Unfortunately, Indians of a sea that was to the south and of a
Balboa experienced financial troubles, and in an gold-rich culture of Indians; he set about imme-
effort to evade his creditors, he stowed away in a diately to gain support for the expedition. Un-
provisions cask aboard an expedition headed by known to Balboa, an expedition was set out from
Martín Fernández de Enciso (1470?-1528). This Spain, but he ultimately was not to be the com-
expedition took Balboa to a struggling Spanish mander. Pedro Arias Davila, an aging nobleman,
colony in present-day Colombia. There, using with 2,000 personnel, left Spain in April of 1514
his knowledge of the area along with his intelli- with the objective of taking over for Balboa.

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Balboa, impatient with waiting for the sup- wide open for the ambitious merchants in the
port from Spain, moved on from the settlement Netherlands. Exploration
in Santa Maria de la Antigua to the narrowest
Because of his successful voyages to and & Discovery
part of the isthmus with 190 Spaniards and In-
from Spain, as well as numerous ports on the
dian support. On September 25 (or 27), 1513, 1450-1699
Mediterranean, Barents worked in Amsterdam
Balboa became the first European to see the Pa-
with Dutch geographer Peter Plancius to create a
cific Ocean, which they called the South Sea.
navigational guide for those voyages. Barents
Balboa claimed the land and the sea in the name
was a cartographer and provided future histori-
of the king of Spain; he was made governor of
ans with a now-famous introduction to the art of
the Mar del Sur (South Sea) and the provinces of
cartography as well as competent seamanship.
Panama but was to be under the authority of
Pedro Arias Dávila. The initial voyage was sponsored by the Es-
tates of Holland and left the island of Texel on
Balboa and Dávila had a relationship June 5, 1594, to explore the possibilities of a
marked by distrust and jealousy. Even under northern passage to the Indies. They continued
these conditions, Balboa was given authority to for a relatively short time before encountering a
explore the South Sea, or the Pacific Ocean. Bal- daunting sea full of ice floes and bergs of all
boa oversaw the tremendous effort to build a sizes. Satisfied, for the time being, they returned
fleet of ships on the Atlantic Ocean side, disas- home and made their reports.
semble them, and then transport them across
the isthmus, over mountains and through The Estates decided to try again the follow-
swamps, to the Pacific side where they were re- ing year and appointed another officer to com-
assembled and used to explore the Gulf of San mand the expedition. Because of a later depar-
Miguel. During this time, Balboa’s claims of in- ture in July 1595, they found the ice fields even
competence leveled at Dávila succeeded—the more treacherous and seas that had been previ-
king replaced Dávila with another governor. ously navigable were now impossible to cross. In
Dávila, in an effort to save his career and possi- addition to these disappointments, several men
bly his life, ordered Balboa home to discuss mat- were lost while trying to return to Amsterdam.
ters of mutual concern. Once Balboa arrived, he The third venture was undertaken and fi-
was charged with rebellion and after a mock trial nanced by the City of Amsterdam with Willem
was beheaded along with four accomplices in Barents in command. He was able to depart on
January 1519. May 15, 1596, along with two other ships. Sur-
viving records show that Barents and one of his
MICHAEL T. YANCEY
captains, Rijp, had a disagreement, which result-
ed in Captain Rijp’s changing course, running
into formidable ice fields, and returning home.
Willem Barents Captain Heemskerk remained with his comman-
1550?-1597 der and both ships were caught in the deadly
grip of the hardening ice that surrounded them.
Dutch Navigator
Eventually, both vessels were forced upward, out
of the ice and were broken up by the inexorable
T he name Willem Barents is almost as well
known to Dutch children as Hans Brinker,
hero of the famous finger-in-the-dyke folk story.
forces that surrounded them.
By this time they had reached the icy shores
Born around 1550, Barents went on to a naval of Nova Zembla, an island sometimes called No-
career that brought him a permanent place in vaya Zemyla, off the Russian coast. Realizing
history for his deeds and heroism, for which the they would be spending at least six months in
Barents Sea is named after him. the harshest of circumstances, the crew mem-
bers and their officers began at once to salvage
In the early 1500s both the Dutch and the
the ships’ lumber to build a longhouse or cabin
English were interested in finding a northeast
to house them and to store whatever they could
passage to China and the Indies to facilitate
recover from the wreckage.
trade and commerce in these promising, fruitful
areas. The newly established Muscovy Trading Journals kept and brought back by sur-
Company in London funded the first expedition vivors recount a tale of unbelievable hardship
in 1553 but, after 25 years without tangible re- that they endured on Nova Zembla. Even with a
sults, the British settled for profitable trading wood fire kept burning at all times, the sheets
with the northern Russians. This left the field on their makeshift beds would be frozen solid

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along with whatever they would cook and try to

Exploration eat or drink. They gave up trying to wash any
& Discovery clothing since it would start to freeze as soon as
it left the warm water and could never be dried
1450-1699 or worn again.
Since there was no outlet for the smoke
from the fire, it settled in the cabin and made
breathing not only unhealthy but almost impos-
sible. It got so cold that their watches stopped
and they used a 12-hour glass to keep time.
When the worst was over, they realized they
had to try to leave the island or perish if they re-
mained. They provisioned several longboats as
best they could and started out on the 1,600-
mile (2,575-km) journey home. Unfortunately
Willem Barents did not survive the harrowing
trip and died at sea. Those who made it back
told of his inspiring leadership along with other
accounts of the adventure, which are still told
around Dutch fireplaces and remain relevant
today. Willem Barents was close to 47 when he
perished in 1597.
Jacques Cartier. (The Granger Collection, Ltd.
Confirming evidence of their incredible Reproduced with permission.)
story was found in 1871, when another explorer
discovered the remains of the Arctic dwelling
mended Cartier to King François I. Cartier set
they had built, along with the tools, instru-
sail with two ships and five dozen men in April
ments, and other artifacts they had left behind.
1534. Their mission was to find gold and other
These relics have been preserved and can be
valuable minerals. Less than three weeks after
viewed in The Hague, Netherlands.
they left Saint-Malo, Cartier’s ships reached
BROOK HALL Newfoundland at a point only 11 miles (17.7
km) from their set destination. They continued
Jacques Cartier south to the Gulf of St. Lawrence, recording the
first European accounts of many sites along the
1491-1557 way, including Prince Edward and Anticosti is-
French Navigator and Explorer lands, and the Bay of Gaspe. Although he was
near the St. Lawrence River, Cartier either didn’t

J acques Cartier is the adventurer who is often

credited with discovering Canada. He was the
first European to locate the Gulf of St. Lawrence
reach it or missed it due to poor weather condi-
tions. He returned from his six-month journey
to a hero’s welcome in Saint-Malo.
and the St. Lawrence River, and was the first to
venture deep into the northern wilderness of the With the success of the 1534 voyage, Carti-
North American continent. The accounts he er embarked on another expedition in the spring
made of his journeys became the basis for the of 1535. He took three ships this time, along
first maps of the area. Those maps opened the with a full crew plus two Native Americans he
major routes followed by later French explorers had brought back with him to France on his
into Canada. previous voyage. The Native Americans, who
Born in the port of Saint-Malo, in the had learned the French language during their
French province of Brittany in 1491, Cartier stay overseas, served as interpreters for Cartier
began his seafaring career with a number of voy- on his 1535 visit. With information garnered
ages to Brazil, Newfoundland and perhaps even from the Native Americans, Cartier was able to
to America as a member of Giovanni da Verraz- locate the St. Lawrence estuary and by Septem-
zano’s crew in the 1520s. His first recorded jour- ber to travel up the river to a village named
ney, however, was his expedition to the New Stadacona, located at the present-day Quebec. A
World in 1534. He received command of the month later, by longboat rather than in his sail-
voyage after the bishop of Saint-Malo recom- ing ship, he arrived in a village named Hochela-

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ga. Cartier named the hill near the village Mont

Réal. The area is now known as the major Cana- Exploration
dian city of Montreal. & Discovery
Cartier set sail for his next voyage to the New
1450-1699
World in 1541. He served as chief pilot for the
expedition under Jean François de la Rocque de
Roberval, who commanded the eight-ship, 1,500-
man voyage. Cartier’s ship arrived in Canada early
and overwintered apart from the other ships
north of Quebec. Cartier rejoined Roberval in
June, but disobeyed Roberval’s orders to return to
Quebec and instead made his way back to
France. There, Cartier lived the rest of his life out-
side Saint-Malo. He died on September 1, 1557.
LESLIE A. MERTZ

Samuel de Champlain
1567-1635
French Geographer and Explorer

S amuel de Champlain was among the first ex-

plorers to travel along the east coast of North
America and into its interior. He is often credit-
Samuel de Champlain. (AP/Wide World Photos.
Reproduced with permission.)

ed as the founder of New France, which is

known today as Canada. He also established or exploring the coasts of Nova Scotia, the Bay of
helped to establish colonies at Montreal, An- Fundy and the St. John River as part of the crew,
napolis Royal in Nova Scotia, and Quebec. By and then spent many days on his own touring
founding Quebec, he created the first permanent and writing meticulous accounts of the coastline
European settlement in North America. He also and adjoining inland areas. The expedition over-
helped to create much more accurate maps of wintered on what is now known as Douchet Is-
northeastern North America, providing needed land in the St. Croix River, then made its way
geographical information to later expeditions. down the coast, traveling south to Cape Cod.
Champlain continued his highly detailed de-
Born around 1567 in the town of Brouage scription of the areas he visited, and generated
on the coast of France, Champlain soon began a needed information for maps of the Atlantic
career at sea. He learned about navigation, map- coastline of northern North America.
making and chart-reading, and took part in his
first major expeditions to the West Indies from De Monts returned to France, but Champlain
1601-1603. His interest spurred, he set sail and other Frenchmen remained in Acadia for two
again, this time aboard a ship that was headed to years. Champlain spent his time exploring and
Canada, or New France. Led by François Gravé further charting the eastern seaboard from Nova
du Pont, the 1603 expedition toured Tadoussac Scotia to Rhode Island. He and the other French-
and ventured north to Montreal. Through an in- men returned to France in 1607, but Champlain
terpreter who translated between Champlain quickly landed a position as lieutenant for anoth-
and the native people, he learned about the exis- er expedition led by de Monts. By June 1608,
tence of the Great Lakes. Champlain was again in Canada. There, he led
the construction of a fort in what is now Quebec.
Champlain’s trip with du Pont kindled a de-
Within two years, the fort had become France’s
sire to explore more of northern North America,
North American center for fur trading.
and in particular, an area known as Acadia
(Newfoundland and surrounding regions). Back Champlain’s interests in exploring this new
from the du Pont expedition for less than a year, wilderness became particularly evident during his
Champlain joined another voyage to Canada. 1615 journey into Canada’s interior, where his
Lieutenant General Pierre du Gua de Monts led eyes fell for the first time upon Lake Huron. In
this trip, which Champlain made as the ship’s fact, he was likely the first European to ever see
geographer. Champlain spent the fall of 1604 the freshwater expanse. He relied on native peo-

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ple to guide him through the forests and to assist

Exploration with safe passage through the Indian-inhabited
& Discovery countryside. Intertribal violence persisted, how-
ever. One skirmish with a warring group of Indi-
1450-1699 ans left Champlain with a severe knee injury that
required several months of recovery time.
After his explorations continued, Champlain
not only was able to learn about the inland geog-
raphy of Canada, but was successful in docu-
menting the lives and lifestyles of the native peo-
ple. His account was one of the first thorough de-
scriptions of the Canadian native populations.
Champlain went to France periodically over
the years, but always returned to Canada. He
had even attained the title of commander of the
colony at Quebec. A war between France and
England forced him to surrender Quebec in
1629 and return to France, but his country re-
gained both Quebec and Annapolis Royal in
1632. By then nearing 70 years old, Champlain
went back to Quebec for the last time. His
health deteriorated, and he died there on De-
cember 25, 1635. Christopher Columbus. (Library of Congress.
Reproduced with permission.)
LESLIE A. MERTZ

odyssey on the ancient Silk Road to China. By

Christopher Columbus Columbus’s time, however, the Turks’ destruc-
tion of the Byzantine Empire had virtually sealed
1451-1506
off the eastward land route; thus explorers, be-
Italian Explorer ginning with those sent out by Portugal’s Prince
Henry the Navigator (1394-1460), had attempt-
I f there is any explorer who, in the eyes of most
Americans, seems to need no introduction, it
is Christopher Columbus. Yet few figures in his-
ed to find a sea route.
Columbus, who first went to sea as a nine-
tory have been the subject of so much myth. or ten-year-old, gained considerable experience
Old-fashioned political correctness maintained sailing the relatively safe Mediterranean. After
that Columbus was a sort of savior for discover- being wounded in a battle off the coast of Portu-
ing the New World, whereas modern political gal in 1476, he settled in that country, where he
correctness—manifested particularly in 1992, and his brother Bartholomeu worked as map-
during the 500th anniversary of his discovery— makers. During this time, he married Felipa Per-
condemns him as a murderer of Native Ameri- estrelo, who gave him one son, Diego, before
cans and destroyer of the environment. In fact, dying in 1483. The loss of his wife seemed to
both views miss the point that Columbus ulti- spark a restlessness in Columbus, now in his
mately had no idea what he was doing: though early thirties, that led him into the events that
he was right in surmising that it was possible to would make him an immortal.
reach Asia by sea, he went to his grave believing Portuguese efforts at eastward exploration
(incorrectly) that he had done so. had concentrated on attempts to round the coast
He was born Cristoforo Colombo (Colum- of Africa and reach Asia via the Indian Ocean;
bus” is an Anglicized version) in Genoa at some Columbus, by contrast, presented King John II
time between August and September 1451. His with the idea of a westward expedition to
parents, Domenico and Suzanna Fontanarossa achieve the same goal. John turned a deaf ear, so
Colombo, were humble people: Domenico was a Columbus went instead to the court of Queen
weaver, and what little education their son re- Isabella and King Ferdinand of Spain. The latter
ceived was primarily a result of his own efforts. did not agree to support the expedition, but
Young Columbus read, and was fascinated by, took enough of an interest in Columbus to grant
Marco Polo’s (1254-1324) account of his him a small annuity. He would wait for the bet-

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ter part of seven years to begin his voyage, dur- was brought back to Spain in chains in October
ing which time he had an affair with Beatriz En- 1500. Exploration
riquez, with whom he had a son named Ferdi-
Within a few weeks of his arrival, however, & Discovery
nand. Then suddenly in 1492, a Spanish priest
Columbus managed to talk his way back into
acted as broker in an agreement between the 1450-1699
the royal couple’s good graces. Finally they au-
monarchs and Columbus, who promised them
thorized what would be his last voyage, in May
vast riches to be gained from the expedition.
1502, this time with just four ships. The situa-
On August 3, 1492, Columbus set sail with tion in the New World was even worse than be-
some 100 men aboard the Niña, the Pinta, and fore: a new governor in Hispaniola prevented
the Santa María. After 37 perilous days’ voyage, Columbus from landing on the island, and after
the crew sighted land, and on October 12, set his crew survived a hurricane, he had to wait a
foot on what is now the island of San Salvador year before the colonial governor sent him help.
in the Bahamas. There they were greeted by the By November 1504 he was back in Spain, a vir-
aboriginal Arawaks, who Columbus—believing tually forgotten man.
he had reached Asia—dubbed “Indians.” After Within days of his arrival, Columbus lost
some time on San Salvador, the crew explored his chief supporter, Queen Isabella. He himself
the islands of Cuba and Hispaniola. On the lat- would not live more than 18 months, during
ter, they built a fort called Santo Domingo, today which time he continually beseeched King Fer-
the capital of the Dominican Republic and the dinand for the rewards that had been promised
oldest continuous European settlement in the him in their 1492 agreement. He died in the
Americas. Frustrated in his attempts to find ei- town of Valladolid on May 20, 1506.
ther treasure or clear confirmation that he had
reached Asia, Columbus departed for Spain in JUDSON KNIGHT
January 1493 with a pair of captured Indians, a
few trinkets, and a small quantity of gold he had
managed to obtain from the Arawaks. He left be-
Francisco Vasquez de Coronado
hind a group of 40 men, and one of the ships, at 1510?-1554
Santo Domingo. Spanish Explorer

Columbus received a hero’s welcome in

Spain, and his rising fortunes were signified by
the size of his second expedition: 17 ships, some
B orn around 1510 in Salamanca, Spain, Fran-
cisco Vasquez, better known as Coronado,
explored large regions of the American South-
1,200 men, and six months’ worth of supplies. west, including Arizona, New Mexico, Texas,
Yet things began to turn sour upon their return Oklahoma, and Kansas. His name would forever
to Hispaniola in November 1493: as it turned link Mexico with the United States.
out, tensions between the Indians and the
greedy Europeans had resulted in the slaughter As one of the younger sons of a wealthy fa-
of all 40 Spaniards. A number of Columbus’s ther, he was raised and educated in good cir-
men began succumbing to New World illnesses, cumstances but without hope of inheriting any
and with supplies dwindling, he sent a dozen portion of the family estate. The daughters re-
ships back to Spain. He and the remaining ceived dowries to ensure suitable marriages but
group explored parts of Cuba and Jamaica, but the younger sons were sent out to make their
their demands for treasure again put them into own ways in the world. Coronado chose Mexico;
conflict with the Indians. his brother, Juan, opted for Costa Rica.
Coronado received a warm welcome from
Returning without significant treasure in
Viceroy Mendoza and began his career with the
1496, Columbus found that his standing with
government of Mexico. He was said to be attrac-
the royal couple had diminished considerably,
tive, popular, and competent, and within two
and this was reflected in the size of the third ex-
years he married the beautiful (and extremely
pedition: just eight ships. This time Columbus,
wealthy) Dona Beatriz, daughter of Alonso de
desperate to find the Asian mainland, sailed
Estrada.
southward to Trinidad before returning to His-
paniola in August 1498. In Santo Domingo, he He moved up the political ladder quickly.
found a full-scale mutiny, and when returning By the time he was 28 years of age, he was ap-
sailors brought this news to Ferdinand and Is- pointed Governor of Nueva Galacia with all its
abella, they sent an official named Bobadilla to responsibilities and the need to distinguish him-
investigate. On Bobadilla’s orders, Columbus self. The opportunity arose when Fray Marcos

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Exploration
& Discovery
1450-1699

Francisco Vasquez de Coronado. (Library of Congress. Reproduced with permission.)

de Niza (?-1558) returned from an exploratory When most of the journals, reports, maps,
mission to New Mexico and told eager listeners and other records were finally assembled, it ap-
of a wealthy, golden city named Cíbola. The peared that Coronado accomplished far more
story generated the same kind of unreasonable than what was originally believed. He acquaint-
excitement that inspired Jason to chase the ed himself with many Indian tribes besides the
Golden Fleece, thousands of Americans to the Zunis and was the first foreigner to see the fa-
goldfields of California, and millions of today’s mous City in the Sky, built by and inhabited by
population to the lottery machines. the Acoma tribe near present-day Albuquerque.
Coronado saw this as his opportunity to re- Reportedly, Coronado and his men were the first
plenish the government coffers and to secure his explorers to pass through the Texas panhandle,
position in his adopted country. He assembled then Oklahoma, finding the Cimarron and
340 Spanish, 300 Indians, and 1,000 Native Arkansas rivers on their way to eastern Kansas.
American and African slaves and left Mexico Most of the territories they passed through and
City with the entire force in 1540. They headed mapped appear in American atlases as the south
north toward the territory that was west of central and far southwest portions of the United
today’s New Mexico. When the impressive body States. As a matter of record, though Juan Ro-
of explorers reached Cíbola, they found nothing driguez Cabrillo (1498?-1543) is credited with
to resemble the golden city described by Fray discovering California, Coronado preceded him
Marcos. Instead, they met and easily overcame a by two full years.
modest pueblo of Zuni Indians. Further searches When Coronado returned to Mexico in
revealed six other Zuni encampments, but noth- 1542, he was accompanied by only 100 of his
ing to indicate the existence of any treasures to original force. The quest for the City of Gold was
be taken home. a dismal failure but Coronado retained his post
After sending Fray Marcos back to Mexico as Governor of Nueva Galacia for another two
in disgrace, Coronado sent out various expedi- years. He died in 1554, only 44 years of age but
tion parties to map the source of the Colorado living in retirement.
River, to confirm the rumor of another great Today, the name “Coronado” is in wide-
river in the west and to pick up supplies he was spread use throughout the United States. Every-
expecting from Mexico City. The search for the thing from state monuments, forests, bridges,
second “great river” led to the discovery of the parks, cities, and schools, to beaches, automo-
Grand Canyon in Arizona. biles, industries, and hotels bear the name that

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unites the United States with its southern neigh-

bor, Mexico. Exploration
BROOK HALL
& Discovery
1450-1699
Hernán Cortés
1485-1547
Spanish Conquistador

H ernán Cortés was a Spanish conquistador

who succeeded in claiming most of pre-
sent-day Mexico for Spain by conquering the
Aztec people in their capital city of Tenochtitlan.
Cortés was born in the region of Medellin,
Spain, to parents of good social standing. Cortés
was sent to the University of Salamenca at the
age of 14 where, among other subjects, he stud-
ied Latin for two years. Following his studies,
Cortés set out to make his way in life. His imagi-
nation ignited with the possibilities that awaited
in the Indies recently discovered by Christopher
Columbus (1451-1506), Cortés sailed, at age Hernán Cortés.
19, to Hispaniola (present-day Santo Domingo)
in 1504.
Cortés spent approximately six years as a cant of these were the Tlascala, who were at war
farmer in Hispaniola, then in 1511 joined Diego with the Aztecs. With the information gathered,
Velazquez (1465?-1522), with whom he became Cortés set out for Tenochtitlan, the island-city
an intimate friend, on an expedition to Cuba. capital of the Aztec empire in Lake Texcoco,
When Velazquez was appointed governor of Cuba ruled by Montezuma II. In early November of
in 1511, Cortés was made clerk to the treasurer. 1519 Cortés and his men reached Lake Texcoco.
Accompanied by 1,000 Tlascala Indians, they
Velazquez made plans to send an expedition entered the city on November 8, 1519. Mon-
to what is now Mexico; Cortés was placed in tezuma initially thought that Cortés was the
charge of the expedition. With his experience as Aztec god Quetzalcoatl and as a result opened
a leader and his position in politics, Cortés was the city to him. Cortés then took Montezuma
able to quickly recruit 300 men and acquire six hostage in an effort to conquer the entire Aztec
ships. Cortés soon became aware that Velazquez empire with one action.
was intending to name another leader of the ex-
Soon thereafter, Cortés learned that an ex-
pedition, and in an effort to preserve his efforts
pedition, sent by Velazquez and led by Pánfilo
he slipped away and headed along the coast of
de Narváez (1480?-1528), had left Cuba and
Cuba, recruiting more men. When Cortés finally
had arrived at the coast of Mexico with the in-
left for Mexico on February 18, 1519, he was
tent of relieving Cortés of his command of
the leader of over 600 soldiers and sailors, 11
Tenochtitlan. Cortés left the Aztec city and, after
ships, 200 Indians for support, and 16 horses.
a surprise attack and victory over Narvaez and
Cortés went first to Yucatan and then along his men, returned to Tenochtitlan. In the mean-
the coast of Mexico, where he founded the town time, the Aztecs had revolted against the
of Villa Rica de Veracruz. He had himself elect- Spaniards that Cortés had left behind. So under
ed, by his soldiers, as captain general as well as cover of night on June 30, 1520, Cortés and his
chief justice, making himself the sole authority men left the city and found refuge with the Tlas-
for the expedition. He also burned their ships, a cala Indians.
tactic designed to raise the level of commitment
Cortés reassembled his army and with Indi-
in his men to the conquest of Mexico.
an support marched on the Aztec capital in De-
Cortés led his men into the interior of Mexi- cember of 1520. The attack on the city began in
co, relying on information from Indians with May of 1521 and by August 13 the city was in
whom he had become friendly; the most signifi- the control of the Spaniards; the Aztec empire

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was officially defeated. On October 15, 1522,

Exploration Charles V named Cortés the governor of New
& Discovery Spain, or the territories in Mexico conquered by
the Spanish; he rebuilt the city of Tenochtitlan.
1450-1699 However, Cortés was only in power for a few
years, and by 1526 he was removed as governor;
from 1528-1530 he tried to regain his position
in Mexico. He did not succeed in this effort and
returned to Mexico where he retired to his estate
about 30 miles (48 km) south of Mexico City
(Tenochtitlan). He spent his time building a cas-
tle on his estate and leading expeditions, but he
was not to acquire the position he had held be-
fore. In 1540 he returned to Spain, where he
died in 1547; his body was returned to Mexico
for burial.
MICHAEL T. YANCEY

Bartolomeu Dias
c. 1450-1500
Portuguese Mariner and Navigator
Bartolomeu Dias. (Archive Photos, Inc. Reproduced with
Bartolomeu Dias was the first mariner to
permission.)
round Africa’s Cape of Good Hope, opening up a
coveted sea route to the West Indies for Portu-
gal. In the latter part of his life, he took part in Dias’s ships passed the Orange River, just to the
the Portuguese discovery of Brazil. north of present-day South Africa. Shortly after
passing Cape Volts, named for its strong winds,
Little is known about Dias’s early life. Al- the ships encountered a massive storm that blew
though his surname was a common one, histori- them on a southerly course for nearly 13 days.
ans believe that Dias came from a long line of When the wind died down, Dias sailed east, ex-
navigators that may have included Dinis Dias, pecting to encounter the west coast of Africa.
who rounded the Cape Verde in 1455, and Joao When no land appeared, he turned north,
Dias, who rounded Cape Bojador in 1437. In reaching Bahia de Vaquieros, roughly 200 miles
1486, on the appointment of King John II, Dias (322 km) east of the Cape of Good Hope, not re-
was instructed to find “Polly Prism Promontori- alizing at this point that they had rounded the
um,” the southernmost extremity of Africa, and cape.
hopefully discover the coveted sea route to
India. Finding this route was important to Por- Dias was convinced by his crew to turn
tugal because unrest in the Mongol Empire had back to Portugal. It was on the return journey
closed the overland trade routes to the Far East. that Dias spotted the much-looked-for cape as
Commanding a fleet of three ships, Dias left Lis- he sailed west. Although some controversy sur-
bon in 1487 after 10 months of preparation. rounds who named the Cape of Good Hope, his-
Using a new strategy, one of the three ships was torians generally credit it to Dias rather than
designated as a supply vessel, allowing the expe- King John II, who may have named it Cape Tor-
dition to stay at sea longer. Dias’s brother, Pedro, mentoso, in recognition of the storms encoun-
captained the supply ship. Dias also took with tered there.
him several African interpreters who had lived Maps drawn by the Greek cartographer
in Europe and would assist in establishing trade Ptolemy had shown the Indian Ocean as a great
with the native Africans. landlocked sea, and land from the east reaching
The expedition sailed south for four around and touching Africa’s west coast. Dias’s
months, stopping along the way to trade. The expedition proved this incorrect, but it was
explorers passed the stone pillar left by Diogo nearly 10 years before Portugal was able to take
Cão (1450-1486) near present-day Namibia to advantage of this important geographic discov-
mark the southernmost point the Portuguese ery. Within Portugal, Dias was not granted the
had reached thus far. By the end of December credit due as the person responsible for locating

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and mapping the Cape of Good Hope. Neverthe- proceeds. From these privateering expeditions,
less, in 1494 he was appointed to oversee the Drake learned the art of sailing and the geogra- Exploration
construction and outfitting of a fleet of ships for phy of the Western Hemisphere, and he devel- & Discovery
an expedition to reach India by way of the Cape oped a life-long hatred of the Spanish. For the
of Good Hope. Vasco da Gama (c. 1460-1524) remainder of his life he conducted a personal 1450-1699
was to lead the expedition with Dias accompa- war against Spain.
nying the voyage as far as the Cape Verde Is- In 1577 Queen Elizabeth commissioned
lands. After reaching the Cape Verde Islands, the Drake to sail around the world. The expedition
new Portuguese King Manuel sent Dias to estab- would sail to the South Seas through the Strait
lish trading posts in present-day Mozambique. of Magellan, something no Englishman had ever
In March 1500 Dias embarked on his final done. English trading posts were to be estab-
voyage of discovery. One of 13 ships under the lished throughout the Pacific. Queen Elizabeth
command of Pedro Álvares Cabral (c. 1467-c. also assumed that a small force of about 200
1520), the expedition was to duplicate da men could severely disrupt the flow of gold and
Gama’s voyage. The expedition embarked south silver to Spain, giving England an advantage
from the Cape Verde Islands and crossed the over her arch rival.
equator. When the fleet encountered the trade In 1577 the circumnavigation expedition
winds they were blown off course and as a result departed with a crew of 166 men—primarily
made the first recorded European landing on the hardened seamen who could handle weapons.
coast of Brazil. After leaving Brazil, the fleet en- The Pelican (commanded by Drake), the Eliza-
countered a fierce storm and four ships were lost beth, and three smaller vessels, heavily armed,
in the vicinity of the Cape of Good Hope, in- set sail from Plymouth, England, en route to
cluding that of Dias. Brazil, the mouth of the Rio de la Plata in Ar-
LESLIE HUTCHINSON gentina, and Patagonia and on through the
Straits of Magellan in 1578. Once through the
treacherous straits, only three ships remained as
Sir Francis Drake two ships had burned. Once in the Pacific the
1543?-1596 little fleet was hit by a fierce storm that lasted 52
English Navigator days and drove Drake’s ship far off course to the
south. One of the remaining ships was sunk

S ir Francis Drake was an English seaman and

explorer who made the second circumnavi-
gation around the world and later led the Eng-
with the crew onboard, and the other returned
home. Drake renamed his ship the Golden Hind
and continued the journey.
lish in defeating the Spanish Armada in an his- Drake and the Golden Hind sailed up the
toric battle in 1588. At the time of his death, coast of South America, provisioning themselves
Drake was an internationally acclaimed figure with supplies captured from Spanish storehous-
known throughout the world for his privateer- es in Chile and several Spanish ships captured
ing, pirating, and geographical knowledge. en route. In 1579 he anchored near Coos Bay,
Francis Drake was born in the town of Tavi- Oregon, and then repaired his ship in Drake’s
stock in Devonshire, England. He was one of 12 Bay, California. From there he headed out into
sons born into a modest family, almost all of the Pacific and did not sight land for 68 days
who became seaman. In his teens Drake was ap- until he reached Palau in southwestern Microne-
prenticed to a shipmaster, and in 1566 he was sia. He refitted his ship in Java, sailed to the
employed as a seaman on English ships engaged Cape of Good Hope, and arrived back in Eng-
in the slave trade between Africa and the land in 1580, where Queen Elizabeth knighted
Caribbean. him in 1581. He was the second person to lead
On his return to England in 1569, Drake re- an expedition around the world and the first
ported Spanish and Portequese attacks on Eng- Englishman to do so.
lish ships to Queen Elizabeth I. Due to the great By this time the Spanish were determined to
rivalry between England, Spain, and Portugal, put an end to the English raids and mounted the
the Queen officially gave Drake a privateering Great Armada of 1588. Drake was put in charge
commission to cruise the Panamanian coast. A of the English fleet. After a series of fierce bat-
“privateer” was someone authorized by the gov- tles, the Spanish were forced to retreat, and the
ernment of one country to attack the ships of remainder of their ships were destroyed by
another country and then retain a portion of the storms. At this defining moment, England re-

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placed Spain as the most influential sea power in he returned to England. Most of the samples
Exploration the world. were considered pyrite or “fool’s gold,” however,
& Discovery Drake died in 1596 off of the coast of Panama. some individuals believed that they indicated de-
posits of real gold, and he was able to get fund-
1450-1699 LESLIE HUTCHINSON ing for another expedition. Queen Elizabeth I
herself invested money in this company and fur-
Sir Martin Frobisher nished a ship in hopes of Frobisher finding gold.
1539-1594 In 1577 Frobisher, under his new company
English Explorer name, Cathay, set out with three ships and 120
crew members to travel back to Baffin Bay (now
called Frobisher Bay) and look for gold. He loaded
S ir Martin Frobisher was one of the first Eng-
lishmen to search for the Northwest Passage,
and he personally led three expeditions to the
approximately 200 tons of ore onto his ships and
captured an Inuit man, woman, and child to take
Canadian Arctic. He is known as one of Queen back to England. On his return, the ore assay
Elizabeth I’s most aggressive and enterprising showed the mineral deposits to be worthless, but
seamen, feared by Europeans for his privateering Frobisher decided to send out an even larger expe-
and for his role in the battle against the Spanish dition to bring back more extensive samples.
Armada in 1588. In 1578 Frobisher left England as the head
Martin Frobisher was born into an influen- of 15 ships with the mission to mine for ore and
tial family in England in 1539—his father was look for a Northwest Passage that might lead to
the director of the English mint. In his teen the Orient. While sailing south of Baffin Island,
years, instead of pursuing higher education, he they entered what is now known as Hudson
joined two trading voyages to West Africa. After Strait. He was convinced this was the passage
his adventures in Africa, Frobisher fought in the they had been looking for. However, the massive
English army in Ireland and then became a pri- ice, freezing wind, and erratic currents would
vateer—a pirate commissioned by the Queen to not allow the ships to proceed. He returned to
attack enemy ships and then keep part of the Frobisher Bay and built a stone house whose re-
proceeds. During his privateer days, he became mains were found nearly 300 years later.
very interested in the tales of the Northwest Pas- After the expedition’s return to England,
sage, a supposed route far to the north of Cana- metal workers were unable to refine the ore into
da that would link Europe to Asia. gold. Abandoning this venture, Frobisher con-
He discussed this idea with many leading tinued on in the British navy and as a privateer.
scientists in England at the time. Well known In 1588 he served as a commander in the battle
was Sir Humphrey Gilbert’s (c. 1539-1583) against the Spanish Armada, during which he
book, Discourse of a Discoverie for a New Passage was wounded; he eventually died of complica-
to Cataia, a speculative geography suggesting the tions in 1594. Although he did not find the
probability of a passage above North America, Northwest Passage, he is credited with adding
mirroring the passage around South America at vital information to the geographical under-
the Cape of Good Hope. This work intrigued standing of the northern latitudes.
him and he decided to raise an expedition and
LESLIE HUTCHINSON
investigate the hypothesis.
In 1575 Frobisher convinced the sharehold-
ers of a Russian company to invest in a voyage to Vasco da Gama
search for the Northwest Passage. Funding pro- 1460-1524
cured, the expedition embarked with three ships Portuguese Explorer
and 35 crew members. Sailing northwestward,
they sighted the coast of Greenland. However,
they were caught in a storm off the coast of
Greenland, and the ships were separated. One
I n the last years of the fifteenth century, an ex-
plorer set off from the Iberian Peninsula, full of
grand illusions and hoping to reach India by
returned to England and another with Frobisher going where no European had ever gone before.
on board was reported missing. He, however, Though that statement would seem to describe
continued to sail westward, sighted Resolution the 1492 voyage of Christopher Columbus
Island, discovered the great inlet on Baffin Bay, (1451-1506) to the New World, it is equally true
and encountered a group of native Inuit people. of a less famous expedition—from an American
After collecting ore samples and an Inuit Indian, perspective, at least—that set sail five years later.

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This one was led by Vasco da Gama, who sailed

under the Portuguese flag and rounded the Exploration
southern tip of Africa to become the first Euro- & Discovery
pean to reach the Indian subcontinent by sea.
1450-1699
Da Gama was born in Sines, Portugal, where
his father was governor. As a member of the nobil-
ity, he led a Portuguese attack on French ships in
1492, and later served as a gentleman at the court
of King Manuel I. Under the leadership of Manuel,
the Portuguese continued the tradition, begun by
Prince Henry the Navigator (1394-1460) and
maintained sporadically ever since, of exploring
the African coast. This had been done by bits and
pieces, with each subsequent probe venturing just
a bit further south, until Bartolomeu Dias (c.
1450-1500) had rounded the Cape of Good Hope
at the continent’s southern tip in 1487-1488. Now
Manuel was prepared to take the bold step of
passing the Cape by and sailing across thousands
of miles of open sea to India. Therefore on July 7,
1498, da Gama and his crew set sail from Lisbon
aboard four ships.
Vasco da Gama. (New York Public Library Picture
Their goal was the city of Calicut (not to be Collection. Reproduced with permission.)
confused with Calcutta) on the Malabar, or
southwestern, coast of India, and da Gama took
with him letters of introduction both to the ruler ples of treasure and spices when da Gama set
of Calicut and to Prester John. The latter, sup- sail again in August 1498, this was probably
posedly the ruler of a Christian kingdom, is now more from courtesy than from a genuine belief
known to have been an utterly fictitious charac- that trade with Europe would prove profitable.
ter, created by a sort of early urban legend The zamorin could not have known that the rag-
around 1150; but people in da Gama’s time did tag band of sailors were the advance party for
not know that, and Manuel was convinced that waves of European colonization that would not
Christian Portugal would find an ally in India. end until the nation of India annexed the Por-
tuguese colony of Goa in 1961.
Sailing well west of Africa, the crew round-
ed the Cape on November 22, then began trac- As for da Gama, his crew ran into consider-
ing the continent’s east coast. This put them in able hardships on the return voyage, which
contact with coastal trading cities, which served claimed the life of his brother Paulo (captain of
as ports for Arab and Persian vessels plying the one of the ships), along with many other crew
Indian Ocean route da Gama intended to cross. members. He arrived in Lisbon on September 9,
The Portuguese did battle with the Muslims in 1499, and would spend most of his remaining
Mozambique and Mombasa (now part of years enjoying the wealth and titles he had ac-
Kenya), but found a better reception in the city crued through his pioneering voyage. Da Gama
of Malindi, whose sultan provided them with an returned to India twice: first in 1502, then in
Indian pilot to guide them across the ocean. 1524, when he served as viceroy of the Por-
Thanks in part to this help, da Gama landed in tuguese colony before dying on December 24 in
Calicut on May 20, 1498. the city of Cochin.
At first the Portuguese were sure they had JUDSON KNIGHT
found Prester John’s land, because they mistook
a temple to a Hindu goddess as a shrine to the
Virgin Mary. Disappointment followed when the Richard Hakluyt
zamorin, the local ruler, examined the treasures c. 1552-1616
Manuel had sent him as examples of Portugal’s English Geographer
economic might. From the standpoint of India,
wealthy in natural resources, these were cheap
trinkets, and though the zamorin sent back sam- T hough he never personally took part in any
expeditions, Richard Hakluyt greatly ad-

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vanced the cause of English exploration in

Exploration North America. One of England’s first geogra-
& Discovery phers, he collected and disseminated informa-
tion, and promoted the colonization efforts of
1450-1699 Sir Walter Raleigh (1554-1618) and others.
Hakluyt’s father, a skinner in London, was
named Richard Hakluyt; so too was his cousin
(c. 1535-1591), a geographer who influenced
Hakluyt’s interest in the subject. Hakluyt attend-
ed first Westminster School, then Christ Church,
Oxford, where he earned a B.A. in 1575 and an
M.A. in 1577. Soon afterward, he was ordained
to the priesthood, but continued to study and
lecture on geography at Oxford. During this
time, he made the acquaintance of Sir Francis
Drake (1540?-1596), and sponsored a transla-
tion of two accounts of voyages by Jacques
Cartier (1491-1557).
The first geographical work by Hakluyt ap-
peared in 1582 as Divers Voyages Touching the
Discovery of America. The book, which greatly
encouraged colonization efforts, contained an
account of previous English voyages to North
America, a list of America’s known resources,
and a report on the Northwest Passage. During
the following year, Hakluyt promoted an expedi- ic attempts toward finding the elusive Northwest
tion led by Sir Humphrey Gilbert (c. 1539- Passage.
1583), and began a stint as chaplain to the Eng- Ironically, Hudson spent the early part of
lish ambassador in France. The latter position his career searching for the Northeast Passage,
gave him the opportunity to study French, Por- the sea route via the northern coast of Russia
tuguese, and Spanish geographical information. and Siberia to China. In 1607, the Muscovy
In 1584, he visited England long enough to be- Company in his native England hired him for
seech Queen Elizabeth I to encourage the planti- this purpose, but though he explored the forbid-
ng of crops in the New World. ding regions of Jay Mayen Island and Svalbard
The Principal Navigations, Voyages, and Dis- between Scandinavia and Greenland, he did not
coveries of the English Nation, a history of English find the passage. Another voyage the following
overseas exploration, was published in 1589. year was cut short due to heavy ice.
Hakluyt married soon afterward, and between In 1609, Hudson set sail yet again, this time
1598 and 1600 published a second and greatly under the aegis of the Dutch East India Compa-
expanded version of the book. He died in 1616, ny, aboard the Half Moon. The expedition had
the same year as his fellow Englishman William gotten no farther than the North Cape of Nor-
Shakespeare. way before running into heavy ice, and the crew
refused to venture any further. Instead of return-
JUDSON KNIGHT
ing to Holland, however, Hudson set his sights
on finding the Northwest Passage, the sea route
Henry Hudson to Asia via the northern coast of North America.
c. 1565-1611 By July 1609, the expedition had reached
English Explorer Nova Scotia, then turned south to Chesapeake
Bay. They then explored Delaware Bay before en-

B oth a small but significant river in New York

and an immense bay—by far the world’s
largest—in Canada are named after Henry Hud-
tering New York harbor—none of these places
bore these names at the time, of course—on Sep-
tember 12. They followed the harbor to the mouth
son. The great sea distance between these two of what is now known as the Hudson River, then
bodies of water is a tribute to his wide-ranging sailed up the Hudson to the site of present-day Al-
explorations, and to his bold but ultimately trag- bany. They then sailed back down, stopping at the

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island called “Manna-hata” by the Indians. At first But like another man far more famous for being
the latter threatened them, even killing one of the the first Caucasian to glimpse a continent— Exploration
crew members, but when the sailors offered them Christopher Columbus (1451-1506)—Jansz had & Discovery
European goods, relations improved. no idea what he had found.
1450-1699
On his return trip to Europe, Hudson docked Virtually nothing is known about Jansz’s life
at Dartmouth, England, where he was seized by either before or after the point when he played
the authorities and forbidden to sail for any for- his role in history. His voyage took place in 1605,
eign powers. Nonetheless, he was able to pass on four years after Holland founded the East India
to his Dutch employers what he had observed on Company for the purpose of exploring and colo-
his trip: that the land around the harbor and river nizing the East Indies, or modern-day Indonesia
he had explored were rich and promising. This and surrounding islands. Jansz’s boat, a relatively
would influence the Dutch founding of New small craft called the Duifken, had earlier distin-
Netherland, a colony comprising what is now guished itself in a sea battle with the Portuguese
New York and New Jersey, in 1614. over control of Java, and on November 28 it
Back in England, Hudson raised support for sailed from the port of Bantam with orders to ex-
another voyage to find the Northwest Passage, and plore the southern coast of New Guinea.
set sail aboard the Discovery on April 17, 1610. It Jansz and his crew crossed the Banda Sea to
appears that Hudson was never a very good man- reach southwestern New Guinea at Dolak Island.
ager of men, and long before they caught sight of They then entered what is now known as the
land—Resolution Island, to the southeast of Baffin Torres Strait before running into shallows leading
Island—discord had arisen among the crew mem- to the Great Barrier Reef. Fearing that they might
bers. Nonetheless, Hudson sailed onward. run aground, Jansz turned the prow southward,
The Discovery plied what is now called where they again sighted land. Though they
Hudson Strait, between Baffin Island and the thought this was simply another part of New
northern coast of Quebec. It seemed to Hudson Guinea, in fact what they were seeing was the
that he was on the verge of finding the North- west coast of the Cape York Peninsula in north-
west Passage, and he proceeded with optimism. eastern Australia—an entirely new continent.
In fact they were sailing into Hudson Bay, which The crew of the Duifken were also the first
would be more properly identified as a sea—a Europeans to glimpse Australian aborigines—
sea half as large as the Mediterranean, but not a and nine of them were the first to be killed by
tenth as inviting to mariners. these natives. Between the hostility of the abo-
By October, the expedition had reached a rigines and the dryness of the region he saw,
dead-end, a shallow inlet called James Bay at the Jansz concluded that the land offered no
southeastern corner of Hudson Bay. Cold weath- promise for future exploration or trade, and he
er was beginning to set in, and with it ice, so explained as much to his superiors when he re-
that the crew was forced to spend the winter turned to Java. In the years that followed, the
there. Lacking adequate provisions—another Dutch made tentative efforts to explore the con-
mistake on Hudson’s part—they suffered terribly tinent, which they claimed for their own under
during the cold months, and tensions grew. the name New Holland. They established so lit-
Only on June 12, 1611 were they finally tle presence in Australia, however, that it was
able to set sail again, but after just 12 days the easy for the British to take control in the eigh-
crew mutinied against Hudson. On June 22, teenth century.
they set the captain adrift in a small boat with JUDSON KNIGHT
his 19-year-old son John and six of the less
physically fit crew members. The eight men
were never heard from again. Ferdinand Magellan
JUDSON KNIGHT
1480-1521
Portuguese Explorer

Willem Jansz
1570-1629
Dutch Explorer
F erdinand Magellan initiated, organized and
led what was to become the first circumnavi-
gation of the globe. Under his leadership, five
ships set sail from Spain in 1519. Although Mag-

W illem Jansz, a Dutch sea captain, was the

first European to catch sight of Australia.
ellan died during the three-year voyage—the
victim of a conflict between warring island na-

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tions—and only one of the five ships completed

Exploration the expedition and returned to Spain, Magellan
& Discovery is credited as the man behind the first trip
around the world.
1450-1699
Magellan was born Ferñao de Magalhaes
into Portuguese nobility in 1480. Following a
youth spent as a page in the home of the queen
of Portugal, he took a position with the nation’s
fleet, which sought to expand the spice trade—
often by way of bloody battles. Through these

MAGELLAN’S CREW DISCOVERS THE

INTERNATIONAL DATE LINE

I
n 1519 Ferdinand Magellan started what was to become the first
circumnavigation of the world. Leaving Spain with a small fleet of
five ships on August 10, Magellan would not survive the journey. In
Ferdinand Magellan.
fact, only one ship and nineteen men returned to Spain after more
than three years at sea. Upon their return, the acting captain, Juan
Sebastián de Elcano, was surprised to find his calendar off by a day. received notice from the Portuguese crown to
Through storms, battles, overhauls, and all other adversity, the ship’s begin looking for work elsewhere. In 1517, he
log had been meticulously maintained, as had the expedition’s and friend Ruy de Falero (Faleiro), an as-
calendar. In spite of everything, however, there was no denying the tronomer, left together to seek opportunities in
Spain, a longtime enemy of Portugal. In Seville,
discrepancy in dates; the expedition’s logs showed they had returned
Magellan approached the Spanish court, the ad-
to Spain on September 6, 1522, when in fact they returned on visors of King Charles V, and finally the king
September 7. What had happened, of course, was that the fleet with a proposition to explore uncharted waters
unknowingly crossed what is now the International Date Line on their and search for spice-rich islands in East Asia.
voyage. This line is more than an abstraction or a simple line on the King Charles approved the expedition. In ex-
map. In traveling around the world, the voyagers crossed from time change Magellan and Falero received decade-
long, exclusive rights to the new trade routes
zone to time zone, always moving back by an hour. Upon their return
they developed.
to Spain, they had traveled through all 24 time zones, rolling back
their clocks by a whole day. Since they did not advance their calendar Falero eventually bowed out of the expedi-
by a day when they crossed the date line, they effectively “lost” 24 tion, but Magellan pressed forward during the
next year by planning the voyage and outfitting
hours, one for each time zone they crossed in their travels.
the five ships the king had allotted for the trip.
P. ANDREW KARAM
The expedition set sail on September 8, 1519,
with a crew of 560 men aboard the Trinidad, San
Antonio, Concepción, Victoria, and Santiago. The
ships took a southwesterly route from Seville
trips, including his first in 1505 to the East In- across the Atlantic to Rio de Janeiro, Brazil,
dies, he learned how to sail and how to fight. It where they arrived on December 13. From
was during a skirmish in Morocco nearly a there, the five ships continued on along the
decade later that he sustained a leg wound, coast of South America, spending time to inves-
which affected him for the rest of his life. tigate coves and inlets for a possible shortcut
across the continent to the waters on the other
Despite his years of service to his country, side. Without luck, they sailed down the coast.
Magellan met a disappointing reception in his
homeland. He not only fell under suspicion for Magellan decided to overwinter in the Bay
corruption, a charge that was proven false, but of San Julían before continuing the journey.

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While there for four months, the captains of four world versus the teachings of the philosopher
of the five ships tried to organize a mutiny. Mag- Aristotle (384-322 B.C.). During this time, he de- Exploration
ellan and those loyal to him quashed the attempt veloped a passion for geography and subsequent- & Discovery
and killed at least three of the opposing cap- ly began pursuing a career as a professional car-
tains. The expedition also lost one of its ships to tographer. In 1534 he was married to Barbara 1450-1699
heavy damage over the winter. Schellekens (with whom he had six children).
After the expedition again set sail, Magellan Mercator returned to Louvain and from 1535
led three of the four ships through what became to 1536 worked with Frisius and Gaspar à Myrica
known as the Strait of Magellan at the southern to construct a terrestrial globe. In 1537 the team
tip of South America and into the Pacific Ocean. completed a celestial globe. The same year, Mer-
The captain of the fourth ship broke ranks while cator created his first map, of Palestine, and one
in the strait, turned around and left for home. year later, had completed his first map of the
Magellan and his remaining fleet went on, head- world, a unique double heart-shaped projection.
ing north to Guam and then to the Philippines, He began gaining a well-deserved reputation as a
where they landed at Cebu. There, Magellan cartographer and talented engraver and, in 1540,
made the fatal mistake of taking sides in a local published his first book, a manual on the italic
war and died in battle on April 27, 1521. lettering he had introduced on his maps entitled
More than a year later, the voyage that Mag- Literatum Latinarum quas Italicas cursoriasque vo-
ellan had initiated finally ended when one of the cant scribende ratio, for which he created wood-
original five ships completed the worldwide cir- block engravings depicting the lettering.
cuit. The battered Victoria, carrying 18 adven- From 1541 to 1551 Mercator spent much of
ture-weary, sick, and starving crew members, his time creating globes, interrupted only by a
made shore in Spain on September 8, 1522. seven-month stint in prison for Lutheran heresy
(1544). In 1552 he embarked on a new career as
LESLIE A. MERTZ
a mapmaker and lecturer at the University of
Duisburg in the Duchy of Cleve in Germany.
Gerardus Mercator Two years later he published a map of Europe,
1512-1594 which perfected earlier maps such as those of
Flemish Geographer and Cartographer Ptolemy (c. 100-c. 170). He followed it, in
1564, with a map of the British Isles. That same

T he word “atlas” to define a collection of maps

was coined by Gerardus Mercator, who is
best known for his 1569 invention of a new sys-
year, he became the court cosmographer to
Duke Wilhelm of Cleve.
In 1569 Mercator introduced, with the pub-
tem of projection for marine charts, called the lication of his world map, a new system of pro-
Mercator projection, which revolutionized car- jection for marine charts featuring true bearings,
tography as well as nautical navigation. or rhumb-lines, between any two points (a ship’s
The son of a shoemaker, Mercator was born course could be found by laying a ruler across
Gerhard de Kremer on March 5, 1512, in Rupel- the map). His system, mathematically derived in
monde, Flanders (now Belgium). His name was an early form of calculus, allowed for a more ac-
later latinized to Gerardus Mercator. Mercator curate representation of the world’s continents
began his education in Hertogenbosch in the and resulted in a revolutionary cylindrical pro-
Netherlands, where he studied Christian doc- jection where a straight line between any two
trine, dialectics, and Latin. From there, he contin- points forms the same angle with all the meridi-
ued his education at the University of Louvain, ans, which appear as straight, or longitude, lines
studying philosophy and the humanities and that are perpendicular to the Equator and paral-
graduating in 1532 in geography, geometry, and lels, which appear as straight, or latitude, lines
astronomy. While at university, Mercator was a that are parallel to the Equator.
mathematical pupil and assistant to Gemma Fri- Mercator’s 1569 world map was one part of
sius (1508-1555), a physician, astronomer, and his plan of publications that began the same year
mathematician for whom he worked as an instru- with the publishing of a chronology of the world
ment-maker and globe-maker after graduating. from its creation to 1568, followed, in 1578, by
Before going to work with Frisius, however, the publication of 27 maps originally prepared by
young Mercator spent two years of religious study the Greek geographer Ptolemy with corrections
in Antwerp and Mechelen to reconcile his doubts and commentary by Mercator. He finished the
regarding the biblical account of the origin of the whole work, but it wasn’t published until 1595,

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shortly after his December 2, 1594, death; it car-

Exploration ried the title Atlas, the name chosen by Mercator
& Discovery to represent a collection of maps. The Atlas was
preceded by the publication of a series of maps—
1450-1699 in 1585 Mercator issued new maps of France,
Germany, and the Netherlands; in 1589 he pub-
lished new maps of Italy, Sclavonia (the Balkans),
and Greece; and in 1595 the posthumously pub-
lished Atlas included all his previous maps as well
as a new series of maps on the British Isles. After
Mercator’s death, his Atlas had a new printing (in
1602), and a 1606 edition including new maps
by Jodocus Hondius (1563-1612) became known
as the Mercator-Hondius Atlas.
ANN T. MARSDEN

Francisco Pizarro
1470?-1541
Spanish Soldier and Explorer

F rancisco Pizarro was a Spanish soldier and

explorer who conquered the Incan empire
and founded the city of Lima, Peru, in 1535. He
Francisco Pizarro. (Corbis Corporation. Reproduced
with permission.)

was also a member of Balboa’s expedition that

discovered the Pacific Ocean in 1513. Like many with a soldier, Diego de Almagro (1475?-1538),
of the Spanish conquistadors, Pizarro led a dan- and a priest, Hernando de Luque. Travel and con-
gerous life dedicated primarily to the accumula- ditions were extremely difficult, and many men
tion of wealth through the conquering of new perished in the harsh conditions. Almagro was
lands and people. sent back to Panama to obtain reinforcements,
but the new governor of Panama ordered the ex-
Pizarro was born in Trujillo, Spain, around
pedition to be halted. Legend has it that at hear-
1470. He was the illegitimate son of Gonzalo
ing this, Pizarro drew a line in the sand with his
Pizarro, who was a captain of infantry. Pizarro
sword and invited anyone who was interested in
was not interested in education while growing
wealth and glory to step over to his side. The men
up and did not learn to read or write. He was,
who crossed the line and continued the explo-
however, intrigued by adventure. This was espe-
ration were known as the “famous thirteen.” They
cially true of the stories he heard regarding the
continued on to present-day Peru, obtaining first-
exploits of his countrymen in America. Deter-
hand accounts of the Inca Empire. Pizarro trav-
mined to live that style of life, he traveled to His-
eled back to Spain to gain permission from the
panola (presently Haiti and the Dominican Re-
emperor Charles V to continue his exploits.
public) in 1502. Bored by colonial life, Pizarro
joined an expedition to Columbia with Alonso
The king agreed with Pizarro and placed
de Ojeda (1465?-1515) in 1509. He began to
him in charge of New Castle, a province 600
develop a reputation as a man who could be
miles (966 km) south of Panama. While all of the
trusted in difficult situations; therefore, he was
“famous thirteen” were granted significant privi-
made a captain on the expedition led by Spanish
leges in the new land, both Almagro and Luque
explorer Vasco Núñez de Balboa (1475-1519)
were given positions subordinate to Pizarro.
that was credited with the European discovery
Pizarro and his four brothers eventually arrived
of the Pacific Ocean in 1513. Pizarro later served
in Peru with a relatively small contingent of men
from 1519-1523 as the mayor of Panama, where
compared to the 30,000 men in the Incan army.
he accumulated a small fortune. However, it was
Pizarro set up a meeting with the leader of the
not until he was almost 50 years old that the
Incas, Atahuallpa. He asked the Incan leader to
events that he is most famous for took place.
submit to Christianity and to Spain, but the king
In 1523 Pizarro embarked on an expedition refused. Pizarro immediately ordered an attack,
to the west coast of South America in partnership seizing Atahuallpa and demoralizing the Incan

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army. Atahuallpa was held for ransom, while colonize. As a reward for his success, he was
great rooms were filled by the Incas with gold made provincial governor of northeastern His- Exploration
and silver. Atahuallpa, however, was never re- paniola, a post he held until 1508. & Discovery
leased; he was put to death in 1533 on charges of
Attracted by reports of gold, he left Hispanio- 1450-1699
plotting against the Spanish government. With
la in 1508, leading an expedition to Puerto Rico.
their leader dead, the Incas offered little resis-
He quickly conquered the island and established a
tance while Pizarro took over the entire empire.
settlement there. He was made governor of Puerto
Pizarro now had the difficult task of defend- Rico in 1509, retaining the position until 1511. In
ing his hold on the Incan empire. Almagro had this case, the stories of gold proved to be true: a
grown jealous of Pizarro and his power from the large supply was discovered, and he became one
king of Spain. Almagro demanded an equal of the wealthiest men in the New World.
share of the spoils of the expedition, so an agree-
ment was established that gave him a large por- The natives throughout the Caribbean
tion of Chile. After finding that country poverty spoke of a spring located on an island, that they
stricken, Almagro returned to Peru, where he called Bimini, located somewhere north of Cuba.
was captured and executed by Pizarro’s brother, According to the legend, the water of this spring
Hernando (1475?-1578). Almagro’s allies were would make anyone who drank from it young
rounded up and sent to Lima so they could be again. This story corresponded with a European
watched. They realized they were in immediate legend concerning such a Fountain of Youth lo-
danger and attacked the Pizarro palace on June cated at the site of the Garden of Eden. In 1513,
26, 1541. Francisco Pizarro is said to have the king commanded Ponce de León to search
fought gallantly, but was killed in a sword fight for Bimini and its legendary Fountain of Youth.
at the hands of Almagro’s allies. He obeyed, setting sail as soon as an expedition
could be organized. On this voyage, he explored
JAMES J. HOFFMANN the Bahamas and discovered Florida. Landing
near the present site of St. Augustine, he claimed
what he thought was a large island for Spain,
Don Juan Ponce de León unaware that he had landed on the mainland of
1460-1521 a large continent. He then sailed south along the
Spanish Explorer and Soldier coast around the isthmus of Florida, exploring
as he went. On the return trip to Cuba, he dis-

J uan Ponce de León was one of the leading

early Spanish explorers and colonizers of the
Western Hemisphere. He is best remembered for
covered the Yucatan peninsula of Mexico. In
1514, he was named military governor of Flori-
da and told to conquer and settle it. In 1515, he
his discovery of Florida and for conquering and returned to the Caribbean under orders to sub-
settling Puerto Rico. due a tribe of cannibals that was causing consid-
Little is known of Ponce de León’s early life. erable problems for the new Spanish settle-
His family was part of the Spanish nobility, and ments. Again he was successful.
he served as a page in the court of King Ferdi- In 1521, he returned to Florida with a large
nand and Queen Isabella. In 1492, he participat- armed force, intent on conquering and settling
ed in a military campaign against the Moors in what was still thought to be a large island. Land-
Granada that successfully expelled the Muslims ing near either present-day Sanibel Island or
from their last foothold in Spain. Charlotte Harbor, the Spanish force was attacked
The time in which Ponce de León lived was and defeated by the natives. In the fighting,
an age of exploration and Spanish expansion, and Ponce de León received a wound from a poison-
he took full advantage of the opportunities this tipped arrow and died soon after the survivors
afforded. His countryman Christopher Columbus returned to Cuba.
(1451-1506) discovered America in 1492, think- Although Ponce de León’s explorations and
ing it to be the Far East, and the following year, his attempts to form colonies in the New World
Ponce de León sailed with him on his second ex- appear to have been motivated by a desire for per-
pedition to the New World. Upon arrival, Ponce sonal wealth and glory, they were an important
de León apparently responded eagerly and suc- part of a tenacious and successful effort which re-
cessfully to the many challenges of the coloniza- sulted in opening the Western Hemisphere to Eu-
tion enterprise. During 1502-1504, he command- ropean influence and, ultimately, control.
ed the effort to subdue the natives on the island of
Hispaniola, which the Spanish were attempting to J. WILLIAM MONCRIEF

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Exploration
Sir Walter Raleigh
1552-1618
& Discovery
English Adventurer and Writer
1450-1699

W alter Raleigh’s place in history results pri-

marily from his eccentric character and
his ambiguous relationship with Queen Eliza-
beth I rather than his actual accomplishments.
The latter include his unsuccessful attempts to
found a settlement in North Carolina and his ex-
ploits in South America.
His family was Protestant, and in 1569, at an
early age, he fought in the French Wars of Reli-
gion in support of the Protestant Huguenots. He
studied at Oriel College of Oxford University and
at the Middle Temple (law college) in London.
Raleigh’s participation in the successful sup-
pression of an uprising in Ireland in 1580 brought
him to the attention of Queen Elizabeth I. By 1582,
he was clearly the favorite of Elizabeth. She knight-
ed him in 1585, and he rapidly grew wealthy and
influential as the result of gifts of monopolies, Sir Walter Raleigh. (Library of Congress. Reproduced
properties, and positions from the Queen. One of with permission.)
these grants was the right to establish a colony on
land claimed by the English in the area of present- served in Parliament in 1597 and 1601 and was
day North Carolina and Virginia. Although the named Governor of Jersey in 1600.
Queen, wishing to keep him nearby, forbade him
to travel to America, he financed a number of His return to a position of influence came to
groups of settlers who attempted, during the peri- an abrupt end when Queen Elizabeth died in
od 1584-1589, to form a settlement near Roanoke 1603 and James I, the son of Mary Queen of
Island. All these attempts were unsuccessful, the Scots, became king. Raleigh’s enemies quickly
last group disappearing mysteriously. convinced the King that Raleigh was plotting to
overthrow him. Raleigh was arrested in 1603
In 1587, he was named Captain of the and convicted of treason. The death sentence,
queen’s guard, and the following year financed however, was changed to life imprisonment in
one of the ships that fought the Spanish Armada. the Tower of London where he lived comfortably
Some time later, however, he began a romantic re- for twelve years with his family and their ser-
lationship with Elizabeth Throckmorton. They vants. During this time, he studied chemistry
managed to keep their marriage a secret from the and mathematics, and performed scientific ex-
Queen, who was jealous of Raleigh’s attention and periments. He also continued his writing of po-
affection, until the birth of their son in 1592. In etry and prose. His work, The History of the
her jealous anger, Queen Elizabeth imprisoned World, was published in 1614.
the pair in the Tower of London. Raleigh, howev-
er, bought his way out with profits from a voyage He was released from prison, but not par-
he’d funded, and moved away from the court. doned, in 1616 with the condition that he fi-
nance and lead a second expedition to Guyana
In 1595, he financed and led an expedition in search of gold but to do so without angering
to present-day Guyana in South America. Since the Spanish. Raleigh’s troops, however, burned a
Guyana was in the center of territory claimed by Spanish settlement, and his son was killed in the
Spain, this journey can be viewed as a continua- fighting. In addition, no gold was found. When
tion of Raleigh’s antipathy for the Spanish as well he returned to England, the King invoked the
as of his dream of establishing English colonies suspended sentence, and in 1618 he was be-
in the New World. In 1596, he participated in an headed. His wife carried his embalmed head
attack on Cadiz, and he commanded a successful with her until her death 29 years later.
assault on Fayal in 1597. These anti-Spanish ex-
ploits regained some of the Queen’s favor. He J. WILLIAM MONCRIEF

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Hernando de Soto Exploration

1496-1542
& Discovery
Spanish Conquistador, Explorer, and Mariner
1450-1699

H ernando, known also as Fernando, de Soto

was born in Jerez de los Caballeros, Spain.
He spent nearly all of his youth at his family
manor house, but at 17 he told his father of his
desire to go to Seville and attempt to secure em-
ployment in a merchant fleet that traded in the
West Indies. Though his father desired for him
to study the law, de Soto was eventually permit-
ted to pursue his interests in Seville. The young
de Soto did quickly garner a position on a ship
in 1514, but as a member of Pedro Arias Dávila’s
exploratory expedition to the West Indies and
not specifically as a merchant. A skilled horse-
man and trader, de Soto quickly became known
for accomplishing daring feats to gain high prof-
its from his ventures.
De Soto’s renown helped him create several
successful partnerships with fellow explorers, Hernando de Soto. (Corbis Corporation. Reproduced
such as Francisco Campañón and Juan Ponce de with permission.)
León. The influence of these men, however, led de
Soto to abandon his mercantile interests in favor
America to return to Spain in 1536, taking with
of conquistador pursuits. Adopting a military-like
him enough plunder to make him one of the
approach, de Soto commanded his fleet to vie for
wealthiest men in Europe.
control of Nicaragua against fellow Spaniard Gil
González de Ávila. He defeated his rival in Central Though his feats in Peru gained him power
America in 1527, and then plundered his new ter- and accolades from the Spanish court, de Soto
ritory for precious metals and slaves. De Soto cap- was soon anxious to return to the New World.
tured the bulk of his capital through slave trad- He petitioned the crown in 1537 to grant him
ing—mostly by capturing natives. permission to lead an expedition to conquer
Equador but was refused. Instead he was made
After the death of his patron, de Soto allied
governor of Cuba and charged with the con-
himself with explorer Francisco Pizarro. After
quest of Spanish territory in North America. The
confirmed reports of a civilization in South
following year, de Soto took 10 ships and 700
America that possessed great wealth in gold, the
men to Cuba. In 1539, his Spanish forces landed
two men planned an expedition to Peru in 1532.
in Florida, near present-day Tampa. What en-
De Soto lent the fellow explorer two ships in re-
sued was one of the most far reaching and dev-
turn for being named Pizarro’s Chief Lieutenant
astating episodes in the history of European con-
and the expedition’s “Captain of Horse.” The ex-
tact with the populations of the New World.
pedition led to the conquer of the Incan Empire.
De Soto and the men under his command were De Soto pushed his way through not only
instrumental in defeating the Inca at Cajamar- Florida, but Alabama, Arkansas, Georgia,
ca—a devastating battle for the Inca. Shortly Louisiana, Mississippi, South Carolina, and Ten-
thereafter, he became the first European to make nessee. He abducted native guides to lead his ex-
contact with Atahuallpa, the Incan emperor. De pedition through the southeast, in search of gold.
Soto formed an amicable political alliance with However, the native peoples of the southeast did
the Incan ruler after the Spanish defeated the not possess the gold wealth of the highly ad-
Incan capital at Cuzco. Pizarro undermined this vanced Incan civilizations de Soto had encoun-
alliance and held Atahuallpa for enormous ran- tered in Peru. Disappointed, in 1540 de Soto at-
som. Though the sum demanded was met and tempted to head to Mobile Bay in Alabama to
offered to Pizarro, he grew suspicious of the rendezvous with his ships. He was met with re-
Incan ruler’s power and murdered him. Dissatis- sistance from the natives at Mauvilia (Mobile).
fied with Pizarro’s actions, de Soto left South The local Native Americans were decimated, but

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the Spanish forces were weakened severely. Los-

Exploration ing most of his men, supplies, and plunder, de
& Discovery Soto decided to extend his expedition and re-
coup his losses instead of returning to Spain.
1450-1699
De Soto again pushed northward, though
this time the decision would prove fatal. His ex-
pedition was plagued by Indian attacks as they
made their way through Alabama and Mississip-
pi. On May 21, 1541, de Soto became the first
European to sight the Mississippi River. Howev-
er, he encountered the river south of Memphis,
Tennessee, and instead of following the river and
charting its path to the Gulf of Mexico, de Soto
crossed the river into Arkansas in search of more
wealth. The expedition was fruitless. De Soto
decided to turn back and follow the Mississippi
River southward. De Soto fell ill—most likely
with Yellow Fever. He died in Louisiana, exactly
one year after first sighting the Mississippi River,
and was given a mariner’s burial in that river.
ADRIENNE WILMOTH LERNER

Abel Tasman. (Corbis Corporation. Reproduced with

permission.)
Abel Janszoon Tasman
1603?-1659?
ing this time he proved to be an excellent seaman
Dutch Explorer and was subsequently chosen for an ambitious
exploration of the Southern Hemisphere.
A bel Janszoon Tasman was a Dutch navigator
and explorer who discovered Tasmania,
New Zealand, Tonga, and the Fiji Islands. Tas-
In 1642 Anthony van Diemen (1593-1645),
the governor-general of Dutch East Indies, select-
man made two important voyages (1642 and ed Tasman to command an exploratory voyage to
1644) through both the Indian and South Pacific the Southern Hemisphere in an attempt to locate
Oceans that helped to map the southern hemi- new sources of wealth and commerce. In addi-
sphere. With exploration a secondary goal of his tion, although stretches of the Australian coast
voyages, he was primarily interested in estab- had been previously discovered, it was not
lishing trade and finding sources of wealth for known if these were part of a large continent or if
his employer, the Dutch East India Company. they were unconnected masses of land. Relying
Because he failed in both respects with the heavily on the memoir of chief pilot Frans Jacob-
newly discovered lands, his voyages were initial- szoon Visscher, Tasman was instructed to explore
ly considered to be disappointments. However, the Indian Ocean in an easterly direction and
with the passage of time, his voyages have been then sail into the Pacific Ocean to search for a
recognized as important contributions to the passage to Chile.
knowledge of that part of the world.
Tasman sailed from Batavia (present-day
Little is known about the life of Tasman out- Jakarta) to Mauritius on August 14, 1642, with
side of his service with the Dutch East India two ships, the Heemskerk and Zeehaen. From
Company. While the details of his birth are un- there, he sailed southeast until he discovered
known, it is generally believed that he was born land on November 24, which he named Van
in 1603 at Lutjegast in the Netherlands. In 1632 Diemen’s Land (present-day Tasmania). He later
or 1633 he joined the Dutch East India Company discovered the coast of South Island, New
and made his first exploratory voyage to Indone- Zealand. Continuing his voyage, Tasman became
sia as the captain of the Mocha in 1634. Five years convinced that there was a passage to Chile, so
later he served on an expedition that futilely he turned in a northeast direction. On January
searched for the “islands of gold and silver” in the 21 he discovered Tonga and later the Fiji Is-
seas surrounding Japan. He later made a series of lands. Tasman then directed the crew northwest
trading voyages to the coastal areas of Asia. Dur- and returned to Batavia on June 14, 1643. In his

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ten-month voyage, Tasman only lost 10 men to Maranhao commissioned Teixeira to lead an ex-
illness and had actually circumnavigated the en- pedition upriver to stake Portuguese claims. Exploration
tire continent of Australia without ever sighting On October 28, 1637, Teixeira set out from & Discovery
land, thus showing that it was not attached to the village of Cametá on the Tocantins River, an
any continent. 1450-1699
Amazon tributary in eastern Brazil. He led an
Despite this seeming success, the council of enormous expedition, composed of 70 soldiers,
the Dutch East India Company was not pleased some 1,200 Indian men, and many more women
with the voyage. They ordered Tasman to make and children, who travelled in a fleet of more
another voyage to establish trading relationships than 70 large canoes. The party sailed down the
with the areas he had discovered. His second Tocantins, which flows northward to the Ama-
voyage took him to the south coast of New zon, and from there they began the arduous task
Guinea and then to many of the coastal portions of moving upstream—that is, westward—along
of New Holland (present-day Australia). Once the world’s largest river. Other Europeans had
again, he failed to provide a significant amount come down the Amazon before, but Teixeira’s was
of wealth or commerce for his company, and this the first to fight the mighty river’s current.
voyage was also considered to be a failure from a After eight hard months of travel, first on the
financial point of view. Despite this, Tasman was Amazon and then along a tributary, the group
rewarded with the rank of commander and was reached Spanish territories along the Andes. It
even made a council member. He later com- took another four months of overland travel to
manded trading and war fleets for the company reach the city of Quito, today the capital of
before he left the service of the Dutch East India Ecuador, where they met with the Spanish gover-
Company in 1653. Tasman is believed to have nor. Communications between the two groups
died on October 22, 1659. were tense, but the governor received them with a
JAMES J. HOFFMANN show of cordiality. The Portuguese stayed for more
than three months, and when they left, the gover-
nor sent with them his brother, a Jesuit priest.
Pedro de Teixeira While this appeared like a gesture of friendship, in
1587-1641 fact it made it possible for the Spanish to keep
Portuguese Explorer track of what their alleged allies were doing.
The group left Quito on February 16, 1639.
T he fact that 150 million Brazilians—and
thus a large portion of South America’s pop-
ulation—speak Portuguese rather than Spanish
When they reached the place where the Napo
and Aguarico rivers come together—now in east-
ern Ecuador, near the Peruvian border—Teixeira
owes much to Pedro de Teixeira. In the course of claimed all lands and rivers “that enter from the
a 1637-1639 expedition, he became the first Eu- east” for Portugal. On reaching Belém on Decem-
ropean to travel up the Amazon River, and ber 12, Teixeira received a hero’s welcome, but
claimed the entire river valley for Portugal. he did not have long to enjoy his new success.
Born in 1587, Teixeira was 30 years old Appointed governor of Belém on February 28,
when he first arrived in Brazil, where he would 1640, he soon had to retire due to poor health,
spend most of his remaining 34 years. After and died on June 4. During that year, Spain and
helping to drive out French would-be colonists Portugal dissolved their uneasy alliance—and
from the coastal town of Sao Luis (now a major thanks to Teixeira’s efforts, the Amazon basin re-
city) in 1615, he helped establish Fort Presépio mained under the control of Portugal.
in the Amazon delta in 1616. The fort later be-
JUDSON KNIGHT
came Belém, destined to become the largest city
in the entire river valley.
More than 20 years later, a group of Spanish Amerigo Vespucci
soldiers and priests arrived in Belém after travel- 1454-1512
ling down the Amazon from Ecuador. Even Italian Merchant and Geographer
though Spain and Portugal were at that point
ruled by the same king, Portugal feared Spanish
dominance in what it perceived as an unequal
partnership. It seemed quite possible that Spain
A merigo Vespucci was one of the most im-
portant personalities of the European Age of
Exploration. His vast knowledge of geography
might seek to extend its influence over the Ama- would set the stage for the European coloniza-
zon; therefore the Portuguese governor of tion of the Western hemisphere.

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(1397-1492). Toscanelli was regarded as Flo-

Exploration rence’s greatest intellectual, and he always
& Discovery stressed the importance of experience over au-
thority. He believed that in the modern world
1450-1699 one should reject all knowledge that did not
stand the test of empirical examination.

In 1492 Christopher Columbus (1456-1501)

declared that he had reached India by sailing west.
As this information became public Vespucci began
to question the veracity of Columbus’s claims. The
length of his voyage was less than a month, and
Vespucci believed that was too short a period of
time to travel such a great distance. Most experi-
enced geographers believed that a degree on the
surface of the Earth was equal to 662⁄3 miles
(107.3 km). Columbus argued that his voyage was
shorter than expected because in fact a degree was
only equal to 562⁄3 miles (91.2 km), thus making
the circumference of the earth much smaller than
previously thought. Vespucci’s second problem
was based upon the fact that Columbus had sailed
directly west from Spain. It was common knowl-
Amerigo Vespucci. (Library of Congress. Reproduced edge that Bartholomeu Dias’s (1450-1500) voyage
with permission.)
to the Cape of Good Hope not only had taken
much longer than that of Columbus, but he also
Amerigo Vespucci was a child of the Renais- had to sail south of the equator. These two facts
sance and the Scientific Revolution. Nicholas were in direct conflict with the information put
Copernicus (1473-1543) would move the Earth forth by Columbus.
from the center of creation to the position of
third satellite orbiting the sun. Galileo (1564- Following the training he received from
1642) and his telescope proved the heliocentric Toscanelli, Vespucci set out to gather his own em-
theory, and a questioning attitude would define pirical data and signed on as an expert as-
this early modern period. The development of tronomer for the next expedition funded by the
the scientific method created a process through Spanish monarchy. Of the five ships assigned to
which humankind could decipher God’s “Book this voyage, Vespucci was in charge of two. Both
of Nature.” ships sailed westward and reached the coast of
what is now Brazil. Along with mapping the en-
Italy was at the center of this knowledge ex- tire coastline, he also charted territory, which con-
plosion. By the late fourteenth century, certain sists of present-day Colombia, Uruguay, and Ar-
Italian city-states had seized control of the flow gentina. He then explored parts of the Amazon,
of spice, perfumes, and silk from the East. Flo- the Para, and the La Plata rivers. The information
rence was the most powerful of these city-states. from these detailed expeditions convinced Euro-
Into this intellectually vibrant environment, in pean scholars that Columbus had not reached
1454, Amerigo Vespucci was born. The Vespucci India but had found a vast uncharted territory.
family had been prominent for over a century, Vespucci’s accurate maps would eventually be
with family members holding important posi- used for further exploration of the Western hemi-
tions in the city’s government. These family con- sphere, setting the stage for Europe’s colonization
nections enabled Amerigo to receive an excep- of the New World. Amerigo Vespucci was held in
tional education, including an introduction to such high esteem that in 1507 the German car-
the latest geographic theories, and very early in tographer Martin Waldseemüller (1470-1521)
his education he decided to make geography his named this new region “America” to honor
intellectual focus. The turning point in his for- Vespucci’s achievements as a geographer.
mation as a geographer came when he began an
intellectual relationship with Paolo Toscanelli RICHARD D. FITZGERALD

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Biographical Mentions establishing the rule of Spain in America. In

1519, as Hernán Cortes’s chief lieutenant, he par- Exploration

ticipated in the subjugation of Mexico. He con- & Discovery
quered Guatemala in 1523-1524 and served as
Cristóbal de Acuña Governor of much of Central America from 1527 1450-1699
1597?-1676 until his death in a campaign against rebellious
Spanish explorer and missionary who is known natives in Mexico in 1541. He, like other Spanish
for navigating and exploring the far reaches of conquistadors, was known for his brutality.
the Amazon river with Portuguese explorer
Francisco Alvares
Pedro Teixeira (1575?-1640) from 1637-39.
c. 1465-c. 1541
Anton de Alaminos Portuguese explorer in Ethiopia who visited the
1478-? remains of ancient Aksum and Kush, as well as
Spanish navigator who piloted explorers to and the rock-hewn churches of Lalibala. A Jesuit lay
around the New World. Alaminos served as pilot missionary, he published a book translated into
on Christopher Columbus’s fourth voyage. English as Narrative of the Portuguese Embassy to
Alaminos also accompanied Spanish explorer Abyssinia, During the Years 1520-1527. Alvares
Ponce de León (1460?-1521) as pilot on his voy- helped to spur European interest in the Christ-
age of discovery to Florida. Alaminos is credited ian kingdom of Ethiopia and its queen, Candace
as being the first to note the existence of the (actually a title and not a name).
Gulf Stream while piloting for Ponce de León. In
Duarte Barbosa
addition, Alaminos piloted for Hernán Cortés
c. 1480-1521
(1485-1547) as well as Hernández de Córdoba
(d. 1518) on their respective explorations of Spanish explorer who visited Africa and India
Mexico. before meeting his death in the Philippines
alongside Ferdinand Magellan (c. 1480-1521).
Afonso de Albuquerque, the Great Among Barbosa’s writings are a description of
1453-1515 the East African coastal trading city of Mombasa,
Portuguese military officer and strategist who as well as the Indian practice of sati or suttee,
contributed significantly to Portuguese efforts to the ritual suicide of a widow on her late hus-
control the main trade routes to Asia. He con- band’s funeral pyre. Barbosa’s uncle Diego, war-
quered India and established a colony in Goa den of the castle of Seville, was Magellan’s father-
(India) in 1510 and a colony in Melaka (Malay in-law, and Barbosa himself accompanied the ex-
Peninsula) in 1511. He gained additional Por- plorer in his famous voyage around the world.
tuguese control by having his men marry the Both met their deaths in a battle with Filipino
widows of the defeated Indian Muslims. His suc- tribesmen on the island of Cebu.
cessful efforts provided a base for the expansion
Rodrigo de Bastidas
of Christianity into India and East Asia.
1460-1526
Diego de Almagro Spanish explorer of what is now Colombia.
1474?-1538 Working variously with Vasco Núñez de Balboa
Spanish explorer who, in a partnership formed (1475-1519) and Juan de la Cosa (1460?-1510),
with Spanish explorer Francisco Pizzaro (1470?- Bastidas travelled along the South American
1541) in 1522, explored the Inca territories of coast from Trinidad to the isthmus of Panama
Mexico for wealth. Almagro made exploratory during the years 1500-1502. He discovered the
trips into Columbia and was the first European mouths of the Magdalena River near present-day
to enter Chile by land. The rivalry of the con- Baranquilla, Colombia, and in 1525 founded the
quistadors turned ugly for Almagro when Fran- colony of Santa Marta nearby. Today Santa Marta
cisco Pizzaro’s brother, Hernando (1475?- is Colombia’s oldest city.
1578), had Almagro beheaded in July of 1538
after the latter was charged with rebellion Martin Behaim
against Spain. 1459-1507
German-Portuguese cartographer and navigator
Pedro de Alvarado who created the first world globe. Behaim was
1486-1541 born to a well-to-do merchant family in Nurem-
Spanish military officer who played a major role berg, Germany. After studying with the famed
in conquering Mexico and Central America and astronomer Regiomontanus, he traveled to Lis-

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bon, Portugal, where he was appointed to the not discovered until more than two centuries
Exploration “junta dos mathmaticos” commission of King later, the expeditions of Button and such explor-
& Discovery John II. The purpose of this commission was to ers as Henry Hudson and William Baffin provid-
find a better method for determining latitude, ed the earliest descriptions and charts of North
1450-1699 which Behaim accomplished by ascertaining the America’s Atlantic coast. On Button’s best-
position of the Sun, Moon and stars. Behaim known journey, he led an expedition aboard the
gained the respect of the Portuguese elite, and famed Arctic ship Discovery to rescue Henry
was offered the chance to set sail with Diogo Cão Hudson in 1612-1613. He never found Hudson.
to the west coast of Africa (1485-1486). On this He was knighted in 1616.
journey, Cão discovered the mouth of the Congo
River. Upon his return to Nuremberg in 1490, Robert Bylot
Behaim constructed the very first globe, with the English explorer who was one of the first Euro-
assistance of painter Georg Glockendon. On it is peans to travel to the Canadian Arctic. Bylot was
represented the equator, one meridian, the trop- one of a number of explorers who scoured the
ics and the constellations of the zodiac. Arctic for a Northwest Passage to Asia. During
the period of 1610-1616, Bylot made a name for
Sebastián de Belalcázar
himself as a competent navigator and/or com-
1495-1551
mander of four Arctic voyages. During one expe-
Spanish explorer and conquistador, also known dition, he and fellow explorer William Baffin
as Sebastián de Benalcázar, who founded settle- discovered the Lancaster Sound. Although they
ments throughout Nicaragua, Ecuador and were unaware of it, the sound was proved some
southwestern Colombia. Belalcázar accompa- two centuries later to be an entry point for the
nied Christopher Columbus on his third voyage, Northwest Passage.
then assisted Francisco Pizarro in conquering
Peru. In 1533, he set out from his base in Piura, Álvar Núñez Cabeza de Vaca
Peru and defeated the Incas, taking over com- c. 1490-c. 1560
mand of Quito. There, he founded the settle-
Spanish explorer in the region of what is now
ment of Quayaquil. Two years later, he went in
Texas, whose claims regarding legendary cities of
search of the fabled city of gold, El Dorado.
gold influenced later exploration efforts by Her-
Along his journey, he established the Colombian
nando de Soto (c. 1500-1542) and Francisco de
cities of Pasto, Cali, and the Popayán province,
Coronado (c. 1510-1554). In 1528 Núñez land-
over which he became governor in 1541. In his
ed near the site of modern-day Galveston, and
latter years, Belalcázar was involved in struggles
spent eight years wandering among Native
with several Spanish leaders, and was eventually
American tribes, during which time most of his
convicted of murdering Jorge Robledo, the head
men died. When found by fellow Spaniards in
of a neighboring province.
northern Mexico in 1536, he was full of wild
Etienne Brûlé tales concerning the Seven Cities of Cibola,
1592?-1633 about which he had heard but which he did not
French explorer who is believed to be the first claim to have visited. Later, as governor of Rio
European to reach many of the Great Lakes, in- de la Plata in South America (1541-1545), he
cluding Lakes Ontario, Erie, Superior, and created a route from Santos, Brazil, to Asunción,
Huron. He is also credited as the first European Paraguay. He recorded his North American jour-
to set foot in what is now Michigan. Under or- neys in Naufragios (1542), and his South Ameri-
ders from discoverer Samuel de Champlain, can ones in La Relación y Comentarios (1555).
Brûlé learned Native American languages, be-
came an interpreter, and traveled into the un- John Cabot
known interior of North America to live among c. 1450-c. 1500
various tribes. After more than two decades of Italian navigator, also known as Giovanni
exploration, Brûlé was murdered in the land of Caboto, who was the first European to discover
the Huron Indians. the North American mainland. In 1497 he set
out with his three sons on a voyage for Henry
Sir Thomas Button VII of England to seek a western route to Asia.
?-1634 On June 24 he discovered Cape Breton Island
Welsh explorer who was one of a group of men but believed that he had reached northeast Asia.
searching for a water passage from the Atlantic He undertook another voyage the following year
to the Pacific. While the Northwest Passage was and probably died at sea.

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Sebastian Cabot mid-1530s, he settled in Guatemala, where he

1476?-1557 encouraged a flourishing trade with Spain and Exploration
Italian navigator and cartographer who sailed other parts of the New World. In 1542, Cabrillo & Discovery
(for British investors) to North America in the departed from the port of Navidad, Mexico on
first recorded attempt to find the Northwest Pas- an expedition of the coasts north and west of 1450-1699
sage (1508-1509). Cabot served as royal cartog- Mexico. After several months, he sailed into San
rapher for both England (1509-1512) and Spain Diego Bay, which he called San Miguel. His fleet
(1512-1518). From 1518 to the 1540s, Cabot of ships reached as far north as Monterey Bay,
sailed for Spain as chief pilot and explored parts discovering eight islands off the California coast
of South America, including the Río de la Plata, along the way.
the Paraná River and the Paraguay River (1526- Alvise Cadamosto
1529). Retiring from the sea, he turned to map- 1432-1488
making and, in 1544, completed a world map
based, in part, on his voyages and exploration. Venetian trader who discovered the Cape Verde Is-
In 1551, Cabot began his last career as governor lands and explored coastal West Africa. Cadamosto
of the Muscovy Company, an English trading or- (sometimes rendered as Ca’ da Mosto), sailed
ganization that initiated trade between Russia under the Portuguese flag at the behest of Prince
and England. Henry the Navigator (1394-1460). In his first sig-
nificant voyage (1455), he landed on the
Pedro Álvares Cabral Madeira and Canary islands, then traversed the
c. 1467-1520 African coastline to a point just south of the
Senegal River delta. He attempted to sail up the
Portuguese navigator who is credited with the
Gambia River, but when he ran into trouble with
discovery of Brazil. Cabral was born into a fami-
the native peoples there, he turned his craft
ly of great privilege, held in high esteem among
around. On a voyage during the following year,
the Portuguese royal family. He spent many
he visited two of the Cape Verde Islands, which
years in the service of King Manuel I, who in
were uninhabited.
1500 entrusted him to lead an expedition of 13
ships to India. Cabral was to follow the route Diogo Cão
taken by Vasco da Gama, and was charged with 1450-c. 1486
cementing trade alliances between India and Portuguese navigator and explorer who was the
Portugal. After sailing far westward of his first European to reach the Congo River. In his
course, Cabral landed in the country he called quest to discover a sea route around Africa to
Island of the True Cross, which would later be India, King João of Portugal commissioned
renamed Brazil. He took possession of the coun- Diogo Cão to explore the region. Cão left Portu-
try for Portugal, and dispatched one of his ships gal in 1482 and sailed along the West Coast of
to send word of his conquest to the king. Cabral Africa until he reached the mouth of the Congo.
spent only 10 days in Brazil, before setting sail There he erected a stone pillar dedicated to Por-
once again for India. After a voyage fraught with tuguese sovereignty of the area. He sailed fur-
disaster, his fleet cast anchor at Calicut, India, ther, to Cape Santa Maria along what is now the
where he entered into a fierce battle against coast of Angola, and erected a second pillar.
Muslim soldiers. Many of Cabral’s crew were Upon his return to Lisbon in 1484, King John II
killed in the struggle, but the Portuguese even- honored him with a title of nobility in honor of
tually prevailed, seizing 10 Muslim ships. He his discoveries. Cão made his second voyage in
then sailed for the port of Cochin, and there es- around 1485, reaching Cape Cross in what is
tablished successful trade relations with local present-day Namibia.
merchants. Cabral returned to Portugal in 1501.
Thomas Cavendish
Juan Rodriguez Cabrillo 1560-1592
1498?-1543 British navigator and buccaneer who led the
Portuguese explorer who discovered the West third expedition to circumnavigate the globe
Coast of the United States. Little is known of (1586-1588). A member of Parliament, Caven-
Cabrillo’s early life, only that he appears to have dish began his maritime career around 1585
fought in the army of Hernán Cortés against the when he joined British admiral Sir Richard
Aztecs of Mexico. Later, he was one of the con- Grenville (1541?-1591) on a voyage to the
quistadors of the countries now known as colony of Virginia. Then, following in the path
Guatemala, El Salvador, and Nicaragua. By the of Sir Francis Drake (1543?-1596), he began his

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historic circumnavigation in July 1586, reaching America. Cosa drew the first map of the world
Exploration the Pacific in February 1587. He then sailed up containing the new American continent in 1500.
& Discovery the South American coast, attacking Spanish set- He was killed by natives in South America in
tlements and capturing Spanish ships, including 1510.
1450-1699 treasure galleon Santa Ana (November 1587). In
October 1592, while attempting a second cir- Pêro da Covilhã
cumnavigation, Cavendish died at sea. c. 1460-after 1526
Portuguese explorer who helped establish diplo-
Richard Chancellor matic relations between Portugal and Abyssinia
?-1556 (Ethiopia). Determined to find Prester John, a
British navigator who opened the White Sea mythical Christian king in the East, Portugal’s
trading route between England and Russia. In John II in 1487 sent Covilhã to India and Afonso
1553, Chancellor functioned as pilot-general of de Paiva to Ethiopia. The two men agreed to
a small fleet of ships sailing for the Company of meet in Cairo, but when Covilhã returned there
Merchant Adventurers (later renamed the Mus- in late 1490, de Paiva was dead. He then pro-
covy Company) on its first expedition, led by Sir ceeded to Abyssinia, on the way making a detour
Hugh Willoughby. The ships were separated in a to the Middle East, where he visited the Muslim
storm and Chancellor’s ship reached the White holy city of Mecca disguised as a Muslim. Covil-
Sea coast. He established a trading post and hã arrived in Abyssinia in 1493, and though he
traveled inland at the invitation of the Russian was well-treated, he was not allowed to leave. He
czar Ivan IV in Moscow. In 1555, he led a sec- married and raised a family, and when the first
ond commercial expedition to Russia, obtaining Portuguese embassy arrived in Abyssinia in
formal trade agreements from the czar and 1520, Covilhã served as an interpreter.
bringing back the first Russian ambassador to
London, Ossip Gregorevitch Nepeja. On the re- William Cecil Dampier
turn voyage (in 1556), the ship was wrecked off c. 1652-1715
the coast of Scotland and, although Chancellor English buccaneer and explorer who achieved
was killed, the Russian ambassador survived and fame writing about his voyages. He circumnavi-
eventually reached London. gated the globe, visiting Africa, the Philippines,
and Australia. Returning to England, he pub-
Martin Cortes de Albacar lished A New Voyage Round the World (1697), a
1532-1589 vivid account of his adventures and the places
Spanish navigational scientist who wrote an in- he had visited. In 1699 he commanded a voyage
fluential book on navigation, Breve compendio de of exploration in the South Seas. He explored
la Sphera y del arte de navegar: con nuevos instru- Australia and New Guinea, discovering Dampier
mentos y reglas, exemplificado con muy subtiles Archipelago and Strait.
demonstraciones (Short Compendium of the
Sphere and of the Art of Navigation: With New John Davis
Instruments and Rules, Exemplified with Very 1550?-1605
Simple Demonstrations). This work discusses the British navigator and Arctic explorer who made
variability of compass readings in different parts three voyages in search of a Northwest Passage
of the world, and offers explanations counter to from Europe to the Indies (1585, 1586, and
generalizations in other works of the era. Upon 1587), visiting Greenland and Baffin Island. As
its publication, Cortes’s book was considered pilot and navigator for Thomas Cavendish’s sec-
very important, particularly to the English. In- ond privateering circumnavigation expedition in
deed, the English translation went through six 1591, Davis became separated from the fleet
editions in the sixteenth century alone. near the Straits of Magellan and he journeyed
back to England, discovering the Falkland Is-
Juan de la Cosa lands on his return voyage (1592). Davis au-
c. 1460-1510 thored two books on navigation, The Seaman’s
Spanish navigator and cartographer who partici- Secrets (1594) and The World’s Hydrographical
pated in the earliest explorations of America. He Description (1595); and he invented the Davis
was captain of the Santa María on Christopher quadrant, a double quadrant that was the princi-
Columbus’s first voyage to America in 1492 and ple instrument of navigation until the early
returned with Columbus on his second Ameri- 1700s. Beginning in 1598, he served as pilot on
can journey in 1493. In 1499 he participated in three voyages to the East Indies, including the
the exploration of the northern coast of South first successful expedition of the East India

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Company. Davis was killed by Japanese pirates Juan Sebastián de Elcano

off the Malaysian coast on his third voyage. His c. 1476-1526 Exploration
Traverse Book from his final voyage became the Spanish Basque mariner who completed the his- & Discovery
model for ships’ log books. toric circumnavigation of the globe begun by
Ferdinand Magellan (c. 1480-1521). Elcano 1450-1699
Semyon Ivanov Dezhnyov sailed from Spain in 1519 as captain of the Con-
c. 1605-1673 cepción, but after Magellan perished in the
Russian explorer who discovered the Bering Philippines in April 1521, he assumed com-
Strait, but whose discovery did not become mand of the entire expedition. The group faced
widely known until after the time of Vitus enormous hardships on the return journey, and
Bering (1681-1741). A Cossack, Dezhnyov— by the time they landed in Spain in September
sometimes rendered as Dezhnev—explored 1522, only one ship (the Victoria), 18 sailors in-
Siberia in the 1640s, and in 1648 reached what cluding Elcano, and four captured Indians re-
is now known as the Bering Strait. Thus he con- mained. Elcano died in 1525 during an expedi-
firmed that the Asian and North American conti- tion to seize the Moluccas on behalf of Spain’s
nents are separated, but his findings were lost Charles V.
until German historian Gerhard Friedrich Müller
uncovered them in 1736. By then Bering, whose
1728 voyage attracted far more notice than Nikolaus Federmann
Dezhnyov’s 80 years before, had been credited 1501?-1542
with the discovery. German conquistador and explorer who led two
expeditions (1530-1532 and 1533-1539) into
Sir Robert Dudley South America for the Weslers, a powerful Ger-
c. 1574-1649 man banking family. In 1530, the Wesler family
sent Federmann to South America to explore the
English sailor, engineer and cartographer who interior of a new colony granted to them by King
wrote the model for sailing and navigation for Charles I of Spain (in present-day Venezuela),
his day. Dudley was the son of the elder Robert seeking the fabled city of gold, El Dorado. In
Dudley, earl of Leicester. He would eventually go 1533, after a brief return to Europe, Federmann
on to hold his own titles, as Duke of Northum- returned to Venezuela to begin another search for
berland and Earl of Warwick. In 1594, Dudley El Dorado, during which he explored present-
sailed to Trinidad on his way to explore Guiana day Colombia, making the first east-west cross-
and traveled a great distance up the Orinoco ing of the Andes, to Bogota. In 1539, he, along
River. Two years later he was knighted for his with two Spanish explorers, sailed to Spain to
service to England’s navy. In 1605, he traveled to submit claims to the land in the region, which
Italy, where he served the Grand Duke of Tus- eventually was granted to Spain by the Council
cany, assisting in the construction of the port of of the Indes. Federmann died in Madrid in 1542.
Leghorn. Late in life, he published his three-vol-
ume Dell’Arcano del mare (Concerning the Secret
of the Sea), a treatise on modern shipbuilding, Humphrey Gilbert
naval operations and cartography. 1539?-1583
British navigator and explorer who played a sig-
Sieur Daniel Greysolon Dulhut nificant role in early British colonization, setting
1639?-1710 up the first British colony in North America in
French soldier and discoverer who led explo- 1583 at St. John’s, Newfoundland. After an early
rations of the expansive Lake Superior. Born into career in the military, Sir Gilbert (knighted in
French nobility, Dulhut set sail for New France 1570 for his military achievements), a half-broth-
(Canada) in 1674 and settled in Montreal the er of Sir Walter Raleigh (1552?-1618), was the
following year. In 1678, he formed an expedi- first to petition Queen Elizabeth I of England for
tion to try to form alliances between the French exploration seeking a Northwest Passage to the
and the Native American populations living Orient. As a result, in 1578 he was granted a royal
along the Lake Superior shoreline. This and en- charter for the privileges of exploration and colo-
suing travels and negotiations helped to ensure nization in North America. After an unsuccessful
France’s role as the primary European force in first voyage, a second expedition in 1583 reached
the fur trade within New France. Dulhut died in Newfoundland, where Gilbert founded the first
Montreal in 1710. English colony in America. On the return voyage,

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the ship carrying the explorer was lost at sea instrument that measured the distance between
Exploration north of the Azores in the Atlantic. the horizon and either the Sun or stars.
& Discovery
Bento de Goes Dirck Hartog
1450-1699 1562-1607 fl. 1610s
Portuguese Jesuit who discovered that Cathay Dutch sea captain who explored part of the west
and China were the same place. Born in the coast of Australia. While attempting to follow a
Azores, Goes was first a soldier before joining new route for trade with the East Indies, he
the Jesuits in the Portuguese province of Goa, reached Australia by mistake in October 1616 in
India, where he was befriended by the Mogul his ship, the Eendracht. He left a record of his
emperor Akbar. Goes became intrigued by the visit inscribed on a pewter plate on the island
question of whether Cathay, as described by known today as Dirk Hartog Island. The sur-
Marco Polo (1254-1324), was the same as the rounding region was subsequently labeled “Een-
land of China that had recently been visited by drachtsland” by the Dutch.
Italian missionary Matteo Ricci (1552-1610). In Louis Hennepin
1602-1607, he traveled northward from India to 1626-1705?
the Silk Road, which he followed east into
China. He died at the Great Wall near Beijing, Belgian explorer and Franciscan missionary
his question answered. priest who is presumed to be the first European
to have seen and described Niagara Falls (in his
Médard Chouart des Groseilliers book A New Discovery of a Vast Country in Ameri-
1618?-1696? ca, published in 1697). In 1675, Father Hen-
nepin traveled to Quebec as a missionary among
French-born Canadian fur trader and explorer the Iroquois Indians. In 1678, he joined the ex-
who was the first to recognize the possibilities pedition of French explorer Robert Cavelier,
for fur trade and, subsequently, open up that Sieur de La Salle, traveling through the Great
trade in the western Great Lakes and Hudson Lakes to the Illinois River. Hennepin was sent by
Bay regions. After serving at a Jesuit mission for La Salle on a voyage via canoe to explore the
several years after arriving in New France (pre- upper Mississippi River, where in 1680 he dis-
sent-day Canada), Groseilliers used his knowl- covered the Falls of Saint Anthony (in present-
edge of Algonguin, Huron, and Iroquois lan- day Minnesota) while a captive of Sioux Indians.
guages to begin trading in furs with Indians. Known for exaggerating his explorations in writ-
With his second wife’s half-brother, Pierre-Esprit ings such as his book A New Voyage (1698), the
Radisson (1636-1710), as his companion, Gro- priest fell into disgrace in his later years and the
seilliers established an active fur trade for the end of his life remains a mystery.
French colony. His successes helped bring about
the founding of the Hudson’s Bay Company by Pierre Le Moyne d’ Iberville
English investors (in 1670), for whom he 1661-1706
worked until 1674. He retired from fur trading French-Canadian naval captain and discoverer
in 1683 and died at Trois-Rivières in Quebec who led explorations of the southeastern United
around 1696. States. Born to a wealthy fur trader in Montreal,
Quebec, Iberville spent a good deal of his youth
John Hadley at sea on his father’s ship. As an adult, he joined
1682-1744 French expeditions that captured English-held
English mathematician and inventor who built Hudson’s Bay Company posts in James Bay. His
the first working reflector telescope. Hadley military career eventually took him to the Gulf
built his Gregorian reflector telescope in 1721. Coast where he established forts in what are
The device contained a 6-inch (15.2-cm) mirror, now the states of Mississippi and Louisiana. He
and proved accurate enough to be successfully died while attacking the English on the islands
used by astronomers. The response to Hadley’s of the West Indies.
invention was so favorable, he later built a larg-
er, more sophisticated version. In 1730 he in- Domingo Martinez de Irala
vented a quadrant, known as Hadley’s quadrant, 1487-1557
which was used to measure the altitude of the Spanish explorer who established the first colo-
Sun or a star in order to ascertain a ship’s geo- nial settlements in what is now Paraguay. In
graphic position while out at sea. His design 1537, Irala, along with fellow lieutenant Juan de
eventually evolved into a sextant, a navigational Ayolas, sailed up the Plata and Paraguay Rivers.

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Ayolas vanished on an expedition, but Irala car- sissippi River. Jolliet switched careers from priest
ried on, eventually founding Asunción, (now in to fur trader and eventually to explorer when he Exploration
Paraguay). Asunción soon became the first per- accepted the leadership of an expedition to dis- & Discovery
manent Spanish settlement in southeastern cover whether the Mississippi flowed south to
South America, and would later help Spain in its the Gulf Coast or west to the Pacific Ocean. Jol- 1450-1699
quest to conquer northern Argentina. liet and fellow traveler Jacques Marquette fol-
lowed the river only as far as present-day
Anthony Jenkinson Louisiana, but they learned enough to know it
1525?-1611 emptied into the Gulf of Mexico.
British merchant and explorer who made signifi-
cant contributions to English trade in Russian Henry Kelsey
and Central Asia. In 1557, Jenkinson, an explor- c. 1667-1724
er interested in establishing new markets for English mariner who explored the Canadian
English merchants, traveled to Russia for the plains under the employ of the Hudson’s Bay
Muscovy Company to build new trade opportu- Company. Kelsey began his apprenticeship with
nities in China using company contacts in the Hudson’s Bay Company at the age of 17, and
Moscow. With letters of introduction from czar continued to work there for nearly 40 years. His
Ivan IV, he continued on to Central Asia to the first expedition with the company was in 1684,
Caspian Sea. Jenkinson’s party, who at one point along the western shore of Hudson Bay. During
joined a camel caravan in the desert, were the his travels, Kelsey became proficient in the native
first Englishmen to reach the trading city of languages, and in 1690 journeyed to the
Bukhara (now in Uzbekistan) in December Saskatchewan River to promote trade with the In-
1558. He left Bukhara in March 1559 on anoth- dians. During this trip, he is believed to have be-
er trade caravan, eventually reaching the Caspi- come the first white man to explore Canada’s cen-
an Sea then Moscow and finally London. In tral plains. From 1718 to 1722, he served as over-
1561, Jenkinson returned to Persia seeking fur- seas governor for the Hudson’s Bay Company.
ther trade opportunities and made two more
trips to Russia (1566 and 1571) before retiring Eusebio Francisco Kino
to England, where he died in 1611. 1645-1711
Gonzalo Jiménez de Quesada Spanish priest and explorer who introduced
c. 1499-1579 Christianity and Spanish influence into northern
Spanish conquistador who claimed New Grana- Mexico and present-day Arizona. Sent to Mexico
da (now Colombia) for Spain. Jiménez de Que- in 1681, he established missions in many native
sada was trained as a lawyer in Granada, then villages and made at least 40 expeditions in Ari-
traveled to the colony of Santa Marta on the zona, exploring extensive areas including the
northern coast of South America to serve as its Rio Grande, Colorado, and Gila rivers. Father
chief justice. In 1536, he was commissioned by Kino was a compassionate man. He opposed the
Pedro Fernandez de Lugo to lead an expedition use of natives as forced labor in the mines, and
into the center of New Granada. After a difficult he improved native agriculture by introducing
journey, in which his men were repeatedly at- wheat and cattle farming.
tacked by Native Americans, the group eventual-
ly reached and conquered the region, founding René-Robert Cavelier, sieur de La Salle
Bogota as the capital of New Granada. In 1538, 1643-1687
two rival conquistadors arrived in the area, and French explorer who was the first European to
challenged Jiménez de Quesada for authority. follow the Mississippi south to the Gulf of Mexi-
Jiménez de Quesada returned to Spain, and ex- co. La Salle left France for New France (Canada)
erted his claim to the region. He was named in 1667. He conducted many expeditions, in-
honorary governor, and returned to New Grana- cluding an exploration of the Great Lakes aboard
da in 1549. In 1569, he went on a quest for the the Griffon in 1679. Although many of his voy-
mythical city of gold, El Dorado, but returned ages wound up unsuccessful, he achieved what
defeated after only two years. no European had before: a voyage south on the
Mississippi River to the Gulf Coast in 1682. Five
Louis Jolliet years and several calamitous adventures later, La
1645-1700 Salle’s men became so enraged with their leader
French-Canadian fur trader who became the that they shot him dead and left his body where
first European to make a voyage down the Mis- it fell in the wilderness of what is now Texas.

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Miguel López de Legazpi with Ferdinand Magellan (c. 1480-1521) among

Exploration 1510-1572 the men under his command. Landing on the is-
& Discovery Spanish explorer who claimed Spanish control land of Sumatra in what is now Indonesia, he
over the Philippines. Legazpi left Spain for Mexi- erected two stone pillars claiming those lands for
1450-1699 co (then called New Spain) in 1545, where he Portugal, then sailed for Melaka, arriving on Sep-
served as a clerk in its local government. In tember 11, 1509. There the Portuguese were met
1564, Luis de Velasco, the viceroy of New Spain, by hostile Muslim forces, and Lopes de Sequeira
sent Legazpi to the Philippine archipelago to es- lost some 60 of his men in battle before sailing
tablish the first Spanish settlement there, which back to Cochin. This encounter led to the Por-
he accomplished the following year. Legazpi tuguese conquest of Melaka under Afonso de Al-
served as the first governor of the Philippines buquerque (1453-1515) in 1511.
from 1565 until his death. In 1571, he jour- Jacques Marquette
neyed to the northern Philippine island of 1637-1675
Luzon, and there set up the capital of the new
Spanish colony, Manila. French Jesuit missionary who accompanied
French-Canadian explorer Louis Jolliet on the first
Jan Huyghen van Linschoten voyage down the Mississippi River. In 1673, The
1563-1611 two men traveled far enough to determine that the
river emptied into the Gulf of Mexico, rather than
Dutch explorer who went in search of a northeast
west into the Pacific as had been proposed. Mar-
passage to India. From 1583 to 1589, Linschoten
quette’s primary calling was as a missionary, how-
lived in India, working as a bookkeeper for the
ever. He established two missions at Sault Ste.
archbishop of Goa. Seeking a shorter route from
Marie and St. Ignace in what is now the Upper
the Netherlands to India, he sailed with the
Peninsula of Michigan in 1668 and 1671, respec-
Dutch navigator Willem Barents in search of a
tively. A year after the Mississippi voyage, Mar-
northeast passage through the Arctic. He was
quette set out for Illinois to set up another mission,
eventually forced to turn back due to bad weath-
but died en route where the river now known as
er in this, as well as a subsequent voyage. In
Pere Marquette flows into Lake Michigan.
1601, Linschoten published the journal describ-
ing his expedition, which inspired later Dutch Alvaro de Mendaña de Nehra
and English explorers to continue his search. 1541-1595
Spanish explorer who made discoveries in the
Jerónimo Lobo
South Pacific. As the nephew of the viceroy of
1595-1678
Peru, in 1567 he was appointed commander of
Portuguese Jesuit missionary to India and an expedition in search of the mythical great
Ethiopia who wrote an account of his visit to the southern continent, terra australis. This expedi-
latter, translated as Voyage to Abyssinia. Lobo first tion failed to find the southern continent, but
went to India in 1621, and in 1624 was sent to did discover the Solomon Islands. In 1595 he
convert the Abyssinians from Coptic Christianity was sent on a second expedition in search of
to Catholicism. Initially he enjoyed the protec- terra australis but died at sea.
tion of the Emperor Segued, but with the latter’s
death, he fell into a series of misadventures and Pedro Menéndez de Avilés
ultimately departed to India. Lobo, who was 1519-1574
said to have traveled 38,000 leagues (about Spanish mariner who founded what has since
133,000 miles or 214,700 kilometers) in his ca- become one of the oldest European settlements
reer, died in Lisbon. His memoirs of Abyssinia in North America. Menéndez’s career as a sea-
first saw publication in 1728, with the French man began at the age of 14 when he joined a
translation Voyage historique d’Abissinie. ship’s crew. He gained fame at the age of 30
when he engaged in a duel with the notorious
Diogo Lopes de Sequeira French corsair Jean Alphonse, and struck him
?-c. 1520 down. Five years later, Menéndez accepted the
Portuguese sea captain who led the first Euro- title of captain-general of the Fleet of the Indies
pean expedition to Melaka (modern-day Malay- and began leading voyages to America. On his
sia). He set sail from Lisbon on April 5, 1508, first trip to America in 1565, he established a
with four ships, and arrived in Cochin, India, settlement at St. Augustine, Florida. That settle-
more than a year later. After four months in ment is now considered the oldest white settle-
Cochin, he departed for Melaka in August 1509, ment in the nation.

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Sebastian Münster from his homeland, through the Indian subconti-

1488-1552 nent and Persia. His account of his travels, Khozh- Exploration
German cartographer, cosmographer, and He- deniye za tri morya (Journey Beyond Three Seas), & Discovery
brew scholar whose work revived European in- became one of the early classics in the then-
terest in geography. Professor of Hebrew at the nascent Russian literary tradition. Known as the 1450-1699
University of Basel from 1527, he translated a “Russian Marco Polo,” Nikitin was celebrated
number of ancient works, including Ptolemy’s with a monument in his hometown of Tver on
Geographia. His description of the world, pub- the Volga River, as well as a commemorative coin
lished as Cosmographia in 1544, was widely read. issued by the Russian government in 1997.
It was translated into five languages and printed Abraham Oertel
in forty editions. His map of the New World was 1527-1598
the most widely used for a number of years.
Flemish cartographer who published the first
Pánfilo de Narváez modern atlas. Born in Antwerp, where he
1470?-1528 resided until his death, he was involved in the
map trade from a young age. In 1570 he pub-
Spanish conquistador and colonial official who
lished his great work, Theatrum Orbis Terrarum,
explored Cuba, Mexico, and Florida in search of
a collection of 70 maps by different cartogra-
gold and glory for himself and Spain. In 1498,
phers printed in a uniform format. It appeared
Narváez emigrated to Hispaniola to seek adven-
in more than 40 editions between 1570 and
ture and fortune as a soldier. He participated in
1612 and was translated into Dutch, German,
the conquest of Jamaica (1509) before command-
French, Spanish, Italian, and English.
ing part of an expeditionary army sent to survey
and conquer the island of Cuba (1511-1518). Alonso de Ojeda
After an unsuccessful attempt in 1520 to wrestle 1466-1510
control of New Spain (present-day Mexico) from Spanish explorer who participated in the early
Hernán Cortés during which he lost an eye and exploration and conquest of America by Spain.
was imprisoned, Narváez eventually returned to He accompanied Christopher Columbus on his
Spain. In 1526, he was appointed governor of second American voyage in 1493, and in 1496
Florida by King Charles I of Spain and was sent to he brought natives back to Spain as slaves from
explore and conquer the lands between Florida another voyage of exploration. In 1502 and
and northeastern Mexico. He was lost at sea in 1510, his attempts to establish colonies in
the Gulf of Mexico in 1528. America failed. Most of his men were killed by
natives in the second attempt, and Ojeda died
Jean Nicollet
soon after his return to Hispaniola, the Spanish
1598-1642
outpost in the West Indies.
Frenchman who is credited as the first European
to explore Lake Michigan and reach the Ameri- Juan de Oñate
can Midwest. At the age of 20, Nicollet joined a 1550?-1630
French trading company and set out for Canada Spanish conquistador who established the
to live among the Native Americans and become colony of New Mexico and explored parts of
a company interpreter. With direction from western North America. Oñate, who married the
Samuel de Champlain, Nicollet began his jour- granddaughter of Hernán Cortés (1485-1548),
ney through the Great Lakes in 1633. Nicollet was born and raised in the New World. In 1598,
had hoped not only to negotiate trading arrange- he founded New Mexico with some 400 settlers,
ments with Native Americans, but also to find but his actions soon revealed that his principal
the rumored transcontinental route to China. interest was gold, and he dealt ruthlessly with
Nicollet made history when he arrived onshore Spaniards and Native Americans who got in the
in what is now Wisconsin, dressed in a fine Chi- way of his ambition. During his 1601 expedition
nese robe. After this voyage, he returned to Que- to what is now central Kansas, where he hoped
bec, where he held the positions of colonial in- to find the legendary city of gold at Quivira,
terpreter and merchant. most of the colonists in New Mexico escaped.
Oñate led one final attempt to find gold, this
Afanasy Nikitin time along the Colorado River to the Gulf of Cal-
fl. 1466-1472 ifornia. He was later tried and punished for his
Earliest known Russian visitor to India. During acts of cruelty, but appealed and received a re-
the period 1466-1472, Nikitin traveled south versal of his sentence.

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Francisco de Orellana a partial share in both that ship and the Niña,
Exploration c. 1490-c. 1546 and was responsible for a change in course on
& Discovery Spanish soldier who became the first European October 7, 1492, which led to the expedition
to explore the Amazon River. Orellana, who reaching landfall in what is now the Bahamas on
1450-1699 served with Francisco Pizarro (c. 1475-1541) October 12. He later separated from the rest of
during the latter’s conquest of Peru in 1535, in the fleet with the Pinta, hoping to find treasure,
1541 led the advance party for an expedition and rushed back to Spain in an unsuccessful at-
under Pizarro’s half-brother Gonzalo (1502?- tempt to precede Columbus with the news of
1548) to explore regions east of what is now the expedition’s discovery.
Ecuador. He ended up drifting down the Ama- Vicente Yáñez Pinzón
zon with 50 soldiers, and after reaching the c. 1460-c. 1523
mouth of the river (1542) and returning to
Spain, told stories of attacks by armed women. Spanish mariner who commanded the Niña dur-
The latter he compared to the Amazons of Greek ing the first New World voyage of Christopher
mythology—hence the river’s name. A second Columbus (1451-1506), and later explored the
expedition to the region was a monstrous fail- coast of South and Central America. In 1499 Vi-
ure, and Orellana drowned as his ship attempted cente, younger brother of Martín Alonso Pinzón
to enter the mouth of the river. (c. 1441-1493), discovered a Brazilian cape that
he named Santa María de la Consolación. He
Pedro Páez also explored the region around the Amazon es-
1564-1622 tuary and what is now northeastern Venezuela,
and took part in three more voyages to the New
Spanish Jesuit priest and explorer who was the
World. On the last one, he sailed along the coast
first European to locate the source of the Blue
of Central America with Juan Díaz de Solís
Nile near Lake Tana, Ethiopia, in 1618. Another
(1470?-1516) before the two had a falling-out
Jesuit priest, Father Jeronymo Lobo, wrote Voy-
and returned to Spain in 1509.
age Historique, a book about Páez’s discovery. Fa-
ther Páez was a prisoner in Arabia for several Samuel Purchas
years before he traveled to Ethiopia, where he c. 1577-1626
converted the emperor to Roman Catholicism. English clergyman and editor who compiled
After the emperor’s death, Father Páez and many several collections of writings on travel and ex-
other Catholic priests were executed. ploration. Much of his original material has dis-
appeared, and thus his books are the only source
Antonio Pigafetta
of important information about travel and ex-
1491?-1534
ploration during this period. He became inter-
Italian sailor who wrote a classic account of his ested in reports of travel and, while serving in
participation in the historic global circumnaviga- several pastorates, collected and edited a large
tion begun by Ferdinand Magellan (c. 1480- number of these stories. His principal work is
1521). In 1519, the expedition sailed from Purchas His Pilgrims which was published in four
Spain with five ships, but its leader was killed in volumes in 1625.
1521, and the following year only one ship—the
Victoria—returned to Spain bearing a handful of Pedro Fernandez de Quirós
men. Pigafetta was among the survivors, and at 1565-1614
the behest of King Charles V, he wrote about his Portuguese navigator who explored the South
experiences in Primo viaggio inforno al globo ter- Pacific in a vain attempt to find the elusive
raqueo. Colombian novelist Gabriel Garcia Mar- “southern continent,” or Terra Australis. In
quez, in his 1982 Nobel Prize lecture, praised 1603, King Philip III of Spain granted him three
Pigafetta for “a strictly accurate account that vessels for a southward voyage, and on Decem-
nonetheless resembles a venture into fantasy.” ber 21, 1605, the expedition departed from
Callao, Peru. They moved gradually across the
Martín Alonso Pinzón southern Pacific, through the island regions now
c. 1441-1493 designated as Pitcairn and French Polynesia and
Spanish navigator who, with his brothers Vi- beyond, far to the west. Finally they arrived in
cente (c. 1460-c. 1523) and Francisco Martín Espiritu Santo in what is now Vanuatu—only
(1440?-1493?) took part in Christopher Colum- about 1,200 miles (1,931 km) from Australia—
bus’s (1451-1506) first voyage to the New where Quirós established the colony of Nova
World. Commander of the Pinta, Martín owned Jerusalem on May 14, 1606. Due to infighting

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among the crew, Quirós was forced to turn back several books in Chinese and conducted explo-
soon afterward. rations of China’s interiors. Exploration
& Discovery
Pierre-Esprit Radisson Johannes Schöner
1636?-1710 1477-1547 1450-1699
French-born Canadian adventurer who with German astronomer and geographer. Ordained a
brother-in-law Médard Chouart des Groseilliers priest in 1515, Schöner later converted to
journeyed into the Canadian wilderness north of Lutheranism and married. From his days in the
Lake Superior, became fur traders and eventual- priesthood, he operated a printing shop in his
ly set up the English Hudson’s Bay Company. house, and also produced globes—including the
After their early success as fur traders, Radisson first using the word “America,” which he made
and Groseilliers traveled to France to sell their in 1515. Schöner wrote a number of works on
pelts. The French authorities seized many of mathematical, astronomical, and geographical
their furs, and the two men turned their atten- subjects.
tion to England where Radisson received finan- Willem Corneliszoon Schouten
cial support along with a charter to establish c. 1567-1625
Hudson’s Bay Company in 1670.
Dutch mariner who discovered the Drake Pas-
Antonio Raposo de Tavares sage around the southern tip of South America.
1598-1659 Schouten and Jakob Le Maire (1585-1616)
sailed in two vessels from Holland in May 1615,
Portuguese slave trader who reputedly made one en route to the East Indies. Rather than pass
of the first trips across South America. Raposo through the perilous Strait of Magellan at the tip
Tavares led bandeiras, or slaving raids in which of South America, they navigated a much more
soldiers of mixed Portuguese, African, and Na- logical and safer path between Tierra del Fuego
tive American extraction attacked villages, often and Estados Island, a route that came to be
doing battle with Jesuit priests as well as Indian known as the Drake Passage. Arriving in Batavia,
defenders. His first bandeira took place in 1629, Java (now Jakarta, Indonesia) in October 1616,
the second in 1636-1638. On the third bandeira, they were arrested on charges of attempting to
which began in 1648, Raposo Tavaraes suppos- infringe on the Dutch East India Company mo-
edly travelled north from what is now the border nopoly over East Indies trade. Eventually they
between Brazil and Paraguay all the way to the were cleared of all charges, and Schouten’s mem-
city of Quito in present-day Ecuador, and thence oirs, when published, proved highly valuable to
along the Amazon River to Belém at is mouth. If mariners and explorers.
this account is true, then he traversed some
8,000 miles (12,875 km) before returning to Sao Pedro de Sintra
Paolo in 1652. c. 1446-after 1462
Portuguese explorer who became the first Euro-
Matteo Ricci pean to explore the coast of West Africa in the
1552-1610 region of what is now Liberia and Sierra Leone.
Italian Jesuit missionary who brought European Operating under the aegis of the navigation
mathematics, geography and Christian teachings “school” established by Prince Henry the Navi-
to the Chinese, who called him Li Ma-tou. After gator (1394-1460), Sintra voyaged to the West
attending a Jesuit college, Ricci volunteered for African coast in 1461. He named Cabo do
missionary work in the Far East and voyaged to Monte, a large rock promontory on the Liberian
the Portuguese colonies at Goa (1578) and the coast, and in 1462 named Sierra Leone, or “lion
island of Macao near Canton (1582), before mountain.”
being chosen to establish a Christian mission in
mainland China. He settled in Chao-ch’ing in John Smith
1583, studying the Chinese language and cul- 1579-1631
ture and introducing the locals to the culture of English soldier, explorer, and adventurer. The
Europe. Ricci also introduced the Chinese to son of a Lincolnshire farmer, he completed his
Western geography, creating several influential elementary school education before being ap-
maps, including a large world map with exten- prenticed to a merchant in Cambridgeshire. Be-
sive geographical annotations (1584). From ginning in 1599, he fought against the Spaniards
1601, when he established a new mission in in the Netherlands and later with the Hungari-
Peking, until his death in 1610, Ricci published ans against the Turks, rising to the rank of cap-

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tain in the Imperial Army. Wounded, captured, Lodovico de Varthema

Exploration and sold into slavery by the Turks, he escaped, c. 1465-1517
& Discovery later serving on a French privateer off the Mo- Italian adventurer, also known as Ludovico di
roccan coast. In 1606 Smith sailed with the Varthema, who made significant discoveries and
1450-1699 Jamestown Expedition to Virginia, serving for a observations as the first European to visit many
time as president of the colony. He explored the areas of the Middle East and Asia. He traveled
Potomac River region, learned much about Indi- extensively from 1502-1507, visiting Egypt,
an society, and became an enthusiastic promoter Syria, the Arabian and Malay peninsulas, Aden,
of English colonization in the New World. Re- Yemen, Ceylon, Burma, and India. He risked his
turning to England in 1609, he briefly explored life as the first non-Muslim to visit the holy city
and mapped New England (which he first of Mecca. He joined the Portuguese army in
named) in 1614. Most of his remaining years India and was knighted. The report of his travels
were spent in England, writing at least eight was published in 1510.
books, including The Generall Historie of Virginia,
New England, and the Summer Isles (1624) and Diego de Velásquez
The True Travels, Adventures, and Observations of 1460?-1524
Captain John Smith (1630). His maps and writ- Spanish conquistador and colonial official who
ings have much historical value. was commissioned by the Spanish Crown to col-
onize Cuba, which he conquered in 1512. After
Luis Vaez de Torres sailing to the West Indies with Christopher
?-1613 Columbus on his second voyage of exploration
(1493), Velásquez settled on Hispaniola, where
Spanish navigator who became the first to sail
he helped establish several towns. In 1511, he
through the strait later named after him, which
commanded the Spanish fleet that conquered
separates New Guinea from Australia. A ship’s
Cuba. Velásquez founded Baracoa, the first per-
captain in the fruitless 1605-1606 South Seas
manent European settlement on the island, and
expedition led by Pedro Fernandez de Quirós
later that year became governor general. From
(1565-1614), Torres and his men were aban-
1517 to 1520, historic expeditions were sent by
doned in what is now Vanuatu by their leader,
the new governor from Cuba to the Yucatan and
who inexplicably sailed back to Mexico without
Mexico under the commands of Francisco Her-
them. At that time point Torres opened sealed
nandez de Cordoba, Juan de Grijalva, Hernán
orders from the Viceroy of Peru, directing him to
Cortés, and Pánfilo de Narváez (1470?-1528),
head for the Philippines. In so doing, he sailed
firmly establishing the Spanish colonies in the
along the southern coast of New Guinea, a route
New World.
made dangerous by the many reefs and shifting
currents along the 90-mile-wide (145 km) pas-
Giovanni da Verrazzano
sage. During this time, Torres may have
1485-1528
glimpsed Australia, making him only the second
European to do so, after Willem Jansz (b. 1570) Italian discoverer who was the first European to
a few months earlier. Due to Spanish security explore and chart the Atlantic coastline from
concerns, the strait was kept a secret for more Newfoundland to as far south as North Carolina,
than a century, but in 1762 a British hydrogra- including what is now known as the New York
pher named it after Torres. harbor. In the service of the King of France, Ver-
razzano began the voyage with the goal of find-
ing a waterway that would connect the Atlantic
Andres de Urdaneta Ocean to the Pacific, and ultimately Asia. While
1498-1568 he didn’t find a passage, he was successful in de-
Spanish monk and navigator who discovered a scribing the eastern coast of North America. He
viable route across the Pacific Ocean from west led later voyages to Brazil and to the West In-
to east, facilitating the Spanish conquest of the dies, where he died in 1528 at the hands of a
Philippines. He was a military officer, then spent Carib tribe.
11 years (1525-1536) in the Spice Islands as an
adventurer. In 1553 he became an Augustinian Martin Waldseemüller
monk in Mexico. In 1564-1565 he led an expe- c. 1470-c. 1521
dition to the Philippines from Mexico and, on German clergyman and cartographer who
his return trip, discovered a northerly return coined the name America for the New World.
route with favorable winds. Waldseemüller read of Amerigo Vespucci’s ex-

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plorations in a 1504 letter. Adept at inventing leader of a band of outlaw Cossacks who pirated
names, including his own, he named the newly boats on the Volga River. In 1579 they were Exploration
discovered continents in honor of Vespucci in hired by a wealthy Russian family to defend & Discovery
Cosmographiae Introductio and on a world map, their property against raids by Siberian tribes.
both in 1507. His map was widely distributed, He led a force of less than 1,000 Cossacks over 1450-1699
and thus two continents came to be known by the Ural Mountains and, in 1582, captured the
the name of a relatively minor Italian navigator. Siberian capital, opening Siberia for eventual ab-
sorption into Czarist Russia.
Hugh Willoughby
?-1554
English ship commander who was one of the
many explorers of the 1500s in search of a water
passage from Europe to the lucrative markets of
Bibliography of
southeast Asia. Sir Hugh Willoughby is perhaps Primary Sources
most remembered for his attempt to find a
Northeast Passage across the northern reaches of

Europe and Asia. He set sail in 1553 into the Cortes de Albacar, Martin. Breve compendio de la Sphera y
cold waters north of Norway. His ship was sepa- del arte de navegar: con nuevos instrumentos y reglas, ex-
rated from the other two in the expedition, how- emplificado con muy subtiles demonstraciones (Short
Compendium of the Sphere and of the Art of Naviga-
ever, and he died off Lapland. The expedition tion: With New Instruments and Rules, Exemplified
continued east to Moscow without him, and ini- with Very Simple Demonstrations). 1556. An influen-
tiated trade between England and Russia. tial work on navigation, including discussion of the
variability of compass readings in different parts of
Edward Wright the world, and explanations counter to generaliza-
1558?-1615 tions in other works of the era. The book was particu-
larly important for the English, with its English trans-
English mathematician who improved on the lation going through six editions in the sixteenth cen-
cartographic system devised by Gerhard Merca- tury alone.
tor (1512-1594), and thus ensured the wide- Dampier, William. A New Voyage Round the World. 1697.
spread acceptance of the Mercator projection. In A vivid account of Dampier’s adventures and the
1599, Wright published The Correction of Cer- places he visited, including Africa, the Philippines,
taine Errors in Navigation, which he revised as and Australia, while circumnavigating the globe.
Certaine Errors in Navigation, Detected and Cor- Hakluyt, Richard. Divers Voyages Touching the Discovery of
rected (1610). These books offered modifications America. 1582. A geographical work that greatly en-
on Mercator, as well as mathematical tables and couraged colonization efforts. It contained an account
practical information for mariners plotting of previous English voyages to North America, a list
of America’s known resources, and a report on the
straight-line courses on Mercator-projection Northwest Passage.
maps. The British Navy adopted Wright’s sys-
Hakluyt, Richard. The Principal Navigations, Voyages, and
tem, which enabled it to gain an advantage over
Discoveries of the English Nation. 1589. A comprehen-
other navies. sive three-volume history of English overseas explo-
ration, considered a classic of English literature.
Saint Francis Xavier
1506-1552 Hennepin, Louis. A New Discovery of a Vast Country in
America. 1697. Contains the first European descrip-
Spanish missionary who brought Christianity to tion of Niagara Falls.
India, Malaysia, and Japan. Of noble birth, he Lobo, Jeronymo. A Short Relation of the River Nile. 1669.
studied in Paris where he helped found the Soci- Contains an account of Pedro Páez’s discovery of the
ety of Jesus (Jesuits). Ordained in 1537, he went source of the Blue Nile near Lake Tana, Ethiopia, in
to Portuguese Goa, in India, as a missionary in 1618. Lobo was the second European to arrive at this
1542. His mission expanded into Malaysia location.
(1545) and Japan (1549). He advocated the use Münster, Sebastian. Cosmographia. 1544. A description of
of local language and culture by missionaries the world that revived European interest in geogra-
and the utilization of natives as clergy. Xavier phy. It was widely read, translated into five languages,
and printed in forty editions.
was canonized in 1622.
Oertel, Abraham. Theatrum Orbis Terrarum. 1570. A col-
Timofeyevich Yermak lection of 70 maps by different cartographers, printed
?-1584 in a uniform format. It appeared in more than 40 edi-
tions between 1570 and 1612, and was translated
Russian adventurer who brought Siberia under into Dutch, German, French, Spanish, Italian, and
Russian control. Yermak (or Ermak) was the English.

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Purchas, Samuel. Hakluytus Posthumus or Purchas His Pil- name “America” a designation he coined in honor of
Exploration grimes. 1625. A four-volume collection of writings on explorer Amerigo Vespucci. The map was widely dis-
travel and exploration, based in part on Richard Hak- tributed, and thus two continents came to be known
& Discovery luyt’s accounts. Purchas’s work is an important source by the name of a relatively minor Italian navigator.
of information about travel and exploration during Wright, Edward. The Correction of Certaine Errors in Navi-
1450-1699 this period, as it is one of the few reliable sources to gation. 1599. Provided modifications of Mercator’s
have survived. maps, as well as mathematical tables and practical in-
Smith, John. The Generall Historie of Virginia, New Eng- formation for mariners plotting straight-line courses
land, and the Summer Isles. 1624. The first significant on Mercator-projection maps. Revised as Certaine Er-
account of the New World in English. rors in Navigation, Detected and Corrected (1610).
Waldseemüller, Martin. Cosmographiae Introductio. 1507. JOSH LAUER
An atlas containing a map of the New World under the

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Life Sciences and Medicine

Chronology


1451 Bernardo di Rapallo of Italy devises 1602 Swiss anatomist Felix Plater pub-
a perineal operation for kidney stones. lishes Praxis Medica, the first modern at-
tempt at the classification of diseases.
1521 The first anatomical drawings made
1628 English physician William Harvey,
from nature, by Giacomo Berengario da
considered the founder of modern physi-
Carpi, are published; those of Leonardo da
ology, first demonstrates the correct theory
Vinci, made earlier, will not be published
of blood circulation in De Motu Cordis et
for centuries.
Sanguinis in Animalibus.
1536 Chirurgia Magna, a surgical treatise 1637 French philosopher René Descartes’s
by Paracelsus, stresses the importance of Discours de la Méthode applies a mechanis-
minerals in treating diseases. tic view to science and medicine, establish-
ing a worldview that dominates the study
1543 Andreas Vesalius publishes his of man for some time.
stunningly illustrated book of anatomy, De
1664 Thomas Willis, an English physi-
humani corporis fabrica libri septem (Seven
cian, writes his Cerebri Anatome, which
books on the structure of the human
gives a complete and accurate account of
body), one of the most important books in
the nervous system.
medical history. The illustrations were
probably done by Jan Stephan van Calcar. 1668 The first successful intravenous in-
jections on humans are made indepen-
1551 Konrad von Gesner publishes the dently by Johann Major and Johann
first volume of Historia Animalium, the first Elscholtz, both German physicians.
modern, scientific study of animal life.
1674 French physician Morel de Villiers
1555 By depicting the homologies be- invents the tourniquet for stopping major
tween the skeleton of a bird and that of a hemorrhages.
human, Pierre Belon in L’Histoire de la Na- 1677 Antoni van Leeuwenhoek, a Dutch
ture des Oyseaux establishes comparative biologist and microscopist, discovers and
anatomy as a discipline. describes spermatozoa.

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Overview:
Life Sciences
& Medicine Life Sciences and Medicine 1450-1699
1450-1699


Previous Period plants and animals than had been created in the
previous centuries.
There was relatively little interest expressed in the
life sciences during the Middle Ages. However, The philosopher and natural scientist René
several factors developed in the later medieval pe- Descartes (1596-1650) developed the influential
riod that led to a renewed interest in the careful idea that the human body was like a machine and
observation of nature on the part of Europeans. that the body and the mind, which he thought
These factors were: the writings of the Greek was seated in the brain’s pineal gland, were quite
philosophers whose work had been rediscovered separate from each other. A number of other
in the late Middle Ages; the learning of Arab anatomists also studied the nervous system in the
philosophers and physicians, which became seventeenth century; for instance, Thomas Willis
known after the crusades; and the work of such (1621-1675) investigated blood circulation in the
European scholars as Roger Bacon (1220?-1292?) brain. One of the most significant anatomical
and Albertus Magnus (1200?-1280). All three of works of the seventeenth century was done by
these groups had stressed the importance of inves- William Harvey (1578-1657), the first to accu-
tigating the natural world. With the close exami- rately describe the human circulatory system, in-
nation of nature and the striving for realism that cluding the circulation of blood through the
marked the Renaissance, sciences such as anatomy heart. This work led to further interest in circula-
and botany began to develop their modern forms. tion and to the first blood transfusions, which
The invention of the printing press in the mid-fif- were attempted in the 1660s. There were also
teenth century made it possible to transmit this considerable advances made in other areas of
learning much more easily, thus setting the stage anatomy. Bartolommeo Eustachio (1520?-1574)
for significant developments in the life sciences investigated the structure of the ear, Harvey and
and medicine during the Renaissance. his teacher Girolamo Fabrici (1537-1619)
worked on the developing embryo, and Vesalius’s
pupil Gabriele Falloppio (1523-1562) studied the
female reproductive system.
Anatomy
Unillustrated medieval anatomical texts simply
copied the writings of classical scholars such as Medical Theories and Practices
Galen (c. 130-c. 200), who based his work on In the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries med-
the dissection of animals, not humans. By the ical practice remained a mixture of ancient ideas
fourteenth century, human dissections were be- and new observations, with the latter leading to
coming common in Italian universities and it be- improved therapies. One of the individuals
came clear that Galen’s descriptions were not al- whose ideas represent such a mixture of old and
ways accurate. One of the most significant events new was Paracelsus (1493-1541), a Swiss al-
in the study of anatomy was the publication in chemist and physician who argued against the
1543 of Andreas Vesalius’s (1514-1564) book on barbaric, medieval techniques in medicine and
human anatomy, De humani corporis fabrica, called for radical change in medical practice,
which combined exquisite illustrations with a while at the same time holding to the ancient
text that was a significant improvement on the ideas of alchemy. These ideas led Paracelsus to
anatomies passed down from ancient times. encourage the use of chemicals such as sulfur
and copper compounds as medicines, rather
Historians have suggested that the artist
than the traditional plant-derived remedies.
who illustrated Vesalius’s text was influenced by
the unpublished drawings in Leonardo da Vinci’s Paracelsus was not the only physician devel-
(1452-1519) famous notebooks, drawings based oping new treatments at this time. Because there
on actual dissections. Many artists of the time, was little reliable information, there were nu-
including da Vinci and Albrecht Dürer (1471- merous theories of disease. Many physicians, in-
1528), were extremely interested in anatomy, as cluding some with very questionable remedies,
well as other aspects of nature; they painted and preyed on people who were being assaulted by a
drew much more realistic and accurate images of large number of medical problems. Bubonic

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plague was still present in Europe, as was yellow those of the Old World being brought to the
fever, sweating sickness, leprosy, and a number New World. For example, rats on European Life Sciences
of other infectious diseases. At the end of the fif- ships were responsible for the extinction of & Medicine
teenth century, syphilis appeared in armies fight- many species, particularly on islands where ani-
ing in Italy and continued to spread throughout mals were not adapted to coping with rodent 1450-1699
Europe in epidemic proportions for a long peri- predators. Europeans also brought diseases to
od of time. the lands they colonized, causing large-scale epi-
Barber-surgeons were prominent dispensers demics among native populations. Smallpox and
of medical treatment, but during this time the other infectious diseases had arrived in the
field of surgery became more professionalized. Caribbean by 1518 and they soon spread to
The French surgeon Ambroise Paré (1510-1590) Mexico and South America.
made many notable contributions to the field, in- Another new world that opened up in the
cluding the practice of ligature, or tying off sev- seventeenth century was the microscopic world,
ered blood vessels. He also condemned the use when magnifying lenses were perfected to the
of boiling oil as a treatment for gunshot wounds. point that the tiny organisms in pond water and
In addition, there were changes in procedures re- other fluids could be seen for the first time. In
lated to childbirth. Traditionally babies had been 1665 Robert Hooke (1635-1703) published Mi-
delivered by female midwives, but with the in- crographia, a book which contained many draw-
creasing influence of surgeons, childbirth became ings of specimens he had examined under the mi-
the domain of these physicians, who were called croscope, including a flea and the cells in a piece
“men-midwives.” of cork. Jan Swammerdam (1637-1680) and
All areas of medicine were enriched by the Anton van Leeuwenhoek (1632-1723) were two
development of printing. Books called herbals Dutch naturalists who were particularly impor-
gave information on the medicinal uses of tant in opening up this new microscopic world.
plants, and many illustrated works of anatomy
followed those of Vesalius. Printing also made
possible wider distribution of ancient texts, and Botany and Zoology
this led to more questioning of old ideas and to Once the microscope was invented, it was used
the search for better information. Medical manu- by a number of botanists, including Nehemiah
als began to be produced in languages other Grew (1641-1712) and Marcello Malpighi
than Latin, making knowledge more accessible (1628-1694), to investigate plant anatomy. In
to those with less education. zoology, Konrad von Gesner (1516-1565) inau-
gurated the modern age of this science with a
New Worlds four-volume work on animals, published in the
1550s. The renewed interest in botany and zool-
During the period 1450-1699, much of the ac- ogy led to the establishment of a number of zoo-
tivity in the life sciences resulted from the open- logical and botanical gardens in Europe, which
ing up of new worlds. The age of exploration allowed the general public, for the first time, to
was just beginning, and as explorers returned be able to view organisms gathered from around
from voyages throughout the world, they often the world.
brought back both living and dead specimens of
new plant and animal species, some of which
were very unusual and had characteristics that The Future
had never been seen before by Europeans. Some
plants soon became economically significant By the time the seventeenth century ended, the
crops in Europe, including maize or corn and life sciences were poised for the tremendous
tobacco as well as potatoes and tomatoes. This growth of knowledge that occurred in the eigh-
wealth of new species brought questions of orga- teenth century. Work on classification, micro-
nization to the fore, and several classification scopic investigations, and anatomical studies all
schemes were developed, one of the most signif- continued to bear fruit. There would also be
icant being that of the English botanist John Ray more emphasis placed on experimentation, par-
(1627-1705). ticularly in physiology, the study of plant and
animal function.
There was also an unintentional movement
of species in the other direction as well, with ROBERT HENDRICK

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Philosophy of Science:
Life Sciences
& Medicine Baconian and Cartesian Approaches
1450-1699


Overview ment to replace traditional Aristotelian science.
The Baconian method, also known as the induc-
The Renaissance and Scientific Revolution en-
tive method, involves the exhaustive collection
compassed the transformation of art, science,
of particular instances or facts and the elimina-
medicine, and philosophy, as well as the social,
tion of factors, which do not accompany the
economic, and political life of Europe. Ancient
phenomenon under investigation. Generally sus-
concepts were challenged by new ideas and facts
picious of mathematics, deductive logic, and in-
generated by the exploration of the world, the
tuitive thinking, Bacon believed that valid hy-
heavens, and the human body. Natural philoso-
potheses should be derived from the assembly
phers, physicians, and surgeons were confronted
and analysis of “Tables and Arrangements of In-
with plants, animals, and diseases unknown to
stances.” Rather than passively collecting facts,
the ancient authorities. Although Francis Bacon
the scientist must be actively involved in putting
(1561-1639) and René Descartes (1596-1650)
questions to nature. Scientists would analyze ex-
developed different methodologies, these two
perience “as if by a machine” to arrive at true
seventeenth century philosophers helped to
conclusions by proceeding from less to more
guide and systematize the new sciences and de-
general propositions. The result of applying this
fine the modern scientific method.
scientific method, Bacon assured his readers,
would be a great new synthesis of all human
Background knowledge, a true and lawful marriage between
the empirical and the rational faculty. Neverthe-
Although he made no direct contributions to sci- less, Bacon apparently appreciated the signifi-
entific knowledge, Francis Bacon is remembered cance of what is now known as the falsifiability
as Britain’s major seventeenth-century British principle, which is usually associated with the
philosopher of science. A keen observer of the twentieth-century philosopher Karl Popper
great events of his time, Bacon said that of all the (1902-1994). Despite his enthusiasm for the
products of human ingenuity the three most sig- collection of facts, Bacon realized that it is im-
nificant were the compass, gunpowder, and print- possible to provide absolute proof of inductive
ing. Through their combined effects, Bacon ar- generalizations based on a finite number of ob-
gued, these inventions had “changed the appear- servations. Because a few “negative instances”
ance and state of the whole world.” Bacon himself have the power to falsify an induction, experi-
became the guiding spirit of the new experimental mental results that contradict a general theory
science and the scientific societies that nurtured it. may reveal more about nature than another bit
His impact on the sciences came about through of data that appears to support the theory.
his emphasis on defining the methodology of sci-
ence, suggesting means of insuring its application,
Like Bacon, the French philosopher René
and providing encouragement and direction for
Descartes believed that a new science would lead
the new scientific enterprises he predicted. Bacon
to knowledge and inventions that would promote
planned an encyclopedia of the crafts and experi-
human welfare. Unlike Bacon, Descartes was a
mental facts, a review of all branches of human
gifted mathematician, honored as the inventor of
knowledge, and new scientific institutions that
analytic geometry, and the advocate of a deduc-
would improve human welfare, comfort, and
tive, mathematical approach to the sciences.
prosperity. Ultimately, according to Bacon, science
Descartes believed that his approach to science
would increase human knowledge, power, and
would allow human beings to master and possess
control over nature. Bacon rejected the scholasti-
nature’s abundance and establish a new medical
cism of the universities and launched open attacks
science capable of eliminating disease and ex-
on Aristotle and Plato. He insisted that fact gather-
tending the human life span. Unlike Bacon,
ing and experiment must replace the sterile bur-
whose work he had studied and criticized,
den of deductive logic so that naturalists could
Descartes placed a priori principles first and sub-
produce new scientific knowledge.
ordinated his observations and experimental find-
Bacon’s Advancement of Learning (1605) pro- ings to them. Nevertheless, he too had a grand
posed a new science of observation and experi- scheme and task for natural philosophy. An ex-

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amination of method was a primary part of his purely mechanical terms as the motions of mate-
plan to use the mathematical method in develop- rial corpuscles and the heat generated by the Life Sciences
ing a general mechanical model of the workings heart. Descartes systematized the mechanical & Medicine
of nature. Although experimentation had a role in philosophy and provided a rationale for describ-
Descartes’s system, it was a subordinate one. He ing the human body as a machine. Even human 1450-1699
believed that experiments should serve as illustra- beings could be investigated as earthly machines
tions of ideas that had been deduced from prima- that differed from animals only because they
ry principles or should help decide between alter- possessed a rational soul that governed their ac-
native possibilities when the consequences of in- tions. Serving as the agent of thought, will, con-
tuitive deduction were ambiguous. scious perception, memory, imagination, and
Following Bacon’s example, Descartes also reason, the rational soul was the only entity ex-
opposed scholastic Aristotelianism and called for empted from a purely mechanical explanation.
new approaches to science and philosophical in- Except for thought processes, all physiological
quiry. Applying his methods to science, philoso- functions of the human body were as mechani-
phy, or any other rational inquiry, Descartes as- cal as the workings of a clock.
serted, would not only resolve problems but Descartes challenged scientists to treat the
would lead to the discovery of useful philosophi- physical and mental aspects of human beings in
cal knowledge. Descartes began by methodically the same manner as all other scientific problems.
doubting knowledge based on authority, the According to Descartes, a human being is a
senses, and reason. Ultimately, he found certainty union of mind and body, two dissimilar sub-
in the intuitive knowledge that he was thinking, stances that interact only in the pineal gland. He
and, therefore, he must exist. He expressed this reasoned that the pineal gland must be the unit-
insight in his famous declaration: “I think, there- ing point because it is the only nondouble organ
fore I am.” Descartes developed a dualistic sys- in the brain, and double reports, as from two
tem that separated mind, the essence of which is eyes, must have one place to merge. He argued
thinking, from matter, the essence of which is ex- that each action on a person’s sense organs caus-
tension in three dimensions. es subtle matter to move through tubular nerves
to the pineal gland, causing it to vibrate distinc-
Descartes’s metaphysical system is intuition-
tively. These vibrations give rise to emotions and
ist, derived by reason from innate ideas, but his
passions and cause the body to act. Bodily action
physics and physiology, based on sensory knowl-
is thus the outcome of a reflex arc that begins
edge, are mechanistic and empiricist. The mecha-
with external stimuli and involves first an inter-
nistic philosophy asserts that all life phenomena
nal response, as, for example, when a soldier
can be completely explained in terms of the phys-
sees the enemy, feels fear, and flees. The mind
ical-chemical laws that govern the inanimate
cannot change bodily reactions directly—for ex-
world. Vitalist philosophy claims that the real en-
ample, it cannot will the body to fight—but it
tity of life is the soul or vital force and that the
can change the pineal vibrations from those that
body exists for and through the soul, which is in-
cause fear and fleeing to those that cause
comprehensible in strictly scientific terms. The
courage and fighting.
writings of Descartes provided the most influen-
tial philosophical framework for a mechanistic Even though the nervous system carried out
approach to physiology. Descartes’s own physio- the commands of the rational soul, Descartes
logical experiments and texts provided his follow- provided a mechanical explanation for the ner-
ers with a complete and satisfying mechanistic vous system. Direct interaction between the ra-
system, embedded in a general system of philoso- tional soul and the earthly machine occurred in
phy. The fundamental platform of Descartes’s me- the pineal gland, an unpaired organ that was er-
chanical philosophy was that all natural phenom- roneously thought to be present only in humans.
ena could be explained solely by matter and mo- Through conduits in the brain, the animal spirits
tion. In his Treatise of Man, Descartes extended his were able to enter the nerves, which were hol-
concept of the universe as a machine to the expla- low tubes that incorporated hypothetical valves
nation of human beings as machines working in governing the flow of nervous fluid. Delicate
accordance with physical laws. threads along the length of the interior of the
nerves connected the brain to the sense organs.
The tiniest motion along the thread tugged at
Impact the site of the brain where the thread originated
Cartesian doctrine essentially treated animals as and opened pores that allowed the animal spirits
machines whose activities were explained in to flow into the muscles. Bodily action was,

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therefore, the result of a reflex arc that began their contemporaries recognized the deficiencies
Life Sciences with external stimuli and involved an internal of the pure Baconian system and the pure Carte-
& Medicine response. Movement of the subtle fluid through sian system. The great mathematician and physi-
the nerves in response to stimulation of the cist Christiaan Huygens (1629-1687) recognized
1450-1699 sense organs caused the pineal gland to vibrate, this when he remarked that Descartes had ig-
resulting in changes in the emotions and pas- nored the role of experimentation, while Bacon
sions. Although the mind could not change bod- had failed to appreciate the role of mathematics
ily reactions to external stimuli directly, it could in scientific method. A synthesis of the two ap-
affect the distinctive pineal vibrations. Thus, ex- proaches was needed, or the admission that
ternal stimuli could cause fear, but the mind there is no one scientific method sufficient for
could determine whether the reaction would be posing and solving all possible problems. Me-
flight or fight. chanical fact-finding, daydreams, and flashes of
Descartes’s work was widely read, imitated, intuition have played a role in science, no matter
and honored. He challenged scientists to treat the what formal doctrine or method scientists pro-
physical and mental aspects of human beings in fessed to follow.
the same manner as all other scientific problems. LOIS N. MAGNER
His disciples saw him as the first philosopher to
dare to explain all the functions of human beings,
even the brain, in a purely mechanical manner. Further Reading
Guided by Descartes, many seventeenth century Blasius W., Boylan, J. W,. and K. Kramer, eds. Founders of
physiologists tried to force all vital phenomena to Experimental Physiology. Munich: Lehmanns, 1971.
fit mechanical analogies. Such physiologists were Carter, Richard B. Descartes’ Medical Philosophy: The Or-
known as iatromechanists, because they believed ganic Solution to the Mind-Body Problem. Baltimore,
that all functions of the living body could be ex- MD: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1983.
plained on physical and mathematical principles. Descartes, René. Treatise of Man (1622). Translated by T.
In contrast, iatrochemists attempted to explain S. Hall. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press,
1972.
vital phenomena as chemical events. The me-
chanical philosophy allowed naturalists to investi- Farrington, Benjamin. Francis Bacon, Philosopher of Indus-
trial Science. New York: Schuman, 1949.
gate nature without relying on the vitalistic “soul”
and “spirits” that had characterized ancient and Hall, Thomas Steele. History of General Physiology 600 B.C.
to A.D. 1900. 2 vols. Chicago, IL: University of Chica-
Renaissance science. Only the rational soul of
go Press, 1975.
human beings remained.
Rothschuh, Karl E. History of Physiology. New York:
Descartes’s influence on philosophy, litera- Robert E. Krieger, 1973.
ture, and French culture was both profound and Shea, William R. The Magic of Numbers and Motion: The
subtle. Eventually, however, it was the “Baconian Scientific Career of René Descartes. Canton, MA: Sci-
method” that became virtually synonymous with ence History Publications. 1991.
the “scientific method.” Nevertheless, neither Whitney, Charles. Francis Bacon and Modernity. New
Descartes nor Bacon alone could have served as Haven, CT: Yale University Press.
a complete guide for the development of experi- Zagorin, Perez. Francis Bacon. Princeton, NJ: Princeton
mental and theoretical science. Even some of University Press, 1998.

Theory and Experiment Redefine Medical

Practice and Philosophy


Overview chemists advocated a more aggressive applica-
In the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries there tion of new chemical remedies. Drawing on
was considerable debate among physicians Descartes, Galileo, Newton, and Harvey, the ia-
about the appropriate philosophical basis for tromechanist school began to think of the
their art. The humoral theory of Galen and Avi- human body as a machine. In contrast, the early
cenna remained influential while the iatro- vitalists believed in a vital force that differentiat-

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ed living matter from nonliving. The boundaries as to the extent of his study at universities.
between the different systems were not rigid. There is evidence he received a doctoral degree Life Sciences
The majority of medical practitioners, not hold- at Ferrara in Italy. In his practice of medicine he & Medicine
ing university degrees, relied more on first-hand was credited with a number of nearly miracu-
experience and traditional medical knowledge lous cures, and in 1526 he was appointed town 1450-1699
than on a philosophical framework. physician in Basel, Switzerland, where he pub-
licly burned the books of Galen as a protest
against the traditional teachings. His supporters
Background called him, among other things, the Luther of
With the appearance of universities and their the Physicians, seeing in him a needed reformer.
faculties of medicine in the twelfth through four- His opponents were in the majority, however,
teenth centuries, physicians educated at univer- and had him run out of town.
sities became eager to distinguish themselves As alchemists, Paracelsus and his followers
from other medical practitioners, who they dis- wanted to replace the four elements of Empedo-
paragingly described as “empirics.” The tradi- cles, and the corresponding system of four hu-
tional medical curriculum was devoted to the mors, by a set of three fundamental “principles”:
study of the works of the Greek medical writer salt, sulfur, and mercury. This proposal grew out
Galen (c. A.D. 130-c. 200), and of the great Per- of alchemical experimentation, which increasing-
sian physician Abu-Ali Al-Husain Ibn Abdulla ly involved the application of heat to separate
Ibn Sina (c. 980-1037), known in the Western materials into their volatile part (mercury), fluid
world by the Latinized name Avicenna, who ex- part (sulfur), and solid remainder (salt). More
tended Galen’s system. important than this new theory, perhaps, was the
Galen based his medical system on the the- Paracelsans’ insistence that the proper purpose of
ory of four humors, which like the theory of chemistry was not the changing of base metals
four elements originated in the teaching of the into gold but the creation of medicines. Paracel-
Greek philosopher Empedocles (490-c. 430 B.C.) sus gained some followers among the empirics
and had been embraced by the philosopher but loved controversy too much to be accepted
Aristotle. In the Galenic view, health resulted by the majority of university-educated physi-
from the balance between blood, phlegm, yellow cians. His followers frequently gained support
bile, and black bile. Disease was a matter of in- from royal families. In France the King supported
ternal imbalance, which could be restored Paracelsan physicians against the medical faculty
through diet or through purgation or bleeding. at Paris, which remained faithful to Galen.
New discoveries in the physical sciences
By the sixteenth century medical scholars
stimulated an alternative school, based more on
had joined in the controversy between “ancients”
physics than chemistry, known as iatromech-
and “moderns” that also affected the study of lit-
anism, or sometimes iatromathematics. The Ital-
erature and theology. While some scholars
ian mathematician and physiologist Giovanni
sought to restore the teachings of the ancient
Alfonso Borelli (1608-1679), a friend of Galileo
writers in their original purity, others felt that too
(1564-1642), is generally considered the
much respect had been paid to the teachers of
founder of this school. In his book De Motu Ani-
antiquity. In scientific areas there was a new em-
malum, published shortly after his death, he de-
phasis on experiment and observation as well as
scribes the skeletal system of various animals as
new theories of health and healing. For physi-
a system of mechanical levers controlled by the
cians the need for new approaches was also seen
muscles. Iatromechanists were quick to seize on
as necessary to deal with new diseases, particu-
the idea of the English physician William Harvey
larly syphilis, which made its first appearance in
(1578-1673) that the heart acts as a mechanical
Europe after the return of Christopher Columbus
pump. They also claimed the great French
(1451-1506) from the New World.
philosopher René Descartes (1596-1650) as one
The alternative system known as iatrochem- of their number. While Descartes is known pri-
istry is usually considered the creation of the marily for his contributions to philosophy and
controversial Swiss physician Theophrastus mathematics, he wrote also on physics and, liv-
Bombast von Hohenheim (1493-1541), general- ing near the butcher’s quarter in Amsterdam,
ly known by the name he adopted, Paracelsus. conducted many dissections of animals.
Scholars agree that Paracelsus traveled widely Descartes concluded that animals were in
and sought knowledge from alchemists, barber- essence machines while humans were a combi-
surgeons, midwives, and miners. They disagree nation of mechanism and a nonmaterial mind.

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The success of the British mathematician Sir century discovery of dyes that could stain, and
Life Sciences Isaac Newton (1642-1727) in providing a math- thus attach themselves to, specific tissues. The
& Medicine ematical framework for physics through his influence of iatrochemical theory on the diet of
three laws of motion also served to strengthen Europeans was also profound. The diet of the
1450-1699 the iatromechanist school. wealthy, the only people who could afford a vari-
ety of foods, in 1600 emphasized heavy use of
Vitalism is the belief that living organisms
sugar, cooked vegetables, and warmed wine, all
possess qualities that are not present in inorgan-
of which were expected to insure the balance of
ic matter. The vitalist approach to medicine ap-
the Galenic humors. A hundred years later there
pears in the work of the Flemish physician and
had been a shift to fresh vegetables or salad,
alchemist Jan Baptista van Helmont (c. 1750-
minimal use of sugar, and cold beverages, much
1644), a follower of Paracelsus. Van Helmont
as in modern practice, justified by the three
and his followers believed that only living organ-
Paracelsan principles and the idea of digestion as
isms could produce the “ferments” that permit-
fermentation.
ted the digesting of foodstuffs and their incorpo-
ration into the organism, and thus that the The iatromechanist tradition has continued
chemistry of living or once-living matter was also, perhaps with the least fundamental change.
forever separated from that of inanimate matter. The diagnosing physician’s reliance on blood pres-
sure, temperature, and timing the pulse to assess
the state of health of the patient has not changed
Impact in principle since the seventeenth century.
The increased emphasis on observation and ex- Vitalism has had a more checkered career.
periment in the seventeenth century would Vitalists are behind the original separation of
change the way in which university-educated chemistry into organic and inorganic categories.
physicians viewed their calling. In 1600 such The debate about the spontaneous generation of
physicians considered themselves to be students organisms from nonliving matter appeared to be
of nature. Many, including William Gilbert finally resolved by the demonstration in 1860 by
(1544-1603), physician to Queen Elizabeth I, the French chemist Louis Pasteur (1822-1895)
engaged in physical experiments. “Physic,” from that meat broth can be preserved indefinitely if
the Greek word meaning nature, was under- microbes are excluded, an apparent victory for
stood to include recommending good diet and vitalism. In 1828, however, the German chemist
other health practices as well as trying to cure Friedrich Wöhler (1800-1882) demonstrated
the sick. By 1700 the physician was mainly con- that urea, a simple compound found in animal
cerned with treating the sick, and clinical expe- waste, can be made in the laboratory from am-
rience gradually replaced much of the traditional monium cyanate, considered to be an inorganic
philosophical training. compound. In modern science, the vitalist posi-
Each of the major medical theories current tion is no longer accepted, at least outside the
in the seventeenth century continued to influ- area of mental phenomena, and the difference
ence the practice of medicine up to the nine- between living organisms and nonliving is con-
teenth century and to some extent even the sidered to be a matter of vastly greater complexi-
twentieth. Blood-letting, and the application of ty, much of it to be found in the molecular struc-
medicinal leeches, continued through most of ture of enzymes, the modern counterpart of van
the nineteenth century. While a young ship’s Helmont’s ferments.
surgeon, Julius Mayer (1814-1878) made the Assessments of Paracelsus have varied
observation that sailors bled in the tropics through the centuries. He has been considered
showed less use of oxygen than people in tem- something of a Swiss national hero. The young
perate climates. These observations were the cat- romantic poet Robert Browning wrote a play in
alyst that led him to formulate the law of energy verse about him in 1835. The Swiss psychoana-
conservation. Notions of restoring the equilibri- lyst Carl Gustav Jung (1875-1961) wrote two es-
um of the patient may have played a role in the says, “Paracelsus the Physician” and “Paracelsus
experimentation with “antagonist therapies” in as a Spiritual Phenomenon,” praising the contro-
the 1920s, such as the deliberate infection of pa- versial physician as an innovator in medicine.
tients with malaria to treat advanced syphilis. His collected works have been published, and
several scholarly papers about his role in the
Iatrochemistry might claim credit for the
evolution of modern medicine appear each year.
expansion of chemical therapies. A flurry of new
chemical therapies followed the late-nineteenth- DONALD R. FRANCESCHETTI

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Further Reading Articles

Cook, Harold J. “The New Philosophy and Medicine in Life Sciences
Books Seventeenth-Century England.” In D. C. Lindberg and
& Medicine
Cumston, Charles Greene. An Introduction to the History of R. S. Westman, eds., Reappraisals of the Scientific Revolu-
Medicine. London: Dawsons of Pall Mall, 1968. tion. New York: Cambridge University Press, 1990.
1450-1699
King, Lester S. The Philosophy of Medicine. The Early Eigh- Laudan, Rachel. “Birth of the Modern Diet.” Scientific
teenth Century. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University American 283 (August 2000): 76-81.
Press, 1978.
Porter, Roy. The Greatest Benefit to Mankind: A Medical
History of Humanity. New York: Norton, 1997.

Advances in Midwifery and Obstetrics

Overview the midwife’s role was to assist the mother with-
out interfering with labor, becoming impatient,
The routine delivery of a healthy child by skilled
or trying to hurry the birth. Wise midwives al-
and knowledgeable birth attendants is a relatively
lowed labor and delivery to follow a natural
modern phenomenon. Centuries ago, ignorance
course whenever possible, because intervention,
about anatomy, particularly female anatomy, com-
haste, or incomplete removal of the placenta was
bined with a lack of knowledge about pregnancy,
often fatal for the mother. Following the birth,
labor, and delivery, made childbirth a life-threat-
the midwife tended to both mother and child,
ening process for both mother and child. Before
usually for several days.
the fourteenth century, pregnancy and childbirth
were of little interest to the medical community. During a difficult birth, a midwife had few
Female midwives, whose actions fell under the genuine options. With a poor understanding of
jurisdiction of the Church, attended laboring anatomy and birth, midwives resorted to several
women. The admission of medical men and their different strategies in their attempts to help a
technologies to the birth chamber, which became mother deliver a child. These included pressing
increasingly common during the fifteenth centu- on the mother’s abdomen and having the mother
ry, signaled the beginning of obstetrics as a scien- inhale smells thought to encourage active labor.
tific discipline and marked the decline of mid- Sometimes symbolic rituals thought to aid labor
wifery. The inclusion of physicians, unfortunately, were performed: removing the patient’s hairpins,
did little to improve a woman’s chances of safe or opening anything in the house that was closed:
delivery during a difficult labor. doors, drawers, cabinets—even bottles and jugs.
In the event of the mother’s death, a midwife
needed to act quickly to either save the child or
Background baptize it before it died. To accomplish this, a
Until the beginning of the fourteenth century, care midwife had to perform a caesarean section (the
for women during pregnancy and labor was the surgical removal of a fetus through an incision
exclusive province of midwives. Despite a lack of made in the abdomen) on the dead woman.
formal training in anatomy, they learned their craft
through apprenticeships with experienced mid-
wives. Thus, both knowledge and superstition Impact
passed from one generation to the next. The med- The dawn of the Renaissance (c. 1453) marked a
ical community on the other hand, viewed preg- new beginning in the annals of medicine, child-
nancy as an illness and treated it as such. Bleeding birth, and midwifery. The invention of the print-
was a common treatment for the discomforts and ing press spurred a new interest in learning and
complications of expectant women; it was intend- inquiry, making documents and information
ed to restore the balance of humors in the body. newly available to a wide audience, including
Midwives attended both normal and diffi- midwives and doctors. During this period some
cult births. A normal birth was (and still is) one local ordinances began to limit midwives’ tradi-
in which the child presented head first and fac- tional functions, requiring them to send for the
ing the mother’s back. During a normal delivery assistance of a physician or barber-surgeon in dif-

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Life Sciences
& Medicine
1450-1699

A midwife attending a patient, from an English manuscript from around 1400. The diagrams show the normal fetal
presentation (top right) as well as those that could complicate delivery. (Bodleian Library, Oxford University.
Reproduced with permission.)

ficult births, and forbidding them to use sharp in- statute that stated “no carpenter, smith, weaver, or
struments (such as hooks and knives) to extract a woman shall practice surgery.” The passage of
dead fetus. The Guild of Surgeons further solidi- these regulations and statutes gave the medical
fied the segregation of midwives from surgical du- community a toehold that allowed them to enter
ties (including cesarean sections) in the 1540 a realm about which they knew very little.

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As the sixteenth century began, the need to Medici, and English midwife Jane Sharp (fl.
improve the education of midwives became ap- 1700) sought to provide midwives with sound Life Sciences
parent. The first English work on midwifery—a anatomical information, midwifery techniques, & Medicine
translation of a German text written by Euchar- and encouragement. In 1688, Elizabeth Cellier
ius Rösslin (1490?-1526) in 1513—was pub- submitted a proposal for a midwives’ college 1450-1699
lished in 1540. In this text Rösslin praised mid- that would instruct and supervise midwives. Al-
wives for their positive contributions and at the though her proposal was refused, Cellier contin-
same time criticized the overuse of medical in- ued to press her cause. In France the prestigious
struments and surgical interventions. He advo- Hôtel Dieu trained a handful of midwives each
cated attendance of a birth that was neither hur- year. For the time being, normal births and de-
ried nor interfered with. Rösslin’s text proved of liveries still belonged to female midwives. That
little practical use because while it did contain a all changed, however, with the next great devel-
few nuggets of wisdom, it also contained much opment in obstetric technology.
of the old and often inaccurate information pub- For more than 100 years, the Chamberlen
lished in ancient medical texts. If midwives were family employed a secret weapon in their fight
to improve their knowledge and skills, it would to be the “miracle workers” who could deliver
have to be through the their own efforts. babies during both normal and difficult deliver-
There was no shortage of information in ies. Their secret was so closely guarded that the
medical circles. Several notable obstetricians only physicians allowed to see the instrument
built their reputations on their studies of the were those who had bought the rights to use it.
birth process and innovation of new techniques. Even the mothers on whom it was used never
Ambroise Paré (1510-1590), surgeon to the saw the instrument. In 1720, the Chamberlen
King of France, pioneered the field of operative family publicly revealed the wondrous instru-
obstetrics while studying the mechanics of labor ment that had saved so many lives. In the skilled
and delivery. His nonsurgical method for assist- hands of a trained obstetrician or man-midwife,
ing in certain difficult births, which involved the Chamberlen forceps significantly reduced
manually turning the fetus to deliver the head the incidence of fetal injury and death and also
first, was considered a major medical advance decreased the rates of maternal disease, injury,
and subsequently became part of the profession- and death. Because forceps were classified as a
al repertoire of man-midwives. By the early mechanical instrument, midwives were prohibit-
1600s, although not widely accepted by women, ed from using them to assist during childbirth.
the man-midwife was a regular feature in birth The Chamberlen forceps was the final blow
chambers during difficult deliveries. In the latter to dominance of midwives in obstetrics. Male
part of the same century, François Mauriceau physicians were increasingly called even for nor-
(1637-1709) followed in Paré’s footsteps; he de- mal labors and deliveries; the establishment of
veloped a technique for delivering babies in the lying-in hospitals that sprung up around Europe
breech position and wrote extensively on other further aided the medicalization of childbirth.
malpresentations and difficult labors. By the middle of the eighteenth century the mar-
François Rousset (1535-1590?), a contem- ginalization of midwives was in full swing.
porary of Paré, was far ahead of his time in advo- MICHELLE ROSE
cating cesarean sections for living women. His
insistence that this procedure could be per-
formed without killing the mother or affecting Further Reading
future pregnancies was highly (and rightly) criti- Arney, William R. Power and the Profession of Obstetrics.
cized by his colleagues, particularly Paré. Despite Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 1982.
Rousset’s insistence, the few cesareans performed Blumenfeld-Kosinski, Renate. Not of Woman Born. Ithaca,
in this period were almost invariably fatal to the NY: Cornell University Press, 1990.
mother, either because of hemorrhage or over- Donnison, Jean. Midwives and Medical Men: A History of
whelming infection; they were attempted only in Inter-Professional Rivalries and Women’s Rights. Schock-
desperation. Not until the late-nineteenth centu- en Books, 1977.
ry, when surgical and antiseptic procedures im- Gelis, Jacques. History of Childbirth: Fertility, Pregnancy
proved, did mortality rates fall. and Birth in Early Modern Europe. Northeastern Uni-
versity Press, 1991.
At the same time, publications by now O’Dowd, Michael J., and Elliot E. Phillipp. The History of
renowned midwives such as Louise Bourgeois Obstetrics and Gynecology. The Parthenon Publishing
(1563-1636), French midwife to Marie de Group, 1994.

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Advances in Understanding the

Life Sciences
& Medicine Female Reproductive System
1450-1699


Overview book Gynaecology (literally “study of women.)
circulated widely and included sections on both
The Renaissance, a period of immense cultural
delivery and “womb-caused” diseases.
change during the fourteenth, fifteenth, and six-
teenth centuries, contributed greatly to learning. Galen (c. 130-c. 200), the main authority in
During this time, the knowledge of anatomy Western medicine for hundreds of years, spoke
grew significantly, an advance that contributed little about the female reproductive system. Be-
more to basic understanding than to improving cause of the prohibitions on dissecting human
health. The working of the female reproductive cadavers, the few studies that were done were
system was particularly shrouded in mystery and conducted on animals. This often led to erro-
superstition. Anatomists generally assumed that neous conclusions. Galen, for example, thought
male and female anatomy were exactly alike ex- the uterus had two horn-like projections. He be-
cept for the childbearing function. When taboos lieved that male and female children developed
against dissection began to be lifted, anatomists in the right and left horn, respectively.
were still slow to recognize the significance or During the Middle Ages childbirth was
the function of the various discoveries. strictly the domain of women. Midwives and
Gabriele Falloppio (1523-1566), a student others passed on their knowledge via oral tradi-
of Andreas Vesalius (1514-1564), explored the tion, since few of them could read or write. In
fields of urology and the female reproductive the eleventh century, a woman named Trotula
system. While the fallopian tubes, which he dis- taught at the medical school in Salerno, Italy. She
covered, bear his name, he did not realize how wrote an important treatise, Passionibus Mulierum
they function. Two centuries would pass before Curandorum (The Diseases of Women), which
it was known how the eggs released in the discusses menstrual disorders, and the problems
ovaries pass through them into the uterus. of women after childbirth, but little about birth
As the seventeenth century unfolded, bitter itself. Unfortunately, the book’s illustrations of
disputes arose about the nature of reproduction the fetus, which depict miniature people with
and problems of regeneration. Around 1665 adult characteristics floating in the uterus, show
many writers addressed the subject, but the one little actual knowledge about its development.
who stood above the rest was Dutch anatomist
Regnier de Graaf (1641-1673). His treatise on Impact
the female reproductive system was an impor-
tant step in the history of biology. Understanding of the female reproductive sys-
tem was not a high priority for physicians dur-
Several other writers also described gyneco- ing the Middle Ages and Renaissance. Although
logical problems and obstetric skills, among there were a few bright lights, basic knowledge,
them William Chamberlen (1540-1596), who along with attitude, progressed little during this
developed forceps for delivery. But healing ther- period. The prevailing beliefs about women’s
apies still were shrouded in tradition and new anatomy were based on the writings of Aristotle
discoveries in anatomy did not result in better (384-322 B.C.), Galen, Soranus, and the Bible.
treatment for patients. The standard view was that men and women
share a common physiology, although the male
Background was the perfect version, and the female a flawed
The largest early treatise on the female reproduc- imitation. In this view, the male and female re-
tive system was by Soranus, a Greek physician productive organs were exactly alike, except that
who practiced at Ephesus during the second cen- those of the female were inverted and inferior.
tury A.D. While he worked in the Hippocratic tra- From animal observations, they assumed the fe-
dition studying the diseases of women, he main- male vagina was an inverted, immature penis.
tained many male prejudices. The female consti- In general, the females were considered
tution was assumed to be an imperfect version of faulty and weak. Since the womb was an unsta-
the male, and the “wandering womb” was ble organ (and linked to female hysteria), women
blamed for certain hysteria-like illnesses. His were thought to be mentally less balanced than

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men. Menstruation and tearfulness were believed Graaf was a great illustrator and examined the
to make female flesh flabby and moist, whereas ovaries of numerous mammals. He isolated Life Sciences
men were hard and muscular. The female psyche ovarian vesicles with their envelopes, and de- & Medicine
was also deemed weak because of all the oozing scribed how bovine (cow) ovaries changed after
female body fluids. Because the female did not mating. He was the first to describe changes in 1450-1699
have adequate “vital heat,” women could not the ovaries and other body parts during the
make semen like the men, but produced milk in- menstrual cycle.
stead. Women, in short, were leaky vessels full of
De Graaf was also the first to describe the
holes, as evidenced by crying, milk production,
corpus luteum (yellow body), a structure that
and menstruation. The anatomists of this period
develops within a ruptured ovarian follicle and
who revived interest in the structure of the
secretes the hormone progesterone. The func-
human body did not develop an understanding
tion of these structures was not definitely estab-
of the physiology of the female reproductive sys-
lished until around 1900. In the tradition of
tem and did not translate the new knowledge
naming structures after their discoverer, the fol-
into practice.
licle around the egg is now called the graafian
Falloppio added to the knowledge of dissec- follicle. His one error was in supposing the en-
tion by not only using adult human cadavers, tire follicle was the egg, which then was expelled
but also those of fetuses, newborn infants, and into the fallopian tube.
children. Although he was interested in bone
and muscle development, some of his most im- De Graaf followed the progress of pregnan-
portant work was in urology, especially the kid- cy in the rabbit, from mating until birth, and left
neys. Criticizing Vesalius for using the dog to il- several plates illustrating each stage. He was
lustrate these structures, he was then naturally aware that the egg was smaller than the follicle
drawn to the structures of reproduction. but was unable to explain this since he could
not observe the eruption of the egg from the fol-
He first described the fallopian tubes as licle. Actually, the mammalian egg was not dis-
small trumpets. The accuracy of the shape, covered until 1827 by Karl Ernst von Baer
which he called tuba, loses some of the meaning (1792-1876) and its role was not clarified until
when translated into English. But his descrip- the early twentieth century.
tions were accurate and warrant the structure
bearing his name. He first used the term vagina Compared to the writings and works of his
and showed it was a separate structure from the contemporaries, de Graaf was ahead of his time.
uterus. He also described structures that were While the drawings of others were inexact and
filled with a watery fluid and others that have a full of speculation, de Graaf’s were precise and
yellow humor or fluid. These were possibly the detailed. He established a level of scientific in-
ovaries with the egg encased in the follicle and quiry into the reproductive systems that would
fluid. Falloppio’s works were published in Opera not be perfected until centuries later.
omnia in Venice in 1584. Throughout this period women remained in
Studying the reproductive system, or gener- charge of childbirth, only calling in a surgeon to
ativity, as it was called, was not a top priority extract a dead fetus. However, in the last half of
among anatomists because childbirth, or genera- the seventeenth century gynecology and obstet-
tion, was still the domain of women and mid- ric problems were discussed in a stream of
wives. Medical writings of the time were intend- books. Hendrik van Roonhuyze (1622-1672) of
ed to assist labor, and little effort was made to Amsterdam published a 1661 work describing
understand the process until well into the seven- cesarian section, ectopic or tubal pregnancy, and
teenth century. certain fistulas, and François Mariceau (1637-
1709) deposed the myth that pelvic bones sepa-
One of the great creators of experimental
rated during labor to enable birth.
physiology was Regnier de Graaf, who studied
and published on many topics. He took the field Another advance involved Chamberlen’s ob-
of gynecology from simple observation of the stetrical forceps. The instrument included a
structures to understanding how they worked. curved metal blade that could be inserted to
De Graaf is credited with naming the ovaries, a grasp the baby’s head. The Chamberlen family of
term also claimed by van Horn and Jan male midwives kept the forceps a secret, passing
Swammerdam (1637-1680). (Swammerdam and it down through several generations. Since a
de Graaf had been classmates and close friends sheet covered the woman in labor at all times, it
until they became embroiled in disputes.) De was easy to hide the instruments.

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The Renaissance was a period of great learn- Further Reading

Life Sciences ing and advances in anatomy and the rudiments Garcia-Ballester, Luis. Practical Medicine from Salerno to
& Medicine of physiology. It was not until much later, how- the Black Death. Cambridge: Cambridge University
ever, that this new understanding of the struc- Press, 1994.
1450-1699 ture and function of female reproduction im- Porter, Roy. The Greatest Benefit to Mankind: A Medical
proved patient care, lowered infant morality, and History of Humanity. New York: W.W. Norton, 1997.
prevented maternal deaths. Rowland, Beryl. Medieval Woman’s Guide to Health: The
First English Gynecological Handbook. Kent, Ohio: Kent
EVELYN B. KELLY State University Press, 1981.

The Medical Role of Women:

Women as Patients and Practitioners


Overview Background
Throughout history more than half of the people For many centuries women had significant roles as
involved in health care and healing have been physicians. For example, in the Egyptian medical
women. More than half of the patients have also schools at Helipolis and Sais, the golden-haired
been women. Historically, the disproportionate Agamede was skilled in medicine and herbal lore.
fame and recognition given to male practitioners Philistra (318-372 B.C.) lectured so well that pupils
is largely due to the fact that surviving manu- flocked to her. She was also so attractive she had to
scripts from earlier times were written by men, lecture from behind a curtain. Women physicians
and because women generally were not accepted were numerous during Roman times. Roman
into medical schools. Women have long prac- records attest to gynecological work done by both
ticed medicine, but dealt primarily with child- obstetrices, or midwives, and medicae, female doc-
birth and conditions of the female reproductive tors. According to Tacitus, the practice of medicine
system—women took care of women. was common among the German barbarians.
During the Renaissance, the period of intel- During medieval times the scholars of both
lectual and cultural revival that marks the end genders kept learning alive in the Christian
of the Middle Ages in the fifteenth and sixteenth monasteries. Many herbal and diagnostic skills
centuries, women had a freer life, but living were continued. The best known nun was
conditions were still poor and life was cheap. Hildegard von Bingen (1098-1179), who wrote
The use of herbs and potions for healing led to two medical manuscripts on plant, animal, and
associations between healing and witchcraft, in mineral medicines and on physiology and the
some cases resulting in unjust trials and the ex- nature of disease. Her remedies were partly
ecution of alleged sorcerers—many of whom herbal and partly spiritual or magical.
were women.
In the eleventh century there emerged at
The sixteenth century brought about the be- Salerno treatises attributed to Trotula. She
ginning of a new era in geography, religion, the gained a great reputation as a physician and ob-
arts, and science. The Renaissance in medicine stetrician and wrote on many topics. One manu-
began in 1543 when Andreas Vesalius (1514- script reports that Trotula was so loved that at
1564) published his anatomy works. Several un- her funeral in 1099 her procession was two
sung women also participated in the medical re- miles long. Some scholars argue that the woman
naissance. Trotula did not do the writing. Regardless of
who wrote it, many of the remedies and proce-
However, as the medical profession became dures were practiced for centuries. The books,
more regulated, women did not fare as well. By which had to be first hand-copied, appeared in
the end of the 1600s the role of women had not print in the fifteenth century.
improved and ultimately gave way to complete
male dominance in obstetrical care in the next Much of the obstetric care was given by
centuries. midwives who passed down herbal remedies via

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Life Sciences
& Medicine
1450-1699

An illustration of female anatomy from the late Middle Ages. This image reflects the typical and deliberate distortion of
medieval medical diagrams, which were used to illustrate both anatomy and disease. Zodiacal influences, which were
also thought to affect health, are also indicated. (Wellcome Institute Library. Reproduced with permission.)

oral tradition. The herbals became closely related were women who were herbalists and healers. In
to spiritual and magic, and consequently led to 1486 The Hammer of Witches was the black bible
the presumption of witchcraft and sorcery. From of this movement and led to the death of thou-
the fifteenth century the Catholic Church was ac- sands of innocent people. The last witch was
tive in the persecution of witches, many of whom supposedly burned in Germany in 1775.

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Impact The education of midwives was passed on

Life Sciences To understand the status of women, one must
via oral tradition, but toward the end of the fif-
& Medicine look at the traditions passed down by Galen
teenth century certain midwives began to de-
mand books in their vernacular languages. The
(c. 130-c. 200), Soranus, and others. Women
1450-1699 earliest treatise for midwives, Das Frauen Buchlein
were thought to be inferior models of men. Men
(The little book for wives) was printed in 1500.
were strong and muscular; women were weak
In 1513 Eucharius Roesslin (1490?-1526), a city
and flabby. Physiologically, they were viewed as
physician at Frankfurt-am-Main, published A
the same except the uterus was an inverted ver-
Rose Garden for Pregnant Women and Midwives. In
sion of the male penis. Women were considered
1545 Thomas Raynalde published The Byrth of
leaky vessels compared to men. Menstruation,
Mankynd. This book included an illustration of
tears, and producing milk ostensibly proved this.
“The Woman’s Stool” and adult-like figures of fe-
Although women were generally considered to
tuses floating in an inverted light-bulb shaped
be inferior mortals, some girls of the upper class-
uterus. In general, the state of obstetrics was
es were educated like the men by tutors.
stunted by superstition and quackery. However,
Medicine in general in the fifteenth century this century has been dubbed as the end of the
reflected the times—terrible. Personal hygiene Middle Ages.
was unknown and plagues and war were ram-
The sixteenth century was the beginning of
pant. For example, during the plague of 1478
the new era of freethinking and the Renaissance.
one-third of the population of Europe died. In
The great age of discovery of Christopher
1484 Pope Sixtus IV (1471-1484) issued an
Columbus (1451-1506) and the Cabots opened
edict proclaiming that only university graduates
geography and astronomy, art, music, and
could practice medicine. These laws were con-
drama. The renaissance of medicine began in
tinuously broken because there was such a need.
1543 with the publication of the anatomical text
Medical schools were generally unpopular, De Humani Corporis Fabrica by Vesalius.
and it was only in Italy that women were admit-
In France the position of medical women
ted to the university. Beatrix Galindo (1473-
was worse than ever, but women could attend
1535) was educated in Italy and went on to be
births, nurse charity patients, and care for their
professor of Latin, philosophy, and medicine at
own families. The most noted French obstetrician
the University of Salamanca in Spain. At that
of the sixteenth century was Louise Bourgeois,
time professors taught several subjects that were
friend and pupil of Ambroise Paré (1510-1590),
part of the liberal arts curriculum, which includ-
the famous French surgeon. Born in 1563, Bour-
ed medicine, though it was not medical training
geois, like most women of her age, married
as we think of today.
young. She had three children and was widowed.
The Medicis of Florence were great collec- Deciding that lace-making was not enough to
tors of books and their researchers found copies provide for her family, she begged to be taught
of Galen, Aristotle (384-322 B.C.), and Hip- medicine. Acquiring great skill, she published
pocrates (460?-377? B.C.) in Greek. They hired books on midwifery in 1608 and 1653.
Cassandra Fidelis, a scholar known for her
By the end of the century Bourgeois had
knowledge of medicine, to translate. She wrote a
formed an association to make rules for the pro-
book on the natural sciences and treatment of
tection of midwives and to elevate midwifery in
diseases in 1484.
general. The association sought to have their
Italy’s famous medical families and the uni- practitioners attend dissections of female bodies
versity women were crucial in Italy’s acceptance at medical schools to learn about anatomy.
and advancement of medicine.
The most famous medical woman in
The fifteenth century also witnessed the Switzerland was Marie Colinet of Bern, who was
widespread belief in witchcraft for the first time. married to the renowned surgeon Geronimo
The public was convinced that a large number of Fabricius (1537-1619). He taught his wife
women conspired with the devil to injure oth- surgery and admitted that she was a better sur-
ers. Many of these innocent women were tor- geon than he was. He praised her skill as a bone-
tured into confessions, then publicly killed. setter and told of a case where she wired the ribs
With the ban against women physicians and the of an injured man then placed an effective dress-
witchcraft mania, many women were reluctant ing containing oil of roses. She also performed
to even become midwives. If the baby or mother obstetrical operations and was skilled in cesare-
died, the midwife or doctor might be blamed. an sections.

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Medical books of the sixteenth century give It was unfair that medical women, denied a
insight into the conditions of the times. university education, except in Italy, should be Life Sciences
Roesslin’s Rose Garden had many later editions blamed for their lack of success. Men were fre- & Medicine
with woodcuts that illustrate the care of mother quently called by midwives for help. Francois
and child. Caspar Wolff also printed Trotula’s Mauriceau (1637-1709) delivered charity patients 1450-1699
work. The books of this period indicate that gy- at Hotel Dieu as well as noblewomen. In 1668 he
necology was becoming a medical specialty. wrote and illustrated a book for midwives that was
used for 150 years, until it was replaced by
Since the sixteenth century was a transi-
Madame Boivin’s book in the nineteenth century.
tional period of thought, there were extreme
and puzzling contradictions. Medicine, howev- Slowly men began to emerge as professional
er, was not changed as much as other fields be- leaders. The Chamberlen family of male mid-
cause it was still closely tied to religion. Astrol- wives developed a type of short obstetrical for-
ogy held tight, but people were beginning to ceps for the delivery of babies, an instrument
realize the suffering of the plague could not be they kept secret for four generations. Obstetrics
helped with heavenly bodies. Education was and gynecology eventually became a male-domi-
spreading slowly among women, and the nated profession, and remained so until the
Catholic church no longer ruled in Protestant twentieth century.
countries. EVELYN B. KELLY
Medicine in the seventeenth century ad-
vanced slowly. While the work of Bourgeois and Further Reading
others had spread some hope in a small part of
Hurd-Mead, Kate Cappella. A History of Women in Medi-
the world, the practice of obstetrics in Europe cine. Ahead, CT: Ahead Press, 1938.
and the American colonies went back to me-
Porter, Roe. The Greatest Benefit to Mankind: A Medical
dieval practices before Trotula. Doctors per- History of Humanity. New York: W.W. Norton, 1997.
formed vaginal examinations with unclean
Rowland, Beryl. Medieval Woman’s Guide to Health: The
hands and broke the bag of waters with their First English Gynecological Handbook. Kent, Ohio: Kent
long dirty fingernails. The rate of puerperal fever State University Press, 1981.
ran high among both rich and poor. There also Wear, A., R. K. French, and I. M. Lonieed, eds. The Med-
emerged a new problem for women healers— ical Renaissance of the Sixteenth Century. Cambridge:
aggressive witchcraft persecution. Cambridge University Press, 1985.

Mechanical Printing and

Its Impact on Medicine


Overview Background
Before the fifteenth century, medical practition- For nearly 5,000 years preceding the invention
ers relied on texts that were laboriously hand- of the printing press, medical books were writ-
written and recopied through the centuries. This ten by hand. Prescriptions, incantations, and
method of distributing medical information was spiritually inspired healing rituals were ex-
slow, limited to only a few translations, and fre- changed orally, but were difficult to remember.
quently altered the content and illustrations to Eventually these complicated treatments were
the point of inaccuracy. After the invention of written down, transcribed in painstaking, elabo-
the printing press around 1450, however, med- rate manuscript on expensive parchment. This
ical texts, especially classical works by Hip- method of transcription changed little through
pocrates, Galen, and Aristotle, among others, ex- the fifth century B.C., when Hippocrates (c. 460-
perienced a new life and reproductions closer to c. 377 B.C.), the “father of medicine,” wrote sev-
the original text. Distribution of medical litera- eral texts that treated medicine with a more real-
ture increased, translations in several languages istic philosophy, free from superstition and
stretched across the world, and subsequently, magic. But the early Hippocratic works, as well
medical science and practice progressed rapidly. as many other early medical texts, were written

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in Ionic dialect and limited to the number of trations that were so stylized that they were to-
Life Sciences copies that could be hand copied. tally inaccurate. Surgeons, in many cases, were
& Medicine By the Middle Ages, the few books published improvising through procedures since text and
were mainly religious records or biblical tran- illustrations were only barely coherent. There
1450-1699 was a great need for more accuracy, wider dis-
scriptions. The act of transcribing and bounding
books became an art form of sorts, and flourished semination and critique of existing manuals, and
in monasteries. During this era, the number of corrected copies of the classical medical tomes
monasteries increased and book production sub- in a wide variety of languages.
sequently grew, but within the censorship of the
church. The availability of medical information Impact
changed at the whim of the current religious tide,
It is believed that the first mechanical printing
and many medical books were banned and even
press was developed in Germany sometime near
destroyed if deemed heretical or obscene. Soon,
1450. Soon thereafter, books were being printed
however, as literacy spread, the demand for books
around the world at a fast clip. For medicine,
outgrew the production capabilities of the monas-
one of the most immediate and important addi-
teries. Professional scribes, unassociated with the
tions to medical writing were more illustrations,
church, became widespread, and censorship was
clearer diagrams of surgical procedures, instru-
somewhat sidestepped.
ments, and disease identification. Obviously,
identifying parts of the anatomy was critical to
successfully treating a patient, and poor repro-
ductions from over-copied and hastily illustrated
RARE MEDICAL BOOKS manuals had decreased the value of these before
the printing press. Now that a book could be re-

produced identically to its original, great care
was taken to keep anatomical illustrations accu-

C
lassics in the history of medicine are among the books most rate. In addition, skin diseases, medicinal plants,
highly prized by collectors. Several prominent libraries, and instruments were identified more clearly
including the College of Physicians of Philadelphia, the and consistently than ever before.
Wellcome Trust (London), and the largest medical library in the world, Avicenna (980-1037), an Arab physician,
the National Library of Medicine of the United States (Bethesda, philosopher, poet, and politician also known as
Ibn Sina, wrote Canon of Medicine in the eleventh
Maryland), have built their reputations for excellence by acquiring
century. It was translated into Latin and repub-
and protecting works of this kind. lished in 1473. The work combined the teach-
ings of Galen, Hippocrates, and Aristotle, and
became the single most authoritative text for
universities. The Canon included Avicenna’s own
By the thirteenth century, cheaper, more observations on everything from nervous ail-
easily produced paper became plentiful, and ments to skin diseases and disease distribution
many authors were now their own scriveners. through water and soil, and he recorded 760 dif-
Doctors who had copies of the most used med- ferent kinds of medicines. The text was translat-
ical texts of the day—Avicenna’s all-purpose ed into several different languages, and re-
Canon of Medicine, Guy de Chauliac’s surgical mained the foremost medical text through the
manual Chirurgia, and Galen’s and Hippocrates’ seventeenth century. While Avicenna’s work was
classic medical works—would add their own well regarded and had a tremendous influence
observations and corrections in the notes, much on the spread of medical knowledge, it also had
as a chef would alter a recipe. Without widely a negative effect. The author demonstrated an
distributed, identical texts, or easily modified aversion to surgery, instead prescribing medici-
and critiqued information, medical professionals nal cures, implying that surgery was an inferior
had no baseline with which to work. Transla- approach to medicine. Because of the expansive
tions were frequently limited to Latin, and as de- printing and subsequent influence of his work,
mand for medical books continued, scribes surgical progress suffered a severe setback.
would often hasten through details, omitting in-
Nevertheless, the standard surgical manual
formation and altering illustrations.
of the day, Guy de Chauliac’s Chirurgia, written
By the fourteenth century, most copied in 1363, was printed mechanically in France in
books suffered from poor handwriting and illus- 1478 and had a tremendous impact. Chauliac

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(c. 1300-1368) recorded his own observations Plague medicated patients in the home, used the
of the Black Death (the plague, either bubonic or studied medical practices that were suddenly Life Sciences
pneumonic) and the patients he treated. He pro- available in “vulgar” languages, rather than the & Medicine
moted the excision of abnormal growths, and Latin of tradition. That tradition continues: The
described what was probably the earliest anes- influence of Hippocrates is as vital today as it 1450-1699
thesia. The dissemination of Chirurgia, especially was in its creation. Galen’s works are frequently
under the influence of Avicenna’s works, in- drawn from, and Avicenna’s Canon is still an im-
voked a wide critique of his procedures, a posi- portant text in some Arab countries.
tive step in medicine, in that previously, timely The two most important books in the history
improvements were rarely included in subse- of medicine are De humani corporis fabrica libri
quent copies of texts. By 1683 Chirurgia had septem (Seven books on the structure of the
gone through 68 editions published in many dif- human body) (1543) by Andreas Vesalius and Ex-
ferent languages, with critical forewords and ercitatio anatomica de motu cordis et sanguinis in an-
bibliographic references. imalibus (Anatomical exercise on the motion of
Included with nearly every medical text were the heart and blood in animals) (1628) by
elaborate illustrations. In the fifteenth and six- William Harvey. The copy of the Fabrica that
teenth centuries anatomical renderings were espe- Vesalius himself presented to Holy Roman Em-
cially in vogue. Leonardo da Vinci (1452-1519) peror Charles V eventually found its way into the
and Michelangelo (1475-1564), for example, collection of Haskell F. Norman. When Christie’s
both illustrated anatomical manuals, and would auction house sold Norman’s collection in New
frequently dissect cadavers to understand their York in 1998, that Fabrica sold for $1.5 million.
subjects more completely. But while anatomical Norman also owned the copy of De motu cordis
renderings seemed to clarify the workings of the that once belonged to Johann Friedrich Blumen-
human body, the approaches to understanding bach. It fetched $480,000 at the same auction. In
the symbiotic systems of the body were in ques- 1989 the firm of Pickering and Chatto sold a
tion. Thanks to the revival of the classical works slightly damaged copy for $100,000. In 1988
of Hippocrates, who emphasized a humanist and Christie’s received $181,000 for the copy owned
practical approach to medicine, and Galen by cardiologist Myron Prinzmetal. In 1934 the
(c. 130-c. 200), who stressed the importance of New York Academy of Medicine and the Univer-
observation and application in his works, medical sity of Munich, Germany, jointly published An-
learning shifted toward diagnosis and curing of dreae Vesalii Bruxellensis icones anatomicae
disease. Medical literature now described every (Anatomical images of Andreas Vesalius of Brus-
fine detail, including the color, smell, and struc- sels), using 227 of the original sixteenth-century
ture of diseases, and doctors had a philosophical woodblocks carved for the illustrations of Vesal-
guide from which to work. ius’s Fabrica and Epitome. These woodblocks were
accidentally destroyed by Allied bombs in World
Combining both the fine artistic renderings
War II. First priced at only a hundred dollars, one
and the new detail of medical texts, William
of the 615 numbered copies of Icones anatomicae
Harvey (1578-1657), an English physician,
typically sells for $5,000-6,000.
eventually used the wealth of texts produced in
the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries to formulate LOLLY MERRELL
a theory about the circulation of the blood. Har-
vey, in his De Motu Cordis, explained the collec-
Further Reading
tive function of the veins, blood, heart, lungs,
and liver, and was the first person to attempt a Carter, John and Percy Muir. Printing and the Mind of
Man. London: Oxford University Press, 1967.
blood transfusion.
Loudon, Irvine, ed. Western Medicine: An Illustrated Histo-
Another result of the invention of the me- ry. New York: Oxford University Press, 1997.
chanical press was that medicine was brought to Smith, W.D. The Hippocratic Tradition. Ithaca, NY: Cornell
the masses. Even women, who during the Black University Press, 1979.

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The Development and Impact

Life Sciences
& Medicine of Medical Illustrations
1450-1699


Overview In the thirteenth century, human dissection
began at Bologna to determine the causes of
Artists were in many ways the driving force be-
deaths. The dissections piqued interest in anato-
hind the study of medicine. Seeking to perfect
my, and Mondino de Luzzi (1270-1326) wrote
their skills in realism and accuracy, artists, rather
the first modern work on the subject. The uni-
than professional anatomists, studied the bodies
versities began to teach anatomy and medicine
of animals and men. Not content to just observe
as part of the natural science of the liberal arts.
animals, they gained first hand knowledge of
Other universities at Padua, Florence, Pisa, and
anatomy through dissection.
Venice adopted this approach and were dedicat-
Another great contributing force was the de- ed to supporting and proving the ideas of the
velopment of the printing press, which enabled Greek physician Galen (c. 130-c. 200).
not only textual information but also drawings
to be replicated. The manufacture of paper, as Throughout the Middle Ages medical illus-
well as improvements in wood engraving, made trations had appeared, but the drawings were
possible a growing number of illustrated books. childish, not realistic. Texts were necessarily
As in all areas, the power of visual images attests copied by hand, and the drawings, even in med-
to the adage that “a picture is worth a thousand ical centers, were teaching aids similar to sketch-
words.” The impact of art and visual representa- es, used to represent general truths rather than
tions was shattering. being exact.
Several illustrators of the period were re- The most common type of illustration was
sponsible for this development. Johannes de the “Zodiac Man.” This male figure is marked
Ketham (fl. 1460?) published the first illustrated with points for bloodletting correlated with the
medical work. Hans von Gerssdorff (1455-1529) zodiac signs to assist the barber-surgeons. For
wrote and illustrated work from the battlefield. example, Taurus controlled and cured diseases
Giacomo Berengario da Carpi (1470-1530) was a of the neck and throat, and Scorpio controlled
serious student of anatomy and showed bodies the genitals. The moon and constellations con-
with the skin removed as part of a landscape. trolled the right way and place to bloodlet.
Giovanni Battista Canano (1513-1579) refined Charts also described how to examine urine,
his work using copper plates. However, the called uroscopy. Just by looking at the color of
greatest illustrator of the period was Andreas the urine, the physician could supposedly tell
Vesalius (1514-1564). The publication of his De what was wrong.
humani corporis fabrica in 1543 marked the be-
Medieval painters also depicted the figure of
ginning of the renaissance of medicine.
Death with grotesque grins, calling for peasants,
merchants, and princes alike. Typical was the fa-
Background mous painting called The Dance of Death by
Life in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries was Hans Holbein the Younger. However, with the
not a pleasant affair. Epidemics of bubonic new zeal and fervor for realism among medical
plague, typhus, smallpox, and sexually transmit- scholars, such medieval caricatures of the body
ted diseases killed and maimed large numbers of and its afflictions gave way to new forms of
the general population. Add warfare and famine, anatomical illustration.
and misery was rampant.
The heritage of a thousand years of the
Dark Ages was superstition and ignorance. The Impact
classical medical works interpreted by word of The most startling development to affect illustra-
mouth and influenced by tradition had become tion was the invention of the printing press. In
a standard. But the deplorable condition among 1450 Johann Gutenberg (1390?-1468) had de-
the people forced scholars to consider new in- veloped movable type that could be set to make
terpretations and ideas. However, few findings many copies. The process of making woodcuts
would be translated into change for daily life for for engraving was also refined for illustrations.
many years. Access to paper made books available to many.

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The first medical work that included illus-

trations was Ketham’s Fasciculus medicinae, pub- Life Sciences
lished in Venice in 1491. The Latin version had & Medicine
six illustrations—a uroscopy chart in red and
black, phlebotomy figure, zodiac man, the fe- 1450-1699
male viscera, wound man, and disease man. In
1493 an edition with 10 illustrations was trans-
lated into Italian. The most notable addition is a
dissection scene in which a professor presides
over a group of barber-surgeons cutting open a
human cadaver. The illustration also reveals the
transition to the formal unity of Renaissance art;
the lecturer is vertical and the body is presented
horizontally so that everything is symmetrical.
Hippocrates (460?-377? B.C.) had said that
he who wished to become a surgeon should go to
war. In the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries there
were ample opportunities because wars were
prevalent. In addition, there were new problems
concerning the care of the wounded. No longer
were the soldiers just shot with bows and arrows,
but the use of gun powder, cannon balls, and lead
shot would pierce the flesh, leaving gaping
wounds and major infection. In 1497 Heirony-
mus Brunschwig (1450-1533) wrote the Buch der An illustration from Vesalius’s 1543 book, De humani
Wund Artzney (Book of Wound Dressing), which corporis fabrica, which revolutionized anatomical
includes the earliest printed illustration of surgi- drawing. (Bettmann/Corbis. Reproduced with
cal instruments. His book showed how shot permission.)
wounds were poisoned by gunpowder and need-
ed cauterizing. Hans von Gersdorff (1455?-1529) a muscle. Leonardo da Vinci (1452-1519) also
wrote and illustrated from field experience. His sketched multiple views in his notebooks and
Feldbuch der Wundartzney (Fieldbook of Wound probably influenced these drawings.
Dressing), describes how to extract bullets with
special instruments and how to dress wounds Giovanni Battista Canano (1515-1579),
with hot oil. He also showed how to enclose am- while a student at the University of Ferrara, per-
putated stumps with animal bladders. formed private dissections in his home. In 1541
he published Musculorum humani corporis pictua-
Jacopo Berengario da Carpi was a surgeon ta dissectio, or Picture of the Dissection of the Mus-
and anatomist at Bologna from 1502-27. It was cles of the Human Body. The drawings, which fea-
during this time that serious inquiry into human ture the muscles of the arm, were made by the
anatomy began, and the drawings took on a Ferranese painter Girolamo da Carpi using 27
unique feature. The bodies, portrayed with skin copperplates.
removed, were positioned to show their dissect-
Another book, Picturata dissectio, is based
ed muscles while standing and observing a land-
directly on structures of the human body and of
scape. One drawing from Isagogae breves (1523)
living animals, and not on the dissection of the
shows a figure, with skin stripped, leaning on an
ape as performed by Galen. The works of
axe with clouds, trees, and hills in the back-
Canano have two innovations. Copperplates
ground. The landscape is set in the hills around
were used for the first time, which allowed finer
Bologna. Another figure is sitting like a figure S
details than the woodcuts used by Berengario
on a rock.
and Vesalius. Canano also featured the fine mus-
Da Carpi’s skeletal figures are also involved in cles of the hand. While he followed the same
the environment. One skeleton stands in front of order as Galen, he pointed out omissions and er-
a grave, from which he had obviously been taken, rors. He also drew the valves of the deep veins
holding two other skulls in his uplifted hands. and described their function in controlling
Another convention of da Carpi’s medical illustra- blood flow. His illustrations showed a novel ap-
tion is the use of multiple views of a single part of proach to myology (the study of muscles), as he

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depicted only a few muscles and their move- signed by the famous Venetian painter Titian,
Life Sciences ment of the fingers. However, this approach was but more than likely it was his Dutch assistant
& Medicine not followed by subsequent medical illustrators. Calcar. However, scientists agree that Vesalius’s
As the middle of the sixteenth century ap- 1543 text is a pivotal work that marks the begin-
1450-1699 ning of the renaissance in medicine.
proached, medical illustrations came into their
own in the works of Vesalius. Vesalius from The Renaissance saw an emergence of real-
Brussels studied at the University of Louvain ism in art and new ideals that supported the di-
and continued his education in Paris, where he rect and factual representation of natural phe-
was known occasionally to rob a grave to get nomena. The rules of perspective and mathe-
body parts to study. Commissioned to write a matics prevailed. Art had gone scientific, and by
comparative study of the works of Galen, who the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries the new
had made his conclusions using the anatomy of theory was firmly established and fully accepted
an ape, Vesalius pointed out more than 200 er- in the painting of masters such as Albrecht
rors by the famous physician. This caused con- Dürer, Michelangelo, and Raphael. Likewise, sci-
troversy, especially between Vesalius and his for- ence had gone artistic, and modern ideas owe
mer friend and teacher Jacobus Sylvius, a Galen much to the efforts of the theorizing artists.
enthusiast. Vesalius published De humani cor-
EVELYN B. KELLY
poris fabrica in Basel at the age of 28.
The text had 663 illustrations and was di-
vided into seven books. The contrast with the Further Reading
conservative scenes of Ketham was obvious. The Andreas Vesalius of Brussels. New York: World Publishing,
frontispiece illustration depicted Vesalius with a 1950.
mass of students pressing around. He is por- Garcia-Ballester, Luis. Practical Medicine from Salerno to
trayed as the dissector, and the barber-surgeons the Black Death. Cambridge: Cambridge University
crouch under the table. A skeleton sits in the Press, 1994.
professor’s chair, and a monkey and dog are Porter, Roy. The Greatest Benefit to Mankind: A Medical
vying to get in the picture. The identity of the History of Humanity. New York: W.W. Norton, 1997.
artist who actually designed the plates is subject Schultz, Bernard. Art and Anatomy in Renaissance Italy.
to debate. For years it was believed to be de- Ann Arbor: UMI Research, 1985.

The Invention of the Microscope

Overview gether by a cylinder, they would become what is
called either a Galilean telescope or a Galilean
Historical records indicate that around the time
microscope, depending on which end is used to
of Christ the ancient Assyrians first realized that
view objects. Italian mathematician and as-
glass spheres could be used as magnifying de-
tronomer Galileo (1564-1642) used this device
vices. Claudius Ptolemy, a second-century math-
as a telescope to observe the stars and planets
ematician and astronomer in Alexandria, wrote a
but did little to advance its use as a microscope
paper on the optical properties of lenses. He dis-
for biological purposes.
cussed how glass spheres filled with water could
be used for magnification and refraction. How- The earliest simple microscopes (containing
ever, despite this knowledge, glass lenses were only a single lens) used drops of water confined
not extensively used for over a millennium. to a small hole that functioned as a magnifying
Around 1300, spectacles were invented to im- lens. Eventually glass replaced water as the
prove vision. This innovation served as the medium, but it is not clear when glass lenses
springboard to strong interest and research into first began to be used. It has been well estab-
the properties of magnifying lenses. Several trea- lished that by the seventeenth century Antoni
tises were published in the sixteenth century as van Leeuwenhoek, a Dutch scientist, had devel-
a result. Near the end of the sixteenth century, it oped techniques for making high-quality ground
was found that if certain lenses were joined to- lenses for simple microscopes. While these were

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limited in power, he used them in combination

with both light and his keen eyesight to observe Life Sciences
specimens just a few micrometers in size. & Medicine
The compound microscope, which uses a
1450-1699
multiple lens system, was first described in the
sixteenth century but had little practical use at
that time due to the arrangement of the lenses,
the blurring of images from improper grinding,
and chromatic aberrations due to problems with
light. The first useful compound microscope was
constructed in the Netherlands sometime be-
tween 1590 and 1608. Three different people,
all of the optometrists, have been credited with
the invention at one time or another: Hans
Jansen, his son Zacharias Jansen, and Hans Lip-
pershey (d. 1619?). It would be over 200 years
before these problems were completely resolved,
making the compound microscope an important
biological tool.
Four microscopists are considered to have in-
fluenced the development and use of microscopes
in biology and medicine. These individuals made
significant improvements either in the technology
involving microscopes or in accumulating the
body of knowledge of microscopic structure. They
were Marcello Malpighi (1628-1694), Anton van
Leeuwenhoek (1632-1723), Jan Swammerdam
(1637-1680), and Robert Hooke (1635-1703).

Background
A page from Marcello Malpighi’s 1686 book, Opera
Marcello Malpighi was an Italian biologist and Omnia. Malpighi’s pioneering studies were made
physician who conducted extensive studies in possible by the invention of the microscope. (Wellcome
animal anatomy. He was one of the first scien- Institute Library. Reproduced with permission.)
tists to use a microscope to study the structure,
composition, and function of tissues, so he is
often known as the father of histology (the mi- to expand the technical aspect of microscopes,
croscopic study of tissues). Among his many ac- he did have a significant impact on the advance-
complishments dealing with the human body ment of the body of knowledge in biology.
was the first description of capillaries, the inner Anton van Leeuwenhoek, a Dutchman who
layer (dermis) of the skin, the papillae of the spent most of his life in Delft, sold cloth for a
tongue, the outer portion of the brain (cerebral living. Although he had little formal schooling,
cortex), and red blood cells. He wrote detailed as a young man he became interested in making
treatises on animals and insects, including de- magnifying lenses and recording his observa-
scriptions of the development of the chick em- tions. This soon became an obsession. Leeuwen-
bryo and the lifecycle of the silkworm, and hoek used a small single-lens system and
demonstrated that pests such as the flea and achieved magnifications that allowed him to see
weevil reproduce through ordinary insect means in much greater detail than was allowed by any
and not by spontaneous generation (the concept microscope of the time. Unfortunately, Leeuwen-
that living organisms could be created from non- hoek closely guarded his lens-making technique,
living matter). In addition, Malpighi made de- so his improvements died with him. Although
tailed investigations into plant anatomy. He sys- he was not willing to share his methods,
tematically described the various parts of plants, Leeuwenhoek was more than willing to share his
such as bark, stem, roots, and seeds, and dis- observations. In fact, he became somewhat of a
cussed such processes as germination (the be- celebrity because of his publications regarding
ginning of growth). Although Malpighi did little his research. He is most famous for his discovery

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of animalcules (one-celled animals, now known Impact

Life Sciences as protozoa) in stagnant water, which he reported
Although the work of any of the classical micro-
& Medicine in the mid-1670s. He made significant contribu-
scopists seems to lack a definite objective, they
tions in the areas of capillaries, the structure of
made significant strides by using the techniques
1450-1699 muscle, the lens of the eye, the reproductive sys-
of observation and experimentation to their
tem, and teeth. He studied bacteria from the
fullest. It is remarkable that so few men, work-
mouth and recognized the various shapes, pos-
ing independently, should have made so many
tulating correctly on their relative size to red
fundamental observations of significant impor-
blood cells.
tance. Their work revealed for the first time the
incredible complexity of living organisms. At the
Jan Swammerdam was a contemporary and same time, it helped debunk many prevailing
countryman of Leeuwenhoek. In contrast to and unquestioned theories that had existed since
Leeuwenhoek, Swammerdam was a well educat- the time of antiquity. The ideas of the Greek sci-
ed and highly systematic scientist who confined entist Galen (A.D. 130?-200?) persisted for more
his attention to studying relatively few organ- than 1,000 years because they were rarely ques-
isms in great detail. He was responsible for tioned, even when evidence was shown to the
many highly innovative techniques, such as in- contrary. Thus, each of these men had to fight
jecting wax into objects to hold them firm, dis- the preconceptions of the time and contradict
secting fragile objects under water, and using prevailing wisdom to make their ideas public.
micropipettes to inject organisms under the mi- They played a significant role in starting the sci-
croscope. Swammerdam concentrated his re- entific revolution.
search on what he considered to be insects
based on their mode of development. These in- The significance of these advances may be
cluded such organisms as spiders, snails, scorpi- difficult to understand today. The microscope
ons, fishes, and worms. Unfortunately, was relatively new, and it was not clear back
Swammerdam was subject to fits of mental in- then that it would ever be useful in making sci-
stability and had financial difficulties that led to entific discoveries. There was some thought that
periods of depression. He died at the early age of it was more of a curiosity than a scientific tool.
43, having contributed a significant amount of In fact, at that time it was more a recreational
research to biology. device for noblemen than a tool for research.
However, each of these scientists appreciated the
fact that by looking at something close up, they
English physicist Robert Hooke may be the could view things in a significantly different way.
most famous of the early microscopists. He cer- And they believed that the perspective they
tainly had the widest array of interests. He was gained was of scientific importance. They made
curator of instruments at the Royal Society of many important discoveries that helped to clari-
London, which allowed him to remain abreast of fy some of the thinking of their time.
all new scientific developments. He made signif-
icant contributions to many areas of science and As an example, Malpighi made a discovery of
has been credited with coining the term cells monumental importance in physiology. William
while looking at cork under a microscope. In Harvey (1578-1657), a famous British physiolo-
1665 Hooke published his book Micrographia, gist, stunned the academic and medical environ-
which is primarily a review of a series of obser- ment with the publication of his book De motu
vations that he had made while following the cordis et sanguinis in animalibus (On the Motion of
development and improvement of the micro- the Heart and Blood in Animals), in which he
scope. This book had tremendous influence at presented experimental and logical proof that the
that time. Hooke described in detail the struc- long-held theories of Galen were wrong. In the
ture of feathers, the stinger of a bee, and the foot work Harvey proposed that blood actually travels
of the fly. He also noted similar structures to in a circuit from the heart, around the body to the
cells in the tissue of trees and plants and dis- tissues, and then back to the heart. The current
cerned that in some tissues the cells were filled thinking was that blood was produced from the
with a liquid while in others they were empty. intestines, traveled to the liver and to the heart,
He therefore supposed that the function of the and was then distributed to the body by both
cells was to transport substances throughout the veins and arteries, where the tissue consumed it.
plant. Hooke, like the others previously men- Harvey’s theory was a radical idea, and if it had
tioned, had a significant impact on biology by not been for his stature, he might have been im-
utilizing the microscope. prisoned. While some considered Harvey’s idea,

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there was no proof that blood circulated because provide information, but to also change the pre-
there was no evidence of the connection between vailing ideas of entire societies. Life Sciences
arteries and veins. In 1660, three years after Har-
JAMES J. HOFFMANN
& Medicine
vey’s death, Malpighi used a microscope to see the
capillaries, the extremely thin blood vessels, 1450-1699
which formed the needed connection between Further Reading
the arteries and veins that could not be seen with
Croft, William J. Under the Microscope: A Brief History of
the naked eye. Other examples such as Leeuwen- Microscopy (Series in Popular Science). River Edge, NJ:
hoek’s animalcules also raised some disquieting World Scientific Publishing Company, 2000.
thoughts in the minds of his contemporaries. This Ford, Brian, J. The Leeuwenhoek Legacy. New York: Lu-
helped to provide some initial evidence against brecht & Cramer Ltd., 1991.
the theory of spontaneous generation, held by the Ruestow, Edward G. The Microscope in the Dutch Republic:
ancient world and passed on unquestioned up to The Shaping of Discovery. Cambridge, MA: Cambridge
that time. Thus, these men helped to not only University Press, 1996.

The Alliance of Science and

Art in Early Modern Europe


Overview quences for both the Old and New Worlds. There
were also dangers before which the medieval con-
Throughout the Middle Ages, European artists
sensus seemed powerless: bitter power struggles
concentrated on religious subjects. Whether a
between nobles and monarchs; outbreaks of the
piece of sculpture on the facade of a cathedral, a
Black Death (bubonic plague), which repeatedly
mural on a monastery wall, an altarpiece, or an
swept through Europe (syphilis also appeared in
illustration in a prayer book, most medieval art
epidemic proportions); and in 1453 Constantino-
served a religious function: to focus people’s at-
ple fell to the Turks, a new Moslem power that
tention on attaining salvation. The development
began pushing relentlessly into Europe.
of the Renaissance in fifteenth-century Italy and
its spread to Northern Europe dramatically Many intellectuals responded by seeking
changed this. Since Renaissance humanistic new ways to view the world and mankind’s place
thought emphasized nature and the beauty of in it. Paradoxically, they found the basis of their
the human body, artists now attempted to dupli- modern thought in writings from the ancient
cate the natural world in their work. They en- world. For centuries, texts from ancient Greece
thusiastically incorporated this new naturalism and Rome had been known in Europe, many
into their art and in doing so, played a major having been preserved in the Arabic world. They
role in creating new sciences, particularly those had been largely ignored until the collapse of the
of anatomy and botany, the earliest of the mod- Byzantine Empire, which culminated in the fall
ern life sciences. Artists such as Leonardo da of Constantinople, bringing a flood of Greek
Vinci (1452-1519) and Albrecht Dürer were as texts to Italy as Byzantine scholars fled Turkish
crucial to the development of modern science as rule. As these texts were translated into Latin, an
they were to the formation of postmedieval art. intellectual movement called humanism arose.
Like the ancient writings themselves, humanists
Background stressed that the proper study of scholars should
be mankind, not heaven. Thus, humanism was a
The period after 1450 was marked by constant up- shift from theology to philosophy. Since the an-
heavals as the millennium-long culture of medieval cient texts also expressed a strong interest in sci-
Europe disintegrated. Religious unity was broken ence, a major factor in Renaissance humanism
by the Protestant Reformation. Feudal society was was the desire for more knowledge of the
radically changed by the rise of cities, the begin- human body and of the world of nature.
nings of capitalism, and the emergence of the mid-
dle class. The great age of exploration began—an One result of this emphasis on the body was
expansion that would have momentous conse- a growing interest in anatomy, the study of the

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structures beneath the skin. The pre-Renaissance nio Pollaiuolo’s (1432-1498) large engraving, The
Life Sciences authority on human anatomy was Galen (130?- Battle of Ten Naked Men (1460s), in which he de-
& Medicine 200?), a Greek physician in the Roman Empire. picted male nudes in the violent action of mortal
However, Galen had not dissected humans, combat. However, he crammed so many contract-
1450-1699 since the Romans opposed that practice. He had ed muscles and sinews on each figure that the
instead carefully dissected animals, mainly pigs drawings were not realistic. Artists realized that for
and monkeys, and assumed that humans were more accurate knowledge of the human body they
the same. Since there are numerous differences would have to attend dissections. Indeed, many
between human and animal anatomy, his work artists taught their pupils that only by doing dis-
was filled with errors. Galen’s texts had been sections themselves could they attain the knowl-
preserved in Arabic translations but had never edge they sought. By the mid-1500s, dissections
been corrected, since there were also prohibi- had become part of the artist’s routine.
tions against human dissection in the Islamic
No one was more responsible for this devel-
world. When early Renaissance scholars did
opment than Leonardo da Vinci. He insisted that
note a difference between Galen’s descriptions
artists could avoid the errors made by Pollaiuolo
and a human cadaver, they assumed that the text
only by probing beneath the muscles deep into
they were using had been erroneously copied.
the body’s structure to explore the organs, the
The duplication of texts and illustrations nervous system, arteries, and so forth. Da Vinci
was crucial to the development of Renaissance himself dissected at least thirty bodies, including
science. Hand-copied texts usually contained er- one of a pregnant woman and one of an old
rors and hand-copied illustrations were virtually man. His meticulous drawings were the first ac-
worthless because repeatedly copying a drawing curate and informative anatomical illustrations
necessarily degrades what the original artist in- ever made. He compared human anatomy with
tended. The adoption of printing from moveable that of animals and explored pathological (dis-
type (around 1450) and the incorporation of eased) anatomy such as hardening of the arter-
woodcut (after 1500) and then engraved (after ies. He also originated a number of illustration
1550) drawings permitted accurate texts and de- techniques that became commonplace in the
tailed, informative illustrations to be disseminat- subsequent history of anatomical images.
ed throughout Europe. Artists, of course, were
essential to producing these accurate, detailed il- One crucial innovation was that of rotation,
lustrations. This was particularly important in of looking at the same body part from a number
the sciences of anatomy and botany, where illus- of different angles. This allowed da Vinci to ac-
trations are of greater value than the text in con- curately portray a three-dimensional object in a
veying information. two-dimensional drawing. Other techniques first
used by Leonardo were that of transparency
(making overlying tissue transparent in order to
Impact reveal underlying structures) and traverse sec-
Since 1300, Italian universities were permitted to tions, or drawings that revealed what would be
carry out dissections of humans in their medical seen if the body was sliced crosswise.
schools. Although not frequent events because Da Vinci’s drawings and their accompanying
the only legal cadavers were those of executed text were not published until the late nineteenth
criminals, by about 1500 scholars began to notice century. However, they had some immediate in-
that Galen’s descriptions were often different from fluence because numerous contemporary artists
what was seen in the bodies on the dissection saw his notebooks and copied his work. More
table. They realized that if the science of anatomy importantly, Leonardo widely publicized the fact
was to progress, these discoveries had to be illus- that words were inadequate to describe the com-
trated and disseminated. At the same time, based plexities of anatomy and that the science could
on the revival of Greek and Roman texts, Renais- only advance through the use of careful, artistic
sance artists sought to depict the human body illustrations: “The more detail you write,” he
more realistically, particularly in situations of dra- noted, “the more you will confuse the mind of
matic movement. The few medieval nudes that the reader.” The truth of this observation can be
existed (Adam and Eve, Christ’s crucifixion) gave seen in the most famous of all anatomies, An-
artists no naturalistic tradition to follow. dreas Vesalius’s (1514-1564) De humani corporis
Artists began to examine carefully the body as fabrica (1543). While Vesalius made numerous
it moved. This concentration on the exterior mus- corrections of Galen’s work, the more than 200
cles of the body reached its culmination in Anto- accompanying woodcut illustrations gave his

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text intelligible meaning. Their unknown artist ing adventurers of the Age of Exploration. As the
(perhaps Joannes Stephanus of Calcar, of whom modern science of botany evolved, Dürer’s Turf Life Sciences
very little is known) deserved as much credit for played a pivotal role at a crucial period. Most & Medicine
the book’s success as did Vesalius himself. Over publishers had been content to keep using the
the next century and a half, anatomical knowl- old, inaccurate woodcuts from medieval herbals 1450-1699
edge was conveyed more by illustrations than by because they were cheaper than hiring artists to
texts. Their artists and engravers, virtually all of produce new, accurate illustrations. The influ-
whom are unknown to us, developed their skills ence of Dürer’s insistence on accuracy made that
by doing dissections themselves or by watching practice impossible, at least in Northern Europe.
anatomists dissect. Vesalius complained that so In the 1530s, Otto Brunfels (1489?-1534)
many artists crowded around his dissecting published a three-volume Living Images of Plants.
table, they interfered with his work. While his text was unexceptional, the book’s
One of the men influenced by Leonardo da more than two hundred illustrations by Hans
Vinci and Italian humanism was the German Weiditz were revolutionary. Unlike his predeces-
artist Albrecht Dürer (1471-1528). He made sev- sors, Weiditz had clearly used real specimens for
eral protracted visits to Italy, where he saw his models, even including leaves partially eaten
Leonardo’s notebooks. Dürer’s interest in the by insects. In 1542 another German, Leonhard
human body is obvious in his clinically accurate Fuchs (1501-1566), published De historia stirpi-
portraits, including several self-portraits. His um. Its 500 illustrations were drawn by three
anatomical drawings are still admired today, es- artists of exceptional skill. Unlike Weiditz’s
pecially his famous Praying Hands (1508). His work, they drew ideal plants with no flaws. Sub-
nudes perhaps most clearly reflect his devotion sequent botanical artists used this approach be-
to capturing reality. His ink drawing The Women’s cause the purpose of the illustrations was to rep-
Bath (1496), depicting a group of nude women resent the species as accurately as possible.
of all ages in a public bath, was an attempt to Fuchs’s artists also produced botanical illustra-
show what the aging process does to the human tions of great beauty, a trend that would contin-
body. He even drew a nude self-portrait. He ue throughout the early modern period and cul-
spent much of his energy trying to find the minate in the remarkable plant illustrations of
“laws” of anatomical proportions, and was work- Maria-Sybilla Merian (1647-1717).
ing on his Treatise on Human Proportions at the ROBERT HENDRICK
time of his death. In all of this, Dürer was moti-
vated by his belief that beauty could only be at-
tained by the exact copying of the natural world. Further Reading
Dürer’s alliance of artistic observation and sci- Belt, Elmer. Leonardo the Anatomist. New York: Green-
wood Press, 1969.
entific detachment is even clearer in his many
drawings and paintings of animals, birds, and Braham, Allan. Dürer. London: Spring Books, 1965.
plants. He wrote that “life in nature reveals the Cazort, Mimi, Monique Kornell, and K.B. Roberts. The
Ingenious Machine of Nature: Four Centuries of Art and
truth of things.” Ironically, he contracted the sick-
Anatomy. Ottawa: National Gallery of Canada, 1996.
ness that eventually killed him on a trip to sketch
Clayton, Martin. Leonardo da Vinci: The Anatomy of Man.
a beached whale. Like Leonardo, Dürer took great Boston: Little, Brown, 1992.
pride in the accuracy of his plant drawings. Un-
Eisler, Colin. Dürer’s Animals. Washington, DC: Smith-
doubtedly the most important of these nature sonian Institution Press, 1991.
paintings was his The Great Piece of Turf (1503), a Emboden, William A. Leonardo da Vinci on Plants and
life-sized representation of grasses and dandelions Gardens. Portland, OR: Dioscorides Press, 1987.
in a clod of earth. No one as famous as Dürer had Mayor, A. Hyatt. Artists and Anatomists. New York: Metro-
ever painted anything so apparently insignificant politan Museum of Art, 1984.
before, yet this single painting had a tremendous Panofsky, Erwin. The Life and Art of Albrecht Dürer. 4th ed.
artistic and scientific impact in Europe. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1955.

The period from about 1470 to 1670 was Pinault, Madeleine. The Painter as Naturalist: From Dürer
to Redouté. Trans. by Philip Sturgess. Paris: Flammari-
one when herbals (compilations of plants focus- on, 1991.
ing on their medicinal uses) were being replaced
Roberts, K.B. and J.D.W. Tomlinson. The Fabric of the
by books that dealt with the structure and classi- Body: European Traditions of Anatomical Illustration.
fication of plants. An impetus for this trend was Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1992.
the thousands of new plant specimens brought Russell, Francis. The World of Dürer, 1471-1528. New
to Europe from around the world by the return- York: Time, 1967.

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Advancements in Surgery


Life Sciences
& Medicine
1450-1699
Overview surgery, and new and more efficient ways to con-
trol bleeding. Thanks to the anatomists who
During the Renaissance, between 1450 and
solved many of the mysteries of the circulatory
1699, surgery was a mix of art, science, and
system, more surgical successes resulted. The
myth. The art of caring for a soldier’s battle
greatest surgeons of the times studied in Italy at
wounds, the myth of blood-letting to cure or
the University of Padua. They went on to serve
prevent disease, and the advances in scientific
the kings of Europe while uneducated but hard-
surgery for breast cancer, hernias, and bladder
working itinerant surgeons traveled from village
stones were all common to surgery at this time.
to village in Europe cutting and healing and
It became a period for advancing the science of
teaching others in their footsteps. Both groups
surgery as new ways to control bleeding were
made considerable contributions.
developed, plastic surgery was invented, com-
plex surgeries to remove stones in the bladder
were beginning to be performed, and surgeons Impact
tried their steady hands at cesarean sections with
living mothers. War provided a testing ground for Renaissance
surgeons. Amputation, most often the result of
While significant improvements in surgical wounds turned gangrenous, was the most fre-
techniques and publications came from Italian, quent call for the military surgeon. Theoretically
German, and French surgeons, such as Fabricius divided, military surgeons debated over whether
Hildanus (1560-1634) and Ambroise Paré or not to amputate through healthy tissue or am-
(1510?-1590)—who dominated the field in the putate just to the limits of the gangrenous side of
1500s—British physicians such as William Har- the limb. Questions over when and where to am-
vey (1578-1657) made significant discoveries in putate were also tied to steps to control bleeding.
anatomy during the 1600s that would make Until better methods of controlling bleeding were
surgeries in the 1700s more successful. developed, surgeons primarily amputated legs
below the knee because bleeding from the major
Background artery above the knee was very difficult to control.
In the fifteenth century, blood letting (or phle- Cleaning and closing wounds were major
botomy) already had a long surgical history. The concerns for military and nonmilitary surgeons
barber’s red and white pole became a symbol of alike in this period. German surgeon Fabricius
bleeding and bandaging and the practice of Hildanus used a red-hot knife blade to control
bleeding persisted well into the eighteenth centu- bleeding and cauterize the wound during ampu-
ry, as surgeons and barbers promoted health by tations. He and others cleaned wounds by ap-
periodically “thinning” the blood by bleeding. Its plying boiling oil.
use proved more myth than science, however. Ambroise Paré, a French surgeon, disap-
The turn of the sixteenth century saw the be- proved of both cautery and boiling oil. In 1537,
ginning of more scientific approaches to cutting to Paré became an army surgeon around the age of
cure, however, and professional surgeons per- 26. On the battlefield he became a leading au-
formed a wider range of services during the Re- thority on military wounds, finding that, con-
naissance. Military surgeons predominated. The trary to current opinion, gunshot wounds were
advent of the use of gunpowder during the Middle not poisonous and did not need cautery. Rather
Ages meant that military surgeons had to deal than use boiling oil, he cleaned gunshot wounds
with gunshot wounds and wounds inflicted by with a concoction of turpentine, rose oil, and
canons. Cleaning combat wounds using cautery— egg yolk. One of Paré’s major contributions was
searing remaining flesh with a hot instrument— the ligature—a method of tying off a bleeding
was common practice. Amputation became the blood vessel—instead of cauterizing. With the
preferred method of treatment and, slowly, be- ligature, he could control bleeding and amputate
came more art and science than butchery. above the knee, where large blood vessels and
arteries were previously likely to hemorrhage.
The period from 1450 to 1699 also saw ad-
vancements in surgery for cancers, hernias, and In contrast to Paré, who served monarchs,
cesarean sections, as well as the advent of plastic French surgeon Pierre Franco (1500-1561) oc-

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cupied a professional niche somewhere between

a barber-surgeon and an itinerant “cutter.” It is Life Sciences
said that his greatest contribution to surgery was & Medicine
to retrieve it from the quacks, bonesetters, and
charlatans practicing in Europe by requiring sur- 1450-1699
gical supervision from physicians. Franco spe-
cialized in hernia surgery. Whereas prior sur-
geons always removed the testicle to repair in-
guinal hernias, rather than incise at the level of
the pubis, which he considered dangerous,
Franco invented a low incision at the base of the
scrotum to release a strangulated hernia. He per-
formed his first successful operation using this
technique in 1556.
Aurelous Philip Theophratus Bombastus
von Hohenheim, who lived from about 1493-
1541 and called himself “Paracelsus,” was a
major figure in sixteenth-century medicine. He
encouraged medicine and surgery to be joined
in the same art and science and dedicated his
craft to wound management, traveling extensive-
ly in Europe practicing medicine, performing
surgery, and teaching. Ambroise Paré. (Library of Congress. Reproduced with
permission.)
Many surgical “firsts” came in the mid and
late sixteenth century. The first account of a suc-
cessful tracheotomy occurred in 1546 when Ital- the era. He was first a student, then a professor of
ian surgeon Antonio Bravasola opened the tra- anatomy at the University of Padua in Italy. He
chea of a patient who was near death from a res- was concerned with anatomical research but also
piratory obstruction caused by an abscess in his practiced surgery, improving the practice of tra-
windpipe. The first reported splenectomy was in cheostomy by showing surgeons how to move,
Naples in 1549, performed by Zaccarelli. Georg rather than cut muscles in the neck, to expose
Bartisch of Dresden performed the first eye re- the trachea. In addition to his institutional con-
moval for cancer in 1583. During this period tribution of building the first permanent surgical
British surgery lagged behind the Italian and amphitheater (1594), he also improved treat-
French masters, but Englishman William Clowes ment for urethral blockages and strictures.
was the first to perform a successful thigh ampu- The leading German surgeon at the end of
tation for gangrene in 1588. He wrote extensive- the sixteenth century was Guilhelmus Fabricius
ly on the art of surgery. (Fabry) Hildanus. As a young man, Fabry was
Cesarean section—the surgical removal of a too poor to receive formal medical training, so
baby from the mother’s womb—had a long his- he became apprenticed in surgery at a low level.
tory of both fact and legend by the time of the He rose in the profession, however, and traveled
Renaissance. Roman emperor Julius Caesar was widely in Europe practicing surgery and pub-
fabled to have been delivered by the surgical lishing on surgery. He favored amputating
technique still bearing his name. French surgeon through healthy tissue to fight gangrene and de-
Paré, noting that most cesarean sections on liv- vised a tourniquet. He operated on cancers on
ing mothers ended with the mother’s death, rec- the breast and described in his works the re-
ommended waiting until the mother died and moval of the lymph glands. Fabry said that all
then removing the baby as quickly as possible. the “sprouts” had to be removed with the breast
However, in 1581, French surgeon François tumor. He invented a device that pinched the
Rousset (1535-c. 1590), physician to the Duke base of the breast as a blade swept it off.
of Savoy, published Hysterotomotokie, reporting Gaspare Tagliacozzi (1545-1599) created the
successful cesarean sections on mothers who field of plastic surgery when he took skin from a
continued to live following their surgery. patient and fashioned him a new nose. After re-
Hieronymous Fabricius (1537-1619) was moving the damaged nose, Tagliacozzi made a
perhaps the most prominent Italian surgeon of paper model of the nose he intended to build,

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used it as a pattern for cutting skin from the arm, of anatomy and surgery at St. Bartholomew’s
Life Sciences and sutured the new nose to the face. He treated Hospital and Medical School. He is regarded as
& Medicine harelips by cutting away the deformity and sutur- the father of our understanding of the circulato-
ing the ends back together. Tagliacozzi’s fame ry system, which he wrote about in Concerning
1450-1699 spread until he was banned from plastic surgery the Motion of the Heart and Blood in 1628. Detail-
by the Church, which claimed that he was undo- ing the contractions of the heart and how its
ing “God’s handicraft.” In Bologna, a statue was valves operate, Harvey’s discovery of the work-
later erected of Tagliacozzi. It depicts him holding ing of the circulatory system has been hailed as a
an artificial nose. His son, Antonio, advanced his landmark in medical progress that benefited, if
work by restoring lips and ears by taking skin not paved the way for, modern surgery.
from the arm by a pedicled-flap. British naval surgeon John Woodall, who
wrote The Surgeon’s Mate (1639), favored leaving
Many surgical firsts also greeted the new sev- healthy tissue intact during amputations and
enteenth century. Gastric surgery to remove a for- only cutting the gangrenous tissue. Woodall then
eign object made its debut in 1602 when barber- recommended whittling away the remaining
surgeon Florian Mattjis removed a knife from a dead tissue little by little as the healing process
progressed. Richard Wiseman (1622?-1676) of
England operated on aneurysms, controlling
bleeding and dissecting arteries. He published
Treatise on Wounds in 1672 and Several Chirurgi-
SURGICAL FIRSTS cal Treatises in 1676.

A major advancement in surgery during
the seventeenth century came with the devel-

M
any surgical firsts came in the mid and late sixteenth opment of a surgeon’s ability to perform litho-
century. The first account of a successful tracheotomy tomies—the removal of stones in the bladder. A
occurred in 1546 when Italian surgeon Antonio Bravascola new technique was developed during this peri-
opened the trachea of a patient who was near death from a respiratory od, which marked an improvement over run-
ning an object through the urethra to knock
obstruction caused by an abscess in his windpipe. The first reported
out a blockage. Perineal lithotomy required an
splenectomy was in Naples in 1549, performed by Zaccarelli. Georg incision at the base of the body, between the
Bartisch of Dresden performed the first eye removal for cancer in anus and the opening for the urinary tract. The
1583. During this period British surgery lagged behind the Italian and surgeon, either with his hands or a scoop, en-
French masters, but Englishman William Clowes was the first to tered the bladder and removed the stones.
perform a successful thigh amputation for gangrene in 1588. He Jacques de Beaulieu (1651-1719), who called
himself Brother Jacques, was a strolling Italian
wrote extensively on the art of surgery.
lithotomist who demonstrated the technique in
Paris in 1697. While he and other lithotomists
were often successful, survivors were often
noted to lead sad lives of postsurgical dripping
peasant knife-swallower in Prague—during a urine and fistulas. Lithotomists were consid-
show the patient had swallowed the knife too far, ered specialists and often worked as itinerant
and it slid into his stomach when he drank a stein surgeons moving from place to place to apply
of ale. In 1635, the first reported surgery for can- their skills. Many patients, however, died of the
cer of the tongue was followed by a hemiglossec- infections from the lithotomist’s unclean hands
tomy (partial tongue removal) in 1638. In 1664, a and instruments.
professor of surgery at Padua demonstrated the
As the seventeenth century closed, anat-
resectioning of ulcers and cancers of the lip.
omists who discovered new and important in-
British surgery began to catch up with its formation about how the human body worked
European counterparts in the early 1600s. greatly influenced the next century’s surgeons.
British physician-surgeon William Harvey, who RANDOLPH FILLMORE
studied at Cambridge, spent several years in Eu-
rope, primarily in Italy at the University of
Padua where he was influenced by Fabricius. Further Reading
Harvey received a medical degree in 1602 and Baas, J. Herman. The History of Medicine. Robert E.
returned to England, where he became professor Krieger Publishing Co., Inc., 1971.

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Cartwright, Frederick F. The Development of Modern Meade, Richard H. An Introduction to the History of General
Surgery. New York: Thomas Y. Crowell and Company, Surgery. Philadelphia: W. B. Saunders Company, 1968. Life Sciences
1967.
Wangenstein, O. H. and Sarah Wangenstein. The Rise of & Medicine
Ingus, Brian. A History of Medicine. New York: The World Surgery. Minneapolis: The University of Minnesota
Publishing Company, 1965. Press, 1978. 1450-1699

Krummbhaar, E. B. A History of Medicine. New York: Al- Zimmerman, Leo M. and Ilza Veith. Great Ideas in the His-
fred A. Knopf, 1947. tory of Surgery. New York: Dover Publications, 1967.

Empirics, Quacks, and

Alternative Medical Practices


Overview tracted teeth. Bloodletting was seen as the ap-
propriate treatment for many common illnesses,
During the Middle Ages and through the Renais-
and attempted to aid the victim by cleansing the
sance, physicians who were educated and trained
blood of the excess of the “sanguine humor” in
in the scientific method—with a reliance on ob-
the Galenic tradition. After the barber-surgeon
servation and experimentation—were few in
made a small incision and sometimes placed a
number. Most of the population relied on a com-
cannula (small hollow tube) into a vein, the pa-
bination of alternative healers for their medical
tient was encouraged to drink large quantities
care—empirics (those outside the medical main-
of fluids thought to dilute the blood and have a
stream), barber-surgeons, and apothecaries. These
cleansing effect. Up to a pint of blood was re-
healers learned their trade mostly through an ap-
moved per session. The familiar barber’s pole is
prenticeship, and used folklore, herbs, and guess-
a symbol of the barber-surgeon’s role in the
work to cure the sick. Disease was often attributed
practice of bloodletting. The patient gripped a
to supernatural causes, from evil spirits to punish-
staff in order to make the veins appear promi-
ment by God. Superstition and religious fervor
nent for the procedure, and afterward the bar-
dominated the philosophy of caring for the sick.
ber-surgeon secured the blood soaked bandages
In Europe the population embraced empirical
to the staff to dry. The familiar red-striped effect
healers along with the prevailing mysticism in des-
was created by the wind blowing the bandage
perate attempts to escape the great plagues of the
around the staff. Barber-surgeons also used the
late Middle Ages. By 1661, as London was in the
red-striped staff to advertise to the public that,
grip of another plague, new explanations for dis-
according to the position of the stars, the time
ease were sought. Interest in science was rekindled
was optimal for bloodletting cures.
and classical texts were rediscovered, as Renais-
sance thinking spread from Italy throughout Eu-
Until the seventeenth century surgery was a
rope. With the rebirth of the scientific method
free-for-all trade that almost anyone could prac-
based on observation and experimentation, the
tice. A Papal edict during the thirteenth century
early foundations for modern medicine were laid.
forbade monks to draw blood, and therefore
Slowly, empirics and folklore medicine declined,
prohibited them from practicing medicine.
and the science of medicine assumed prominence.
Monks would often pass their knowledge of
anatomy and medicine on to barbers, who often
Background visited monasteries to help the monks maintain
Most Renaissance villages were without a resi- their smooth-shaven appearance. Thus, barbers
dent physician or surgeon. Often the local bar- acquired surgical knowledge, then practiced in
ber would perform surgeries, along with his tra- public for others to observe. With few laws gov-
ditional duties of trimming villagers’ hair and erning surgery, the result was an army of charla-
beards. The barber-surgeon’s repertoire of pro- tans who wandered the countryside and filled
cedures, often performed with the same razor the marketplaces and county fairs representing
with which he cut hair, included bloodletting, themselves as tooth-pullers, cataract-removers,
lancing infections, and excising lesions. The and “cutters-for-the-stone,” or lithotomists, who
barber-surgeon also set broken bones and ex- specialized in a quick surgical removal of stones

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Life Sciences
& Medicine
1450-1699

Bloodletting by a Dutch barber-surgeon. Draining blood from a sick person was considered a chief method to
eliminate the illness. (Bettmann/Corbis. Reproduced with permission.)

of the urinary tract. The most notorious of these was eventually expelled from France due to the
was the French lithotomist Jacques de Beaulieu. number of patients who died from his lithotomy
After an apprenticeship to a wandering Italian techniques.
surgeon in 1690, Beaulieu donned monk’s robes,
named himself Frère Jacques (believed to be the Apothecaries and herbalists were among the
inspiration for the familiar nursery rhyme), and lowest in the social order of the Renaissance heal-

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ers. Apothecaries dispensed medicines of the day ered their faces or stayed indoors to avoid north
upon the order of physicians and surgeons. Many winds. Epilepsy and insanity were believed to be Life Sciences
also practiced alchemy, the ancient and futile the result of particularly fierce demons taking & Medicine
search for a method of turning ordinary sub- residence in the unfortunate victim. Priests and
stances into extraordinary ones, notably gold. other clergy encouraged the belief in demons as 1450-1699
Herbalists, often known as “witch women,” made the cause of disease, as prayer and exorcism al-
potions of dried herbs and plants, parts of dead lowed them an active role in caring for the sick.
animals, and sometimes excreta. The efficacy of The officially sanctioned persecution of in-
the potions was trial and error—if a sick or in- dividuals for witchcraft began during the Renais-
jured person recovered, the herbalist recorded the sance period. Although many of those presumed
herbal potion as successful and added the con- to be witches were probably suffering from delu-
coction to her medicinal collection. Occasionally, sional mental illnesses, some empirical healers
an herbalist stumbled upon a plant with legiti- were also accused. Occasionally, healers were
mate curative action. In the early eighteenth cen- put to death if their potions or methods did not
tury an herbalist near Shropshire, England, re- affect a cure. Others accused of witchcraft were
ported great success in curing dropsy (congestive first sent to an exorcist. If the demon did not de-
heart failure) with a mixture of brewed foxglove. part, the demented person was blamed. He was
Digitalis, an important drug still used today for its then subjected to starvation, whippings, and im-
action on the heart, is derived from the foxglove prisonment in a dungeon in an attempt to rid
plant. In 1638 the Countess of Chinchon, wife of himself of the demon. If these tortures did not
the Spanish Viceroy of Peru, was cured of malaria induce the demon to leave the body, the de-
by an extract of the bark of the Peruvian quina- mented person was burned at the stake. Mental
quina tree. The news of the cure spread quickly illness was not considered a reason for humane
throughout Europe, and the drug was named treatment via scientific means for over another
chinchona in honor of the countess. Now known hundred years, when French physician Philippe
as quinine, the drug remains an effective weapon Pinel (1745-1826) wrote a treatise characteriz-
in the prevention of malaria. More often, the ing insanity as an illness, and its victims worthy
herbalist and even the apothecary stocked medi- of humane intervention.
cines that had little effect on the diseases for
which they were intended. Some curatives in- Many healers earned their living by catering
volved elaborate and expensive hoaxes. Mumia, a to the prevailing superstitions of the time, be-
powder derived from dried Egyptian mummies, coming traveling peddlers, selling amulets and
was one of the most valued commodities on the other wares intended to ward off demons and
apothecaries’ shelves. Believed to contain power- disease. The modern custom of wearing lockets
ful, mystical cures for many diseases, the demand in the shape of a heart around the neck is a ves-
for mumia in seventeenth-century Europe was so tige of a belief that the heart possesses spiritual
great that it was impossible to supply it. As a re- powers. Often garlic or herbs were worn in the
sult, medical charlatans grew wealthy selling fake locket to ward off disease. In Scotland, these
mumia, made from the remains of recently exe- amulets were known as witch brooches and
cuted prisoners. were used to protect children from witchcraft.
Christians wore prominent crosses to display
their faith and to ward off demons. England’s
Impact Queen Elizabeth wore an engraved gold ring
With little understanding of the nature of dis- suspended from her neck to dispel “bad airs”
ease, and little to offer their patients in the way about her. Healers sold vast quantities of garlic
of a cure, physicians as well as other healers and onions, both said to have medicinal value
often embraced the occult for an explanation of and powers against evil spirits. One of the most
illness. This philosophy impeded the rediscov- dramatic superstitions involved the ground
ery of the scientific approach to medicine by powder from a unicorn’s horn, believed to cure
hundreds of years. Especially in the fifteenth and any poisoning and bring good fortune. When
sixteenth centuries, the belief of superstitions English surgeon Ambroise Paré (1510-1590)
and demons as the cause of disease was wide- suggested that many apothecaries and quacks
spread. Demons were said to invade persons of were growing rich substituting domestic animal
weak stature or character and thereby cause dis- horns for the imaginary unicorn, he was de-
ease. Sore throats and pneumonia were believed nounced by the dean of the Paris Medical Col-
to be caused by demons traveling with winds lege. Amid such superstition, sanctioned by reli-
from a northern direction. Many persons cov- gious and many academic leaders, scientific

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progress in medicine crept through the latter rope. Several universities were built during the pe-
Life Sciences Middle Ages and first half of the Renaissance. riod that served to train learned physicians in the
& Medicine Beginning in about 1550, several factors di-
classical tradition and scientific method. Laws and
regulations regarding practice were strengthened.
1450-1699
minished the ranks of empirics, barber-surgeons,
By the eighteenth century those who practiced su-
herbalists, and quacks across Europe. The renewed
perstition and folklore remained, but were su-
interest in the classics brought about by Renais-
perceded by those physicians trained in the sci-
sance thinking reintroduced the Hippocratic
ences at the dawn of modern medicine.
method of careful observation of patients and their
symptoms. Physician and philosopher René BRENDA WILMOTH LERNER
Descartes (1596-1650) demystified the human
body with his mechanical conception of human
physiology. When opposition to human dissection Further Reading
evaporated, Andreas Vesalius (1514-1565) saw Cipolla, Carlo M. Public Health and the Medical Profession
first-hand the structure of the human body, and pi- in the Renaissance. New York: Cambridge University
oneered the study of modern anatomy and physi- Press, 1996.
ology. Anatomical observations were accurately il- Lyon, Sue, ed. Exploring the Past: Shakespeare’s England.
lustrated by artists such as Leonardo da Vinci New York: Marshall Cavendish, 1989.
(1452-1519). Also, the invention of the printing Taylor, Laurence and Angus McBride (illustrator). Every-
press made possible the dissemination of medical day Life: The Sixteenth Century. Morristown, NJ: Silver
literature and sharing of information across Eu- Burdett Company, 1983.

William Harvey and the Discovery of the

Human Circulatory System


Overview ally quite ancient ideas and notions, still accept-
ed more than 1,400 years after first being postu-
William Harvey (1578-1657) is recognized as the
lated by Galen (130?-200?), the Greek physician
man who discovered and published the first ac-
of Rome. Over time, the dogma of Galen became
curate description of the human circulatory sys-
sacrosanct, even though most of his anatomical
tem, based on his many years of experiments and
knowledge and physiological investigations were
observations as a scientist and physician. Harvey
based on his studies of monkeys and pigs, be-
had accumulated a mass of irrefutable experi-
cause dissections of human bodies were typical-
mental evidence in support of his dramatic new
ly not permitted. Galen recognized the useful-
view, knowing that a tremendous amount of crit-
ness of comparative anatomy for gaining under-
icism and disbelief would be mounted against his
standing of the human body, and he studied the
groundbreaking, revolutionary theory of the
workings of animal bodies and various struc-
physiology of blood circulation. Although the
tures in some detail. He was a prolific writer and
majority of the physicians and scientists of his
dedicated scientist, venerated for centuries, and
day refused to accept his research, Harvey’s dis-
long considered to be the authority on medicine
covery and written description of the true func-
and health.
tioning of the heart and circulatory system re-
mains as one of the landmark medical textbooks Galen and his proponents believed that the
and the foundation of modern physiology. circulation of blood began in the gastric and in-
testinal blood vessels, and was carried to the
liver, where it was “elaborated” by the liver. This
Background “venous blood” then entered the hepatic vein,
Most physicians, scientists, and philosophers of which he believed to be the origin of the vena
seventeenth-century Europe were adherents of cava, and the “descending” vena cava transported
Galen’s doctrine, which contained several signifi- blood to the lower body, while the “ascending”
cant errors regarding the movement of blood branch sent blood to the upper body. As blood
and the workings of the heart. These were actu- entered the right side of the heart, it was thought

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1450-1699

William Harvey’s drawing of the veins of the forearm. (Wellcome Institute Library. Reproduced with permission.)

to pass through invisible pores in the septum supported with repeated experimental evidence,
that divided the heart, forced into the left ventri- and, as was his nature, he methodically and
cle, mixed with air brought in from the lungs by forcefully exposed the errors of the long held
the pulmonary veins, and transformed into the misconceptions about the heart and blood circu-
“arterial blood.” The heart was seen as a type of lation. His new system completely altered the
bellows, expanding when a small volume of Galenic concept of blood circulation, proving
blood in the left ventricle was greatly heated by that the heart is a hollow muscle that contracts
the addition of “vital spirits,” forcing the heart to regularly to provide the single motive force of
expand and draw blood inside. In a similar fash- the blood’s movement. He patiently exposed the
ion, the arteries carried this “boiled up” blood other unacceptable aspects of Galen’s erroneous
away from the heart to the body, but the blood system, using well-designed experiments that at-
did not return to the heart. According to Galenic tempted to dispel various falsehoods.
doctrine, the liver was seen as the continual
Harvey was able to fully illustrate the ac-
source of new blood, replenishing the blood that
tions of the heart, its chambers and valves, as
was vaporized and converted into waste material,
well as clarify the long misunderstood pattern of
and released from the lungs as “soot.”
pulmonary circulation. Harvey concluded that
As the personal physician of King Charles I blood moved from the right ventricle into the
and the recipient of the best medical education lungs via the renamed pulmonary artery (cor-
possible, Harvey was perhaps the preeminent rectly changed from pulmonary vein), which
physician in England and perhaps all Europe, Galen thought carried only air and “soot” back
and he long doubted the accuracy of many of and forth between the lungs and heart. Harvey
the “facts” that the medical profession espoused. properly stated that the blood then returned to
Harvey finally published the results of his re- the left side of the heart via the pulmonary
search in his text Exercitatio anatomica de motu veins. Harvey would not attempt to answer why
cordis sanguinis in animalius (On the movement the blood traveled to the lungs and back, as he
of the heart and blood in animals) in 1628. Har- did not have any knowledge about gas exchange
vey only accepted as facts those ideas that were during pulmonary respiration. Harvey also fully

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detailed the systematic circulatory system, trac- suffered a great decline as a result of the intense
Life Sciences ing the flow of blood through the arteries cours- controversy he created, but Harvey steadfastly
& Medicine ing within the body, returning to the heart via maintained himself and his convictions during
the network of veins. He also artfully illustrated the controversy.
1450-1699 the workings of the valves in veins, proving the
As a professor and physician, Harvey advo-
one-way circulation of venous blood towards the
cated the use of comparative techniques to study
heart, and refuting the notion that the valves
anatomy and physiology, recognizing the advan-
were actually reinforcement structures that pre-
tages and practicality of using the animals that
vented the over expansion of the veins as blood
were available for study. Harvey worked with
was forced through, as his university mentor
fish, amphibians and reptiles, birds, mammals,
Girolamo Fabrici (1537-1619) had taught.
and humans, experimenting and comparing
When Harvey found that his experimental where ever possible, building his theory me-
evidence could not provide an answer to a ques- thodically and with great care. In the case of the
tion, he did not attempt to evoke rational mysti- action of the heart, he found that in many lower
cism by way of explanation, as in the case of animals, the heart’s movement was slower and
how and why blood in the arteries eventually could be seen more readily, and he used the
passed into the veins and traveled back to the slower heart rate of chilled fish and amphibians
heart. Harvey could not see the capillaries found for analysis and comparison to the faster mam-
in tissues and had no way of addressing blood’s malian heart. Many of Harvey’s experiments
metabolic function, but he did anticipate the would later be described as direct, artfully sim-
presence of the “anastomoses” between arteries ple, and beautifully designed.
and veins and the possibility of blood providing
nourishment or some other function. These Throughout his career, Harvey emphasized
blood-carrying structures were too small to be the experimental method of scientific research,
seen with the naked eye, but Harvey strongly which would become a basic tenet of modern
believed that their existence would be detected science. Harvey would not accept any rational-
eventually. Later, in the seventeenth century, ism or mysticism as evidence for determining
both Marcello Malpighi (1628-1694) and Anton how or why something occurred in the body.
van Leeuwenhoek (1632-1723) would use the Only experimental evidence that was repeated
improved microscope to describe the presence many times, using as many different animal ex-
of capillaries and blood cells in a wide variety of amples as possible, could be considered in
animals, including humans. reaching any conclusions. Harvey avoided hav-
ing any preconceived ideas about his experi-
ments, rather, he gathered his evidence, ana-
Impact lyzed the data, and then created a scientific hy-
pothesis that he knew he could further test
Harvey worked long and hard to create what be-
directly with more experiments. He built his
came the starting point for modern mammalian
new theory of blood circulation in a straightfor-
physiology. His still impressive research is also
ward analysis of each step in the process, gather-
seen as the first milestone of modern experimen-
ing extensive experimental data to confirm every
tal science, and can be used as an example of
aspect. He anticipated potential criticisms and
how to perform experimental scientific research.
designed more experiments to refute future con-
Being the person to inaugurate two new scientif-
troversies. His reliance on the experimental
ic systems that condemned long-held beliefs,
method was in contrast to many scientists and
Galen’s doctrine and the school of rationalism,
philosophers of his time, who instead employed
Harvey must have recognized the likelihood of
rationalism or dialectics to essentially think their
dire consequences. The derision and attack of
way through a question or problem, often fol-
the medical community was inevitable, and ac-
lowing anecdotal or casual observational infor-
cusations and charges made by the Church and
mation, and using little to no experimental evi-
legal authority would not be without common
dence. This type of analysis typically evoked the
precedence. New ideas that change entire sys-
presence of unseen forces or “principles,” usual-
tems of knowledge were always viewed with
ly a supernatural or divine phenomenon. Harvey
skepticism and apprehension, often evoking
tended to avoid this kind of philosophical rea-
harsh criticisms and accusations of quackery.
soning, referred to as ratiocination.
Harvey risked being rejected as foolishly misled
or even acquiring the stigma of being labeled a The adherents of the Galenic doctrine did
quack. After his publication, his private practice not surrender to the new physiology quietly, but

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rather a great controversy raged for many years modern physiology and a champion of modern
and long after Harvey’s death. Harvey, humble experimental science. Life Sciences
and dignified as a person and in his work, was
KENNETH E. BARBER
& Medicine
patient and understanding when dealing with
his critics and doubting contemporaries. Occa- 1450-1699
sionally he would answer his critics with a direct Further Reading
letter or a publication that would add to or reit- Chauvois, Louis. William Harvey, His Life and Times: His
erate the existence of the relevant experimental Discoveries, His Methods. London: Hutchinson Med-
evidence that confirmed his conclusions. Never- ical Publications, 1957.
theless, recognition of the truths that he illumi- Harre, R. Early Seventeenth Century Scientists. Oxford:
nated did not come in his lifetime. Eventual ac- Pergamon Press, 1965.
ceptance came much later, when scientists de- Gardner, Eldon J. History of Biology. 3rd ed. Minneapolis,
veloped new tools of investigation and better MN: Burgess Publishing Company, 1972.
understanding of modern science. Harvey is re- Guthrie, Douglas. A History of Medicine. Philadelphia: J.
membered and revered both as the founder of B. Lippencott, 1946.

The Beginnings of Blood Transfusion

Overview culates in a closed system, was an essential pre-
requisite to the concept that blood could be
William Harvey’s (1578-1657) discovery of the
transplanted from one animal to another.
circulation of the blood, reported in De motu
cordis (1628), resulted in attempts to inject vari- With arguments based on dissection, vivisec-
ous therapeutic agents, including blood itself, tion, clinical experience, and the works of Aristo-
into the veins of animals and humans. The first tle and Galen, Harvey proved that in the adult all
significant experiments on blood transfusion the blood must go through the lungs to get from
were performed by Richard Lower (1631-1691) the right to the left side of the heart. Harvey
in England in 1666 and by Jean-Baptiste Denis proved that it was the beat of the heart that
(1640-1704) in Paris in 1667. Lower began with caused a continuous circular motion of the blood
a series of experiments on animals in prepara- from the heart into the arteries and from the veins
tion for transfusion of blood into humans, but back to the heart. In support of the novel idea of a
Denis was the first to perform the experiment on continuous circulation of the blood, Harvey
human beings. Interest in blood transfusion was turned to quantitative considerations. Although
high from 1660 until about 1680, when various he did experiments aimed at getting an accurate
countries began to outlaw this dangerous, exper- measurement of the quantity of blood put out by
imental practice. After the deaths of several pa- the heart with each beat, he emphasized that
tients, this highly experimental form of therapy exact measurement was unnecessary. Even the
was abandoned for about 150 years. most cursory calculation proved that the amount
of blood pumped out of the heart per hour was so
Background great that it exceeded the weight of the entire
body. That is, if the human heart pumps out two
Long before 1628 when he assembled his evi-
ounces of blood with each beat and beats about
dence and published De motu cordis (Anatomical
seventy times per minute, the heart must expel
Exercises Concerning the Movement of the Heart
about 600 pounds (272 kg) per hour. Therefore,
and Blood in Animals), William Harvey seems to
blood must move in a continuous circle through
have arrived at an understanding of the motion
the body. So the purpose of the motion and con-
of the heart and blood. The notes for his first
traction of the heart was to impart a continuous
Lumleian Lecture show that by 1616 he was per-
circular motion to the blood.
forming demonstrations and conducting experi-
ments to show that blood passes from the arteries Once this basic principle was grasped,
into the veins. He concluded that the beat of the many observations fell neatly into place. Experi-
heart impels a continuous circular motion to the ence gained through phlebotomy and observa-
blood. His discovery that blood continuously cir- tions on the throbbing of arterial aneurysms,

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and the pulses of the wrists, temples and necks knowledge of the circulatory system increased.
Life Sciences of patients similarly supported the central thesis Many physicians insisted on using distant sites
& Medicine of De motu cordis. Knowledge of the continuous on the side opposite the lesion. Others chose a
circulation of the blood explained many puz- site close to the source of inflammation in order
1450-1699 zling clinical observations. Circulation explained to remove corrupt blood and attract good blood
why poisons or infections at one site could affect to repair the diseased area. Proper site selection
the whole system, as could bites from snakes was supposed to determine whether the primary
and rabid animals. On the other hand, for tradi- effect of bloodletting would be evacuation (re-
tional medical practice, Harvey’s theory seemed moval of blood), derivation (acceleration of the
to raise more questions than it answered. How blood column upstream of the wound), or revul-
could the new system explain how the parts of sion (acceleration of the blood column down-
the body secured their proper nourishment if stream of the wound).
the blood was not continuously consumed? If
the liver did not continuously synthesize the ve- As a scientist, Harvey demonstrated admirable
nous blood, what was the function of this organ? skepticism towards dogma and superstition, but he
How did the body distribute the vital spirits and was not especially innovative as a practitioner and
the innate heat? If the vital spirit was not pro- he does not seem to have considered the possibility
duced in the lungs or the left ventricle, what was of therapeutic blood transfusions. Harvey’s meth-
the function of respiration? If all of the blood ods stimulated his disciples to work out the med-
moved in a circle, what was the difference be- ical and physiological implications of his discovery.
tween the arterial and venous blood? What prin- The questions raised by his work provided the Ox-
ciples would guide medical practice if the great ford physiologists—scientists such as Robert Boyle
Galenic synthesis were sacrificed for the theory (1627-1691), Christopher Wren (1632-1723),
of the circulation? Robert Hooke (1635-1703), John Mayow (1640-
Arguing from experimental and quantitative 1679), and Richard Lower (1631-1691)—with a
data in biology was a novelty and opponents of new research program, that is, the exploration of
Harvey’s work presented what seemed to be the systemic effects of injecting various drugs and
quite logical alternatives, at least in light of fluids into the veins of animals and human beings.
Galenic theory. Harvey’s work did not lead to the By the 1660s, British physiologists were perform-
total rejection of Hippocratic and Galenic princi- ing ingenious experiments involving the injection
ples, or the rejection of venesection as a major of drugs, poisons, nutrients, pigments, and blood
therapeutic tool. Harvey’s work opened up new itself into animal and human veins. The transfu-
fields of research, but not even Harvey seemed sion and infusion of medicinal substances into the
to reconsider the relationship between therapeu- bloodstream did not become part of routine med-
tic bloodletting and a closed, continuous circu- ical practice for many years, but seventeenth cen-
lation. Indeed, Harvey defended venesection as a tury experimentalists did raise many intriguing
major therapeutic tool for the relief of diseases possibilities.
caused by plethora. Long after Harvey’s theory
had been accepted, physicians believed in the Competing claims for priority have created
health-promoting virtues of bloodletting. some confusion in the history of blood transfu-
sion, but the body of evidence indicates that the
first significant studies of blood transfusion were
Impact performed by Christopher Wren, Richard Lower,
Paradoxically, while provoking new arguments and Robert Boyle in England, and by Jean-Bap-
about the selection of appropriate sites for vene- tiste Denis (1640-1704) in Paris. According to
section, the discovery of the circulation seemed Thomas Sprat’s History of the Royal Society
to stimulate interest in bloodletting and other (1667), Christopher Wren was the first to carry
forms of depletion therapy. Bleeding was recom- out experiments on the injection of various flu-
mended in the treatment of inflammation, ids into the veins of animals. During experi-
fevers, a multitude of disease states, and hemor- ments exhibited at meetings of the Royal Society,
rhage. Patients too weak for the lancet were can- experimental animals were purged, vomited, in-
didates for milder methods, such as cupping toxicated, killed, or revived by the intravenous
and leeching. In addition to prescribing the injection of various fluids and drugs. Dogs,
amount of blood to be taken, physicians had to birds, and other animals were bled almost to
select the optimum site for bleeding. Arguments death and sometimes revived by the injection of
about site selection became ever more creative as blood from another animal.

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1450-1699

A late-seventeenth-century engraving depicting a blood transfusion from a sheep to a man. (Corbis Corporation.
Reproduced with permission.)

Reasoning that the nature of blood must demonstration performed at Oxford in February
change after it was removed from the living 1666, Lower removed blood from a medium
body, the English physician and physiologist sized dog until it was close to death. Blood taken
Richard Lower decided to transfer blood be- via the cervical artery of a larger dog revived the
tween living animals by connecting the artery of experimental animal. Using additional donors,
the donor to the vein of the recipient. During a Lower was able to repeat this procedure several

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times. When the recipient’s jugular vein was ments and returned to conventional careers. In
Life Sciences sewn up, it appeared to be in good condition. 1668, the Chamber of Deputies declared that
& Medicine These experiments led observers to speculate the transfusion of blood from animals into hu-
that someday blood transfusions could cure the mans was prohibited, unless specifically ap-
1450-1699 sick by replacing bad blood with healthy blood. proved by the Faculty of Medicine of Paris. Then
years later, the British Parliament also prohibited
After learning about Lower’s experiments
blood transfusion. Little progress was made in
performing a series of transfusions from dog to
the field in the next 150 years.
dog, Jean-Baptiste Denis, professor of philoso-
phy and mathematics at Montpellier and physi- English scientists had been very critical of the
cian to Louis XIV, conducted a series of experi- experiments performed by Denis, but they too ex-
ments on the transfusion of blood from dog to perienced mixed success in blood transfusions.
dog. In March 1667, he transferred blood from a About six months after Denis’s first human trans-
calf into a dog. Observing no immediate adverse fusion, Richard Lower hired a “lunatic” named
effect, Denis concluded that animal blood could Arthur Coga, to serve as a test subject. Coga’s
be used to treat human diseases. Denis argued condition seemed to improve after an injection of
that humans were able to assimilate the flesh of sheep’s blood, but his condition deteriorated
animals and that animal blood might be a better rapidly when he was given a second transfusion.
remedy than human blood, because animal The first transfusion experiments had briefly
blood would not be corrupted by human vices. stimulated great expectations, but blood transfu-
Moreover, as a practical matter, animal blood sion did not become routinely safe and effective
could be transfused directly from the artery of until after World War I. Seventeenth century
the donor to the vein of the human recipient. physiologists, who explained their world in terms
of four elements and four humors, could not ap-
On June 15, 1667, with the help of Paul Em- preciate the immunological barriers between dif-
merez, a surgeon and anatomist, Denis tested his ferent species and individuals. Safe blood transfu-
methods on a fifteen-year-old boy who had suf- sions were made possible when the immunologist
fered from a chronic fever and had endured nu- Karl Landsteiner (1868-1943) demonstrated the
merous therapeutic bleedings. Emmerez drew off existence of distinct blood group types.
about three ounces of blood from a vein in the
boy’s arm and Denis injected about ten ounces of LOIS N. MAGNER

arterial blood from a lamb. The operation seemed

to be a great success, except for the boy’s com-
Further Reading
plaint about the sensation of great heat in his arm.
In another experiment, Denis injected about Books
twenty ounces of lamb’s blood into a healthy Bylebyl, Jerome J., ed. William Harvey and His Age: The Pro-
forty-five-year-old paid volunteer. Again, except fessional and Social Context of the Discovery of the Circula-
tion. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1978.
for a sensation of warmth in the arm, no ill effects
were reported. A man suffering from “frenzy” Dickinson, C. J. and J. Marks, eds. Developments in Cardio-
vascular Medicine. Lancaster, England: MTP Press, 1978.
seemed to improve after a transfusion of calf’s
blood, but the patient experienced pains in the Frank, R. G., Jr. Harvey and the Oxford Physiologists. Scien-
arm and back, rapid and irregular pulse, sweat- tific Ideas and Social Interactions. Berkeley, CA: Univer-
sity of California Press, 1980.
ing, vomiting, diarrhea, and bloody urine. Given
the patient’s poor state of health and previous Hackett, Earle. Blood, The Paramount Humor. London:
Jonathan Cape, Ltd., 1973.
treatments, Denis saw no compelling reason to
blame these problems on the transfusion. Thus, Harvey, W. Anatomical Studies on the Motion of the Heart
and Blood. Trans. by G. Keynes. Birmingham, AL:
although Denis reported several apparently suc- Classics of Medicine Library, 1978.
cessful transfusions, his experiments also resulted
Keynes, G. L., ed. Blood Transfusion. Bristol: John Wright
in what was probably the first recorded account and Sons, Ltd., 1949.
of the signs and symptoms of a hemolytic transfu-
Whitteridge, G. William Harvey and the Circulation of the
sion reaction. The death of a patient who had Blood. New York: American Elsevier, 1971.
been given two injections of calf’s blood as a treat-
ment for recurring attacks of insanity precipitated Periodical Articles
a violent controversy, an avalanche of pamphlets, Farr, A.D. “The First Human Blood Transfusion.” Medical
a lawsuit, and the arrest of Denis. History 24 (1980): 143-62.
Hoff, Hebbel and Roger Guillemin. The First Experi-
Although not found guilty of malpractice, ments on Transfusion in France. Journal of the History
Denis and Emmerez discontinued their experi- of Medicine and Allied Sciences 18 (1963): 103-24.

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Progress in Understanding Human Anatomy

Life Sciences
& Medicine

Overview Background 1450-1699

The great European Renaissance, or revival of Gross anatomy is the term used to describe a
thinking, had a major impact on the study of systematic knowledge of the structure of the
human anatomy. The development of medicine body. From the earliest times several things pre-
established by the Greeks and Romans, and im- vented organized investigation of both human
bued with a spirit of inquiry, had long served as and animal bodies. Social ideas against touching
the unchallenged standard of medical practice and cutting a dead body developed. Tampering
and belief. During the Middle Ages knowledge with the body was believed to be tampering with
of the human body was enveloped with igno- the soul. Religious beliefs became enveloped
rance and superstition. A religious and cultural with myth about anatomy. For example, the be-
taboo against human dissection limited anatomi- lief prevailed that men had one less rib than
cal knowledge to what could be gleaned from women, as set forth in the biblical story of the
the study of animal specimens. creation in Genesis, when God took a rib to
made Eve.
All of this changed with the development of
universities in Italy. Responding to the need of Aristotle (384-322 B.C.) applied logical and
the times to understand the causes of death, rational thinking to biology, and his precepts of
anatomists began to challenge ancient traditions anatomy and physiology were based on animal
by performing dissections of the human body. observation. Empedocles (490?-430 B.C.) of Sici-
They were aided by an unusual group of profes- ly was the first to introduce the theory of the
sionals, artists who sought to understand the na- four humors, which influenced medical thought
ture of the body to perfect their craft. Another for 2,000 years. It was believed that when the
great invention, printing, enabled duplication of humors were out of balance, the person was
the text, and wood engraving enabled drawings sick. Hippocrates (460?-377? B.C.) adopted these
and illustrations to help people understand ideas for use in clinical medicine. Within this
anatomy. theory of knowledge, anatomy is not considered
useful and is subordinate to practice. Galen
One of the first great anatomists was An- (130?-200?), in the same tradition, prided him-
dreas Vesalius (1514-1564), who had an amaz- self on being a fine clinician and adapted his
ing impact because he made anatomy acceptable knowledge from the study of apes, pigs, sheep,
and questioned long held traditions of the past. goats, and even an elephant’s heart—but not hu-
As anatomy developed in the great universities mans. He knew much about the skeletal anato-
beginning in Bologna, others began a study in my, but human dissection was out of the ques-
earnest. Antonio Benivieni (1440?-1502) dis- tion. Galen drew on his knowledge of animal
sected cadavers to study disease and the cause of anatomy, combined with Hippocratic medicine
death, and his findings were published in 1507. and Platonic reasoning, to establish a hold on
thinking for hundreds of years.
A professor, Johannes Dryander (1500- Mondino di Luzzi (1275-1326) was a pro-
1560), made the first illustrations directly from fessor of anatomy at Bologna who first intro-
cadavers and published these in 1537. By the duced dissections of humans instead of pigs. He
middle of the sixteenth century public dissec- wrote the first textbook on anatomy, which re-
tions became a matter of curiosity among the mained popular for two centuries and emerged
populace in general. Many of these were done in in a 79-page printed version in 1515.
the town square and drew crowds from miles
around. Heironymus Fabricius (1583-1619) Human dissection began toward the end of
worked on the Aristotle Project, which sought the thirteenth century at the University of
not only knowledge of structure, but also com- Bologna. Although frowned upon by the Church
parative understanding of anatomy. and tradition, dissection became a necessity to
find out causes of death. The great universities
By the end of the period, and moving into supported the dissections, which extended to
the 1700s, the state of anatomy had so changed Padua, Florence, Pisa, and Venice. Anatomy was
that it could hardly be compared to the simple still influenced by Galen, and the efforts at illus-
beginnings in the mid-fifteenth century. tration were initially to support his beliefs.

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During the fifteenth century a great change ry for physicians. In 1538 he designed for his
Life Sciences occurred in the general culture, inspired by the students Six Anatomical Pictures, a treatise still
& Medicine rediscovery of Greek work. The Renaissance of influenced by Galen’s legacy. But as he found out
learning that exploded in the sixteenth century more about anatomy, it became more unsettling.
1450-1699 included the development of anatomy. He began to challenge Galen and came to the
conclusion that human anatomy must be
learned through dissections. Dead bodies, not
Impact dead language, were the key to learning.
The influence of Leonardo da Vinci (1452-
To do this, he got a huge supply of dead
1519) on anatomy was not felt by his contempo-
bodies of executed criminals and began his great
raries in the medical community, but he did es-
masterpiece De humani corporis fabrica (On the
tablish a pattern for medical artists that began
Structure of the Human Body). He took the
slowly to expand through Italy first, then to
book to Basel where it was published in 1543.
other areas. His notebooks included methods for
This book was a great turning point in medicine,
the study of the arm and forehand, motor mus-
for it promoted the understanding of the struc-
cles of the hands and wings, and actions of the
tures of the human body. At the time the art-
muscles in breathing. Da Vinci led a group of
work was thought to be done by the famous Ital-
painters, philosophers, and poets to commend
ian painter Titian, but was later attributed to one
the beauty of the human form. Their emblem
of his assistants, a Dutch artist named Jan
became the Vetruvian man, the human form su-
Stephen van Calcar (1499-1546). The poses are
perimposed on the cosmos. This interest in the
astounding, showing a body without skin stand-
human body led naturally into interest in its
ing or posing in front of landscapes of various
physical structure and workings.
kinds. Vesalius showed the human body was the
Da Vinci spent hours in his basement dis- key to medical knowledge.
secting and studying corpses. He created about
750 anatomical drawings, and in 1489 planned Another aspect of anatomy emerged from the
an anatomical atlas of the stages of man from the work of Antonio Benivieni, that of pathological
womb to the tomb, although this was never anatomy, or autopsy, to find the cause of disease.
completed. Some of the drawings of early A native of Florence, Benivieni studied medicine
anatomists indicated exposure to da Vinci. at Pisa and became a respected physician in his
city. While practicing, he became convinced that
With interest in everything Greek, the first autopsy was the only way to discover causes of
anatomy text was written by Allessandro disease. He observed gallstones, cancer of the
Benedeti (d. 1512) who lived 16 years in Greece, stomach, peritonitis, and many other conditions.
then came to Padua in 1490 as a professor of He published several books that were lost at the
anatomy. The discovery of Galen’s On Anatomical time, but were later found and published. His The
Procedures showed how to carry out a dissection. Hidden Causes of Disease presented a new method
Galen had encouraged people to find out for of thinking in medical science—that of the dis-
themselves about anatomy. The only flaw was covery of cause of death by autopsy.
that he used animals not humans.
Heironymus Fabricius became a professor at
Enthusiastic about the work of Galen, Vesal- Padua in 1565. He was not only interested in
ius took up the challenge to examine anatomy anatomical structure, but also comparative ap-
firsthand and, as a result, became one of Galen’s proach. He stressed three aspects of anatomy: de-
great critics. Born in Brussels, Belgium, Vesalius scription, action, and use of body parts. His most
studied under Jacob Sylvius, Galen’s great cham- significant work on the valves of the veins laid
pion. In later years, Sylvius would become Vesal- the foundation for William Harvey (1578-1657)
ius’s adversary due to Vesalius’s criticism of to develop this theory of blood circulation.
Galen, and even called him a mad man. When
war in 1533 forced Vesalius to flee Paris, he went An interesting trend also developed in
to Louvain, where he introduced human dissec- anatomy—that of public dissections. Because of
tion. At the time, criminals were left on a gibbet plagues and other diseases, people became very
(the place of hanging) for public scorn. Vesalius curious about how these were transmitted and
secretly stole these bodies, smuggled their bones about the body in general. Public dissections be-
home, and reconstructed the skeleton. came quite a spectacle.
In 1537 he went to Padua, a great institu- In the 1520s anatomical drawings and texts
tion for dissecting, although it was not mandato- increased in number, whetting further interest

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and curiosity. Johannes Dryander, a professor at opened the floodgate of medicine. Their interest
Marburg, Germany, carried out the first public in the structure of the human body naturally led Life Sciences
dissection. Dryander also created a trend in to studies of how these structures function. & Medicine
anatomy—specializing on one part. He wrote a Human physiology would soon develop.
treatise detailing the anatomy of the head. 1450-1699
EVELYN B. KELLY
Rolfinck, also in Germany, continued the trend
of public dissection into the 1600s.
Later anatomists specialized in the study of Further Reading
body parts. Bartolomeo Eustachio (1500-1574)
Clendening, Logan. Source Book of Medical History. New
produced a detailed study of the kidney and ear. York: Dover, 1960.
He criticized Vesalius for studying the kidneys of
Porter, Roy. The Greatest Benefit to Mankind: A Medical
a dog instead of those of a human, and dog’s ears
History of Humanity. New York: W.W. Norton, 1997.
instead of man’s. A structure of the ear, the Eu-
stachian tube, is named for him. Schultz, Bernard. Art and Anatomy in Renaissance Italy.
Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1985.
Most scientists recognize Vesalius’s 1543 Wear, A., R. K. French, and I. M. Lonieed, eds. The Med-
publication as the beginning of the renaissance in ical Renaissance of the Sixteenth Century. Cambridge:
medicine and anatomical inquiry. The anatomists Cambridge University Press, 1985.

Advances in Understanding
the Nervous System


Overview theory and practice was dominant in Europe
throughout the Middle Ages and into the Renais-
Neurology, the study of the brain along with the
sance. Galen thought that the best physicians
body’s nervous system, had little structure in the
were also philosophers, and that philosophy
medical community of late-Medieval and Re-
promoted medicine. Galenic tradition held that
naissance Europe. The renewed intellectual en-
illness was a result of an imbalance of body flu-
thusiasm of the Renaissance brought about an
ids, or humors. While dissecting calves, Galen
appreciation for classical study, and with it ad-
noticed a network of nerves and vessels at the
vances in the knowledge of the anatomy of the
base of the calf brain that he mistakenly as-
human brain. Much of the period, however, was
sumed also existed in humans. Galen labeled
devoted not to seeking practical medical knowl-
this area the rete mirabile, and stated that this
edge about the nervous system, but to ponder-
was the site where vital life spirits were trans-
ing the philosophies of its nature. Occasionally,
formed into man’s animal spirits. After the ad-
empirics or quacks filled the void, performing
vent of Christianity, these spirits were unified
surgeries on the scalp, administering drugs or
into the concept of a Christian soul, and physi-
herbs, or chanting for the benefit of a patient
cians debated its base in the human body, pre-
with headache, neuromuscular difficulty, or
sumably the heart or the brain.
mental illness. By the end of the seventeenth
century, however, the scientific and Hippocratic By the mid-1600s scientists considered the
methods, based on direct observation and ex- structure and philosophy of the brain based
perimentation, were laying the foundation for upon observations on humans. English physi-
the future study of neurology. cian and anatomist Thomas Willis (1621-1675)
was the first to name the fledgling science of
neurology. Willis was professor of philosophy at
Background Oxford University, and he built one of the largest
Medieval understanding of the nervous system and best-known medical practices of his day.
was basically limited to observations of animal Willis belonged to the new school of iatro-
anatomy, tempered by philosophies prevailing chemists, who believed that animal physiologi-
since antiquity. The influence of Greek physician cal activity could best be explained by chemical
Galen of Pergamum (c. 130-c. 200) on medical interactions. By removing the brain from the cra-

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nium, Willis was able to clearly visualize its grounds. The rational soul, according to
Life Sciences structures. Willis accurately described the Descartes, interacted with the body via the
& Medicine hexagonal network of arteries (the circle of pineal gland of the brain. The animal spirits
Willis) at the base of the brain that is responsible flowed from the ventricles of the brain, carrying
1450-1699 for ensuring the brain’s blood supply as the instructions to the muscles that could be over-
body’s highest priority. He identified the ruled or modified by the rational soul. Descartes
eleventh cranial nerve (the spinal accessory saw the rational soul as the seat of wisdom, and
nerve) responsible for motor stimulation of the pineal area of the brain as the center of all
major neck muscles. Willis also distinguished sensory input. Descartes also is credited with the
gray matter from white matter, and ventured founding of reflex theory. Descartes articulated a
that the gray matter held the animal spirits, mechanism for an automatic reaction, beginning
while the white matter distributed the spirits with an external motion displacing the peripher-
throughout the body, giving rise to movement al ends of nerves. The central ends of the nerves
and sensation. Willis rejected the Galenic tradi- were, in turn, displaced, which allowed the flow
tion of the spirits as fluids, however, when he of animal spirits from the center of the nerves to
noticed the speed with which sensations and the surrounding appropriate areas, creating an
muscular actions occur. Willis likened the spirits involuntary reaction. Although the mechanism
to rays of light, quickly filling the passages of for a reflex action advanced by Descartes was
nerves, thus resembling an elementary concept faulty, the fact that the reflex action was a pre-
of nerve conduction. Along with French dicted automatic response to a stimulus remains.
philosopher René Descartes (1594-1650), Willis
was one of the last of the animal spirit theorists.
Impact
Still, he accepted the idea of a soul unique to
man, possessing the ability to reason. In 1664 During the Renaissance progress was much
Willis published Cerebri Anatome, the most ac- slower in the practice of medicine than in its sci-
curate and complete account of the nervous sys- ence. Typically, the medicine of the Renaissance
tem yet published, containing detailed illustra- benefited the doctor more than his patient, and
tions by Christopher Wren (1632-1723). many physicians occupied much of their time
debating the numerous prevailing philosophies
In France Willis’s work was carried on by of the workings of the body, leaving the actual
the French physician Raymond Vieussens care of the sick to barbers, empirics, and folk
(1641-1715). Vieussens held the post of chief healers. In no area of medicine did so many
surgeon at Hotel Dieu at St. Eloi (near Montpel- philosophies exist ready for discussion than the
lier) for most of his adult life. Inspired by both workings of the brain and nervous system.
Descartes’s mechanistic and the iatrochemical
Although Descartes was proved wrong in his
philosophies, Vieussens studied the white matter
belief that the pineal gland was the focus of all
of the brain by tracing the path of its fibers. Be-
sensory input, his belief in the rational soul did
cause of his tendency to explain his observations
not find disfavor with many religious leaders of
with fantastic physiological explanations,
the day. Christianity was consistent with a sepa-
Vieussens sometimes drew harsh criticism from
rate soul that departed the body after death, one
the faculty of medicine at Montpellier University.
that could be held accountable for the body’s
Vieussens had an advocate in the Marquis de
earthly actions. The Cartesian dualism of a sepa-
Castries, who shielded him from attacks of the
rate body and rational soul allowed Descartes to
faculty and probably provided financial patron-
justify the strident religious demands of the time
age, allowing Vieussens to continue his clinical
(Descartes was aware of his contemporary,
and experimental work in relative peace. In
Galileo, and his persecution during the Inquisi-
1685 Vieussens published the well-received
tion) with his belief in the mechanical nature of
Neurographica Universalis, detailing the central
the workings of the human body. Descartes’s du-
and peripheral nervous systems.
alism was outlined in his De Homine (On Man),
Descartes, a French mathematician and published posthumously in 1662.
philosopher, sought to separate the rational soul The urge to apply philosophical principles
from the physiology of the body. Descartes’s con- to the practice of medicine continued through-
cept of the body was that of an intricate ma- out the Renaissance. This led to variations on
chine. Descartes belonged to the school of iatro- systems to explain disease, sometimes with un-
physics, in which the workings of the animal usual methods of treatment. Friedrich Hoffmann
body were explained purely on mechanical (1660-1742), a chemist and physicist, envi-

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sioned the body as composed of individual study of modern anatomy and physiology. Re-
fibers. The fibers dilated and contracted, accord- moved from the hands of barber-surgeons, Life Sciences
ing to Hoffmann, in response to a “nervous anatomy evolved to an exacting science viewed & Medicine
ether” substance in the brain, which traveled to with respect among physicians and medical aca-
all parts of the body via the spinal cord. The demics. With the invention of the microscope, 1450-1699
contractile property was tonus, and every change nerve cells were first visualized in the early
in tonus was thought to bring about a change in 1700s, and nerve cell function studies were ini-
health. Hoffman attempted to regulate tonus tiated. Eventually, eighteenth-century scientists
with several drugs he labeled “tonics.” Tonic be- contemplated the spark of life itself, and debated
came a catch-all term for questionable remedies its natural, spiritual, or electrical origin in the
up until the twentieth century. human brain.
BRENDA WILMOTH LERNER
Beginning in about 1650 several factors set
the stage to nurture the legitimate, new science
of neurology. The renewed interest in the classics Further Reading
brought about by Renaissance thinking reintro-
Carter, R. B. Descartes’ Medical Philosophy: The Organic So-
duced the Hippocratic method of careful obser- lution to the Mind-Body Problem. Baltimore: Johns
vation of patients and their symptoms. Descartes Hopkins University Press, 1983.
demystified the human body with his mechani- Finger, S. Origins of Neuroscience: A History of Explorations
cal conception of human physiology. When op- into Brain Function. New York: Oxford University
position to human dissection evaporated, An- Press, 1994.
dreas Vesalius (1514-1565) saw first-hand the Spillane, J. The Doctrine of the Nerves. London: Oxford
structure of the human body, and pioneered the University Press, 1981.

Paracelsian Medicine Leads to a

New Understanding of Therapy


Overview Background
Few issues stirred up debate in the sixteenth The medical system taught in Renaissance uni-
and seventeenth centuries as much as the ideas versities relied heavily on book learning and
and writings of the medical reformer philosophical theory. Generally, health and dis-
Theophrastus von Hohenheim, widely known ease was understood as a matter of balance and
as Paracelsus (c. 1493-1541). Paracelsus at- imbalance within the individual body. It was be-
tacked the academic medical establishment of lieved that the body contained substances called
his time and offered an alternative way of think- humors, which could become corrupted. Disease
ing about pathology, the understanding of the occurred when this corruption affected the func-
processes through which diseases occur. For tions of the body. Therapy worked by the princi-
Paracelsus, diseases were specific entities or ple of “cure by contraries,” which aimed to re-
powers that attacked particular parts of the store the body to its normal balance. For exam-
body. Medicine should therefore aim to attack ple, the physician would attempt to cure a
diseases through the use of chemically prepared disease that was an imbalance of heat and mois-
substances that have a correspondence with the ture through the use of remedies with the con-
disease. This approach led to a new understand- trary qualities of cold and dryness. The physician
ing of therapy and encouraged many people to could also restore the body to balance by draw-
use chemically based remedies for diseases. ing the corrupt humor out of the body, through
Many Paracelsian ideas seem bizarre today, but methods such as bleeding and purging. Every pa-
they are significant because they provided an al- tient was a unique case, because the balance of
ternative to a medical system that many had humors and qualities that made up each person
come to see as stale, useless, and unable to meet was unique. Therefore, therapy was supposed to
people’s medical needs. be individually tailored to each separate case of

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illness, rather than based upon previous experi- in the emphasis of his medicine upon man as a
Life Sciences ence of the disease. Those nonacademic practi- microcosm, containing within himself all the
& Medicine tioners who treated people on the basis of experi- phenomena of the universe. Neoplatonism also
ence alone were disparagingly referred to by influenced Paracelsus in his understanding of as-
1450-1699 physicians as “empirics” or “quacks.” trological influences upon health and disease. In
Paracelsian thought, it was these connections
During the sixteenth century, there were between man and the universe that must be ex-
many signs of dissatisfaction with this system. plored if the physician was to understand health
The inability of orthodox medicine to adequate- and disease within the human body.
ly explain or treat some major diseases was a
source of frustration for many people, both pa- Paracelsus’s career also coincides with the
tients and practitioners. Plague continued to period of religious and social upheaval known as
ravage most parts of Europe throughout the six- the Reformation. The history of Paracelsian
teenth and seventeenth centuries, and orthodox medicine throughout Europe is closely involved
physicians appeared helpless in the face of the with the spread of Protestantism. Paracelsus’s
pestilence. In the late fifteenth century, Europe condemnation of the authority and monopoly of
also experienced the first outbreaks of what the orthodox physician in administering medical
came to be known as syphilis. Believed to be care parallels Martin Luther’s rejection of the
brought to Europe from the Americas by crew Church’s monopoly over access to God. Paracel-
aboard Christopher Columbus’s voyage of dis- sus’s reform of medicine was a part of the reform
covery, the pox caused a great deal of suffering of religion and society that was occurring
and excited a moral panic similar to the twenti- throughout the German territories in which
eth-century response to AIDS. For many, the Paracelsus lived and worked. Though Paracelsus
pox highlighted the inadequacies of orthodox never identified himself within any of the vari-
medicine. Academic physicians seemed to ex- ous sects of the Reformation, nor officially re-
pend more energy on arguing whether or not the nounced his Catholicism, the religious and
disease was new than actually treating it. The philosophical content of his writings shows sim-
medical approach that insisted that each illness ilarities with many of the mystical thinkers of
be treated on the basis of the patient’s individual the German Reformation.
characteristics did not fit in well with the treat-
ment of widespread epidemics. It is in the dis- In terms of the impact that it had upon med-
cussion of these two diseases, plague and icine, the most significant insight of Paracelsus’s
syphilis, that one is most likely to find innova- thought was the way he took alchemical con-
tion in the explanation and treatment of disease cepts and applied them to the understanding of
in the sixteenth century. Paracelsus focused the processes of nature. Alchemy was an ancient
upon the treatment of plague and syphilis in mystical tradition, which involved the quest for
many of his writings. the secret of transforming metals into gold. It had
practical medical significance because many al-
As well as this medical background, there chemists were also involved in the search for
were many intellectual developments during the substances that could purify the body and there-
Renaissance that partially explain the develop- fore prolong life. However, alchemy was a tradi-
ment of Paracelsian medicine. Orthodox medi- tion that existed outside the bounds of the kinds
cine was part of the intellectual system of uni- of knowledge considered acceptable by establish-
versity natural philosophy, which was based ment medicine. It was part of a manual, craft-
upon the thought of the classical philosopher based tradition, rather than the learned knowl-
Aristotle. However, during the Renaissance, edge of the universities. Paracelsus insisted that
other systems of intellectual thought, such as alchemy was a crucial part of medicine. To devel-
Neoplatonism, challenged the dominance of op remedies, the physician needed to gain access
Aristotlelianism. Those scholars who were inter- to the hidden powers involved in disease and its
ested in Neoplatonism looked at the universe in cure. Alchemical processes released these powers
quite different ways. They explored the connec- that existed within material objects, so that they
tions and harmonies between different aspects of could act upon the disease and drive it out of the
the cosmos, and emphasized the way in which body. In place of the elements and humors of or-
the wise man could manipulate these cosmic thodox medicine, Paracelsus offered a more
harmonies for his own benefit, including in the chemically based analysis of matter, which rested
sphere of medicine. Many of these influences upon what he termed the three principles: mer-
can be seen in Paracelsus’s writings, particularly cury, salt, and sulphur.

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The effect of this approach was to change An important part of Paracelsus’s attack
the nature of medical therapy. In the place of the upon orthodox medicine was his insistence that Life Sciences
changes in diet and the herbal concoctions that medical knowledge should rest upon experience, & Medicine
the orthodox physicians favored, Paracelsus ad- rather than book learning. This means that
vocated strong remedies, often metallic based, Paracelsus has often been seen as an early advo- 1450-1699
which attacked the diseases at their roots. These cate of experimental science. This has been over-
remedies did not work according to the ortho- stated, and it must be remembered that many of
dox principle of cure by contraries. Instead, Paracelsus’s claims are based upon a kind of mys-
Paracelsus believed that like cured like, and the tical intuition rather than experiment or observa-
physician had to identify a similarity between tion. However, Paracelsus’s approach to the study
the disease in the body and the substance in the of the cosmos certainly made a contribution to
outside world that could be used to cure it. See- the major shift that occurred in this period in the
ing disease as an entity that attacked a part of way people viewed the world around them. His
the body, rather than a general imbalance of hu- insistence that knowledge of health and disease
mors, encouraged the search for specific chemi- in people required knowledge of the correspon-
cal remedies for these specific diseases. Paracel- dences between the human body and the outside
sian writings provided an important theoretical world was an encouragement to closer observa-
justification for those who believed in the worth tion of the natural world. His belief that true
of chemical medicines and encouraged many to knowledge was found not in the dead wisdom of
develop chemical remedies for diseases. books but in the study of the living physical
world led him to make some bizarre claims, but
Their use of metallic-based remedies meant
it also stimulated new and profound insights.
that chemical physicians often had to answer the
accusations that they were poisoners whose Paracelsus’s refusal to accept the limits that
remedies killed more than they cured. But orthodox medicine placed upon medical knowl-
Paracelsus was well aware that many of the sub- edge was a crucial part of his appeal for later
stances he used could be dangerous, and he crit- generations of scholars. His willingness to ex-
icized the rash use of mercury in the treatment plore traditions of knowledge that were shunned
of syphilis, while still maintaining that careful by orthodox medicine, such as alchemy and
use of alchemically prepared mercury could cure therapies based in popular medicine, challenged
syphilis. Exponents of Paracelsian medicine be- the boundaries of what was accepted as proper
lieved that by exposing some of these dangerous knowledge. He believed that if a reform of
substances to alchemical processes, they could knowledge could be instituted, then people
be rendered fit for human consumption and would discover the cures that God had created
have dramatic results in the treatment of many for the treatment of all diseases. This optimistic
diseases. An example of this is the ether sub- belief in the human capacity for the discovery
stance Paracelsus called spiritus vitrioli, which he and improvement of wisdom was an encourage-
developed as a sedative for use in the treatment ment to all those who were dissatisfied with the
of epilepsy. This was first time the medicinal po- existing systems of knowledge. This is why,
tential of ether was recognized. throughout the sixteenth and seventeenth cen-
turies, Paracelsus’s ideas were used by those who
sought reform in a variety of spheres.
Impact
KATRINA FORD
In the years after Paracelsus’s death, those who
advocated chemical medicines became a serious
challenge to the medical establishment. In the Further Reading
late sixteenth and early seventeenth centuries, Debus, Allen G. The Chemical Philosophy: Paracelsian
Medicine in the Sixteenth and Seventeenth Centuries. 2
the question of the worth of chemical medicines
vols. New York: Science History Publications, 1977.
was one of the most fiercely debated issues
Pachter, Henry. Paracelsus: Magic into Science. New York:
among the intellectual elites of Europe. Not all Schuman, 1951.
who supported chemical medicine regarded
Pagel, Walter. Paracelsus: An Introduction to Philosophical
themselves as Paracelsians, but most felt that Medicine in the Age of the Renaissance. Basel, New York:
Paracelsus had achieved some great insights in Karger, 1958, rev. ed., 1982.
the development of chemical medicine. By the Paracelsus: Essential Readings. Trans. by Nicholas Good-
mid-seventeenth century, most physicians ac- rick-Clarke. Berkeley: North Atlantic Books, 1999.
cepted that chemical remedies were part of the Webster, Charles. From Paracelsus to Newton. Cambridge:
physician’s arsenal against disease. Cambridge University Press, 1987.

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The Exchange of Plant and Animal Species

Life Sciences
& Medicine Between the New World and Old World
1450-1699


Overview 5,000 years ago, by the Maya, Aztec, and Inca.
Called ma-hiz by the Indians of Central Ameri-
When Europeans reached North America’s
ca, its name was later corrupted to “maize” in
shorelines in the late 1400s and began to ex-
Europe. By the time the New World was dis-
plore the continent’s interior in the 1500s, they
covered in 1492, corn had spread across the
saw the vast land as a source of new plants, ani-
continent as far north as Canada. Columbus is
mals, and minerals for them to use and to trans-
credited with bringing corn back to Europe
port back to Europe. As they colonized this New
from his first voyage, where it quickly became a
World, they also brought with them many famil-
popular crop.
iar plants and animals for food, farming, and
other purposes. This exchange of species be- It is believed that the native Indians also of-
tween the two continents had positive and nega- fered Columbus tobacco, but he discarded the
tive effects, and they continue today. On the gift as no more than fragrant dried leaves. Short-
positive side, the exchange introduced what ly thereafter, explorers Rodrigo de Jerez and Luis
would become important agricultural crops and de Torres witnessed the actual smoking of tobac-
beneficial animals to both continents. It also, co while they were in Cuba. Jerez became a
however, expanded the range of species that car- smoker himself, but when he returned to Eu-
ried disease and competed with beneficial native rope and engaged in his habit, he was impris-
species, and it also permanently changed the oned by religious zealots for what was seen as an
face of each continent. unholy activity. Nonetheless, smoking caught on
in Spain while Jerez was serving his seven years
of incarceration.
Background
When the Europeans landed in the New World Potatoes were actually imported to both
in the late 1400s and early 1500s, North America North America and to Europe from their native
was an untamed wilderness filled with mysteri- South America. In the late 1500s, European ex-
ous flowers, trees, birds, and mammals. Christo- plorers discovered potatoes in South America
pher Columbus wrote of the scent of a breeze and transported them to Spain, where the plants
from the shores of North America as “the sweet- spread throughout Europe. Within about 50
est thing in the world.” Other explorers similarly years, Europeans transported the spuds back
reported of the biological wealth of this un- across the ocean to North America.
known continent: flocks of birds so thick they Other plants moved from Europe to the
blocked out the noonday sun; fishes so large and New World. On Columbus’s second voyage to
numerous that they sometimes hampered river the Americas, he brought with him seeds for
navigation; enormous stands of pines, oaks and such plants as wheat, salad greens, grapes and
chestnuts; and meadows so vast that their sugarcane. Each grew well in the fertile Ameri-
boundaries were beyond sight. can soil. Other explorers introduced additional
The explorers were in the New World to agricultural plants, and settlers followed with
find items of economic benefit to their countries European plants that served to remind them of
and saw the new land as a resource to be ex- their faraway homes.
ploited and a wilderness to be tamed. The first Along with plant transportation, the Old
explorers to North America came with hopes of World and New World exchanged many animal
finding a passageway to the East Indies, and species. Europeans introduced such domestic
eventually opening a lucrative trade route with animals as cattle, pigs, chickens, goats, and
the spice-rich islands. Although they were un- sheep to North America, with the intent of using
successful in this regard, they were able to dis- the animal meat for food, and hides or wool for
cover many new and useful plants and animals, clothing. They also inadvertently brought pest
which they were only too happy to transport animals and plants, such as rats and assorted
back to their homelands. weeds. Many of these pest species had disastrous
One successful transplant was corn. It was consequences for endemic plants and animals in
first cultivated in the Americas more than the New World.

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Impact smaller areas, facing increased competition and

Some of the plants introduced from the New
fewer resources. In addition, explorers and set- Life Sciences
World to the Old World had obvious beneficial
tlers unwittingly brought seeds from undesirable & Medicine
“weed” plants with them to the New World.
aspects. When corn made its way to Europe,
These included dandelions, stinging nettle and 1450-1699
Spanish farmers began to plant the kernels.
crabgrass, which spread through fields and
Their success of these crops prompted corn’s
woodlands, and vied with the native vegetation
quick spread throughout Europe and to other
for nutrients, sunlight and space to grow. Over-
continents, where it became an important di-
all, the American ecosystem suffered, but the
etary component.
European settlers thrived.
Potatoes likewise radiated throughout Eu-
rope. Following their initial journey from South Often the success of the European settlers
America to Spain, the plant spread to England. also spelled misery for the American Indians. As
English discoverers then shipped them back Europeans came to rely more and more on the
across the Atlantic to North America in the early introduced crops and their productive but inva-
seventeenth century. In both continents, pota- sive agricultural practices, they began to see the
toes thrived and became a nutritional staple on Indians as either hindrances to the expansion of
both sides of the Atlantic. The importance of the agriculture or as potential farm workers. The In-
potato to European nations became dramatically dians were thus forced to work the land for the
apparent during the great potato famine of Ire- benefit of the Europeans or were pushed—
land in the 1840s. Introduced to the country in sometimes violently—from land that Europeans
the 1700s, potatoes had become so important— began to claim as their own.
providing more than three-quarters of the calo- European explorers and settlers also oblivi-
ries in a commoner’s diet—that when the crop ously or carelessly transported pest animals to
fell to a fungus in the 1840s, more than one mil- the New World. An example is the European rat,
lion people died of starvation and at least a mil- which likely came to North America as a stow-
lion others left the country. away on Old World ships. The rats flourished. By
Tobacco’s spread throughout Europe was 1609, for instance, records indicate the rats had
similarly quick. Explorers introduced it to Spain become so numerous in Virginia that they de-
in about 1500, smoking became popular shortly voured nearly the entire stored food supply in
thereafter, and farmers began to cultivate the Jamestown, destroyed acres of crops and gnawed
plant in 1531. By 1556, the plant appeared in through the bark on the trunks of fruit trees.
France, and within a decade, it was present in Even the domestic animal introductions to
England. Its use spread both as a recreational North America weren’t without detriment. On
pastime and as an important medicinal herb. Its the positive side, settlers had a growing supply
supposed curative properties ranged from of meat, along with hides and wool for clothing.
headaches to toothaches, and lockjaw to cancer. On the other hand, many of the domestic ani-
By the end of the century, tobacco use had mals became feral. This new land had plenty of
spread nearly around the globe despite mainly resources for them, but not the natural predators
religious-based attempts to ban or control its to keep their populations in check. These now-
cultivation and/or use. wild animals swiftly multiplied and competed
The introduction of the new crop plants with native animals, such as bear, deer and
from Europe, along with the invasive European beaver, for dwindling resources. In turn, plant
agricultural practices, changed the North Ameri- communities became devastated by the in-
can landscape. Native Americans planted corn creased demand of more and more herbivores.
and other crops sparingly and with little long- In addition, indigenous animals found them-
term effect on the environment. Europeans were selves fighting previously unknown diseases that
more likely to plant large farm fields, often were carried to the continent by the new domes-
burning acres of forest and meadows to make tic animals.
way for agricultural plots. Where forests once The exchange of plant and animal species
stood and animals thrived, farm fields fragment- brought change to the New World and the Old
ed the land. Europeans systematically removed World. People on both continents gained much,
native plants to make way for the introduced including animal-produced clothing materials
crops. Animals that weren’t killed outright by and bountiful new agricultural crops that would
farmers often found the new cropland unsuit- become dietary mainstays. They also lost a great
able, and were forced to move into smaller and deal. Author Frederick Turner (1993) wrote:

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“There is something mythical about the New Drake, J., et al., eds. Biological Invasions: A Global Perspec-
Life Sciences World described in the old travelers’ tales. So tive. Chichester, U.K.: Wiley, 1989.
& Medicine much of it has vanished that it seems we are McKnight, B., ed. Biological Pollution: The Control and Im-
being told of some other, lost continent.” pact of Invasive Exotic Species. Indianapolis: Indiana
1450-1699 Academy of Science, 1993.
LESLIE A. MERTZ U.S. Congress, Office of Technology Assessment. Harmful
Non-Indigenous Species in the United States. Washing-
ton, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1993.
Further Reading
Other
Books Borio, G. Tobacco BBS (Internet bulletin board). http://
Crosby, A. The Columbian Exchange. Durham, NC: Duke www.tobacco.org/History/Tobacco_History.html.
University Press, 1967. Turner, F. “New World, Heartbreaking Beauty,” (article).
Cronon, W. Changes in the Land. New York, NY: Hill and Reprinted in Gale Environmental Almanac, Detroit:
Wang, 1983. Gale Research Inc., 1993: 3-10.

The Impact of European Diseases

on Native Americans


Overview much earlier, but the earliest sites are very poor-
ly preserved. In any case, migration from
Contact between Europeans and Native Ameri-
Siberia to Alaska might have served as a “cold
cans led to a demographic disaster of unprece-
filter” that screened out many Old World
dented proportions. Many of the epidemic dis-
pathogens and insects. In addition, except for
eases that were well established in the Old World
the late development of a few urban centers,
were absent from the Americas before the arrival
primarily in Mesoamerica, population density
of Christopher Columbus in 1492. The cata-
in the New World rarely reached the levels
strophic epidemics that accompanied the Euro-
needed to sustain epidemic diseases.
pean conquest of the New World decimated the
indigenous population of the Americas. Influenza, Centuries before Europeans arrived in the
smallpox, measles, and typhus fever were among Western Hemisphere, advanced cultures and
the first European diseases imported to the Ameri- great cities had developed in Guatemala, Mexico,
cas. During the first hundred years of contact with and the Andean Highlands. These areas were not
Europeans, Native Americans were trapped in a free from disease, but accounts of pre-Conquest
virtual web of new diseases. European diseases, epidemics were generally associated with
seeds, weeds, and animals irreversibly trans- famines. Archeological evidence suggests that
formed the original biological and social landscape there were several periods of significant spurts of
of the Americas. By 1518, the Native American population growth and sudden declines in the
demographic catastrophe and the demands of Americas long before European contact. Howev-
Spanish settlers for labor led to the importation of er, the impact of European diseases and military
slaves from Africa. Thus, the Americas quickly be- conquest was so profound and sudden that other
came the site of the mixing of the peoples and in- patterns of possible development were abruptly
fectious agents of previously separate continents. transformed. Contact events involving the
Aztecs, Mayans, and Inca civilizations were espe-
Background cially dramatic, primarily because Mexico and
Peru had the highest population densities and
Despite considerable progress in analyzing
the most extensive trade and transport networks
traces of the early migrations to the Americas,
in the Americas. Such factors provide ideal con-
there is still doubt about the time of the arrival
ditions for the spread of epidemic diseases.
of the first humans. Some scholars believe that
wandering bands of hunter-gatherers first Initial European reports about the New
crossed a land bridge from Asia to the New World speak of a veritable Eden, populated by
World about 10,000 years ago. Other evidence healthy, long-lived people, who could cure illness
suggests that human beings might have arrived with indigenous medicinal plants, and did not

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Life Sciences
& Medicine
1450-1699

Smallpox victims as depicted by Fray Bernardino de Sahugún in a sixteenth-century book about Aztec history and
culture. The disease devastated the indigenous peoples of the Americas. (AKG London. Reproduced with permission.)

know the diseases common in other parts of the peans resulted in a massive demographic col-
world. Of course, the New World was not really a lapse of the Native American population. The
disease-free utopia. Diseases that were probably magnitude of the collapse and its causes remain
present in pre-Columbian America included controversial. Assessing the impact of European
American leishmaniasis, American trypanosomia- contact is a not simple matter because changes
sis (Chaga’s disease), roundworms, pinworms, in population are the result of complex forces.
tapeworm, treponematosis, tuberculosis, arthritis, Some scholars have argued that the devastating
cancer, endocrine disorders, dysentery, pneumo- population decline in the New World was due
nia, rickettsial and viral fevers, goiter, and pinta. primarily to imported diseases, while others
Smallpox, measles, chicken pox, whooping have argued that the demographic catastrophe
cough, diphtheria, scarlet fever, trachoma, malar- was the result of the chaos and exploitation that
ia, typhus fever, typhoid fever, influenza, cholera, followed the Conquest. The rapid decline in the
bubonic plague, and probably gonorrhea and numbers of Native American peoples and the
leprosy were unknown in the precontact period. demands of Spanish settlers for labor, led to the
The pre-Columbian distribution of certain dis- establishment of the transatlantic slave trade by
eases, especially syphilis and yellow fever, is still 1518. The Americas became the site of an un-
controversial, although some physicians believed precedented mixing of peoples and infectious
that Europeans imported syphilis from the New agents from previously separate continents.
World. Because yellow fever can be confused Although it is impossible to quantify with
with malaria, dengue fever, or influenza, early ac- any certainty the impact of European contact on
counts of such epidemics are unreliable. Modern New World populations, estimates of the pre-
immunological and entomological studies seem contact population of the Americas have ranged
to have eliminated earlier claims that Mayan civi- from 8 to 30 million. Between 1492 and 1650
lization was virtually destroyed by yellow fever, the Native American population may have de-
or that epidemics of this disease occurred in Vera clined by as much as 90% as the result of virgin-
Cruz and San Domingo between 1493 and 1496. soil epidemics (outbreaks among populations
Some epidemiologists contend that yellow fever that have not previously encountered the dis-
was brought to the New World from Africa and ease), compound epidemics, crop failures and
that the first known epidemic occurred in Cuba food shortages.
in the seventeenth century.
The first Spaniards to reach the Caribbean
islands found at least four distinct Indian cul-
Impact tures. Some recent estimates suggest that the
Although a precise determination of the popula- pre-Columbian population of Hispaniola (mod-
tion of the Americas in 1492 is probably impos- ern Dominican Republic and Haiti) was close to
sible, there is no doubt that contact with Euro- 4 million. By 1508, fewer than 100,000 Indians

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remained. By 1570, almost all of the Caribbean and the first to be destroyed. Several factors, in-
Life Sciences Indians had disappeared, except for the Caribs cluding devastating epidemics of smallpox,
& Medicine in a fairly isolated area of the eastern Caribbean. which killed many Aztec warriors and nobles,
A similar pattern occurred in Cuba, which was facilitated the Spanish capture of the Aztec capi-
1450-1699 conquered in 1511. tal in 1521. Native Americans came to see this
smallpox epidemic as a true turning point in
Even before the first appearance of smallpox
their history. The time before the arrival of the
in the Caribbean, some epidemic disease seems
Spanish was remembered as a veritable paradise,
to have swept through the islands and devastated
free of fevers, smallpox, stomach pains, and tu-
the Indians of Hispaniola, Cuba, and the Ba-
berculosis. When the Spanish came, they
hamas. The first epidemic disease to attack the
brought fear and disease wherever they went.
Caribbean Indians might have been swine in-
Mayan civilization had already experienced a
fluenza, brought to the West Indies in 1493 with
long period of decline by the time it encoun-
pigs that Columbus had obtained from the Ca-
tered European explorers and invaders, but the
nary islands on his second voyage. Typhus may
Inca Empire was at its peak when the Spaniards
also have attacked the islands before the first
conquered it in 1532.
known smallpox outbreaks in Hispaniola in
1518 and Cuba in 1519. Smallpox decimated the European diseases probably preceded Euro-
Arawaks of the West Indies, before making its pean contact in the Andean region. A cata-
way to Mexico with the Spaniards, and preceding strophic epidemic, which might have been
them into the Inca Empire. The Spanish estimat- smallpox, swept the region in the mid-1520s,
ed that death rates among Native Americans killing the Inca leader Huayna Capac and his
from smallpox reached 25 to 50%. A similar son. Subsequent epidemics struck the region in
death rate occurred in Europe, but the disease the 1540s, 1558, and from the 1580s to 1590s.
had essentially become one of the common These waves of epidemic disease might have in-
childhood diseases. Therefore, most adults were cluded smallpox, influenza, measles, mumps,
immune to the disease. Other European diseases dysentery, typhus, and pneumonia. The precise
seem to have reached the islands before the impact of smallpox and other European diseases
measles epidemic of 1529. More recent examples throughout the Americas is difficult to docu-
of virgin soil outbreaks suggest that the mortality ment or comprehend. However, studies of more
rate for swine influenza is about 25%, smallpox recent and limited virgin soil outbreaks clearly
about 40%, measles about 25%, and typhus be- demonstrate how small a spark is needed to cre-
tween 10 and 40% of the affected population. ate a great conflagration in a native population.

With the establishment of the transatlantic LOIS N. MAGNER

slave trade by 1518, diseases from Africa were
added to the epidemic burden imposed on Na-
tive Americans. The vector and virus for yellow Further Reading
fever probably appeared in San Juan, Puerto Rico Ashburn, Percey Moreau. The Ranks of Death: A Medical
History of the Conquest of America. New York: Coward-
by 1598. Better-documented outbreaks occurred
McCann, Inc., 1947.
on Barbados and Guadeloupe, Cuba, and the
Cook, Nobel David. Born to Die: Disease and New World
Gulf coasts of Mexico and Central America in
Conquest, 1492-1650. (New Approaches to the Americ-
1647. Soon after the original human inhabitants as.) New York: Cambridge University Press, 1998.
of the islands were gone, the native plants and
Crosby, Alfred W. The Columbian Exchange: Biological and
animals were forced to compete with Old World Cultural Consequences of 1492. Westport, CT: Green-
invaders. The peoples of the present day wood Press, 1972.
Caribbean trace their ancestry principally to Asia, Crosby, Alfred W. Germs, Seeds, and Animals: Studies in
Europe, and Africa. Slaves were imported as early Ecological History. Armonk, NY: M.E. Sharpe, 1993.
as 1502, but by 1518 the decline in labor supply Denevan, William M. The Native Population of the Americ-
had become so acute that King Charles I of Spain as in 1492. Madison, WI: University of Wisconsin
approved the direct import of slaves from Africa. Press, 1976.
However, the Africanization of the islands was Dobyns, Henry F., with W.R Swagerty. Their Number Be-
the result of the “sugar revolution” that began in came Thinned: Native American Population Dynamics in
the seventeenth century, along with the importa- Eastern North America. Knoxville, TN: University of
tion of epidemic yellow fever. Tennessee Press, 1983.
Henige, David. Numbers from Nowhere: The American Indi-
The Empire of the Aztecs was the first an Contact Population Debate. Norman, OK: University
American civilization to encounter the Spanish of Oklahoma Press, 1998.

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Kunitz, Stephen J. Disease and Social Diversity: The Euro- Reff, Daniel T. Disease, Depopulation, and Culture Changes
pean Impact on the Health of Non-Europeans. New York: in Northwestern New Spain, 1518-1764. Salt Lake City, Life Sciences
Oxford University Press, 1994. UT: University of Utah Press, 1991.
& Medicine
Ramenofsky, Ann F. Vectors of Death: The Archaeology of
European Contact. Albuquerque, NM: University of 1450-1699
New Mexico Press, 1987.

The Appearance of Syphilis in the 1490s

Overview Syphilis sive morbus Gallicus (Syphilis or the
French Disease), the poem tells the story of a
The earliest references to the disease now known
young shepherd named Syphilis who was infect-
as syphilis come from the 1490s, when it broke
ed with a “pestilence unknown” after offending
out among French troops besieging the city of
Apollo. It goes on to describe the course and
Naples. Initially known as morbus gallicus (the
symptoms of the disease, vividly describing
French Disease), it soon became epidemic
events such as when “unsightly scabs break forth
throughout Europe. The disease left visible and
and foully defile the face and breast” and “ a
disfiguring signs of infection, which led to social
pustule resembling the top of an acorn, and rot-
stigmatization. Most damaging in its late stages,
ting with thick phlegm, opens and soon splits
it often produced severe disabilities and even
apart flowing copiously with corrupted blood
death. Believed to be a new disease imported
and matter.” Although Fracastoro’s term did not
from the Americas, syphilis helped challenge tra-
catch on immediately, by the nineteenth century
ditional ideas of disease causation and spread.
morbus gallicus was known as syphilis.
While most early modern medical authorities be-
lieved syphilis was a new disease, scholars today Modern science has shown that syphilis is
continue to debate its origins and antiquity. caused by a corkscrew-shaped bacterium, or
spirochete, known as Treponema pallidum. It is
Background one of four treponemes that infect humans,
though the only one that is currently found
In 1494, the Italian city-state of Milan appealed worldwide. The other three cause the diseases
to King Charles VIII of France for military assis- pinta (T. carateum), a skin disease endemic today
tance. Seizing the opportunity, Charles VIII in- in Central and South America; yaws (T. pertenue),
vaded with mercenary troops. Opposed by Ital- which affects both skin and bones and is found
ian forces from Florence, Venice, and the Papal today in warm, humid climates including Africa,
States, as well as by those from Spain, Charles Southeast Asia, the Caribbean and South Ameri-
initiated what became known as the Italian ca; and endemic syphilis (T. pallidum endemicum),
Wars. The French succeeded in capturing which is similar to yaws, but is found only in
Naples in 1495 after a long siege. Disease broke warm, arid climates such as Saharan Africa. In-
out among the troops in the midst of their sub- terestingly, despite causing four clinically distinct
sequent celebrations, and when they were sent diseases, these treponemes are indistinguishable
home many returned to their native lands bring- in the laboratory. All four are transmissible,
ing this new disease with them. By the end of though only venereal syphilis is passed through
1495, all of Europe seemed to be infected with sexual contact (or through in utero infection of an
the French Disease, which caused painful aches unborn child by a syphilitic mother).
and fevers, disfiguring sores, and often death.
Sometimes called the Great Pox, to distinguish it The first stage of venereal syphilis produces
from smallpox, the disease was also variously a painless lesion in the genitals, which will heal
called the Spanish, Neapolitan, Polish, Russian, of its own accord within weeks. After a six-to-
British or Portuguese disease, depending on the eight-week latent period, the second stage is
nationality of the speaker. Its common name generally marked by a rash, fever, and swollen
today, syphilis, comes from a poem published in lymph nodes. These symptoms also disappear
1530 by the Italian physician and humanist, spontaneously after a few weeks. The third stage
Girolamo Fracastoro (c. 1478-1553). Entitled of syphilis does not occur in all cases, and then

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only after a lengthy latent period, often as much Treatments for syphilis included bleeding,
Life Sciences as 20 years. During this latency, the disease con- mercury treatments, and guaiac tree bark. Bleed-
& Medicine tinues to be transmissible. Tertiary syphilis is the ing and mercury treatments had the same goal—
most damaging stage of the disease. Most typi- to remove bad humors from the body. Mercury
1450-1699 cally, it produces gumma, small rubbery lesions had long been used by Europeans in salves for
that can occur in all parts of the body, including skin diseases, and was soon applied for syphilis
on internal organs. The disease can affect the as well. Later used in baths or taken orally, mer-
cardiovascular system, the nervous system, the cury treatments prompted heavy salivation,
spinal cord, and even the brain, producing a which was believed to be a sign of the effective-
form of insanity known as dementia paralytica. ness of mercury in pulling poisons out of the
Today, syphilis is treatable with antibiotics, and body. In reality, it was a sign of mercury poison-
tertiary syphilis has largely disappeared. ing, along with other side effects such as loss of
hair, bleeding gums and loose teeth. The third
common treatment, guaiac wood, was from the
Impact New World. This tree (Guaiacum officinalis) grew
The withdrawal of the French troops and disper- only in the Americas and decoctions made from
sal of their multinational mercenaries is credited its bark or wood were used by natives to treat a
with aiding the quick spread of the disease variety of skin problems. Bolstering this trade
throughout Europe. After this initial outbreak, was a belief, common at the time, that for every
syphilis remained epidemic throughout the six- disease God had created a cure nearby. Many be-
teenth century. It produced violent symptoms lieved that the disease had been brought to Eu-
and often resulted in death. By the seventeenth rope from the Americas, and therefore that the
century, the disease seems to have become less cure was sure to come from there also. Experi-
virulent, settling down into the chronic disease ence showed this treatment less effective than
still suffered in many areas today. While the mercury, however, and by the late sixteenth cen-
emergence of syphilis as an epidemic disease did tury it had fallen out of favor.
not have long lasting economic or demographic
effects, it did have important social and medical The belief that syphilis was a new disease was
repercussions. common from the fifteenth century on, though
there were some disagreements in the medical com-
Socially, syphilis led to increased stigmatiza- munity over its origins. The earliest reference to a
tion and fear. Joseph Grunpeck, a sufferer in this New World origin for syphilis comes from Gonzalo
early epidemic, described it in his autobiography Fernández de Oviedo, who wrote of it in his 1526
as “a disease which is so cruel, so distressing, so work, Summary of the Natural History of the Indies.
appalling that until now nothing so horrifying, Another important support for this belief came from
nothing more terrible or disgusting, has ever been Ruy Díaz de Isla, who argued in his Tractado contra el
known on this earth.” Quickly recognized as a mal serpentino (Treatise on the Serpentine Malady),
venereal disease, so called because of its associa- published in 1539 but written as early as 1505, that
tion with Venus, goddess of love, syphilis became the disease was brought back by Columbus and his
a disease of vice, marking its sufferers as corrupt men, and that he had treated one of them in 1493.
and licentious. This corruption was reflected in As some of these men were known to be fighting at
the very faces of the infected, including noses de- the siege of Naples, the spread of syphilis was
stroyed by both the disease and the mercury used blamed on them. Many other well-known and re-
to treat it. One result, then, was an increased de- spected Spanish authors, such as Nicolás Monardes,
mand for an early form of plastic surgery. Gasparo Bartolomé de Las Casas, and Bernardino de Sa-
Tagliacozzi, a Bolognese surgeon in the late six- hagún, all agreed that the disease had long been
teenth century, acquired an international reputa- known in the Americas, and only recently brought
tion for his technique of grafting skin from the to Europe. Arguments to the contrary, however,
upper arm onto the nose. His 1597 work, De cur- came as early as 1497, when Niccolò Leoniceno
torum chirurgia per insitionem (On the Surgery of (1428-1524) argued in his De epidemia quan vulgo
the Mutilated by Grafting), provided a precise morbum gallicum vocant (On the Epidemic Vulgarly
guide to the technique. A second repercussion of Called the French Disease) that ancient authors had
syphilis was that these visible signs reconfirmed indeed discussed this malady, but poor translations
the ancient association of sexual activity with sin, hindered modern understanding.
which in turn led to increased state regulation
and restriction on licentious entertainment, such The idea that syphilis was a new disease
as brothels and steam baths. also played a part in challenging some tradition-

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1450-1699

The Syphilitic by Albrecht Dürer, depicting the large impact the disease had on European society in the 1500s.
(Wellcome Library, London, England. Reproduced with permission.)

al medical theories. The sixteenth century saw adapt old theories or rely on their own experi-
the beginnings of the scientific revolution, ences and observations. By the mid-sixteenth
which may be summarized as a change from re- century, these diseases prompted a new theory
lying entirely on ancient authorities to relying on of disease transmission, that of contagion, which
observation and experiment. The advent of re- was developed by the same Girolamo Fracastoro
cent new diseases, such as bubonic plague in the who had named syphilis. He argued for tiny
fourteenth century and syphilis in the fifteenth, causative agents, or “seeds”, rather than internal
prompted a reevaluation of traditional Galenic humoral imbalance to explain disease. The
approaches to health and disease. Ancient au- process of changing or discarding ancient
thorities were found to be useless, as they had knowledge was a very slow one, and Fracastoro’s
neither descriptions of these diseases nor treat- contagion theory was not immediately em-
ments for them. Doctors were thus forced to braced. Nonetheless, in hindsight we can see the

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emergence of syphilis, and reactions to it, as A third approach to the question, which fo-
Life Sciences having a role in these larger ongoing changes. cuses on the biology of syphilis, has been put
& Medicine Questions on the origins and antiquity of
forth in the last half century. Known as the uni-
tarian theory, it takes into account the enormous
1450-1699
syphilis were revived during the Enlightenment,
similarities of the four human treponematoses,
and the debate continues among many scholars
to argue that all four originated from a common
today. Modern scholars have produced both
ancestral spirochete and simply adapted to dif-
skeletal and linguistic evidence to support the
fering climates and societies, producing different
contention that syphilis existed in the Americas
diseases. Thus, these treponemes existed in both
prior to contact with Europeans. What remains
the Old and New Worlds, and simply evolved
unclear is whether syphilis existed in Europe be-
over time alongside humans. The oldest of the
fore Columbus’s voyages. Archeologists have
four diseases, pinta and yaws, are both transmis-
found what they believe to be skeletal evidence
sible through direct skin to skin contact, and
for syphilis in Europe prior to the age of discov-
flourish in warm humid climates where such
ery, but this evidence is not conclusive and re-
contact is common. Endemic syphilis emerged
mains subject to interpretation.
later as a response to dryer regions, where the
Literary evidence is also used by both sides. treponeme could not survive on the surface of
Modern proponents of the view that it was a the skin and was forced to use the body’s mucos-
new disease point to the large numbers of trea- al tissues to remain moist. Venereal syphilis, ac-
tises written in the early sixteenth century. Refer- cording to this theory, was simply another adap-
ences to and descriptions of syphilis seem to tation to colder climates and heavier clothing, in
suddenly explode from the 1490s onward, while which the spirochete found warmth and mois-
earlier writings do not directly address a disease ture by retreating further into the interior of the
recognizable as syphilis. Certainly, morbus galli- body, relying on sexual contact for transmission.
cus acted like a new disease—it spread quickly, The epidemic of venereal syphilis at the end of
caused extremely debilitating symptoms, and the fifteenth century is thus accounted for not
took a high toll in lives. All early chroniclers of by the introduction of a new causative agent, but
the disease asserted it was new, and witnesses re- by social changes, including population expan-
peatedly declared it to be unlike anything they sion, migration, and changing morality codes
had previously seen. that increased sexual activity and enabled the
treponeme to adapt and flourish. This theory
Opponents of the American theory argue has been well received by many modern schol-
that syphilis existed in earlier centuries, but was ars, and shows a great deal of promise for solv-
simply not differentiated from other diseases. ing the riddle of syphilis’s origins.
Most likely, it was encompassed by leprosy, an-
other disfiguring disease often associated with KRISTY WILSON BOWERS
corruption and uncleanliness. Leprosy was a
common diagnosis in medieval Europe, one
that has been shown to embrace more than just Further Reading
the medical condition implied by the term
Books
today. Most significantly, there are numerous Arrizabalaga, John, John Henderson and Roger French.
references in medieval literature to “venereal The Great Pox: The French Disease in Renaissance Eu-
leprosy”, which was believed to occur from sex- rope. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1997.
ual contact with one already infected. True lep- Crosby, Alfred W. The Columbian Exchange: Biological and
rosy, however, is not sexually transmitted, and Cultural Consequences of 1492. Westport, CT: Green-
is transmissible only with years of close contact. wood Publishing Company, 1972.
In addition, leprosy was often treated with a Oriel, J.D. The Scars of Venus: A History of Venereology.
mercury-based salve known as Saracen oint- London: Springer-Verlag, 1994.
ment. While mercury does little for true leprosy, Watts, Sheldon. Epidemics and History: Disease, Power and
it became the primary treatment for syphilis lmperialism. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press,
after the fifteenth century. Finally, at the same 1997.
time that syphilis became epidemic, leprosy was
Periodical Articles
on the wane and leper houses were being closed Baker, Brenda J. and George J. Armelagos. “The Origin
down, sending any remaining residents out into and Antiquity of Syphilis.” Current Anthropology 29
society. All this evidence is taken to show that (1988); 703-734.
leprosy simply masked the existence of syphilis Guerra, Francisco. “The Dispute over Syphilis Europe
in the Old World. versus America.”Clio Medica 13 (1978): 39-61.

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The Development of Zoology

Life Sciences
& Medicine
1450-1699
Overview In the twelfth century, a remarkable devel-
opment took place in the southern part of Italy,
Zoology, the branch of biology that studies ani-
beginning in the town of Salerno. The idea
mals, seeks to understand the sum total of all the
emerged that medical practice should be made a
properties of animals and animal populations.
division of the “natural” part of philosophy, as
As a discipline, zoology is similar to others with
Aristotle had done. By the mid-thirteenth centu-
major subdivisions that include anatomy, physi-
ry natural philosophy was one of the liberal arts
ology, genetics, and interrelationships.
that all scholars were required to study, and
Much of the early information about human medicine was a part of this. In Italy major uni-
anatomy came from the dissection and study of versities began to find in the ideas of Galen and
animals, although some efforts were made to un- Aristotle an encouragement to investigate. Their
derstand and classify animals. It was during the inquiries were limited to the intellectuals and
Renaissance that the study of zoology began to wealthy, and did not impact the daily lives of
separate from human anatomy, as great artists people. These were merely seeds that would
who sought to understand the makeup of both sprout at the end of the medieval period and
men and animals emerged. Great natural scien- bloom during the Renaissance in the fifteenth
tists, such as Konrad Gesner (1516-1565), recog- and sixteenth centuries.
nized as the father of zoology, developed the field
The same driving forces that were part of
as a scientific inquiry. Other investigators, such as
the discovery period were present in many areas.
Guillaume Rondelet (1507-1566) and Ulisse Al-
Explorations of the New World by Christopher
drovandi (1522-1605), contributed accurate ob-
Columbus (1451-1506), the Cabots, and others
servations of animals. Natural philosopher and
told of new and unusual plants and animals. In
theologian John Ray (1627-1705) also sought to
1453 Byzantium, or Constantinople, the capital
understand and classify all known animals.
of Eastern Christendom, fell to the Turks, forc-
The classification and physiological studies ing Greek scholars to move from the East to the
by these early naturalists provided the foundation West, bringing with them knowledge and access
upon which the zoology of the nineteenth centu- to ancient works. The explosion in the liberal
ry was unified by the theory of evolution. Com- arts with the discovery of Greek manuscripts
parison of animals allowed an understanding of brought new interest in all areas of classical
how various animals might have developed. Zool- thinking. Most important of all was the inven-
ogy in the late twentieth century developed as a tion of the printing press with movable type by
major force behind the understanding of total in- Johann Gutenberg (1398?-1468) around 1455.
terrelationships and the ecology movement. This enabled scholars to write about their find-
ings and ideas, and using woodcut drawings,
they could illustrate what they saw. Add the new
Background availability of paper and the beginning of writing
Philosophers and thinkers throughout history in the language of the people, and the interest in
have looked at animals and attempted to under- learning would spread rapidly.
stand them by classifying and relating anatomy
and physiology. Aristotle (384-322 B.C.) first at-
tempted a comprehensive classification of ani- Impact
mals. His organization and rational development The intellectual energy of the fifteenth and six-
of thought sought to include all things and es- teenth centuries touched the field of zoology. The
tablished an area of natural philosophy that in- revival of classical works was evoked by artists
cluded living things. He was the first to establish seeking to realistically and correctly show the
some type of hierarchy of animals based on the body. Leonardo da Vinci (1452-1519) was moti-
logic of structure. Roman scholar Pliny the Elder vated to study animals, comparing them to the
(A.D. 23-79) wrote a major work on natural his- physical form of man. He was the first to describe
tory. The great physician Galen (129-199?) dis- the homology, or the arrangements of the bones
sected only animals for his studies of human and joints, of a horse. He noted how they were
anatomy, and his works became the standard for alike and how they differed from the human. Ho-
use in medicine throughout the Middle Ages. mology would become an important concept in

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classifying distinct units, and later play a part in scholar he was very interested in botany, which
Life Sciences the study of evolution. Although Andreas Vesalius at the time was closely related to medicine be-
& Medicine (1514-1564), the great anatomist and illustrator, cause of the use of plants and herbs in the treat-
encouraged the new spirit of investigation by dis- ment of disease.
1450-1699 secting humans, he also used animal parts to
The search for plants led to the next step.
show structures such as the kidney. These artists
Gesner became an ardent traveler and explored
and early anatomists promoted knowledge
extensive areas. He climbed Mount Pilatus over-
through dissection and a new spirit of investiga-
looking Lake Lucerne and brought back vol-
tion. Francis Bacon (1561-1626) gave increasing
umes of information on both alpine plants and
emphasis to direct observation and experiment,
animals. He found the love of his life in natural
which caught on in the seventeenth century.
history.
Zurich, Switzerland, one of the centers of Gesner was the first botanist to grasp the
the Protestant Reformation, also emerged as a importance of floral structures to establish a sys-
tematic key of classification of plants. He drew
over 1,500 plates himself for his Opera botanica,
published in 1551 and 1571.
THE LAST OF THE AUROCHS Several decades before, Aelian had con-
ceived a work on the history of animals. Pattern-

ing his organization after the older document,
Gesner worked on Historia animalium for years,

S
ixteen twenty-seven is the last year that anyone is known to have ending with a 4,500-page volume. The work
seen an aurochs in the wild. The last one was seen somewhere was immediately recognized by scholars. Using
in Europe. In that year, cattle became fully domesticated classification similar to his work with plants,
animals; the aurochs was the wild ancestor of all domesticated cattle. Gesner used animal physiology and structure to
group specimens. Some consider him to also be
The aurochs used to roam freely across large parts of Europe, Asia,
the father of veterinary medicine.
and northern Africa. They were large and relatively docile herd
animals that were well suited to domestication, and they were Since Gesner was the first naturalist to
sketch fossils, he is considered to the first pale-
domesticated at some time in human prehistory, probably in what is
ontologist. He also studied crystallography and
now the Middle East. When domesticated, aurochs entered the was one of the first to include printed plates of
service of humanity as draft animals, sources of milk and dairy crystals in his works. His drawings were a major
products, and sources of meat. In fact, cattle today are among the addition to texts. He also had many interests.
more valuable food animals, providing us with butter, cheese, milk, For example, while stories of sea serpents and
and, of course, meat. To provide these benefits, we have made the monsters had been reported for centuries, he
printed the first account of such a monsters—
aurochs over into a bevy of cattle breeds, each a specialist in its own
based on hearsay—but with a picture.
way. And, in so doing, we have increased the productivity of our
Guillaume Rondelet was a French naturalist
farms.
and physician who contributed substantially to
P. ANDREW KARAM
zoology through his description of marine ani-
mals, primarily those in the Mediterranean Sea.
Rondelet published Libri de Piscibus Marinis
(1554), or Book of Marine Fish, which contained
center for the study of the natural sciences or detailed descriptions of 250 kinds of marine ani-
natural philosophy. In this town Konrad Ges- mals. The book had illustrations of each item.
ner was born and became the godson of Ulrich He also included whales, marine invertebrates,
Zwingli, the great Protestant reformer. Gesner and seals. He was a professor of anatomy at the
developed as a person of many talents and in- University of Montpellier and served the cardi-
terests. nal of that area.
When his godfather Zwingli was killed in Ulisse Aldrovandi was a nobleman from
the battle of Karpel in 1531, he went to Stras- Bologna who studied mathematics, Latin, law,
bourg to study theology, but soon became tired and philosophy, then went to Padua to study
of this subject and turned to medicine. An eager medicine. He became a professor at Bologna and
scholar, he studied at Bourges and Paris, and re- presented very interesting lectures on natural his-
ceived his doctorate at Basel in 1541. As a tory as a systematic study. He published numer-

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ous works, one of which included a detailed ob- He published Ornithology and History of Fish, giv-
servation of day-to-day changes in the develop- ing all the credit and recognition to Willughby. Life Sciences
ing chick embryo. His museum of biological Ray correlated science with natural theolo- & Medicine
specimens was classified according to his own gy. He believed that it was obvious that form and
system and left to the city of Bologna at his 1450-1699
function in organic nature demonstrated there
death. He contributed to the development of ani- must be an all-knowing God.
mal taxonomy by using structure and formation.
Many other people who made famous dis-
The natural theologians of the period were coveries were interested in animals. William
part of the search for organization of zoology. A Harvey (1578-1657) demonstrated the circula-
person dedicated to taxonomy is interested in tion of the blood and function of the heart, ar-
establishing an orderly account of species. This teries, and veins. The invention of the micro-
fit well into the scheme of the natural theolo- scope by Anton van Leeuwenhoek (1632-1723)
gians who believed in an orderly world. John assisted in comparing fine structures that previ-
Ray, a devout Puritan, was an academic scholar ously could not be seen with the unaided eye.
at Cambridge. With the restoration of the Jan Swammerdam (1637-1680) and Marcello
monarchy, Ray hit unfortunate times and was Malpighi (1628-1694), who discovered the role
dismissed because he refused to sign the Act of of the capillaries, added to the body of informa-
Uniformity in 1662. Some prosperous friends tion about animals.
supported him for 43 years while he continued The work of the great naturalists culminated
to work as a naturalist. In 1660 Ray began to in the work of Carl Linnaeus (1707-1778). His
catalog plants growing around Cambridge and, binomial system of nomenclature (genus and
after completion of that small area, explored the species) and Systema naturae (1735) marked the
rest of Great Britain. A turning point in his life beginning of the modern system of classification
occurred when he met Francis Willughby, a fel- and helped define zoology as a distinct disci-
low naturalist who convinced him to undertake pline of study.
a study of the complete natural history of all liv-
EVELYN B. KELLY
ing things. Ray would investigate all the plants
and Willughby, the animals. Further Reading
Porter, Roy.The Greatest Benefit to Mankind: A Medical His-
The two searched Europe for flora (plants) tory of Humanity. New York: W.W. Norton, 1997.
and fauna (animals). In 1670 Ray had produced Wear, A., R. K. French, and I. M. Lonieed, eds. The Med-
his Catalog of English Plants when Willughby sud- ical Renaissance of the Sixteenth Century. Cambridge:
denly died, leaving Ray to finish both projects. Cambridge University Press, 1985.

Advances in Botany


Overview Background
With the beginning of the Renaissance in the fif- In 1455 the printing press was a new invention,
teenth century came a new interest in the natur- and it was one that had perhaps a greater influ-
al world, including the world of plants. This was ence on botany than on other sciences. While
manifested in closer observation of plant struc- the printing press made it much easier to com-
tures, the identification of new species, and the municate all scientific ideas, it was particularly
formation of botanical gardens and plant collec- important in botany because it allowed for the
tions to serve as resources for botanists. In the accurate reproduction of images of plants. Until
seventeenth century, interest in experimentation that time, illustrations had to be made by hand,
led to early work on plant physiology, or func- and each time an illustration was copied there
tion; and the development of the microscope was the likelihood that inaccuracies would be
prompted increased attention to the careful introduced. Also, as images were copied repeat-
study of plant anatomy. edly they tended to become simpler and carry

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less information. This meant that it was often on some arbitrary characteristic such as the
Life Sciences impossible to identify a plant species from an il- number of petals in a flower, but rather, on over-
& Medicine lustration. Since two plant species may look very all similarities. Cesalpino also produced much
similar to each other, only accurate visual por- more detailed plant descriptions than had been
1450-1699 trayal could make the differences apparent, since common to that time.
it was often difficult to present these differences
concisely in words. Joachim Jung (1587-1657) built on Ce-
salpino’s work and systematically presented the
But it was not until 1530, almost a hundred different parts of the plant in a much more orga-
years after the invention of the printing press, nized way than had been done previously. He
that a book on plants was published with accu- also made advances in the study of flower struc-
rate illustrations. This was Otto Brunfels’s ture, emphasizing all the different variations that
(1489?-1534) Herbarum vivae eicones (Living Im- can be found in the parts of the flower. One of
ages of Plants); it was followed 12 years later by Jung’s greatest contributions was the develop-
Leohnard Fuchs’s (1501-1566) De historia stirpi- ment of a precise vocabulary making it possible
um. These are considered among the best illus- for botanists to communicate information about
trated botanical books ever produced and set the plant structures more accurately. In England,
standard for botanical illustration. That is why John Ray (1628-1705) provided the greatest ad-
Brunfels and Fuchs, along with another author, vances in plant classification in the seventeenth
Hieronymous Bock (1498-1554), are regarded century, and his work served as the basis for
as the “fathers of German botany.” All three re- later natural classification systems. All this work
lied to some extent on the writings of ancient on classification and the study of plant anatomy
Greeks and Romans on plants, including laid the groundwork for other types of botanical
Theophrastus (c. 370-285 B.C.), the great stu- investigations, including experimentation.
dent of Aristotle (384-322 B.C.). It was only as
the Renaissance progressed that botanists began
to draw more on their own observations and less
on the learning of the past. Impact
In the seventeenth century, experimentation be-
During this time period interest in botany
came a more common approach in scientific in-
was directly related to attempts to improve the
quiry, and one of the most famous botanical
study of medicine because plants were the
studies of the age was done by Jean-Baptiste van
sources of most of the medications in use. This
Helmont (1577-1644). He planted a five- pound
interest also led in 1545 to establishing the first
willow tree in 200 pounds of dry soil; all he did
botanical garden. Located in Padua, it was affili-
to the tree for the next five years was water it
ated with the medical school at the university
and collect the leaves that it shed each fall. At
there. Gardens were also founded in other Ital-
the end of the five years, he added up the weight
ians cities, including Pisa where Luca Ghini be-
of all the leaves, plus that of the tree, and it came
came the first professor of botany. He established
to 169 pounds, three ounces. When he dried the
what many consider the first herbarium, a col-
earth, it had only lost two ounces. So about 164
lection of dried plant specimens. This was an
pounds of tree weight seemed to be derived
important innovation because such collections
from water. What van Helmont did not know,
provided study materials for future botanists,
and what would not be discovered for another
and like book illustrations, were a way to docu-
hundred years, was that along with water, the
ment plant characteristics.
tree was also absorbing carbon dioxide from the
This documentation became important be- air. Using the energy of sunlight in the process of
cause by the beginning of the sixteenth century, photosynthesis, carbon dioxide and water are
the great age of exploration was in full swing, converted to sugar, which is then used to pro-
and plant specimens were arriving in Europe vide the energy and building materials for
from around the world. The increased number growth. We now also know that the two ounces
of species, many of which had new and unusual missing from the soil in which the tree was
characteristics, stimulated interest in classifica- growing represented minerals that were also es-
tion as a way to organize all this new informa- sential to growth. While van Helmont’s experi-
tion. Andrea Cesalpino (1519-1603), a pupil of ment failed to explain at all aspects of photosyn-
Ghini and one of the most important botanists thesis, it was significant because it indicated that
of his time, was the first to develop a natural sys- most of the tree’s material did not derive from
tem of classification, that is, a system based not the soil and, perhaps most importantly, it em-

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phasized the importance of careful measurement is seen as a model of scientific cooperation at its
in scientific inquiry. best. Grew studied the structure of plant tissues Life Sciences
It was also in the seventeenth century that
and produced exceptionally clear and accurate & Medicine
drawings of the cellular organization found in
the microscope was developed. This instrument 1450-1699
these tissues. As did Malpighi, he investigated
opened up a whole new world to investigation;
the development of buds. Grew also did exten-
and those interested in the living things, includ-
sive work comparing the structure of flowers in
ing botanists, soon took advantage of its power. It
different species, but he did not understand the
was Robert Hooke (1635-1703), who compared
role of flower parts in sexual reproduction, nor
the structure of a piece of cork he observed under
did anyone else at that time.
a microscope to cells in a prison, thus coining the
word used to describe what later came to be It was at the very end of the seventeenth
known as the basic unit of living things. century that Rudolph Camerarius (1665-1721)
identified the flower structures involved in re-
Though the lenses in early microscopes
production. He observed that a female mulberry
were not nearly as powerful or distortion-free as
tree bore fruit even if there were no male trees in
those available today, they still made it possible
the vicinity, but that the fruit was seedless and
for botanists to discover a great deal of structure
thus wouldn’t produce plants. He argued that
within plant parts such as leaves, stems, and
the stamen (found on the male trees) contained
flowers. The two men who were responsible for
the male sex organ and produced a yellow pow-
the development of the science of plant anatomy,
der, the pollen, which was needed for seed pro-
Marcello Malpighi (1628-1694) and Nehemiah
duction. He further observed that the seeds were
Grew (1628-1711), both used magnifying lenses
produced in the carpel, the structure that con-
in their work.
tained the female sex organ on the female trees.
Malpighi, who also did significant work in
Camerarius’s work spurred a great deal of
animal anatomy and discovered the circulation
further research on fertilization and seed produc-
of blood through the tiny blood vessels called
tion in the next century, just as great strides were
capillaries, investigated several parts of the
also made in plant anatomy and in physiology, in-
plant. He made a thorough study of the stem of
cluding the processes by which sap flows through
woody plants, including the bark. He found that
stems and leaves absorb and release gases. The
the wood of trees increased by the yearly addi-
mid-eighteenth century also witnessed the work
tion of layers of cells under the bark. He also
of Carolus Linnaeus (1707-1778), a botanist who
discovered fibers in stems that he hypothesized
developed a classification scheme that served as
carried water up to the leaves. His detailed de-
the basis for all future work in classification.
scriptions called attention to the complex struc-
ture of the stem and led to the eventual discov- MAURA C. FLANNERY
ery of two sets of conducting tubules. Malpighi
also discovered the stomata, the microscopic
pores on the surface of leaves, and he under- Further Reading
stood that air and water passed through them. In
Arber, Agnes. Herbals: Their Origin and Evolution 1470-
addition, he accurately described the layers of 1670. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1986.
the seed coat as well as the process of germina-
tion by which the plant embryo within the seed Blunt, Wilfred, and Sandra Raphael. The Illustrated
Herbal. New York: Thames and Hudson, 1994.
enlarges, breaks through the seed coat, and de-
velops into a seedling or young plant. Gabriel, Mordecai, and Seymour Fogel, eds. Great Experi-
ments in Biology.. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall,
At the same time that Malpighi was working 1955.
in Italy, Nehemiah Grew was studying plant Iseley, Duane. One Hundred and One Botanists. Ames, IA:
anatomy in England, and though they were Iowa State University Press, 1994.
often investigating similar problems, they main- Magner, Lois. A History of the Life Sciences. 2d ed. New
tained very cordial relations. Their collaboration York: Marcel Dekker, 1994.

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Renaissance Botanical
Life Sciences
& Medicine and Zoological Gardens
1450-1699


Overview was repeatedly copied by hand, errors inevitably
occurred and were incorporated into subsequent
Throughout the Middle Ages, Europeans re-
copies. Even more seriously, since botany relies
garded plants and animals from a very pragmat-
on illustrations of plants to propagate informa-
ic viewpoint. Plants were seen as sources of
tion, copies of the original drawings degenerated
food, medicines, and wood. Animals were val-
to the point that they were replaced by formal-
ued as food and as aids to mankind by provid-
ized and increasingly fictitious pictures. The er-
ing power (oxen and horses) and help in hunt-
rors in medieval herbals seem ludicrous today.
ing (dogs). But neither plants nor animals were
For example, they described trees whose leaves
studied scientifically until the dawn of the Re-
turned into birds if they fell on the ground, and
naissance and the Age of Exploration. As thou-
into fish if they dropped into water. They also
sands of previously unknown specimens
contained drawings of the Scythian lamb said to
poured into Europe from around the world, the
exist in Asia, which had the roots and trunk of a
science of botany began to evolve. Plants were
small tree but the body of a lamb in place of
carefully examined, classified, and exchanged
branches and leaves.
between scholars. Scores of new animal species
were discovered and brought back to Europe. Medieval interest in animals was similarly
One result of this activity was the founding of restricted. While zoos existed in the Greek world
numerous botanical and zoological gardens, es- as collections of animals for study as well as for
tablishments that introduced these exotic exhibition, by the time of the Roman Empire ani-
species to the general public and helped break mals were captured and brought to Europe either
down many medieval myths. to be slaughtered by gladiators or as exotic food
for the jaded tastes of epicureans. This declining
interest continued in the millennium-long me-
Background dieval period. The few animal collections that ex-
In medieval Europe, botany (the science of plants) isted then were simply menageries, made with
was essentially limited to the study and copying of no scientific purpose in mind. Henry III (1207-
writings from the ancient Greek and Roman 1272) of England kept a menagerie in the Tower
worlds. In particular, scholars relied heavily on the of London, which included camels, lions, leop-
work of Pedanius Dioscorides, a Greek doctor ards, and the first elephant ever seen in the coun-
who served in the Roman army, about whom vir- try. The one medieval menagerie that did lead to
tually nothing more is known today. Sometime some scientific knowledge was that of Frederick
around A.D. 60 he published De Materia Medica, II (1194-1250), the king of Sicily and the Holy
which was basically a summary of Greek pharma- Roman Emperor. Frederick made several discov-
cological knowledge. In it, Dioscorides discussed eries about animal behavior. For instance, he
approximately 1,000 drugs, three-fifths of which learned that the lead cranes flying in V forma-
were derived from plants. Medieval interest in tions switch places during their flight. Other
plants was so narrow that for the next fifteen cen- than Frederick’s work, however, the pre-Renais-
turies the Materia Medica remained the authorita- sance menagerie provided little scientific infor-
tive botanical text in Europe. Unfortunately, its de- mation.
scriptions of plants were quite short, often making
The fifteenth century witnessed the Middle
it impossible for the reader to distinguish one
Ages finally coming to an end. One sign of this
species from another.
was the growing desire to explore the non-Euro-
Materia Medica was extremely influential, pean world. A variety of motives lay behind the
however, because Dioscorides repeatedly Renaissance’s exploring zeal, among them: the
stressed the importance of plants as sources of search for new trade routes to Asia that would
medicines. Throughout the entire Middle Ages, eliminate the Moslem middlemen; the desire to
scholars studied plants solely for their medicinal spread Catholicism outside of Europe after the
properties. Their books, which are known as Protestant Reformation in the early sixteenth
herbals, relied on Dioscorides as their primary century split the medieval church; and the
source of knowledge. But as the Materia Medica strong sense of curiosity and adventure that per-

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meated Renaissance thought. By the early 1500s, basic tool in establishing botany as a science.
European navigators had sailed around Africa to Dried specimens could be preserved almost in- Life Sciences
India and were exploring the West Indies and definitely; they could be stored and examined at & Medicine
the American continents. China and Japan were will and could easily be exchanged between
soon reached. When the Age of Exploration voy- scholars. The second result of this fascination 1450-1699
agers returned from these far-flung lands, they with botany was the founding of the first botani-
carried with them new species of plants and ani- cal gardens, which were established as branches
mals never before seen in Europe. These new of universities or other institutions of higher
species triggered a huge scientific enterprise, learning. They served the dual purpose of main-
particularly in botany. taining living plants for study and research, and
providing educational tools for the public. Ini-
tially, both the new professors and the botanical
Impact
gardens were tied to medical schools, reflecting
Among the new species flooding into Europe the pervading interest in the medicinal properties
were plants such as maize, the potato and toma- of plants. But once established, these gardens
to, cassava, tobacco, vanilla, chocolate, pineap- were the cornerstone of the science of botany.
ples, sunflowers, rhubarb, and tulips. Newly dis- Here plants were not only collected and studied,
covered animals included llamas, bisons, but botanists began to compare them to other
turkeys, iguanas, guinea pigs, toucans, and the plants and to devise systems of classification.
anaconda. Even though the Italian city-states
were not directly involved in the explorations, The first botanical garden was founded by
examples of these newly discovered species were the Venetian Senate in July 1545 at Padua. Al-
quickly purchased by individuals in the com- most immediately, a second one was set up in
mercial cities of northern Italy, such as Venice Pisa. Others rapidly followed, the most impor-
and Florence. The merchants and bankers in tant being those of Florence and Ferrara (1550)
these cities were wealthy enough to be able to and one in Bologna (1567). Soon botanical gar-
afford these specimens and their commitment to dens were established outside of Italy such as
the new scholarship was very strong. They those in Leipzig (1580), Leiden (1587), Mont-
sought to make Italy the scientific leader of Eu- pellier (1593) Heidelberg (1593), Paris (1620),
rope, hence their support of the great universi- Jena (1629), Oxford (1632), Amsterdam (1646),
ties located there. Uppsala (1655), and Edinburgh (1670). Since
the acclimatization of tropical plants was a very
Since wealthy Italian families also sought to
difficult undertaking, vast heated glass buildings
collect unusual plants as status symbols, the first
(greenhouses) were constructed. By the end of
concentrated efforts to grow the nonindigenous
the seventeenth century, the botanical gardens of
specimens occurred in Italy. The Medici family
Italy had been equalled by French gardens, espe-
in Florence experimented with growing potatoes
cially by the one at Montpellier, where research
and pineapples before the end of the fifteenth
was predominant, and at Paris (the Jardin du Roi,
century. By 1550 Italians were regularly eating
or King’s Garden), where displays for the public
tomatoes, which they called “love-apples” for
took precedence. But the expansion of all these
their supposed aphrodisiac powers; and peppers
“living encyclopedias” was impressive. At Ox-
were a common food by 1580. As the cult of the
ford, for example, the catalogue of 1658 listed
private garden spread in Renaissance Italy, the
about 2,000 plants, no more than 600 of which
search for plants with pharmacological proper-
were indigenous to the British Isles, and this
ties was accelerated. Plants with reputed medici-
after only 26 years of the garden’s existence.
nal powers became, after gold and silver bullion
and spices, the most eagerly sought of the New The treatment of the newly discovered ani-
World products. mals that were being imported into Europe was
There were two crucial results of this revival rather different from that accorded to plants.
of interest in botany in early Renaissance Italy. What was most dissimilar was that there was
The first was the appointment in Italian universi- very little scholarly interest in the animals as
ties of special professorships to teach botany. The compared to that expressed toward plants.
most important of these appointments was that There was, for instance, little attention paid to
of Luca Ghini in 1534 at Bologna. Ghini perfect- the establishment of zoological gardens by uni-
ed the method of preserving plants by drying versities. The main reason for this was undoubt-
them under pressure between sheets of paper. edly because while plants provided medicinal
This marked the beginning of the herbarium, a relief for many human ailments, animals did

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not. Foreign animals were valued for their curi- two centuries, it evolved into a true research in-
Life Sciences ous appearances and differences from European stitution and had a strong influence on the work
& Medicine animals, but they had no perceivable intrinsic of Carolus Linnaeus (1707-1778), perhaps the
value. They were expensive to buy and maintain greatest of all botanists. There was also an im-
1450-1699 and were often hard to keep alive; caring for portant zoological garden founded outside Paris
plants was easy in comparison. In addition, at Versailles by Louis XIII (1601-1643) in 1624.
plants were relatively simple to multiply while Although it eventually fell victim to the French
encouraging animals to propagate in captivity Revolution, among the species that had their
was often nearly impossible (this still remains first European exhibitions at Versailles were the
the case with some species today). Further, a condor, hummingbird, toucan, cardinal, tanager,
dead stuffed animal was regarded as having as lemur, and tapir. In central Europe, three out-
much scientific value as one alive in a zoological standing menageries were founded by Maximil-
garden. This attitude would retard the study of ian II, the Holy Roman Emperor from 1564 to
animal behavior for a very long time. 1576: at Ebersdorf (1552) and at Prague and
Näugebäu (both in 1558). Descendants of the
Although zoos did not fully assume their
animals in these menageries eventually formed
modern form until the nineteenth century, Re-
the first collection of the Schönbrunn in Vienna
naissance nobles and monarchs did establish
(1752), the oldest modern zoo in the world.
menageries as status symbols. These private col-
lections were often referred to as zoological gar- ROBERT HENDRICK
dens, particularly when they were combined
with collections of plants. They were located all
over Europe; Leo X (a Medici and pope from Further Reading
1513-1521) even set one up at the Vatican. One Croke, Vicki. The Modern Ark: The Story of Zoos: Past, Pre-
of the most notable of these early collections was sent, and Future. New York: Scribner, 1997.
founded at the Château de Chantilly in France Duval, Marguerite. The King’s Garden. Trans. by Annette
by the Montmorency family. It often exhibited Tomarken and Claudine Cowen. Charlottesville: Uni-
rare zoological specimens never before seen in versity Press of Virginia, 1982.
Europe. It survived until 1792 when it was de- Fisher, James. Zoos of the World: The Story of Animals in Cap-
stroyed during the French Revolution. Another tivity. Garden City, NY: Natural History Press, 1967.
French zoological garden that came to an un- Minelli, Alessandro, ed. The Botanical Garden of Padua,
happy end was the royal menagerie in the Lou- 1545-1995. Venice: Marsilio, 1995.
vre in Paris, which was famous for its aviary. In Morton, A.G. History of Botanical Science: An Account of the
January 1583, King Henry III (1551-1589) per- Development of Botany from Ancient Times to the Present
sonally killed all of its animals after he had Day. London: Academic Press, 1981.
dreamed that they were going to eat him. Prest, John. The Garden of Eden: The Botanic Garden and
the Re-Creation of Paradise. New Haven, CT: Yale Uni-
One of the most important of these early versity Press, 1981.
collections was the royal zoological garden es- Thacker, Christopher. The History of Gardens. Berkeley:
tablished in Sweden in 1561. Over a period of University of California Press, 1979.

Biographical Sketches


Pierre Belon tween the skeletal systems of humans and birds.
Likewise, his discussion of dolphin embryos sig-
1517-1564 nifies the emergence of modern embryology.
French Naturalist
Pierre Belon was born in Soutiere, a small

P ierre Belon was one of the first and most im-

portant naturalists to rely on his own explo-
ration in order to further his research. He is con-
village near Le Mans, France, in 1517. He came
from an obscure family and, before 1535, was
apprenticed to René des Prez, who was the
sidered the originator of comparative anatomy apothecary of Guillame du Prat, the bishop of
due to his systematic analysis of similarities be- Clermont. Later, Belon became the protégé of

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René du Bellay, the bishop of Le Mans. Because sion. Belon was also commissioned by the king
of this alliance, Belon was able to begin his study to develop a botanical garden used to acclimate Life Sciences
of botany at the University of Wittenberg in exotic plants to the French climate. However, & Medicine
1540. In 1542 Belon went to Paris. There du Belon’s payment was anything but prompt. A bit
Prat recommended him as an apothecary to displeased by his unsuccessful attempts to col- 1450-1699
François, the cardinal of Tournon, who was, lect his royal subsidy, Belon traveled to Switzer-
throughout Belon’s life, his most significant pa- land and Italy and explored more of France in
tron. Later, in 1542, Belon journeyed to Geneva, 1556. Upon returning, he received the money
presumably because of a diplomatic mission for and, in 1558, obtained his medical license.
the cardinal. There he was imprisoned for six Belon practiced medicine until 1564, when he
months following a violent altercation with two was murdered in what was almost certainly a
young Calvinists. politically motivated crime.
Between 1546-1548 Belon embarked on a DEAN SWINFORD
series of diplomatic missions to Constantinople
and the Middle East. On this extended tour he
identified and described places, objects, animals,
Antonio Benivieni
and plants mentioned by ancient writers. While 1433?-1502
Belon was engaged primarily on diplomatic mis- Italian Physician and Anatomist
sions, he recorded a detailed account of scientif-
ic curiosities that he discovered on his travels in
Les Observations de plusieurs singularitez et choses
mémorables (Observations of Several Curiosities
A ntonio Benivieni is considered a late pre-
Vesalian anatomist. Decades before Andreas
Vesalius (1514-1564) published his landmark
and Memorable Things). The itinerary described work of illustrated anatomy, De Humani Corporis
by Belon was frequently followed by travelers in- Fabrica (1543), Benivieni was doing similar
terested in scientific discoveries for several cen- work.
turies following its publication. Belon’s account The Renaissance was an exciting time be-
of his travels was so significant because of his cause all arenas of knowledge acquisition were
detailed depiction of items of primarily scientific encouraged. Medieval dependence on authority
interest. In this sense, Belon established a pil- was superceded by a need to observe and ex-
grimage route that was not exclusively religious. plore. Art, literature, philosophy, and science
The period between 1551-1555 formed a were cultivated and encouraged as a secular so-
new stage in Belon’s life. In this period he com- ciety increasingly grew away from theological
posed his principal works. L’Histoire Naturelle des explanations of existence and sought to find an-
Etranges Poissons Marins (The Natural History of swers in the observable present. One of the most
Strange Marine Fish), published in 1551, con- provocative goals in learning was the attempt to
tains descriptions and illustrations of fish and unravel the mystery of life. Confronting both
cetaceans, such as porpoises and whales, which theological taboos and pseudoscience, early
Belon had dissected. Furthermore, this work es- anatomists sought to explain the interiority of
tablished a classification system for marine fish. living beings through dissection. What made
This classificatory system was based largely on people live, die, or become ill? Were there ratio-
Aristotle’s (384-322 BC) animal classifications, nal explanations for the cause of disease?
and included both cetaceans and hippopotami Although less well known than Vesalius,
under “fishes.” However, in this work, Belon rec- Benivieni’s work was scientific in an age of early
ognized that the milk glands of cetaceans were science and broke the tradition that forbade dis-
mammalian in type. Likewise, he noted that section. His published work was neither exclu-
these creatures were air-breathing mammals, sively a dissection manual (like Vesalius’s) nor a
even though they lived underwater. descriptive anatomy. He went one step further
His last work, L’Histoire de la Nature des Oy- and attempted to describe pathology rather than
seaux (The Natural History of Birds) was com- normalcy. Obviously one has to know a great
pleted in 1555. This was the most significant of deal of anatomy in order to differentiate between
his works and brought him the greatest fame. In normal variation and pathologic changes. He
fact, it was so significant that King Henry II ac- was a person clearly ahead of his time.
cepted Belon’s dedication of the text to the Benivieni practiced medicine in Florence,
crown. This dedication was significant because it Italy, for more than 30 years, all the time docu-
was accompanied by the promise of a royal pen- menting his cases and keeping notes on post-

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mortem observations. His chief work, De abditis The Accademia del Cimento, one of the first
Life Sciences nonnullis ac mirandis morborum et sanitorium cau- scientific societies, helped establish Pisa as a
& Medicine sis (On the secret causes of disease), was pub- center of research in mathematics and the natur-
lished posthumously in 1507. Its title may be a al sciences. After 12 years at Pisa, and many
1450-1699 clue to the challenge of the worldview that held quarrels with his colleagues, Borelli left the uni-
that all disease was caused by divine or diabolic versity to seek quieter and healthier surround-
intervention. ings. In 1667 Borelli returned to the University
of Messina, where he became involved in literary
Although very little is known about his life,
and antiquarian studies, investigated an erup-
he must have been a disciplined rigorous person
tion of Mount Etna, and continued to work on
in order to maintain his study. He must also
the problem of animal motion. In 1674 he was
have been highly objective because during his
accused of being involved in a conspiracy to free
lifetime, a patient was a neighbor and friend
Sicily from Spain. Forced into exile, he fled to
rather than a stranger. His cases were the stories
Rome, where he lived under the protection of
of people he had known and treated in life.
Christina, former queen of Sweden. Borelli died
Among the descriptions of disease were: stones
before his great work De motu animalium (On
found in the tunic of the liver (gallstones), cal-
Motion in Animals, 1680-81) was published. An
lous growth in the stomach (carcinoma of the
introduction was added by a church official who
stomach), death from difficulty in breathing (fib-
commended Borelli for upholding the authority
rinous pericarditis), degenerative hip joint dis-
of the Church in his lectures on astronomy. In
ease, and ruptured intestine. He was able to ob-
physiological matters, too, Borelli remained a
serve symptoms in his living patients, and then
faithful son of the Church by acknowledging
search for “signatures” in organs after death.
that, although he had attempted to explain the
LANA THOMPSON movements of the body in terms of purely me-
chanical principles, all the mechanical phenom-
ena described in his book were ultimately gov-
Giovanni Alfonso Borelli erned by the soul.
1608-1679 The seventeenth century was a time of great
Italian Naturalist, Mathemetician and Physicist ferment and change in scientific and medical
thought. The Scientific Revolution created skep-

G iovanni Borelli was born in Naples, Italy.

Little is known about his early life, educa-
tion, and family, other than his precocious mas-
ticism about ancient medical theories and result-
ed in the search for a simple system that could
guide medical practice. René Descartes’s (1596-
tery of mathematics. There is uncertainty about 1650) concept of the human body as a machine
whether he ever studied medicine formally, but that functions in accordance with mechanical
he did study mathematics with Benedetto principles was very influential in medical
Castelli (1577-1644) in Rome. Borelli was ap- thought. Physicians and scientists who accepted
pointed to the chair of mathematics at the Uni- the mechanical model of physiology were called
versity of Messina by 1640. In 1642, inspired by iatrophysicists. Those who thought of life as a
the work of Galileo Galilei (1564-1642), Borelli series of chemical processes were called iatro-
obtained the consent of the University to take a chemists. Whereas Descartes was the founder of
prolonged leave from his professorship in order iatromechanism as a philosophy, Borelli was the
to study with Galileo and Evangelista Torricelli founder of iatrophysics as an experimental sci-
(1608-1647) in Florence. Unfortunately, Galileo ence. Borelli was especially interested in the
died that year and Borelli returned to the Uni- problem of muscle action.
versity. In 1656 Ferdinand, Duke of Tuscany in-
vited Borelli to serve as professor of mathematics De motu animalium was a sustained analysis
at the University of Pisa. During the same year, of the mechanics of muscle contraction that dealt
Marcello Malpighi (1628-1694) joined the uni- with the movements of individual muscles and
versity as a professor of theoretical medicine. groups of muscles treated geometrically in terms
Malpighi held doctorates in both medicine and of mechanical principles. Animal movements
philosophy and was the founder of microscopic were divided into external movements, such as
anatomy. Borelli and Malpighi became good those carried out by the skeletal muscles, and in-
friends and leaders of the Accademia del Cimen- ternal movements, such as those of the heart and
to (Academy of Experiments), which was found- viscera. Borelli’s method of study involved a pro-
ed in Florence in 1657. gression from the simplest element of the motor

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Life Sciences
& Medicine
1450-1699

A page from Giovanni Borelli’s 1680-81 book, De motu animalium. (Wellcome Institute Library. Reproduced with
permission.)

system, the independent muscles, up to the more in contrast, were merely passive agents, which
complicated organs and organ systems, and final- did not take part in contraction. The action of
ly the power of movement of the organism con- the heart particularly intrigued Borelli. Unlike
sidered as a whole. According to Borelli, the Descartes, he recognized that the heart was a
fleshy muscular fibers played a fundamental role muscular pump rather than a heat engine and
in muscle contraction; the fibers of the tendons, confirmed this by simple experiments.

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Although Borelli is primarily remembered printing press, made it possible to produce

Life Sciences for his attempts to explain muscular movement books more cheaply and in greater quantities.
& Medicine and other body functions according to the laws Perhaps more importantly for botanical science,
of statics and dynamics, he was also one of the it made feasible exact reproduction of images of
1450-1699 early microscopists. Borelli carried out micro- plants. Before that time, artists had to copy im-
scopic investigations of the circulation of the ages along with the text of herbals and extensive
blood, nematodes, textile fibers, and spider eggs. copying led to inaccuracies in the images. But
Borelli also wrote many astronomical works, in- despite the potential of printing to provide accu-
cluding a treatise in 1666 that considered the in- rate images, the illustrations in the first printed
fluence of attraction on the satellites of Jupiter. In herbals were of poor quality, which is what
a letter published in 1665 under the pseudonym makes Brunfels’s Herbarum so exceptional.
Pier Maria Mutoli, he was the first to suggest the While most of the previous botanical illus-
idea that comets travel in a parabolic path. trations were copies of earlier drawings, Weiditz
LOIS N. MAGNER obviously used real specimens as his models,
which made his images so lifelike. In some
cases, the plants are shown with leaves nibbled
Otto Brunfels by insects or with other individual peculiarities.
1489?-1534 This is in marked contrast to the work of most
German Physician and Botanist subsequent botanical artists who portrayed ideal
plants without blemishes.

O tto Brunfels is considered one of the three

“fathers” of German botany, in large part be-
cause of his three-volume Herbarum vivae eicones
In all, there are 238 woodcut illustrations in
the Herbarum; they represent about 230 species,
including over 40 species that were first de-
(Living Images of Plants), published in the 1530s. scribed by Brunfels. The plants are not arranged
These books contained illustrated descriptions of in any organized way. It appears that it was Wei-
plants, most of which had medical uses. This ditz, rather than Brunfels, who determined the
marked the first time that accurate and realistic sequence in which the plants were presented,
images were used in a printed botanical text. based on the order in which he finished the
Ironically, it is the illustrations drawn by Hans woodcuts. Weiditz also decided which plants he
Weiditz, rather than Brunfels’s quite mediocre would draw, including several that Brunfels
text, that make the Herbarum noteworthy. couldn’t identify. At one point Brunfels apolo-
Brunfels was born about 1489 in the town of gized to the reader for including a picture of a
Braufels, near Mainz in what is now Germany. He plant that didn’t have a Latin name and that was
received his education in Mainz and then entered not used medicinally.
a Roman Catholic monastery. He left there in In contrast to the illustrations, which are
1521, changed his religion, and became a Luther- extraordinarily better than those in previous
an preacher. In 1524 he settled in Strasbourg, books, Brunfels’s text is not exceptional. It is just
where he got married and opened a small school. a rehash of the work of earlier botanists. This is
He then moved on to Switzerland, where in 1531 why many historians question his designation as
he received a medical degree from the University a father of German botany, giving that honor in-
of Basel, and was appointed Town Physician of stead to two other botanists, Hieronymus Bock
Berne two years later. He died there in 1534. (1498-1554) and Leonhard Fuchs (1501-1566),
Brunfels’s main interests were in medicine both of whom published herbals with much
and botany. In the same year that the first volume more original and informative texts. But it
of the Herbarum appeared (1530), he published should be noted that Brunfels encouraged Bock
Catalogus, a collection of older medical works he to write his own book.
had edited and translated; it included one of the
MAURA C. FLANNERY
first medical bibliographies. The Herbarum is
also related to medicine because it follows in the
tradition of earlier herbals, or illustrated books Realdo Matteo Colombo
on plants that provided information on the medi- 1515-1559
cinal uses for plants. It was only later that inter-
Italian Anatomist, Physician, and Professor
est developed in plants for their own sake.
The invention of movable type around
1440, and subsequent improvements in the R ealdo Colombo was one of the first European
scientists to clearly describe the pulmonary

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circulation, or passage of blood between the heart lungs serve in the preparation and generation of
and the lungs. Columbo, the son of an apothe- the vital spirits. Unlike Michael Servetus (c. Life Sciences
cary, was born in Cremona, Italy. He served as an 1511-1553) and Ibn an Nafis, Colombo made it & Medicine
apprentice to a surgeon for seven years before be clear that his ideas on the pulmonary circulation
began his studies of medicine and anatomy at the were based on clinical observations, dissections, 1450-1699
University of Padua in 1540 with Andreas Vesal- and experiments on animals. He described the
ius (1514-1564), the founder of modern anato- anatomy of the heart in detail and corrected
my. When Vesalius left the university in 1543, many ancient errors. Colombo explained that
Colombo became professor of surgery. Colombo blood entered the ventricles of the heart during
was an excellent anatomist, as well as an influen- diastole (the relaxation phase of heart action),
tial scientist and teacher. Colombo carried out and is expelled from the ventricles during systole
many systematic dissections on both living ani- (the contraction of the heart muscle). Colombo
mals and human cadavers. However, he seems to clearly followed the movement of venous blood
have exaggerated the number of dissections that from the right ventricle, through the pulmonary
he performed and he was quite critical of the artery to the lungs. He noted that blood was
work of others, including Vesalius. Indeed, bright red when it left the lungs where it was
Columbo was one of the most vociferous critics of mixed with a “spirit” present in the air. The
the Vesalius’s great treatise On the Fabric of the blood then returned to the left ventricle through
Human Body (1543). Surprisingly, Colombo and the pulmonary vein. In other words, air was re-
Vesalius seem to have had a cordial collegial rela- ceived by the lungs where it mixed with blood
tionship before Colombo assumed his professor- brought in by the pulmonary artery from the
ship. In response to Colombo’s criticism, Vesalius right ventricle of the heart. Blood and air were
called his former student a scoundrel, an ignora- taken up by the branches of the pulmonary vein
mus, and an “uncultivated smattering” whose and carried to the left ventricle of the heart to be
general education was as deficient as his mastery distributed to all parts of the body.
of Latin. Later the anatomist Gabriele Fallopio Although pulmonary circulation had been
(1523-1562) accused Colombo of plagiarizing the described during the thirteenth century by the
discoveries of other anatomists. In 1546 Colombo Egyptian physician Ibn an Nafis and by Serve-
became the first professor of anatomy at the Uni- tus, these accounts were generally unknown.
versity of Pisa. Two years later he was appointed Therefore, sixteenth- and seventeenth-century
professor of anatomy at the Sapienza, or Papal scientists generally recognized Colombo as the
University, in Rome. He also served as surgeon to discoverer of the pulmonary circulation. Howev-
Pope Julius III. er, Colombo’s claim to priority has been ques-
When he first became a professor, Colombo tioned on several accounts. Even if he begun his
spoke of plans for the publication of a major il- study of the pulmonary circulation as early as
lustrated anatomical treatise that would detail the 1545, his ideas might have been stimulated or
errors made by Vesalius and others, but this am- confirmed by learning about the speculations of
bitious enterprise never materialized. Colombo’s Servetus. Despite his professions of originality
only major anatomical treatise, De re anatomica and daring, Colombo was actually rather conser-
(On Anatomy, 1559), was published posthu- vative concerning other aspects of the functions
mously by his heirs. Although the book is not il- of the heart, blood, and respiration. Therefore,
lustrated, it was clearly written and organized although Colombo’s work proved that it was not
and included several important original observa- necessary to invoke invisible Galenic pores in the
tions. Colombo carefully described the organs septum of the heart in order to get blood from
within the thoracic cavity, the membrane sur- the right side to the left side, it did not explain
rounding the lungs, and the membrane sur- the major, or systemic circulation of the blood.
rounding the abdominal organs. His most impor- LOIS N. MAGNER
tant contribution was his description of general
heart action, which included his observations
and experiments concerning the minor, or pul- René Descartes
monary circulation of the blood. However, 1596-1650
Columbo may have been demonstrating the pul- French Philosopher, Physiologist,
monary circulation as early as 1545. Calling and Mathematician
upon the reader to confirm his observations by
dissection and vivisection, Columbo boasted that
he alone had discovered the way in which the R ené Descartes, who was born in La Haye
(now Descartes), France and died in Stock-

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phers, mathematicians, and scientists. During

Life Sciences this period, Descartes wrote several treatises that
& Medicine have not survived. In 1628 Descartes presented
a demonstration of his method for establishing
1450-1699 truth, but he soon decided to move to the
Netherlands, where he felt he could enjoy
greater liberty and tolerance than anywhere else.
Religious intolerance had grown in France and
the Parliament of Paris had even passed a decree
in 1624 that provided the death penalty for at-
tacks on Aristotle.
In 1629 Descartes began writing his Medita-
tions. In 1633 he was planning to publish a
major work called Le Monde (The World), when
he heard that Galileo Galilei (1564-1642) had
been condemned by the Roman Catholic Church
for publishing the view that the Earth revolves
around the Sun. Although Descartes believed
that eventually his physics would replace Aristo-
tle’s, he suppressed Le Monde because the Coper-
nican theory was central to his own cosmology.
Le Monde was finally published in 1664. Dis-
René Descartes. (Library of Congress. Reproduced with course on Method was published in 1637. It was
permission.) one of the first significant modern philosophical
works written in French instead of Latin so that
all literate men and women could learn to use
holm, Sweden, has been called the founder of
reason in the search for truth. Descartes’s Geome-
modern philosophy, but he is also honored as a
try, which established analytic geometry, intro-
mathematician and physiologist. Descartes’s fa-
duced modern algebraic notations. Descartes of-
ther, Joachim, who owned farms and houses in
fered his readers four rules for reasoning: (1) Ac-
Châtellerault and Poitiers, was a councilor in the
cept nothing as true that is not self-evident. (2)
Parliament of Brittany in Rennes. Descartes’s
Divide problems into their simplest parts. (3)
mother died when he was only one year old.
Solve problems by proceeding from simple to
After his father remarried, Descartes remained in
complex. (4) Recheck the reasoning.
La Haye where his maternal grandmother and
other relatives raised him. In 1606 Descartes Descartes began methodically doubting
was sent to the Jesuit college at La Flèche, which knowledge based on authority, the senses, and
had been established in 1604 by Henry IV. The reason. For Descartes, the only certainty was that
curriculum included classical studies, science, he was thinking and he must, therefore, exist:
mathematics, metaphysics, music, poetry, danc- Cogito, ergo sum (I think, therefore I am). To es-
ing, riding, and fencing. Students were prepared cape the trap of solipsism (the view that nothing
for careers in military engineering, law, and gov- exists but one’s individual self and thoughts),
ernment administration. Philosophy was taught Descartes argued that all clear and distinct ideas
in the scholastic Aristotelian manner that must be true. Using his philosophical method,
Descartes would eventually challenge. Descartes devoted the rest of his life to the explo-
ration of mechanics, medicine, and morals. His
In 1614 Descartes went to Poitiers where he theories of medicine and physiology are based on
earned a law degree two years later. In 1618 he mechanics. Descartes believed that animal and
went to Breda in the Netherlands to study math- human bodies operate on purely mechanical
ematics and military architecture. From 1619 to principles. In his physiological studies, he dis-
1628, Descartes traveled widely through Eu- sected animal bodies to show how their parts
rope. By 1920, while he was serving in the army move. His ideas and experiments were described
of Maximilian I, duke of Bavaria, Descartes dis- in L’Homme, et un traité de la formation du foetus
covered a method of deductive reasoning that he (Man, and a Treatise on the Formation of the
believed would be applicable to all the sciences. Foetus, 1664). Although Descartes argued that
Descartes moved to Paris in 1622 where he asso- animals were purely mechanical and had no soul,
ciated with prominent writers, scholars, philoso- he described human beings as a union of mind

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and body. The interaction between mind and who was quoted dogmatically for over 1,200
body took place only in the pineal gland, the years, Eustachio nonetheless possessed a spirit Life Sciences
only unpaired organ in the brain. of scientific inquiry and was an innovator in his & Medicine
Finally, in 1649, as intolerance grew in both anatomical investigations. Since the religious
and civil prohibition against human dissection 1450-1699
France and the Netherlands, Descartes sought
refuge with Queen Christina, of Sweden. Appar- had somewhat eased, human anatomy as both
ently as a result of being forced to give Queen science and art was poised to become a focus of
Christina philosophy lessons at 5 A.M., Descartes excellence.
contracted pneumonia and died in Stockholm in In 1562 and 1563 Eustachio produced a re-
February 1650. The Roman Catholic Church markable series of treatises on, among other
put his works on the Index of Forbidden Books structures, the kidney (De renum structura), the
in 1667. auditory organ (De auditus organis), and the
teeth (De dentibus). These were collectively pub-
LOIS N. MAGNER
lished in 1563 under the title Opuscula anatomi-
ca, which can loosely be translated as “Little
Bartolomeo Eustachio Anatomical Works.” The work on the kidney, the
1510?-1574 first to be dedicated to that organ, contains the
first account of the suprarenal gland and the first
Italian Anatomist
detailed analysis of the concept of anatomical
variation. The auditory tube, as was acknowl-
B artolomeo Eustachio, contemporary of An-
dreas Vesalius (1514-1564) and a major fig-
ure in the great flowering of knowledge in gross
edged by Eustachio, had been known to Aristo-
tle (384-322 B.C.), and Alcmaeon (sixth century
anatomy that occurred in Italian universities B.C.), but Eustachio expanded on this earlier

during the sixteenth century, is best known for knowledge with a careful description of the au-
his account of the auditory organ that bears his ditory tube and its anatomic relations. Eusta-
name, the Eustachian tube. His treatises on the chio’s De dentibus was the first detailed study of
kidney, venous system, and teeth were superior the development of the teeth, describing the first
to anything yet produced, and his copperplate and second dentitions, the structure of both the
engravings, particularly of the sympathetic ner- hard and soft tissues, and possible reasons for
vous system, are of such quality that they alone the sensitivity of the hard tissues of the tooth.
ensure Eustachio’s place of eminence in anatom- In 1552 Eustachio, with the help of the
ical history. artist Pier Matteo Pini, prepared a series of 47
Eustachio was born in San Severino, Italy, anatomical illustrations in copperplate engrav-
between 1510-1520. The son of a physician, he ings. Only eight were published during his life-
received a good humanistic education and knew time, relating to the discussions of the kidney in
Greek, Hebrew, and Arabic. He studied medicine the Opuscula anatomica. The others were lost
in Rome at the Archiginnasio della Sapienza and after his death, reappearing only in the early
began to practice near his birthplace in about eighteenth century in the possession of a de-
1540. Thereafter he was invited to become scendent of Pini. They were then purchased by
physician to the Duke of Urbino and later to the Pope Clement XI and presented to his physician
Duke’s brother, Cardinal della Rovere, whom he Giovanni Maria Lancisi (1654-1720), a succes-
followed to Rome in 1549. There he joined the sor to Eustachio’s chair of anatomy at Sapienza.
medical faculty of the Sapienza as the equivalent Lancisi published the rediscovered plates, along
of a professor of anatomy, and was permitted to with the previously published eight, in 1714
obtain cadavers for dissection from nearby hospi- under the title Tabulae anatomicae Bartholomaei
tals. In later years Eustachio was so disabled with Eustachi. Tabula XVIII, on the sympathetic ner-
gout that he had to resign his chair, but contin- vous system, is generally considered even today
ued to serve Cardinal della Rovere. In 1574 the to be one of the best illustrations ever produced
Cardinal requested his services; Eustachio set out of that structure.
from Rome to Fassombrone to attend him, but Eustachio’s anatomical achievements were
met death along the way. great, but much of his influence was posthumous.
Eustachio’s first works were directed against His work for the most part was not published
Vesalius and his challenges to Galenic theories. during his lifetime, and nearly all the text is lost.
Although regarding himself as a follower of The copperplate engravings of Eustachio are less
Galen (129-199), the renowned Greek physician beautiful than those of Vesalius, but are in many

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instances more accurate. They contain a number son and, according to historical accounts, gave
Life Sciences of discoveries that for originality rank him below him two golden chains for his efforts. This led to
& Medicine only Leonardo da Vinci (1452-1519) and Vesal- an international reputation and Fabrici was even
ius. Had these engravings appeared when they called upon by the King of Poland, who also be-
1450-1699 were completed in 1552, knowledge of the ner- lieved in awarding gold chains and medals for
vous system and anatomical studies in general medical help.
would have matured at least a century earlier. Fortunately for Fabrici, the sixteenth century
DIANE K. HAWKINS was a time when patronage was in style and he
made the most of it. Along with his general prac-
tice of medicine and surgery, he attended many
Girolamo Fabrici who were celebrities of the time. He charged
1533-1610 them nothing for his treatment and received un-
Italian Physician reasonably large gifts for his work. On the other
side of the coin, he treated poor people for noth-

G irolamo Fabrici was born in Acquapen-

dente, Italy, in 1533 and received his med-
ical training (both an M.D. and Ph.D.) at the
ing and was well-regarded at all social levels. He
lived in a magnificent villa and entertained
prominent visitors in lavish style. On one of his
University of Padua in his home country. Al- visits to Venice, he was called upon to treat a
though he preferred private practice and re- wounded man named Paolo Sarpi. His treatment
search to teaching, he is best remembered as the was so successful that the Republic of Venice hon-
teacher and mentor of William Harvey (1578- ored him by naming him a Knight of St. Mark.
1657), regarded as the father of modern medi-
Following his publication of On the Valves of
cine and physiology.
the Veins (1603), Fabrici not only continued his
In addition to his famous student, Fabrici research on this subject, but began to work on
had a renowned teacher, Gabriele Falloppio embryological works. He published at least two
(1523-1562), an anatomist who achieved a place known works on this topic: Deformato foetu
in medical history by discovering the Fallopian (1604) and De formatione (1621).
tubes and other parts of the female reproductive
system. Following the pattern of his medical work,
he eventually became a pioneer in comparative
When Falloppio retired from teaching anatomy and, throughout his life, continued to
anatomy and surgery at the University of Padua, teach classes in this science, both privately and
Fabrici was chosen to replace him. Although at the University of Padua.
historical accounts vary in certain areas, it is
generally accepted that Fabrici did not enjoy his In turn, the university recognized the genius
teaching responsibilities and frequently avoided of Fabrici and gave him life tenure on their staff
them by disappearing well before classes were along with the impressive title Sopraordinario.
completed. Since many of the students traveled His other accomplishments include the in-
long distances for their medical studies, they vention of both medical and dental instruments,
were often disappointed at their teacher’s lack of memberships in the Medical Colleges of Padua
interest in their education. and Venice and, from 1570 to 1584, he served
In Fabrici’s defense, his consuming interest on a board that examined and accredited sur-
was research, primarily in anatomy, secondarily geons for private practice.
in surgery. He spent many years studying and Fabrici died in 1610 at the age of 77 while
publishing numerous volumes that were well re- living in retirement at his villa outside of Padua.
ceived in the medical communities of his era.
BROOK HALL
Prominent among these publications were books
on anatomical observations containing detailed
descriptions of the venous valves. It was this Wilhelm Fabricius Hildanus
branch of research that led to Harvey’s monu- 1560-1634
mental discovery of the circulatory system.
German Surgeon
Fabrici had an unusually interesting life
outside of his university activities. In 1581 he
became private physician to the Duke of Mantua
as well as the Duke of Urbino in Florence. They
F abricius Hildanus was the “Father of German
Surgery.” He was the first to use magnets to
extract iron slivers from the eye, the first to op-
latter summoned him in 1604 to treat his ailing erate successfully for gallstones, and among the

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first to use tourniquets and ligatures to control the belief that it could heal the wound, even if
bleeding. He improved amputation techniques the wounded person was miles away. Sympa- Life Sciences
and introduced many new surgical instruments. thetic magic is to perform an action on one ob- & Medicine
ject while intending another object to receive the
Born Wilhelm Drees in Hilden, near Düssel- 1450-1699
effect of that action. Some examples are dancing
dorf, Germany, on June 25, 1560, he is known
to generate rain, shooting at mock animals to
variously as Wilhelm Fabry von Hilden, Wilhelm
ensure a good hunt, and causing human illness
Fabricius von Hilden, Guilhelmus (or Guiliel-
by sticking pins in voodoo dolls.
mus) Fabricius Hildanus, Wilhelm Fabricius
Hildanus, or sometimes just as Fabricius In De gangraena et sphacelo (On gangrene
Hildanus. He is not to be confused with the and sloughing), published in 1593, Fabricius
other great “Fabricius” of medicine, Italian Hildanus recommended amputation for gan-
anatomist Girolamo Fabrizio, known as Hierony- grene, high above the infected part. His greatest
mus Fabricius ab Aquapendente (1537-1619). work was the six-volume Observationum et cura-
tionum chirurgicarum centuriae (Six hundred sur-
Although orphaned at a young age, Fabri- gical observations and treatments), published in
cius Hildanus received an excellent humanistic 1606-1641, to which Marie contributed immea-
classical education, and became fluent in Latin. surably. In his 1607 De combustionibus (On
He was apprenticed to several barber-surgeons burns), one of the earliest books to deal exclu-
and military surgeons, including Jean Griffon in sively with injuries caused by heat and fire, he
Geneva, Switzerland. After studying in Switzer- categorized burns in a practical, systematic way.
land, France, and Italy, he practiced in Switzer- His other works include: De vulnere quodam
land and Germany. gravissimo et periculoso (On the most grave and
In 1587 he married Marie Colinet, the dangerous wounds), 1614; New Feldt Arztny Buch
daughter of a printer in Geneva. She was already von Kranckheiten und Schäden (New book of field
an accomplished midwife and surgeon. He medicine for illnesses and wounds), 1615; De
taught her additional surgical skills and they dysenteria (On dysentery), 1616; Anatomiae
practiced surgery together in Bern, Switzerland. praestantia et utilitas (The superiority and useful-
If he was the Father of German Surgery, then she ness of anatomy), 1624; Schatzkämmerlein der
was its Mother. When a patient presented with a Gesundheit (Little treasury of health), 1628; Litho-
piece of steel in his eye in 1624, using a magnet tomia vesicae (Lithotomy in the bladder), 1628;
to get it out was her idea. She wrote and pub- Consilium in quo de conservanda valetudine (Con-
lished several books, all literary or religious, sultation on the preservation of health), 1629;
none medical or surgical. Yet her surgical in- and Cheirurgia militaris (Military surgery), 1634.
sights permeated her husband’s works, and he
ERIC V.D. LUFT
acknowledged that she surpassed him in ortho-
pedics, ophthalmological surgery, cancer
surgery, and several other kinds of surgery. She Gabriele Falloppio
successfully performed caesarian section 40
1523-1562
times in an era when it was nearly always fatal to
the pregnant woman. Italian Anatomist

Fabricius Hildanus was known for his skill

and speed in operating, his conservative surgical
theory, and his preference for ancient medical
G abriele Falloppio, an illustrious anatomist of
the sixteenth century and one of the
founders of modern anatomy, is best remem-
and surgical authors. He invented the otoscope, bered for the first accurate description of human
or aural speculum, a device for examining the oviducts or “fallopian tubes,” which he correctly
entire ear canal, and improved the drug kit for described as resembling small trumpets. His
battlefield surgery. 1561 work Observations Anatomicae included
original observations on the eye, ear, teeth, and
He either rejected or was ignorant of new
female reproductive system, introducing many
techniques, advanced by Ambroise Paré (1510-
anatomical terms including vagina, placenta,
1590), for the treatment of wounds. Fabricius
cochlea, labyrinth, and palate.
Hildanus continued to rely on medieval treat-
ments in military and trauma surgery, such as Born in 1523 in Modena, Italy, Falloppio
the so-called “weapon salve,” a form of sympa- was first educated in the classics and directed to-
thetic magic in which lotions, herbs, or oils are wards a career in the church. Later he studied
applied to the weapon that caused the wound in medicine and then surgery, but after a series of

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fatal outcomes abandoned surgery and turned bilateral duplication of the ureter and renal ves-
Life Sciences entirely to medical studies. He joined the med- sels, and was the first to describe the three mus-
& Medicine ical school in Ferrara in 1545, accepted the chair cle coats of the urinary bladder.
of anatomy at the University of Pisa in 1549, Falloppio was a very effective teacher and
1450-1699 and then in 1551 the famous chair of anatomy at careful observer, who demonstrated courage in
Padua. While teaching at Padua he inspired challenging the accepted medical authorities, es-
many of his students, including Fabricius ab pecially those of Galen (129-199), whose sayings
Aquapendente (1537-1619) and Volcher Coiter had been revered as laws for over 1,200 years.
(1534-1576?), to further research in surgery and Falloppio’s early death limited his output, but his
other fields of medicine. He was a respected influence can be traced in the work of his two
physician as well as an anatomist, and was con- able pupils, Coiter and Fabricius, founders of
sidered an authority in botany, mineral springs, modern comparative anatomy and embryology.
and syphilis. He taught at Padua until his death He may be considered a student of Vesalius be-
from pulmonary tuberculosis at the age of 39. cause of his thorough analysis of Vesalius’s
Of the various works attributed to Falloppio, works, and through his continuation of the
only the Observations Anatomicae was published Vesalian tradition of using independent judg-
during his lifetime and is known to be authentic. ment rather than adhering to previous authority.
It is not a comprehensive textbook but rather a se-
DIANE K. HAWKINS
ries of commentaries on the De Humani Corporis
Fabrica of Andreas Vesalius (1514-1564). Al-
though Falloppio regarded Vesalius with the high- Girolamo Fracastoro
est respect, even referring to him as the “divine 1478?-1553
Vesalius” upon whose foundation he continued to Italian Physician
build, he did not hesitate to point out shortcom-
ings in the Vesalian text. For example, he criticizes
Vesalius for describing and illustrating in the Fab-
rica the kidney of a dog instead of a human.
G irolamo Fracastoro was born in Verona,
Italy, in or near 1478 (historical sources dif-
fer on this). Although his family was untitled by
Falloppio’s dissections included not only the crown, they were nonetheless an old family
adults but also children, newborns, and even fe- with a history of several prosperous generations.
tuses, and thus allowed him make observations Fracastoro enjoyed a sheltered childhood, living
of primary and secondary centers of ossification, on the family estate, Incaffi, which was situated
i.e., bone formation. In his studies of the teeth on Lake Garda and located about 15 miles (24.1
he provided a clear description of primary denti- km) from the city of Verona.
tion and the process of replacement of the pri- Although his greatest recognition came
mary by the secondary tooth. His description of from his medical discoveries, Fracastoro had
the auditory apparatus gives the first clear ac- many other academic gifts. His father was his
count of several anatomical structures, including first instructor in philosophy and literature, but
the round and oval windows of the ear, the he went on to the University of Padua where he
cochlea, the semicircular canals, the scala studied astronomy, mathematics, more philoso-
vestibuli and the tympani. phy and literature, and finally earned his M.D.
Also important are Falloppio’s contributions degree in 1502.
to the understanding of muscles of the scalp and In that same year he began teaching philoso-
face, most notably the muscles of the orbit. He phy at the university, but engaged in the private
made a major contribution to the knowledge of practice of medicine in Verona. Eventually he be-
the nervous system through his clear description came interested in medical research, specifically
of the trochlear nerve, tracing it to its origin in in the contagious disease we know today as
the brain stem and its termination in the superi- syphilis. It had been known by various other
or oblique muscle of the eye, and establishing it names in different parts of the world, but Fracas-
as a separate nerve root. In addition, he recog- toro (being also a poet and writer), created a story
nized and described 11 of the 12 cranial nerves. about a shepherd named Syphilis who had cursed
Falloppio’s most important contribution to the Sun and been punished by the gods who in-
urology is his account of the kidney, but it is un- fected him with the loathsome disease that spread
clear whether the priority belongs to him or to throughout the kingdom, even to its king.
his contemporary Bartolomeo Eustachio (1510?- Fracastoro’s research led to other forms of
1574). He does provide the earliest account of contagion and how diseases were contracted.

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Life Sciences
& Medicine
1450-1699

Girolamo Fracastoro. (Arte & Immagini srl/Corbis. Reproduced with permission.)

His speculation about germs and their transfers ranking officer invited Fracastoro to Pordenone to
was remarkable in that the microscope was not stay with him and to be active in the short-lived
invented until the end of the sixteenth century. Academia Friulana. Upon another occasion, an-
Despite this, he is considered the first person to other of his patrons, Bishop G. M. Giberti, pre-
advance the germ theory and its importance in sented Fracastoro with a house on Lake Garda in
medical advancement. Malcasine, near his childhood home.
While conducting his lucrative medical Another religious affiliation was enhanced
practice in Verona, Fracastoro found time to when Fracastoro dedicated his syphilis research
study the medicinal properties of flowers and to Cardinal Pietro Bembo, Secretary of Briefs to
other plants. He wrote several treatises on botan- Pope Leo X. The Cardinal had been an active as-
ical subjects and, in light of the widespread in- sistant in the research and stated (in writing) that
terest in herbs and natural medicines today, the dedication was the highpoint of his life and
could certainly be considered an early founder the most highly valued gift he had ever received.
of the movement. While he lived in Verona, Fracastoro’s resi-
Fracastoro led an interesting, multifaceted dence was a gathering place for the elite intellec-
life. When the University of Padua was forced to tuals of the time. Many gifted students of philoso-
close because of the war between the Holy phy and the sciences shared their knowledge with
Roman Emperor and League of Cambrai, a high- Fracastoro and corresponded with him frequently.

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Even though he received many honors and Margrave Georg von Brandenburg, returning to
Life Sciences the patronage of important officials, Fracastoro teach at Ingolstadt in 1533. But his travels were
& Medicine takes his place in the history of medicine for his not over. Becoming a Lutheran, he had to leave
work on the diagnosis and treatment (of that time) the Catholic town of Ingolstadt for Tübingen,
1450-1699 for syphilis. There were many theories of how the where he again became a professor of medicine,
disease originated, one of them being that Christo- this time at the new Protestant University. When
pher Columbus (1451?-1506) brought it back an epidemic of an infection called sweating sick-
from his journeys to the New World, and another ness broke out, Fuchs provided an effective
linking it to the importation of African slaves into treatment. Word of his success spread and he
Europe. The disease was known as “the calling was offered a number of positions in foreign
card of civilized man,” and was becoming more countries, but he remained in Tübingen until his
prevalent in all parts of the world. death in 1566.
Fracastoro began a series of treatments and It is not surprising that a physician was re-
believed that if treated in its earliest stages, sponsible for one of the most noted works in
syphilis could be cured. He prescribed a rigor- botany. At the time, the study of plants was an
ous schedule for the afflicted that included exer- important part of medicine because plant sub-
cising until heavy sweating occurred. In addi- stances were the primary source of remedies for
tion, he developed a mixture of mercury, sulfur, disease. Since ancient times, books called herbals
and hellebore that he smeared all over the pa- were produced which described plants and their
tient, then encased the sufferer in wool fabric medicinal uses. The development of the printing
and confined him to bed to await profuse sweat- press in the mid-fifteenth century made possible
ing and salivation. Fracastoro firmly believed the cheaper production of such books and the
that this procedure would cleanse the body of its accurate reproduction of illustrations. But the
infestation. Other treatments included purges, images in these books remained crude until the
near-starvation food restrictions, and equally publication of an herbal by another German
painful regimens. Fortunately, modern medicine physician-botanist, Otto Brunfels (1489?-1534),
has more effective and less painful treatments. in the 1530s. While his text was not noteworthy,
By any standard, Fracastoro was a remark- the illustrations done by the artist Hans Weiditz
able man with numerous talents in both the arts were both accurate and beautiful. Brunfels also
and sciences. He lived to the age of 75 and died inspired Hieronymous Bock (1498-1554), who
in 1553, near Verona and his first home on Lake produced an herbal with a much more original
Garda. and informative text, but with inferior images.
Because of their work, which set the stage for
BROOK HALL Fuchs’s book, Brunfels and Bock are also consid-
ered founders of German botany.
Leonhard Fuchs Fuchs found three excellent artists—Albrecht
1501-1566 Meyer, Heinrich Füllmaurer, and Veit Speckle—
German Physician and Botanist to create the drawings and woodcuts for his book.
While Weiditz had drawn plants exactly as he saw
them, flaws and all, these artists produced images
L eonhard Fuchs is considered one of the “fa-
thers” of German botany because of his book
on plants called De historia stirpium. Published
of ideal plants, perfect specimens, and it is their
approach that continues to be used in botanical
in 1542, it contains over 500 illustrations that illustration to this day. One particularly notewor-
accurately portray a wide variety of plants, most thy image they produced was that of corn or
of which were useful in medicine. The book is maize, which had been brought back to Europe
particularly noteworthy because Fuchs chose su- by Spanish explorers. It was the first recorded
perior artists to illustrate his text, which was picture of this plant.
both scholarly and accurate. Along with the illustrations, Fuchs provided
Fuchs was born in Wemding in the Bavarian an informative text, though much of it was based
region of Germany in 1501 and attended Ger- on the plant descriptions handed down from an-
man universities, receiving his doctorate from cient Greek and Roman texts, as was traditional
the University of Ingolstadt in 1524. He briefly in herbals. But Fuchs did present over 100
practiced medicine in Munich, and then went species that hadn’t been described before, and his
back to Ingolstadt in 1526 to teach medicine. comments on firsthand experiences in the field
Two years later be became court physician to the indicate that he was a careful observer. The orga-

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Life Sciences
& Medicine
1450-1699

A page from Leonhard Fuchs’s 1543 New Plant Book. (Christel Gerstenberg/Corbis. Reproduced with permission.)

nization of the book was not very informative. John Gerard’s botanical texts remain among
Instead of grouping species with similar charac- the most significant and useful written in the
teristics, he presented them in alphabetical order. English language. Gerard was born in Nantwick
In the final analysis, it is the illustrations that in 1545 and was trained as a barber-surgeon.
made Fuchs’s herbal so memorable. They served While he never attended university, he was ap-
as the basis for pictures in many later herbals. prenticed to Alexander Mason, a London barber-
Fuchs’s book itself appeared in several editions, surgeon with a large practice, from 1561-1568.
including ones that were smaller, less expensive, From 1568 until some time in the 1570s Gerard
and easier to use for reference than the original was the surgeon of a merchant ship. It appears
large-scale edition. He planned two further vol- likely that he sailed on a ship of the Merchant
umes but they were never published. Adventurers. The only details known of these
The flowering plant, Fuchsia, was so named voyages are those that Gerard himself recorded.
in honor of Fuchs and his contributions to He indicated travel to Moscow, Estonia, Poland,
botany. and throughout Scandinavia. These travels were
significant in stimulating his interest in the col-
MAURA C. FLANNERY lection of rare and unusual plants.

John Gerard By 1577 he was married and had established

a surgical practice in London. Around this time
1542-1612 Gerard was appointed superintendent of the
English Botanist London and Hertfordshire gardens of William
Cecil, Lord Burghley. Burghley was one of the

J ohn Gerard was one of the most important

English botanists. He is known primarily for
his Herball, or Generall Historie of Plantes (1597),
most influential aristocrats in the court of Queen
Elizabeth and helped Gerard through the course
of his life. In fact, Gerard dedicated his first
a book that combined medical knowledge of book, his catalogue, and the Herball to Burghley.
plants with poetic prose, personal observations,
and elaborate illustrations. This book is signifi- At this time it was fashionable for the aris-
cant for its content, but is also important be- tocracy to maintain elaborate gardens filled with
cause, due to its popularity, it demonstrates the exotic plants, and to amass extensive collections
extent to which publishing transformed Eliza- of herbals in their libraries. As a norm these
bethan English society. large, intensively illustrated volumes contained

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folklore, commentary gathered from antiquity, English audience, Gerard’s work dominated its
Life Sciences medicinal uses of plants, and descriptions of the time and is still the best known and most fre-
& Medicine plants themselves. Furthermore, at this point in quently quoted English herbal.
European history, medicine and herb gardening
1450-1699 DEAN SWINFORD
were intrinsically related. Gerard’s status as a
surgeon necessitated his botanical knowledge.
Gerard was also responsible for his own gar- Konrad Gesner
den, located on Fetter Lane, in Holborn, Lon-
1516-1565
don. This area had, in 1600, long been a site of
suburban gardens, and Gerard constantly ex- Swiss Physician, Zoologist, and Botanist
panded and enriched his personal plant collec-
tion. Indeed, the opening passage of Gerard’s
First Booke of the Historie of Plants, a catalogue of
G esner (also called “Gesnerus”) was among
the founders of modern zoology. He also
made important contributions to botany, biolo-
the plants in Gerard’s own garden, depicts the
gy, natural history, and scientific bibliography.
extent of his enthusiasm:
Born on March 26, 1516, in Zürich,
Among the manifold creatures of God
Switzerland, Gesner was the son of a poor
(right Honorable, and my singular
Protestant furrier, Ursus Gesner. Because his fa-
good Lord) that all have in all ages di-
ther could not afford to care for all his children
versly entertained many excellent wits,
properly, Gesner was raised until 1527 by his
and drawne them to the contemplation
uncle, Hans Frick, a chaplain who awakened
of the divine wisdome, none have pro-
Gesner’s interest in plants and medicinal herbs,
voked mens studies more, satisfied
and after 1527 by Johann Jakob Ammann, a
their desires so much as Plants have
choirmaster. Gesner’s father died alongside the
done, and that upon just and worthy
Swiss Reformation leader Ulrich Zwingli in the
causes: For if delight may provoke
Battle of Kappel on October 11, 1531, fighting
mens labore, what greater delight is
against Zürich’s Catholic neighbors.
there than to behold the earth appar-
elled with plants, as with a robe of em- At school in Zürich, the boy Gesner so im-
broidered worke, set with Orient pressed his teachers that they fostered his devel-
pearles, and garnished with great diver- opment in every way. They made it financially
sitie of rare and costly jewels? possible for him to continue his education. In
1533 he entered the University of Bourges,
For Gerard, the individual plant specimen
France, to study theology and languages. The
invokes the wonder of an entire universe.
next two years he attended the University of
Gerard’s most famous work, The Herball, or Paris. In 1536 he returned to Switzerland to
Generall Historie of Plantes, was an expanded ver- avoid Catholic hostility toward Protestants and
sion of this first book. Published in 1597, it be- enrolled at the University of Basel as a medical
came a landmark in botanical publishing, and is student. Throughout the 1530s he taught school
considered one of the monuments of the English to help support himself. From 1537 to 1540 he
language. Indeed, the fame of this book is the re- was professor of Greek at the Lausanne Acade-
sult of its felicitous prose and illustration. He used my. After briefly studying medicine at the Uni-
poetic language to vividly describe the natural versity of Montpellier in 1540, he received his
world. To him, the lowly dandelion is “a floure . . . M.D. from the University of Basel in 1541.
thick set together, of colour yellow, which is
Gesner was a tireless worker, a quintessen-
turned into a round downy blowbal that is carried
tial Renaissance humanist, and a dedicated, un-
away with the wind.” His work appealed to a wide
selfish scientist. He was fluent in Hebrew, Greek,
audience, and included information about both
Latin, Dutch, French, Italian, German, and Ara-
the medicinal qualities of plants and their decora-
bic. From 1541 until he died of the plague in
tive value. Because of the success of this book, he
Zürich on December 13, 1565, he wrote, edited,
became the surgeon and herbalist of King James I
or contributed to dozens of books. Among his
and was granted a lease to a garden which ad-
goals was to help revive ancient learning and use
joined the royally-owned Somerset House.
it to promote new research. In 1543 he pub-
Though the Herball contains many errors in lished a Greek-Latin dictionary and in 1555
its identification of specimens and has been de- Latin excerpts of Greek medical encyclopedist
scribed by some as Dodoens’s Herball for an Oribasius of Pergamon (325-403?).

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Gesner’s major work, Historia animalium While the details of Glisson’s childhood and
(History of Animals), published in five volumes upbringing are cloaked in obscurity, what is Life Sciences
from 1551 to 1587, marked the beginning of known is that he was born in 1597 in Ramp- & Medicine
modern zoology with a comprehensive catalog of isham, located in southwest England; he gradu-
all animals known up to that time. It contains ated with a Bachelors of Arts from the University 1450-1699
over a thousand beautiful woodcut illustrations, of Cambridge in 1621 and obtained a Master of
including the famous, but inaccurate, depiction of Arts in 1624. He was lecturer of Greek from
the rhinoceros by Albrecht Dürer (1471-1528). 1625-1626 and he became a physician in 1634;
Evidence of the strong reputation of Historia ani- that same year he was a candidate of the Royal
malium is that both the text and the illustrations College of Physicians of London. He was named
were still being plagiarized 150 years later. regius professor of physics at Cambridge Univer-
sity in 1636 and he held this position until his
Gesner cataloged plants in Historia plan-
death. In 1639 he was named anatomy reader at
tarum et vires (History of Plants and Powers),
Cambridge University.
published in 1541, and herbal cathartic and
emetic agents in Enumeratio medicamentorum Glisson became involved with a group of
purgantium (List of Purgative Medicines), pub- physicians and scientists who began to meet on
lished in 1543. a regular basis in 1645. Out of this group, which
became known as the Invisible College, emerged
Before the sixteenth century, the most au-
the Royal Society. It was while associated with
thoritative catalog of plants and herbal medi-
this organization that Glisson, along with G.
cines was by ancient Greek botanist Dioscorides
Bate and A. Regemorter, was appointed the task
Pedanius Anazarbeus (40?-90?). After the un-
of writing a book on the disease rickets; this
timely death of the brilliant German medical
condition was becoming a noticeable affliction
botanist Valerius Cordus (1515-1544), Gesner
in England at the time. Glisson made such an
edited and expanded Cordus’s planned revision
impression on his collaborators that he became
of Dioscorides, bringing the total of plants de-
the primary contributor to the project. This
scribed from about 600 to about 1,100, and
work became one of the first books in English
published it in 1561 as Annotationes in Pedacij
on a medical subject.
Dioscoridis Anazarbei de medica materia (Notes
on Dioscorides’s materia medica). Titled Tractatus de rachitide, the document
was concerned with the description and anato-
Gesner was among the great medical bibli- my of the disease rickets which is a softening of
ographers. After Symphorien Champier (1472- the bones; Glisson wrote at that time that the
1539), he was very nearly the earliest. His ap- condition was due primarily to a deficiency of
pendix to De chirurgia scriptores (Authors on nutrition. The bones become brittle and soft and
Surgery) in 1555 contained the first useful bibli- deformities of the bones often result. Something
ography of surgery. His 1545-55 Bibliotheca uni- else significant about this book, and other of
versalis (Universal Library), though without a Glisson’s work, is that in them he tried to clearly
specific medical section, was a primary inspira- lay out his empirical findings and arrange in
tion for Sir William Osler (1849-1919) to create them in a academic manner as well as argue his
his monumental Bibliotheca Osleriana (1929). position and defend any questions or problems
Osler called Gesner the “Father of Bibliography.” with his position. This manner of conveying sci-
In 1943 a new Swiss scholarly journal on entific information in published form was to be
the history of medicine and natural sciences was a model for years to come.
named Gesnerus in his honor. Glisson’s second book, Anatomie hepatitis,
ERIC V.D. LUFT was concerned with the anatomy of the liver and
in it he was the first to describe the layer of con-
nective tissue that covers the liver now known as
Francis Glisson Glisson’s Capsule. This book was chiefly the re-
1597-1677 sult of lectures he had made on the subject of the
liver in 1640; the book was published in 1654.
English Physician
It was in this same book that Glisson ad-

F rancis Glisson was an English physician who

is known for, among other things, his med-
ical work with infantile rickets, the liver and the
vanced a new and groundbreaking concept
which he called irritability. Simply put, this idea
was concerned with the stimulation of muscle
mechanics of muscle contraction. and this phenomenon was independent of any

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external stimulus. Up to this point, the nervous identified changes in the ovarian structure fol-
Life Sciences system was poorly understood and muscle con- lowing fertilization, and witnessed the release of
& Medicine traction had been explained in different ways. fertilized ova. The latter had yet to be identified
One prevailing idea was that on contraction the by science, however—in fact it would be many
1450-1699 muscle was inflated much like a balloon only in- years before scientists understood the function
stead of air there was an unexplained “spirit” of the ovum—and thus de Graaf did not really
that inflated the muscle that emanated from the understand what he was seeing.
brain and spinal column. De Graaf was only 32 years old when he
Glisson’s concept was more in line with a died on August 21, 1673, a victim of the plague.
nervous stimulation, or irritability as he called it. In his lifetime and afterward, his independent
He theorized that nerve signals were sent from research—notable in part because it was not
the brain by way of a contraction which caused done under the aegis of any university—attract-
a vibration in the nerve that subsequently ed the admiration of other anatomists.
caused the “irritability” in the muscle resulting
JUDSON KNIGHT
in contraction. It was later that the concept pro-
posed by Glisson was carried on further to ex-
plain muscle contraction and the operation of William Harvey
the nervous system. 1578-1657
MICHAEL T. YANCEY English Physician

Regnier de Graaf
1641-1673
W illiam Harvey was the first scientist to ac-
curately describe the workings of the
human blood circulatory system, thus establish-
Dutch Anatomist ing the modern science of physiology. Harvey
based his research on extensive experiments and
observations of animals and humans, rejecting
I n his very short career, Regnier de Graaf con-
tributed to knowledge of the pancreas and the
female reproductive system. He became the first
ideas that were not confirmed by his experi-
ments. Harvey’s discoveries contradicted the
scientist to identify and describe the ovary, and long held beliefs of his contemporary physicians
discovered a structure within the latter known and scientists, and subjected him to great criti-
as the Graafian follicle. cism and derision. When his work was finally
acknowledged long after his death, Harvey’s
De Graaf was born on July 30, 1641, in the
stature rose to that of England’s most revered
Dutch town of Schoonhoven. During his acade-
physician, as well as one of the founders of
mic career, he studied at a number of universi-
modern medical science.
ties: Utrecht, Leiden, Paris, and Angers, where in
1665 he received his degree. Harvey was born in Folkestone, England,
the eldest son of Thomas Harvey, a well-respect-
In 1664, de Graaf conducted the first of his
ed Levant merchant who eventually became
important experiments—in this case, involving
mayor of Folkestone. After his first wife died in
the pancreas. Using a fistula, a sort of tube, he
childbirth, Thomas married his second wife Joan,
figured out how to extract pancreatic juice from
and they had seven sons and a daughter. William
a living dog. As it turned out, however, the theo-
attended the King’s Grammar School at Canter-
ry regarding pancreatic juice that he formed as a
bury, benefiting from a proper English school ed-
result of this experimentation was incorrect.
ucation of academics and athletics. His extraordi-
Four years later, in 1668, de Graaf began his nary academic abilities became apparent and
studies in the reproductive system. He first ex- Harvey was enrolled in Gonville and Caius Col-
amined the male system, but yielded no infor- lege at Cambridge University, where he received
mation that was not already known. With the fe- his B.A. in 1597. Harvey entered the University
male system, however, he identified the ovary, of Padua at the height of its influence as the most
whose existence had earlier been posited by Jo- prestigious medical university in Europe, and he
hannes van Horne (1621-1670) and micro- received his doctorate in 1602. William was then
scopist Jan Swammerdam (1637-1680). admitted to the College of Physicians and Sur-
Over the few years that followed for de geons, becoming a physician in 1609.
Graaf, he dissected the ovaries of numerous ani- As part of his physician’s training, Harvey
mals and located the Graafian follicle. He even served as an assistant surgeon at St. Barthol-

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assumed the presence of capillaries connecting

arteries with veins, though final confirmation Life Sciences
would come later in the century with the im- & Medicine
provement of microscopic study.
1450-1699
Harvey’s research corrected many long
held erroneous beliefs about blood circulation
and the heart, many originally postulated
1,400 years before by Galen (129-199?), the
Greek physician of Rome. Harvey was able to
cut through an immense accumulation of igno-
rance and incomprehension that had been held
on to tenaciously by the physicians, scientists,
and philosophers of Europe even during the
seventeenth century. Harvey introduced both a
new system of physiology of the heart and a
new dependence on the experimental method
of scientific research, a basic tenet of the era of
modern science.
Harvey’s practice suffered a serious decline
and his work was largely rejected during his life-
time. When Charles I was dethroned, the aged
Harvey retired into exile at his country home,
William Harvey. (Library of Congress. Reproduced with
but he did publish another textbook, De genera-
permission.)
tione animale (1651). In it he famously stated
that “all living things come from an egg,” and
omew’s Hospital, where he gathered further clin- that the egg is a composite of both parents. He is
ical experience. After he received his physician’s credited with coining the term epigenesis to de-
license, Harvey became a professor of anatomy note the developmental process of the embryo as
at the College of Physicians and Surgeons and it is gradually differentiated and emerges from
was awarded the Lumleian Lecturer position in the formless egg mass. This more accurate pro-
1615. This honored position included a series of posal was opposed by the more commonly held
weekly lectures over a six-year period, as well as belief that all embryos existed as preformed,
six anatomies a year performed on executed miniature individuals within the egg. Eventually
criminals. Harvey’s notes from this period indi- a theory of epigenesis modified from that of Har-
cate that he had begun to develop the ideas and vey was adopted and is currently accepted. Har-
concepts that would later lead to his monumen- vey is rightly remembered as the man who dis-
tal and critically important discovery of the true covered the real workings of the human heart
role of the heart and blood circulation. Harvey and circulatory system, thereby founding mod-
held his university post for 40 years, while serv- ern physiology.
ing as the personal physician of King Charles I,
KENNETH E. BARBER
and maintaining his own medical practice.

In 1628 Harvey completed the publication Jan Baptista van Helmont

that would be considered the most important
medical textbook in history, Exercitatio anatomi-
1580-1644
ca de motu cordis sanguinis in animalius (On the Belgian Alchemist/Chemist and Physician
movement of the heart and blood in animals).
Harvey proved that blood flowed from the left
ventricle of the heart, through the arteries of the J an Baptista van Helmont played an important
role in the transition from classical and me-
dieval ideas and practices to those of modern
body and then into the veins, which eventually
returned the blood to the right side of the heart. science, especially in the fields of chemistry and
Harvey confirmed that blood in the right ventri- biology. He is considered the founder of scientif-
cle went to the lungs and returned to the left ic pathology and the father of biochemistry.
side of the heart, as part of the pulmonary circu- Helmont received the M. D. degree in 1609
latory system. He also illustrated the functioning at Louvain. The ideas of the Swiss physician and
of the valves found in the heart and veins, and alchemist Paracelsus (1493-1541) dominated

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the teaching of medicine at this time. Alchemy, a In his effort to apply quantitative methods
Life Sciences forerunner of chemistry, assumed the existence to his observations and experiments, Helmont
& Medicine of a substance, known as the philosopher’s was the first to use the boiling point and melting
stone, which could transform common metals point of water as standard points for a tempera-
1450-1699 into gold. Its practice combined mysticism (reli- ture scale, thereby increasing the accuracy of
gious belief in reality beyond normal human temperature measurements.
perception) with pragmatic chemistry and as-
During the period of history in which Hel-
trology (belief that the stars and planets influ-
mont lived and worked, the world moved signif-
ence human action and health) to address vari-
icantly away from the philosophy and the tech-
ous problems such as the prediction of events
nology of the middle ages, a period also known
and the treatment of illnesses.
appropriately as the dark ages. Although a prod-
Helmont was firmly rooted in the alchemi- uct of the past and a participant in its beliefs and
cal tradition. For instance, he proposed that an practices, Helmont’s reliance on careful observa-
agent, which he called archeus, functions as an tion and quantitative experimentation led to sig-
alchemist within the body. This archeus, he be- nificant contributions to the body of scientific
lieved, has a body and a soul and causes diseases methods and ideas which subsequently devel-
by imagining them. Also, unlike Paracelsus, who oped into the dramatic change in thought and
believed that the human body was composed of practice known as the scientific revolution.
salt, sulfur, and mercury, Helmont held that the
J. WILLIAM MONCRIEF
body is made up of water, and that, indeed,
water is the basic element from which all living
matter is formed.
Anton van Leeuwenhoek
He, however, was able to move beyond this 1632-1723
medieval context. He was an attentive observer
Dutch Microscopist and Scientist
and was the first to employ quantitative and ex-
perimental methods in biological and physiolog-
ical problems. He was first to apply chemistry
systematically to biological processes, studying
K nown as the father of microbiology, Anton
van Leeuwenhoek was a Dutch scientist who
was the first to use a microscope to observe bac-
such phenomena as digestion and nutrition from teria and protozoa (one-celled animals). His re-
a chemical point of view, i.e. as resulting from searches on lower animals refuted the then-held
the interaction of chemical substances. As an ex- doctrine of spontaneous generation (the idea that
ample, he used alkaline compounds to treat the living organisms could be created from inanimate
pain caused by an excess of stomach acids. As a matter), and his observations helped lay the
result of this groundbreaking work, he is regard- foundations for the sciences of bacteriology and
ed as the founder of biochemistry. protozoology. Leeuwenhoek was an unlikely sci-
He also applied his method of deliberate entist. He had no formal training, but with his
observation to diseases, attempting to correlate skill, his diligence, his endless curiosity, and an
diseases with their causes. His systematic ap- open mind free of the scientific dogma of his day,
proach placed such study on a scientific basis, he succeeded in making some of the most impor-
and consequently he is considered to be the tant discoveries in the history of biology. He rou-
founder of the scientific discipline of pathology. tinely shared his research and in the process
opened up the entire world of microscopic life to
He was first to perceive fully that the sub-
the scientific community.
stance known simply as air is not made up of a
single entity but is composed of a number of Leeuwenhoek was born in Delft, Holland,
substances. Noting that these substances have on October 24, 1632. His relatives were primar-
the ability to fill any space made available to ily tradesmen, so although he was educated as a
them, he modified the Greek word for space, child in the town of Warmond, he did not re-
chaos, and invented the name gas. He also point- ceive any further educational training. He lived
ed out that gases are generated in various chemi- with his uncle for a time at Benthuizen and ap-
cal processes. He discovered the gas carbon diox- prenticed in a linen-draper’s shop. Around 1654
ide and showed that it is produced both in the he returned to Delft, where he spent the rest of
burning of coal and in the fermentation process his life. He set himself up in business as a fabric
of winemaking. His ideas formed the basis of the merchant, but he is also known to have worked
work of Robert Boyle (1627-1691) who is re- as a surveyor, a wine assayer, and as a minor
garded as the founder of modern chemistry. city official. In 1660 he obtained a position as

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detailed descriptions of yeast. He also demon-

strated that spermatozoa were necessary for fer- Life Sciences
tilization of the egg. Because of his hobby, a & Medicine
friend put him in touch with the Royal Society
of England; Leeuwenhoek was elected as a fel- 1450-1699
low in 1680. Many of his discoveries were made
public by the society.
Leeuwenhoek’s microscopic research on the
life histories of various low forms of animal life
was in opposition to the doctrine that they could
be produced by spontaneous generation. He
showed that both grain weevils and fleas were
produced not from grain or sand, as was the pre-
vailing wisdom at that time, but that they were
bred in the regular way of insects. He also
demonstrated similar ideas in other animals.
Leeuwenhoek became famous because of the
dramatic nature of his discoveries. He gladly
demonstrated his microscope for dignitaries the
world over and continued to do so until his
death in 1723.
JAMES J. HOFFMANN
Anton van Leeuwenhoek. (Library of Congress.
Reproduced with permission.)
Li Shih Chen
chamberlain to the sheriffs of Delft. This se- 1518-1593
cured his income and enabled him to devote Chinese Pharmacologist and Physician
much of his time to his hobby of grinding lens-
es and using them to study tiny objects. He
seems to have been inspired to take up mi-
croscopy by having seen a copy of English
L i Shih Chen was born in the Hupeh province
in northeast China, into a family whose male
ancestors were educated in medicine and prac-
physicist Robert Hooke’s (1635-1703) illustrat- ticed pharmacy. His father was a medical officer
ed book Micrographia (1665), which depicts who wrote five treatises, one of them on small-
Hooke’s own observations with the microscope. pox. Li Shih Chen’s major work is called the Pen
While Leeuwenhoek’s microscopes were simple Ts’ao or Pen Ts’ao kang mu.
in design, he possessed tremendous skill in Like European Renaissance notables, great
grinding lenses. While he is often incorrectly thinkers in China were compiling knowledge of
credited with inventing the microscope, his the past and creating encyclopedic works and col-
lenses are generally regarded as having the best lections. Li Shih Chen was born during the Ming
resolution of any microscopes in the era. Al- Dynasty (1368-1644), a time known for its bril-
though Leeuwenhoek’s studies lacked the orga- liance and prosperity. Yung Lo, the third emperor,
nization of formal scientific research, his powers built grand temples and palaces in Peking, archi-
of careful observation enabled him to make dis- tectural wonders that awed the rest of the world.
coveries of fundamental importance.
Li’s father encouraged him to become a civil
In 1674 Leeuwenhoek began to observe servant like himself, but Li was unable to
bacteria and protozoa, which he isolated from progress. His interests lay in medicine, and his
different sources and named animalcules. He ac- father permitted him to assist in observing and
curately calculated the size of these specimens. examining patients and learning what existed in
He was the first to describe spermatozoa from Chinese materia medica (books on pharmacy).
insects, dogs, and humans. Leeuwenhoek also Unfortunately, there is little information
studied the structure of the optic lens, striations available about Li Sheh Chen’s mother or female
in muscles, the mouthparts of insects, and the relatives because Chinese culture was patriarchal
fine structure of plants. He also discovered and elevated and rewarded the importance of
parthenogenesis (the reproduction of an egg un- males while subordinating women. This system
fertilized by a sperm) in aphids. In 1680 he gave went back to the philosophy of Confucius (551-

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479 B.C.) and his philosophy of filial piety and Thomas Linacre
Life Sciences its hierarchical nature. Chinese people paid
1460?-1524
& Medicine homage and obedience to the emperor, sons
obeyed their fathers, and women obeyed and British Physician
1450-1699 were subordinate to men.
The Chinese philosophy of health and heal-
ing is very different to that of European cultures.
A classical scholar and physician, Thomas
Linacre is remembered for being “the
founder and prime mover of English medicine.”
Humans were only a part of the great scheme of Linacre served as personal physician to King
nature and all living things. Although the word Henry VIII. With permission from Henry VIII,
“ecology” is new to Western culture, the link be- he founded the Royal College of Physicians in
tween agriculture, environment, and health was London, an institution through which he and a
the essence of Chinese medicine. In contrast to body of educated physicians decided who could
the concept of “cure,” prevention and health practice medicine in greater London. Members
maintenance were the ideals in the time of Li of the college were charged with the authority to
Shih Chen and the medical tradition before him. examine and license physicians. Later in his life,
Chinese philosophy depends on the concept Linacre published volumes of Latin grammar be-
of two principles, yang and yin (male and female, fore leaving medicine in 1520 to become a
principles of night and day), and five basic ele- Roman Catholic priest.
ments, five planets, five directions, five seasons, Linacre was born in Canterbury, Kent, Eng-
five colors, five sounds, and five organs of the land around 1460. He was educated at Oxford
human body. Disease was believed to be a dishar- from 1480-1484, then traveled through Italy
mony between the five fundamental organs. And studying Greek and Latin classic literature. In Italy
the restoration of the balance between yin and he studied medicine at the University of Padua, re-
yang was viewed as the cure for any disease. ceiving a degree in 1496. Upon his return to Eng-
Since the human being was inseparable from the land in 1500 he earned another degree in medi-
universe and environment, all these factors had cine, this one from Oxford. He was appointed
to be taken into account when treating a patient. tutor to Prince Arthur, son of King Henry VIII. He
In the medical world of Li Shih Chen, cosmic re- subsequently served as personal physician for
lationships with the 29 healing Buddhas were Henry VIII from 1509-1520. Linacre also treated
necessary. Hence pharmacy was a benevolent art. private patients, some of whom were among the
Since Chinese medicine also depended on most notable men in London: Cardinal Woolsey,
regional treatments and differences, the com- Desiderus Erasmus (1466?-1536), and Sir Thomas
pendium that Li composed was detailed to a de- More (1478-1535).
gree never before seen in China. As he gained
During this time, dissatisfied with a lack of
skill as a physician and recognition for his abili-
government regulation over the practice of medi-
ties, he was able to read and research. He depend-
cine—which could then be practiced by barbers,
ed on prior versions of herbals from over 40 pre-
clergy, or anyone considering themselves a physi-
vious Pen Ts’ao and incorporated medical works
cian—Linacre sought and received (in the form
into his writings. He made it his mission in life to
of a letters patent) Henry VIII’s permission in
write about, illustrate, and give directions to find
1518 to institute the Royal College of Physicians.
the environment where the particular drug grows,
Cardinal Woolsey was instrumental in helping
enumerate its pharmacological qualities, state
Linacre receive the patent of letters. As founder
what it is used for, tell about its advantages and
and president, Linacre, along with other formally
disadvantages, give directions for extracting the
educated London physicians, examined and li-
active ingredient, and determine the dosage for
censed those who would be permitted to practice
each medicine. There is no book in contemporary
medicine in greater London. The Royal College
culture that approximates this work.
of Physicians had the power to fine and imprison
In 1578 the Pen T’shao Kung Mu was com- those practicing medicine without a license, with
pleted, a description of 1,892 drugs and 10,000 graduates of Cambridge and Oxford excepted.
prescriptions. Pen T’shao means teaching based
on an understanding of drugs. The Pen Ts’ao Linacre biographer John Freind has claimed
Kang Mu (Great Herbal) consisted of 52 volumes that Linacre sought to raise the profession of Eng-
and took Li Shih Chen 27 years to complete. lish medicine and subsequently gave “encourage-
ment to men of reputation and learning” to be-
LANA THOMPSON come physicians. Under Linacre, British physi-

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cians through the Guild of Physicians consolidat- tant of Thomas Willis (1621-1675), who was
ed against their less educated rivals of barbers, then renowned as the greatest medical scientist Life Sciences
clerics, and apothecaries. They required gradua- in England. Lower was part of an informal group & Medicine
tion from Oxford or Cambridge for membership of researchers known as the “Oxford physiolo-
in the Guild. While the consolidated physicians gists.” Among his scientific collaborators at Ox- 1450-1699
were only partially successful at controlling med- ford, besides Willis, were Ralph Bathurst (1620-
ical practice, Linacre was considered “the founder 1704), Robert Boyle (1627-1691), Robert Hooke
and prime mover of English medicine.” (1635-1703), John Locke (1632-1704), John
Besides being a physician, Linacre was, of Mayow (1641-1679), Thomas Millington, Walter
course, a man of letters. He continued studying Needham, William Petty (1623-1687), Henry
the Greek and Latin classics and taught Greek Stubbe, John Wallis (1616-1703), John Ward,
and Latin to British scholars such as Sir Thomas and Christopher Wren (1632-1723). Lower,
More. His practice of medicine and his work as a Millington, and Wren all helped Willis to pro-
grammarian “placed Linacre in the front rank of duce the monumental Cerebri anatome (Anatomy
the medical humanists of the Renaissance,” of the Brain) in 1664.
wrote his biographer. For Princess Mary, for ex- Tensions in the mid-seventeenth century ran
ample, Linacre translated into English Latin high between adherents of the ancient medical
works on medicine written by the Greek physi- theories of Galen (130-200) and followers of the
cian Galen, the most important physician of pre- new physiology of William Harvey (1578-1657).
Renaissance Europe. He translated Galen’s works Willis, Lower, and the rest of the Oxford physiol-
on hygiene (1517), therapeutics (1519), tem- ogists were all Harveians. Harvey himself had
perament (1521), natural faculties (1523), the been at Oxford from 1642 to 1646. One of the
pulse (1523), and disease symptoms (1524). staunch Galenists, Edmund Meara, denounced
During this same period, however, Linacre Willis and the entire Harveian worldview in Exa-
left his medical practice to become ordained as a men diatribae Thomae Willisii de febribus (Exami-
Roman Catholic priest. He died in London of a nation of the discourse of Thomas Willis on
stone in the bladder on October 20, 1524, at the fevers) in 1665. Considering himself Willis’s dis-
age of 64. At the time of his death he had just ciple, Lower rushed to his master’s defense. His
completed a book on Latin syntax, which was first publication, Diatribae Thomae Willisii de
published posthumously. febribus vindicatio (Vindication of the discourse of
Thomas Willis on fevers), appeared only four
Linacre was so highly thought of as a gram-
months later. It was a vigorous polemic which
marian that many consider the poem by British
not only counterattacked Meara, but also defend-
poet Robert Browning (1812-1889) entitled
ed Boyle and Harvey and laid out a Harveian
“The Grammarian’s Funeral” to be a tribute to
agenda for further research into the physiology of
the physician.
the blood. It contained some of the earliest cor-
RANDOLPH FILLMORE rect observations about lung function, the inter-
action of the heart and lungs, the differences be-
Richard Lower tween arterial and venous blood, and the relation
of respiration to blood color.
1631-1691
English Physician, Anatomist, and Physiologist In 1666 Lower married Elizabeth Billing, by
whom he had two daughters. When Willis moved
to London in 1666, Lower followed him shortly
T he son of a country gentleman, Lower was
born on the family estate in Tremeer, Corn-
wall. From 1643 to 1649 he attended Westmin-
thereafter, set up his own practice, but continued
working with Willis on several research projects.
ster School of St. Peter’s College, London, the Lower became a fellow of the Royal Society in
most celebrated British preparatory school of the 1667 and a fellow of the Royal College of Physi-
era. There he won the praise of the headmaster, cians in 1675. After Willis died in 1675, Lower
Richard Busby, who sent him to Christ Church was London’s leading physician for a short time.
College, Oxford University, in 1649. Lower re- His outspoken Whig politics drove most of his
ceived his B.A. in 1653, his M.A. in 1655, and highborn patients away after 1678.
both his B.Med. and D.Med. in 1665, all from Lower was one of the first physicians to per-
Oxford. form successful blood transfusions. He reported
At Oxford he studied chemistry under Peter his experiments on dogs in Philosophical Transac-
Stahl and became the protégé and later the assis- tions of the Royal Society in 1665 and described

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his transfusion of sheep’s blood into a human in Malpighi was born in Crevalcore on March
Life Sciences the same journal in 1667. In connection with 10, 1628. He entered the University of Bologna
& Medicine this work, he greatly improved the design of the at the age of 17. He was the oldest of eight chil-
syringe. dren and lost both of his parents at the age of
1450-1699 21, prior to completing his education. He placed
Lower’s 1669 Tractatus de corde (Treatise on
the Heart) contained many noteworthy advances his career on hold for two years while he settled
in cardiology, including the first accurate the affairs for the family. When he returned to
anatomical description of the structure of heart his studies, he received a degree in medicine in
muscle. He improved Harvey’s theory of blood 1653. Three years later he became a professor at
circulation and speculated about why dark blood the University of Bologna.
from a vein turns bright red when exposed to air. Malpighi questioned the prevailing medical
One particularly famous section of this book, teachings at that time, especially the reliance on
“Dissertatio de origine catarrhi” (Dissertation on the writings of the ancient Greek doctor Galen
the origin of catarrh), disproved the traditional (130?-200?). He performed experiments that at-
belief that nasal congestion was caused by mucus tempted to explain anatomical, physiological,
dripping down from the brain or the pituitary. and medical problems of the day in a different
Even Andreas Vesalius (1514-1564) had failed to light. He was one of the first scientists to recog-
refute Galen on this point. nize the importance and value of the microscope
in medicine. In 1661 he identified and described
ERIC V.D. LUFT
capillaries, which was one of the major discover-
ies in the history of science. Malpighi’s views
Marcello Malpighi evoked increasing controversy and dissent, main-
1628-1694 ly from envy, jealousy, and lack of understanding
Italian Physician and Biologist
on the part of his colleagues. Because of this,
Malpighi bounced between various institutions
of higher learning throughout his entire lifetime.
M arcello Malpighi was an Italian physician
and biologist who pioneered experimental
methods to study living organisms with the aid
In 1662, Malpighi accepted a professorship
in medicine at the University of Messina in Sici-
of the newly invented microscope, thereby ly. It was during this time that he identified taste
founding the science of microscopic anatomy. buds and described the minute structures of the
After Malpighi’s contributions, microscopic brain, optic nerve, and fat reservoirs. In 1666 he
anatomy became essential for advancing the was the first to identify red blood cells and to at-
fields of physiology, embryology, and medicine. tribute the color of blood to them.
He is often called the father of histology (the mi-
croscopic study of tissues) because of his work After four years at Messina, Malpighi re-
with tissue and cell samples. He helped to turned in 1667 to Bologna, where, during his
change many of the antiquated ideas regarding medical practice, he studied the microscopic
medicine with his discoveries. As an example, subdivisions of specific living organs, such as
he was the first to demonstrate that capillaries the liver, brain, spleen, and kidneys, and of bone
connect small arteries and veins, completing the and the deeper layer of the skin that now bears
circuit of blood at the tissue. This discovery pro- his name (called the Malpighian layer).
vided the factual data to support English physi- Malpighi’s work at Messina attracted the atten-
cian Willam Harvey’s (1578-1657) groundbreak- tion of the Royal Society in London; in 1669
ing and controversial theory of the circulation of Malpighi was named an honorary member, the
blood (1628). For almost 40 years Malpighi first such recognition given to an Italian.
used the microscope to describe the major types Malpighi continued to make huge contributions
of plant and animal structures, having signifi- to the field of microscopy. Not just confining his
cant impact on future generations of biologists. work to medicine, he studied insect larvae and
Moreover, his lifework brought into question the plants and published a historic work in 1673 on
prevailing concepts of body function. His ene- the embryology of the chick.
mies, who failed to see how his discoveries Malpighi’s ideas were considered extremely
could possibly improve medical practice, were controversial, and in 1684 his villa was burned,
vigorously opposed to the work of Malpighi. his apparatus and microscopes shattered, and
However, he was correctly convinced that mi- his papers, books, and manuscripts destroyed.
croscopic anatomy would prove to have signifi- He accepted an invitation from Pope Innocent
cant value and influence on medicine. XII (1615-1700) in 1691 to become the papal

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archiater (personal physician), a position that he

held until his death in 1694. Life Sciences
& Medicine
JAMES J. HOFFMANN

1450-1699

Paracelsus
1493?-1541
Swiss Physician, Pharmacologist and Alchemist

P aracelsus was arguably the most innovative

medical mind of the Renaissance. Some de-
nounced him as a charlatan (one who merely pre-
tends to possess knowledge or skill) because of
his devotion to magic and the occult. But other
scholars agree that he accomplished too much in
too many genuinely scientific fields for this accu-
sation to make sense. In an age when authority
was expected to remain unquestioned, Paracelsus
rejected authority and conducted his own investi-
gations. His iconoclasm inspired Canadian physi-
cian Sir William Osler (1849-1919) to dub him
“the Luther of medicine.”
The alchemist Paracelsus. (Library of Congress.
Paracelsus was born in Einsiedeln, Switzer- Reproduced with permission.)
land, the only son of Wilhelm von Hohenheim,
a poor country physician. His real name was
Paracelsus discarded all previous medical
Philipp Aureolus Theophrastus Bombast von
systems and held Arabic medicine in particular
Hohenheim. He created the pseudonym Paracel-
contempt. To promote his lectures at the Univer-
sus by combining the Greek prefix para-, mean-
sity of Basel, Switzerland, in 1527, he publicly
ing “beside” or “beyond,” with the name of a
burned the works of the acclaimed physicians
great Roman physician, Aulus Aurelius Cor-
Galen (129-c. 216) and Avicenna (980-1037).
nelius Celsus (25 B.C.-A.D. 50).
Through alchemy, he experimented with thera-
After the death of his mother, Theophrastus peutic applications of metallurgy and chemistry
(as he was called) and his father moved in 1502 that would later develop into iatrochemistry and
to Villach, Austria. Theophrastus attended the eventually into modern chemotherapy.
Bergschule in Villach, where his father taught
Some of the ancients believed that disease
chemistry and where students learned the prop-
resulted from disturbances in the body’s four hu-
erties of metals and the economics of mining. He
mors: yellow bile, black bile, phlegm, and
served as an apprentice to his father in medicine
blood, which corresponded to the four ele-
and studied the works in his father’s library. In
ments, temperaments, and seasons. Choleric yel-
1507 he began his life of wandering. Eager for
low bile was hot and dry like fire and summer;
both knowledge and adventure, he traveled
melancholic black bile was dry and cold like
widely, briefly studying at several German uni-
earth and autumn; impassive phlegm was cold
versities. Around 1510 he may have received a
and moist like water and winter; and sanguine
bachelor’s degree from the University of Vienna.
blood was moist and hot like air and spring. It
In 1513 he enrolled at the University of Ferrara,
was believed that all four humors should be in
Italy, where he may have received an M.D. degree
balance in order to ensure good health. Paracel-
in either 1515 or 1516. However, academic life
sus renounced this traditional humoral theory
and its pretensions disturbed him. He claimed
and instead attributed the onset of disease to en-
that the true student should seek knowledge
vironmental factors such as contagion, the path-
from sorcerers, nomads, thieves, and peasants, as
ogenicity of chemicals, and geographic location.
well as from professors, and should travel in
order to keep from stagnating. His journeys ex- Paracelsus wrote much, but few of his writ-
tended into England, Africa, and Asia. While in ings were published during his lifetime. He left
England, he claimed he could learn more in a manuscripts behind him wherever he went. Thus
Cornwall mine than at Oxford or Cambridge. many of his works were published posthumously

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and probably many more were lost. His Grosse was a surgeon with the French army. Until this
Life Sciences Wund Artzney (Great Surgery) (1536), soon time, the standard surgical procedure for arrow,
& Medicine translated into Latin as Chirurgia magna, offers a bullet, and similar puncture wounds was to cau-
detailed analysis of gunshot wounds and argues terize them with hot oil. European doctors had
1450-1699 against treating them with hot oil, which was used this ancient Arabic technique for over 500
common among military surgeons before the years and no one questioned it. Paré used it too,
work of the French surgeon Ambroise Paré until the Savoyard defenders of Turin shot so
(1510?-1590). (Paré discovered the therapeutic many French soldiers that he ran out of oil. Des-
value of simple dressings and soothing ointments perate because he could not cauterize, he
for wounds.) Von der frantzüsischen Kranckheit wrapped the newer wounds in bandages soaked
(1553) contains Paracelsus’s studies of syphilis, with egg yolk, rose oil, and turpentine. The next
which he called “French disease” or “French gon- day he was surprised to discover that the ban-
orrhea.” He advocated mercury for its cure. In De daged wounds were healing better than the cau-
gradibus (1562) he detailed most of his important terized ones. He never cauterized again.
improvements in drug therapy. One of the first
books on occupational health hazards was Von Paré experimented with various substances
der Bergsucht oder Bergkrankheiten (1567), which to soak the bandages and presented his results in
focuses on the diseases of miners. In Von den his major work, La méthode de traicter les playes
Kranckheyten so die Vernunfft berauben als da sein faictes par hacquebutes et aultres bastons à feu, et
(1567), he rejected the popular notion that un- de celles qui sont faictes par flèches, dardz, et sem-
welcome mental states were caused by demons blables (The method of treating wounds made by
and described psychiatric disorders in terms of harquebuses and other firearms, and those made
purely physical occurrences. In De generatione by arrows, darts, and the like), published in
stultorum (1603), he revealed the association of 1545. He was at first disbelieved because he did
cretinism with endemic goiter. not know Latin. He wrote in the vernacular at a
time when all learned treatises were supposed to
There is no reason to discount the standard be written in Latin. After 1552, when King
view that Paracelsus was a coarse and brutish Henri II appointed him as one of the royal sur-
man. Sometime before 1524, he acquired a gigan- geons, such criticism diminished.
tic broadsword that he carried for the rest of his
life, even sleeping with it. He supposedly hid his While competing in a tournament in 1559,
personal supply of laudanum in a secret compart- Henri II received a lance wound to the eye. He
ment in its hilt. He died mysteriously in Salzburg, was attended by Paré, but died eleven days later.
Austria, perhaps as the result of a bar fight. Because of this incident, Paré turned his re-
search toward head wounds and published La
ERIC V. D. LUFT
méthode curative des playes et fractures de la teste
humaine (The method of curing wounds and
Ambroise Paré fractures of the human head) in 1561.
1510-1590 In his 1549 Briefve collection de l’administra-
French Surgeon tion anatomique (A short collection on governing
the body), Paré improved upon podalic version,

A mbroise Paré inaugurated modern military

surgery and was the greatest military surgeon
before Dominique Jean Larrey (1766-1842). He
an obstetrical technique introduced in the sec-
ond century by the Greek gynecologist Soranus.
Podalic version is a means of extraction used in
invented or introduced many surgical instru- cases of difficult birth. The physician, with the
ments and popularized the use of trusses, liga- right hand on the abdomen and the left hand in-
tures, artificial limbs, and dental implantations. side the uterus, turns the fetus and extracts it by
His Oeuvres were first published in 1575 and had the feet. No further improvements of this tech-
gone into five editions by 1598. nique were made until John Braxton Hicks
The son of an artisan in Laval, France, Paré (1823-1897) did so in the 1860s.
served as apprentice to a barber-surgeon then Paré’s 1564 Dix livres de la chirurgie (Ten
studied surgery at the Hôtel Dieu hospital in books on surgery) discuss dental and oral
Paris. He became a master barber-surgeon in surgery, amputations, and several other topics.
1536 and joined the army the same year. His 1573 Deux livres de chirurgie (Two books on
In 1536 King François I made war on the surgery) contains both scientific and fanciful ac-
Duke of Savoy and besieged Turin, Italy. Paré counts of birth defects.

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Life Sciences
& Medicine
1450-1699

Ambroise Paré treating a soldier. (Bettmann/Corbis. Reproduced with permission.)

Among Paré’s innovations were tying (ligat- gained his love of plants from his mother, who
ing) blood vessels to control bleeding during op- was an herbalist. After studying at Cambridge and
erations, performing autopsies to determine the Trinity universities, Ray traveled throughout Eng-
cause of death, and using bandages rather than land and once to Europe to collect plants, animals,
stitches to close wounds so as to minimize scar- and rocks. He began to document his samples and
ring. His autopsies led him to think that syphilis established specimens in his college garden. The
might be the cause of some aneurysms. His col- naturalist conducted experimental work in embry-
league Jean François Fernel (1497-1558) held ology and plant physiology and proved that the
the same belief, but the relationship between wood of a living tree conducts water. Ray’s fascina-
syphilis and aneurysm was not proved until tion with living and extinct organisms would
1899 by Arnold Heller (1840-1913). eventually help make sense of the chaotic mass of
names used by the other naturalists of his time.
A lifelong devout Catholic, Paré’s motto was
“I treated him; God cured him.” During this time, Ray also studied for the
ERIC V.D. LUFT
priesthood. He lectured regularly about natural
theology—the doctrine that God’s wisdom and
power could be understood by studying the nat-
John Ray ural world He created. Ray was ordained a minis-
1627-1705 ter in the Anglican Church in 1660 after years of
delay caused by the English Civil War. Ray’s for-
British Botanist and Zoologist
mal recognition as a priest, however, was short-
lived. During the war a manifesto for church re-
A founding figure in British botany and zoolo-
gy, John Ray made extensive classifications
of flowering and nonflowering plants and laid
form had been drafted. England’s new king was
displeased with the Covenant and in 1662 de-
the groundwork for the field of taxonomy and manded every minister to swear an oath con-
other evolutionary studies. The seventeenth- demning the reformation. Ray disobeyed the
century naturalist is often referred to as the fa- king’s order. His defiance cost him his university
ther of natural history in Britain. post, his house, and his treasured botanic garden.

Ray was born on November 29, 1627, in the After the Reformation, Ray joined naturalist
village of Black Notley, Essex, England. His father Francis Willughby (1635-1672) on an expedi-
was a village blacksmith. Many speculate that Ray tion to Wales. The pair agreed to undertake the

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malian class. Although a truly natural system of

Life Sciences taxonomy would not be realized until the age of
& Medicine Darwin, Ray’s system came closer than any of his
contemporaries.
1450-1699
Ray’s insight that fossils were the remains of
living organisms was a significant advance over
most other theories of his time. His ideas about
the relationship of fossils and Earth’s age would
eventually be studied by generations of paleon-
tologists.
Years of renowned research paved the way
for Ray’s induction into the newly formed Royal
Society of London, one of the world’s first scien-
tific societies, in 1667. As poor health began to
restrict his travels, Ray spent the last years of his
life interacting with the leading scientists of his
time, including zoologist Martin Lister and Eng-
lish scientist Robert Hooke (1635-1703).
After his death on January 17, 1705, at the
age of 77, Ray’s legacy endured. His book Synopsis
Methodica Avium et Piscium was posthumously
John Ray. (Corbis Corporation. Reproduced with published in 1713, and natural theology remained
permission.) an influential doctrine for well over a century.
KELLI A. MILLER
huge task of documenting the complete natural
history of all living things, with Ray responsible
for the plant kingdom and Willughby the animal. Santorio Santorio
A three-year tour of the European continent 1561-1636
greatly extended Ray’s knowledge of flora and Italian Physician
fauna. After Willughby’s sudden death in 1672,
Ray completed his portion of their project.
Ray’s research slowly began to bring order
S antorio Santorio (Latinized as Sanctorius, or
Santorius), is primarily remembered as the
inventor of the clinical thermometer and the au-
to the study of species. His method of classifica-
thor of De Statica Medicina (On Medical Measure-
tion would become a powerful tool in evolution-
ment, 1614). Santorio attempted to introduce
ary studies. In 1660 Ray published his Catalogue
quantitative experimental methods into medical
of Cambridge Plants, his first systematic work on
research. Santorio Santorio was born in Justi-
plants, birds, mammals, fish, and insects. Ray’s
nopolis (now Koper). His mother was from a
goal of a natural system of classification inspired
noble family in that region, and his father, Anto-
generations of systematists, including Swedish
nio Santorio, was a nobleman in the service of
botanist Carolus Linnaeus (1707-1778) and,
the Venetian republic. Santorio began his educa-
eventually, Charles Darwin (1809-1882).
tion in Justinopolis and continued his studies in
Because he was a natural theologian, Ray Venice. In 1575 he entered the University of
spent his time investigating the relationship of Padua and earned his M.D. degree in 1582. He
an organism’s form to function. Both Ray and served as the personal physician of a nobleman
Linnaeus searched for a natural system of classi- in Croatia from 1587 until 1599 when he estab-
fying organisms that would reflect God’s order of lished his medical practice in Venice, where he
creation. But unlike Linnaeus, who used the flo- became a friend of Galileo (1564-1642). He was
ral reproductive organs as the basis for classifica- appointed to the chair of theoretical medicine at
tion, Ray classified plants by their overall form the University of Padua in 1611. As a practicing
and structure, including internal anatomy. He physician, Santorio appears to have relied on
was the first to divide flowering plants into classical Hippocratic and Galenic methods. In-
monocots and dicots. His insistence on the im- stead of blindly following ancient authorities,
portance of lungs and cardiac structure laid the however, Santorio urged his students to consider
groundwork for the establishment of the mam- sense experience and reasoning, before accept-

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ing ancient authority. In 1624 his students

charged him with negligence on the grounds Life Sciences
that his private practice often took precedence & Medicine
over his teaching duties. Although he was found
innocent, he retired from teaching and spent the 1450-1699
rest of his life in Venice.

Santorio was a leading member of the iatro-

physical school of medical thought and attempt-
ed to explain the workings of the animal body
on purely mechanical grounds. In contrast to the
traditional Aristotelian and Galenic qualities and
essences that had been used as explanations for
bodily functions, Santorio attempted to describe
the fundamental properties of the body in me-
chanical and mathematical properties, such as
number, position, and form. As an iatrophysi-
cist, Santorio compared the body to a mechani-
cal clock or machine. His ingenious inventions
and instruments, including a wind gauge, a
water current meter, a pulsilogium, and a ther-
moscope allowed him to describe various phe-
nomena in numerical terms. Although there is
some controversy over the invention of the ther-
moscope, Santorio was apparently the first to
apply a numerical scale to the thermoscope and Santorio Santoro performing a weighing experiment.
create the clinical thermometer. Galileo’s experi- (Christel Gerstenberg/Corbis. Reproduced with
ments with pendulums probably inspired Santo- permission.)
rio’s adaptation of the pendulum to medical
practice as an accurate way to determine pulse perspiratio insensibilis, or “insensible perspira-
rate. The pulse clock was described by Santorio tion.” Santorio reported his observations in his
in a book that he published in 1603. Similarly, landmark text On Medical Measurement (1614),
Santorio’s invention of the clinical thermometer which has been called the first systematic study
in 1612 might have been inspired by Galileo’s of basal metabolism. The book was widely read
thermoscope, a device used to measure hot and and highly respected by his contemporaries.
cold. The thermoscope devised by Galileo in
1597 consisted of a glass vessel about as large as LOIS N. MAGNER

an egg, with a long glass neck. When Galileo

heard about Santorio’s instrument, he appears to Olivier de Serres
have complained and asserted his priority. Prob- 1539-1619
ably, Santorio deserves credit for adapting sever-
French Agronomist
al of Galileo’s inventions to medical practice and
for inventing others. With his pulse clock, a
clinical thermometer, and the large balance used
in his metabolic experiments Santorio was a pio-
O livier de Serres is sometimes referred to as
the father of French agriculture. His most
famous work, the Théatre d’agriculture (1600),
neer in establishing the importance of accurate
provided a complete guide to agricultural prac-
physical measurements in medicine.
tices and helped to outline the ideals of French
In order to test the ancient idea that a sec- Protestant culture. Serres advocated agricultural
ond kind of respiration occurs through the skin, reform, and explained land-management tech-
Santorio constructed a large balance on which he niques of the utmost importance in an era
often ate, worked, and slept, in order to measure threatened by nearly continuous famine,
fluctuations of his body weight in relation to his drought, and war.
solid and liquid excretions. After 30 years of Olivier de Serres was born in 1539 on his
such measurements, he established that a large family manor, called Pradel. He spent his entire
part of the food and drink that he had ingested life on this estate, and established many experi-
was apparently lost from the body in the form of mental fields on its lands. His father, Jacques de

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Serres, and his mother, Louis de Leyris, were both Protestantism as a young man, Serres acted as a
Life Sciences from well-established families of landowners in leader of the local Huguenots as early as 1561.
& Medicine Vivarais. However, despite his affluent upbring- Between 1560 and 1570, Serres commanded
ing, there is little evidence to substantiate his level troops in local campaigns, and was driven from
1450-1699 of education. He studied at the University of Va- Pradel on many occasions.
lence but probably never graduated. Still, he was
Relatively recent developments in the print-
well versed in agronomy and studied all that was
ing and distribution of books, paired with a
written concerning agricultural practices.
greater literacy rate, help to account for the ex-
Serres’s most important work was his Théatre tent of Serres’s influence. His scientific methods
d’agriculture, which was published in 1600. This and projects were based on the observation of
book was immensely popular and appeared in his immediate surroundings. These methods,
more than 45 editions through the course of the employed by many other scientists of the time,
century. Indeed, it remained the standard text- were developed in direct reaction to the empha-
book of agriculture for an even greater period of sis on the cosmological and universal theories
time. The work is divided into sections that ex- perpetuated by medieval Catholic scientists. Ser-
plain specific agronomic and horticultural prac- res’s agenda was both French and Protestant. His
tices. These sections focus on subjects as diverse book outlined practical farming practices and
as methods of tilling, dressing, and sowing, the also illustrated the means by which to attain a
nature of soils, the art of grafting, the mainte- cultural and religious ideal.
nance of kitchen gardens, the planting of trees,
and the comportment of the country gentleman. DEAN SWINFORD

In essence, this book operated as a guide-

book for the French landowner. It discussed the
domestication and cultivation of French plants
Michael Servetus
and animals, and provided detailed instructions 1511-1553
on how to maximize the productivity of the land. Spanish Physician and Theologian
Serres advocated irrigation and provided useful
tips for the maintenance of well-drained soils.
Likewise, he was one of the first advocates of M ichael Servetus, or Miguel Serveto, was a
person of many interests who is credited
with the discovery of pulmonary circulation, the
water conservation techniques. Furthermore,
while he discussed the uses of native species, he process of blood going to the lungs to pick up
also advocated the use of artificial grasses on fal- oxygen. Servetus’s life was one of controversy—
low lands. Indeed, he introduced hops to France, from the question of his place of birth, to the
an ingredient necessary for beer-brewing. end of his life when he was burned at the stake
for heresy.
Serres dedicated his Théatre d’agriculture to
Henry IV, who was a close friend. The two were The traditional site of his birth is Tudela,
so well acquainted that in 1599, Serres pub- Navarre, in southern Spain, although some of his
lished a book on the art of silk collecting espe- writings indicate he was born in Villaneuva,
cially for the King. Because of this book, Serres Spain, in 1511. Some of his statements lead oth-
was recognized as an expert on sericulture, the ers to think he was born in 1509. The son of a
production of raw silk and the rearing of silk- notary, he was sent to Toulouse, France, to study
worms for this purpose. law but became interested in theology. His friend
and mentor was a Franciscan monk Juan de
The wealth of knowledge contained in Ser-
Quintana, who took Servetus to the coronation
res’s Théatre d’agriculture was significant regard-
of Emperor Charles V at Bologna. Disgusted with
less of social circumstances. However, the social
the extravagance and worldliness of the pope and
conditions of the time directly impacted Serres,
church, he left Quintana and traveled to Lyons,
and shaped his role as a public figure. His focus
Geneva, and Basel. These latter cities in Switzer-
on agricultural practices was imperative during a
land were the center of the Protestant reforma-
time of constant famine, war, and drought. In-
tion, with such leaders as John Oecolampadius,
creased harvests were necessary to accommodate
Martin Bucer, and John Calvin (1509-1564).
the increased demands that were placed on the
land. This era was particularly impacted by reli- Through his biblical studies, Servetus con-
gious battles instigated by the uprisings of the cluded that the Trinity was not described in the
Protestant reformation; Serres actively partici- Bible and angered both the Catholics and Protes-
pated in some of these battles. A convert to tants with his persistent arguments. But Servetus

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had a stubborn personality and was determined downfall. His letters fell into the hands of the in-
to voice and print his unpopular views. quisitor in Lyons and his books were seized. He Life Sciences
Assuming the name Michel de Villeneuve
was tried and convicted of heresy but managed & Medicine
to escape with his life.
and sometimes Villanovanus, he went to the 1450-1699
University of Paris to study then moved to Lyons He decided Italy would be a safe place, but
to work as an editor for the famous publishers, ended up going by way of Geneva, the hotbed of
the Trechsel brothers. The editing duties led to Protestant ideas. He was recognized and arrest-
his interest in medicine. There, while editing ed. Calvin declared that Servetus must be put to
and reading hundreds of medical manuscripts, death. He was given the opportunity to retract
he met the medical humanist Symphorien his ideas and on October 27, 1553, was burned
Champier (1471-1539) who encouraged him go at the stake while still declaring he was right and
back to Paris to study medicine under several would never recant.
distinguished anatomists.
EVELYN B. KELLY
In 1537 he published a work supporting
the use of syrups for curative purposes, the eat-
ing of “correct foods” including citrus, and Jan Swammerdam
maintained that sickness was the perversion of 1637-1680
natural functions of the body organs, a basic Dutch Anatomist and Microscopist
contention of Galen (129-199?). He became an
exciting and interesting teacher and lecturer, but
Servetus’s views on astrology led to his condem-
nation for teaching of medicine as a function of
J an Swammerdam, the son of a prosperous
apothecary, was born in Amsterdam, Holland
and died there only 43 years later. Even as a
astrology. In 1538 he was charged and dismissed child, Swammerdam’s main interest was the
for lecturing on astrology. study of insects. His father was also interested in
Servetus then moved to Lyons, a port center the natural sciences, but he demanded that his
more accepting of dissenting views, where he son take religious orders rather than study nat-
practiced medicine. For a while he lived at Vi- ural history. As a compromise, Swammerdam
enne and served as personal physician to Arch- was allowed to study medicine at the University
bishop Pierre Palmier. Establishing a general at Leiden. Although Swammerdam graduated as
practice, he worked for the next 12 years and a doctor of medicine in 1667, he retained his in-
became a respected member of the medical com- terest in research on insects and never practiced
munity. He was elected by his colleagues to the medicine. Through his research on the natural
Confraternity of Saint Luke, serving as supervi- history and anatomy of insects, Swammerdam
sor to the apothecaries and overseeing work established himself as one of the founders of
with indigent patients at the hospital. modern comparative anatomy, entomology, and
microscopy. Swammerdam saw the microscope
In 1553 he wrote a book called The Restora- as a tool rather than an end in itself and he used
tion of Christianity, which discussed the pul- it to carry out systematic studies of entomology
monary transit of the lungs within the frame- and comparative anatomy.
work of how the Holy Spirit entered man. Ac-
During the seventeenth century, naturalists
cording to the Bible, God breathed into man the
began to use microscopes to examine the mor-
breath of life or soul. Therefore, he reasoned that
phology of organisms that were difficult or im-
there must be a point of contact between the air
possible to see with the naked eye. Much of the
and blood. Galen had surmised that the blood
early microscopical work was devoted to plant
went through the septum, the dividers of the
tissues, but Swammerdam was primarily inter-
chambers of the heart. Challenging Galen’s idea
ested in the fine structure of insects. In order to
that this middle wall or septum was not suitable
study the mouthparts and action of insects,
for such passing, he concluded that blood was
Swammerdam subjected himself to the bite of
pumped from the right side of the heart to the
lice and other insects. In addition, he systemati-
lungs through an artery and picked up the vital
cally investigated the fine structure of plants and
spirit or air. The “vital spirit” was then received
animals, and discovered the minute “seeds” of
in the left side of the heart, which then pumped
ferns. Through dissection and microscopic ex-
blood into the arteries of the entire body.
aminations of human cadavers, he made impor-
This same document, along with letters to tant discoveries about the uterus, spinal medul-
John Calvin, the Protestant reformer, was his la, lymphatic system, and the organs of respira-

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tion. The studies of respiration included in his Thomas Sydenham

Life Sciences 1667 graduation thesis included original obser-
1624-1689
& Medicine vations about the structure of the lung that had
important implications for forensic science. English Physician
1450-1699 Swammerdam reported that, before respiration
had been established, the lungs of a newborn
mammal would sink when placed in water. After T homas Sydenham put British medical prac-
tice on a firm empirical foundation. He es-
chewed medical theorizing, discounted medieval
respiration had been established, the lungs
would float. medical traditions and Renaissance science,
trusted no medical author except Hippocrates
In 1669 Swammerdam published a general (460?-377? B.C.), and based his therapeutics on
history of insects. The text was written in Dutch his own direct observation of each patient.
rather than Latin. He also carried out dissections
of tadpoles, snails, marine invertebrates, and so Sydenham was born the son of a country
forth. After contracting malaria, a mosquito-borne squire in Dorset. In 1642 he matriculated at
disease that plagued him for the rest of his life, Magdalen Hall, Oxford University, but the Eng-
Swammerdam was sent to the countryside to re- lish Civil War interrupted his studies. He fought
cuperate. Instead, he devoted himself to a on the side of Parliament and achieved the rank
painstaking study of the morphology and natural of captain. He returned to Oxford in 1647 and
history of the mayfly. This research was also pub- received his bachelor of medicine there in 1648.
lished in Dutch in 1675. The study of the mayfly This was not an earned degree, but a reward for
reflected Swammerdam’s growing interest in reli- his services to Cromwell. Much later, in 1676,
gion as well as his obsession with the details of in- he received an honorary M.D. from Pembroke
sect life. He suggested that knowledge of the brief College, Cambridge University. He became a li-
life of the mayfly might give humans beings an ap- centiate of the Royal College of Physicians in
preciation of the shortness of earthly existence and 1663, but never was admitted as a fellow, proba-
inspire them to a better life. Eventually, his health bly because after the Restoration of Charles II in
deteriorated and he became increasingly involved 1660, the British political climate was against
in religion and mysticism; especially after he be- those who had opposed the monarchy.
came a disciple of Antoinette Bourignon, who was Although he remained at Oxford until
known as a mystic and religious fanatic. 1655, he distrusted academic medicine and was
More than fifty years after Swammerdam’s skeptical of anything he was taught. He was
death, his manuscripts were purchased by Her- more interested in curing diseases than in specu-
mann Boerhaave, who had them translated into lating about their causes. Nevertheless, he devel-
Latin and published in two large volumes oped his own theories of the origins and trans-
under the title Biblia naturae (Bible of Nature, missions of diseases and held to the humoral
1737). The text, which included plates en- theory of Hippocrates that the healthy body is in
graved from Swammerdam’s own drawings, balance with nature. He claimed that each dis-
provided the first systematic account of insect ease must run its natural course, but that the
microanatomy, classification, and metamorpho- physician, using nature, could ease the suffering
sis. For each of the insects that had been stud- of the patient along this course. His belief that
ied, Swammerdam described the natural histo- each disease was a separate entity made him a
ry and details of its anatomical structures. For godfather of the nosological movement in the
example, Swammerdam provided the first ac- eighteenth century.
curate descriptions of the compound eyes, In 1655 Sydenham opened the medical
stinger, and mouthparts of the honeybee. practice in Westminster, London, that occupied
Swammerdam discovered the nucleated, red him for the rest of his life. The same year he
blood corpuscles of the frog. He also described married Mary Gee. They had three sons, one of
experiments that proved, contrary to traditional whom, William, became a physician.
belief, muscles do not increase in volume when
they contract. In addition, eighteenth century Sydenham’s observations contributed much
naturalists turned to Swammerdam’s studies of to the knowledge of dysentery, malaria, pneu-
insect metamorphosis in support of the theory monia, and several nervous conditions. He pop-
of embryological development known as prefor- ularized using cinchona or Peruvian bark, the
mationism. source of quinine, to treat malaria. He used opi-
ates to treat nearly everything else and he in-
LOIS N. MAGNER vented laudanum. He was among the first to

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prescribe fresh air for convalescence, exercise for heal. He helped shift the perspective of medicine
tuberculosis, and iron tonics for anemia. He from mystical speculation and superstition to a Life Sciences
formed close friendships with the chemist rational field based on the universal laws of & Medicine
Robert Boyle (1627-1691) and the philosopher physics and chemistry.
John Locke (1632-1704). The three mutually in- 1450-1699
The Sylvius family was of southern Flemish
fluenced each other’s work for decades.
extraction. His grandfather, a wealthy merchant,
Sydenham’s most important work was his emigrated from Cambria in France to Frankfurt-
1683 Tractatus de podagra et hydrope (Treatise on am-Main. Born in Hanau, Prussia, which is now
gout and dropsy), in which he distinguished be- Hanover, Germany, Franciscus Sylvius received
tween gout and rheumatism. The first edition of his education at Sedan, a Calvinist academy. Be-
his Observationes medicae (Medical observa- cause of his ancestry and residence in several
tions), published in 1676, contained the best de- countries, Sylvius is also known as Franz Dele-
scriptions of measles and scarlet fever up to that boe or Francois Du Bois, of which Franciscus
time, and the first clear distinction between Sylvius is the Latinized version.
these two diseases. The fourth edition (1685) re-
ported significant progress in smallpox research. He went to several great universities in Eu-
His Schedula monitoria de novae febris ingressu (A rope, including Leiden, Wittenburg, and Jena,
warning essay on the emergence of a new fever), and received his doctorate at Basel, Switzerland,
published in 1686, included his description of in 1637. He went back to Hanau to practice
chorea minor or St. Vitus’s dance, now called medicine, but soon returned to Leiden to lecture
Sydenham’s chorea or rheumatic chorea. Among on anatomy.
his other books are: Methodus curandi febres At first he just lectured using the book
(Method of curing fevers), 1666; Epistolae re- Anatomicae intitutiones, written by Caspar
sponsoriae duae (Two responsive letters), 1680; Bartholin (1585-1629). Soon he found himself
and Dissertatio epistolaris ad . . . Guilielmum Cole demonstrating dissection and anatomy to a large
(Dissertation in the form of a letter to William audience in the botanical garden of the universi-
Cole), 1682. ty. Later, he devised physiology experiments for
Sydenham had many followers, especially the instruction of his students. William Harvey
posthumously, and his positive influence lasted (1604-1649) had just proposed his new theory
at least two centuries. His clinical reputation is of blood circulation, and Sylvius became an en-
based primarily on the fact that he made his pa- thusiastic supporter and used dogs to demon-
tients feel better. He relied chiefly upon veg- strate his belief in the theory. Relating physiology
etable materia medica and noninvasive methods. and chemistry, he developed a theory of the in-
He bled patients as often as did most other teraction between acids and bases in the blood.
physicians of his time, but did not take such Also he described the nature and use of body flu-
great quantities of blood. Even if he did not cure ids, including blood, lymph, pancreatic juice,
his patients, they were satisfied with his fatherly and saliva. He was in error to assume all fluids
concern and gentle therapeutics. were either acid or bases and, in order to treat
disease, the correct balance must be restored.
The Sydenham Society, dedicated to the
preservation of medical knowledge, was found- Sylvius seemed to be limited at Leiden and
ed in London in 1844 and succeeded by the in 1641 moved to Amsterdam, where he set up a
New Sydenham Society in 1858. profitable medical practice and became a re-
spected member of the community. A member
ERIC V.D. LUFT
of the Protestant Walloon Church, he was ap-
pointed physician in charge of relief to the poor
Franciscus Sylvius and supervisor of the Amsterdam College of
Physicians. Although a dedicated physician, he
1614-1672
did not abandon his anatomy and physiology
German Physician, Chemist, and Anatomist studies and devoted spare time to his experi-
ments. He discovered the deep cleft separating
F ranciscus Sylvius was the founder of a school
of medicine which proposed that all physical
events of the body, including disease, are based
the temporal area of the brain from the frontal
and parietal lobes. The cleft or fissure is named
the sylvian fissure.
on chemical reactions. This school of science
later became known as “iatrochemistry,” coming In 1658 representatives from Leiden per-
from the Greek work “iatro,” which means to suaded Sylvius to return to accept a professor-

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ship at twice the salary offered to other profes- ick III; his great-grandfather, Johannes Witing
Life Sciences sors. He threw himself into the new task and at- van Wesele (d. 1476), was physician to Frederick
& Medicine tracted students from all over Europe. He re- and Archduke Maximilian; his grandfather, Ever-
mained at Leiden from 1658-72 and became one art van Wesele (d. c. 1485), was physician to
1450-1699 of Europe’s outstanding teachers. Maximilian; and his father, Andries van Wesele
He persuaded the hospital to let him try a (c. 1479-1527), was apothecary to Emperor
unique innovation—taking his students with Maximilian I (the former Archduke) and Emper-
him as he went to the hospitals. He was one of or Charles V. Frederick granted to Johannes a
the first professors to instruct future physicians coat of arms with three weasels. This device is
as they made their rounds through the wards. commonly seen in representations of Vesalius.

He also performed autopsies himself. His Vesalius received a Catholic education in

students were enthusiastic about his teachings Brussels, probably at the School of the Brothers
and defended them in public debates. He pub- of the Common Life, from about 1520 until
lished his main work, Praxeos medicae idea nova, 1529, when he entered the University of Lou-
in 1670, but did not live to see the second vol- vain. He studied there until 1533, then at the
ume in print. He died on November 16, 1672, University of Paris until 1536. He received his
at Leiden. M.B. from Louvain and his M.D. from the Uni-
versity of Padua, Italy, both in 1537. From 1537
In 1647 Sylvius married Anna de Ligne, the to 1544 he taught surgery and anatomy at
daughter of a lawyer, who was 13 years younger Padua. In 1537 he published his paraphrase of
than he. She died in 1657. In 1666, he married a nine books of the Arabic physician Rhazes (c.
22-year-old woman, who died three years later. 854-c. 925) and in 1539 his first Epistola (The
Only one of his children grew to adulthood. Venesection Letter).
Sometimes the Dutch Sylvius is confused When Vesalius was a student the dominant
with Jacobus Sylvius (1478-1555) of Paris, a medical system in Western Europe derived from
skilled anatomist, teacher, and later opponent of the Greek physician Galen (c. 130-c. 200). Vesa-
Andreas Vesalius (1514-1564). lius had no reason to question Galen until, while
Franciscus Sylvius was able to work with at Paris, he began his lifelong habit of doing all
the innovations of Harvey but kept them in the his own dissections. The more he saw with his
general framework of Galen’s humoral system. own eyes the less he believed in the anatomical
However, in his therapies, he preferred chemical textbooks. He became preoccupied with
medicines to those of Galen (130-200), using anatomical science, and even stole a corpse from
mercury, antimony, and zinc. In this emphasis, a gibbet in Louvain in 1536. By 1540 he recog-
his work was pivotal to a new outlook of scien- nized that many fundamental Galenic presenta-
tific investigation. He taught many students who tions of human anatomy were wrong.
went on to be distinguished anatomists, includ- At Padua he hired artists to prepare accurate
ing Jan Swammerdam (1637-1680) and Reinier anatomical charts for his students. His first origi-
de Graaf (1641-1673). nal publication, Tabulae anatomicae sex (Six
EVELYN B. KELLY anatomical charts) appeared in 1538. The illus-
trations were done by the Flemish artist Jan
Stephan van Calcar (1499-1546?), a student of
Andreas Vesalius Titian (1488?-1576).
1514-1564
In 1540 at the University of Bologna, Vesal-
Belgian Anatomist, Physician, and Surgeon ius publicly announced that Galenic anatomy
was not human anatomy, but the anatomy of
A ndreas Vesalius revolutionized the study of
anatomy, contributed immeasurably toward
making medicine a rigorous empirical science,
apes, pigs, and dogs transposed into human
form. He had already proved this assertion to his
own satisfaction, but to demonstrate it to the
and wrote one of the most important books in world, he began to prepare his monumental
medical history. work, De humani corporis fabrica libri septem
Andries van Wesel is generally known by the (Seven books on the structure of the human
Latin form of his name, Andreas Vesalius. He was body), and an outline version to be published si-
born in Brussels and destined to serve the Holy multaneously, Suorum de humani corporis fabrica
Roman Emperors. His great-great-grandfather, librorum epitome (Epitome of his books on the
Peter Witing, was physician to Emperor Freder- structure of the human body). Both appeared in

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Life Sciences
& Medicine
1450-1699

Andreas Vesalius, dissecting a cadaver. (Corbis Corporation. Reproduced with permission.)

1543. Vesalius visited Titian’s studio in Venice in it in this subgenre are renowned not only for
1542 and Calcar probably did most of the illus- their scientific accuracy, but also for their beauty
trations for both the Fabrica and the Epitome. and power as aesthetic objects.
Vesalius personally gave the uniquely col- ERIC V.D. LUFT
ored dedication copy of the Fabrica to Charles V
in Mainz, Germany, in 1543. Charles was im-
pressed enough to appoint Vesalius his house- Raymond Vieussens
hold physician. Vesalius abruptly abandoned the 1641?-1715?
study of anatomy to become an imperial
courtier, but remained active in other areas of French Physician, Surgeon, and Anatomist
medical research. In 1546 he published his sec-
ond Epistola (The China Root Letter), about
syphilis. He published a definitive edition of the
T he son of François Vieussens, a townsman
of Vigan, France, Raymond Vieussens was
best known for his advancements in the knowl-
Fabrica in 1555, but his primacy as an anatomist
edge of the brain and spinal cord. He received
was usurped in his lifetime by his student
his medical degree from the University of Mont-
Gabriele Falloppio (1523-1562).
pellier in 1670, then became chief physician at
In 1544 he married Anne van Hamme. Hôtel Dieu St.-Eloi, the main hospital in Mont-
Thereafter he spent his life mostly traveling with pellier. Thereafter he divided his career between
the emperor throughout Europe, sometimes as a Montpellier and Paris, but held no university
military surgeon. When Charles V abdicated in appointment. In the late 1670s he married Elis-
1556, he created Vesalius Count Palatine with a abeth Peyret, by whom he had twelve children.
pension. With Ambroise Paré (c. 1509-1590), Two of his sons and two of his sons-in-law be-
Vesalius attended the dying French King Henri came physicians.
II in 1559. The same year he moved to Madrid
Favored and protected by the French aris-
as court physician to Spanish King Philip II. He
tocracy, Vieussens became wealthy through the
died on the Greek island of Zacynthus while re-
patronage of royals and nobles. He was the per-
turning from a pilgrimage to Jerusalem.
sonal physician of the Marquis de Castries, the
Vesalius inaugurated an important subgenre Archbishop of Toulouse, and the Duchess of
of medical publications: “artistic anatomy.” His Montpensier. Even though he never treated
Fabrica and the hundreds of books that followed King Louis XIV (1638-1715), he received the ti-

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tles of Royal Physician in 1688 and State Coun- d’Azyr’s centrum. The beautifully executed cop-
Life Sciences cillor in 1707. perplate illustrations make Neurographia univer-
& Medicine Throughout his career he was not on good
salis second in importance only to Willis’s Cerebri
anatome (Anatomy of the brain) (1664) among
1450-1699
terms with the medical faculty at Montpellier, pri-
seventeenth-century books on neuroanatomy.
marily because of his long and bitter dispute with
Professor Pierre Chirac (1650-1732) about which Vieussens’s Novum vasorum corporis humani
of the two had first discovered an acidic salt in systema (New system of the vessels of the human
the blood. Also involved in this public controver- body) (1705) is a classic of cardiology. It in-
sy were the English physician Richard Lower cludes the earliest accurate descriptions of mitral
(1631-1691), Guy Crescent Fagon (1638- 1718), stenosis, aortic insufficiency, aortic regurgitation,
and William Briggs (1642-1704). The irony of and several other heart diseases and circulatory
the situation is that both Vieussens’s and Chirac’s disorders. Vieussens was also the first to de-
results were incorrect. scribe the left ventricle and some of the blood
vessels of the heart correctly.
As an anatomist, Vieussens was careful, ob-
servant, and generally accurate, but his physio- The first part of Vieussens’s Tractatus duo
logical studies were suspect. Several dubious (Treatise on two subjects) (1688) discusses
schools of physiological speculation held sway human anatomy; the second part discusses fer-
in the seventeenth century, and Vieussens was mentation. Among his many other works are
influenced by two of them—the dualistic iatro- Epistola de sanguinis humani (A letter about
mechanics of French scientist and philosopher human blood) (1698) and Deux dissertations
René Descartes (1596-1650) and the mystical ia- (Two dissertations) (1698), both about blood;
trochemistry of Franciscus de le Boe Sylvius Dissertatio anatomica de structura et usu uteri ac
(1614-1672). Twenty-first-century readers may placentae muliebris (Anatomical dissertation on
discount Vieussens’s accounts of bodily process- the structure and use of the uterus and placenta
es and functions but still find lasting value in his in women) (1712); Traité nouveau de la structure
accounts of bodily structures. de l’oreille (New treatise on the structure of the
ear) (1714); Traité nouveau des liqueurs du corps
Vieussens’s two main influences in the study humain (New treatise on human body fluids)
of anatomy were English anatomist and physi- (1715); and Traité nouveau de la structure et des
cian Thomas Willis (1621-1675) and Danish causes du mouvement naturel du coeur (New trea-
anatomist Nicolaus Steno (1638-1686). All three tise on the structure of the heart and the causes
were interested in the anatomy of the brain. of its natural motion) (1715).
Vieussens concentrated his anatomical research
on the nervous and vascular systems. ERIC V. D. LUFT

Many neurological and cardiological features

are named after him, including Vieussens’s cen- Thomas Willis
trum (the white oval core of each hemisphere of 1621-1675
the brain); Vieussens’s valve (a sheet of thin white British Physician
tissue in the brain); Vieussens’s ventricle (one of
the fluid-filled spaces in the brain); Vieussens’s
ansa (a loop in the ganglia around the subclavian
artery); Vieussens’s ganglion (a network of nerves
T homas Willis was a British physician and the
leader of the English iatrochemists, a group
of scientists who strived to explain bodily func-
between the aorta and the stomach); Vieussens’s tions and disease from a chemical standpoint.
anulus, isthmus, or limbus (a ring of muscle in Willis’s research laid the foundational text on the
the right atrium of the heart); Vieussens’s forami- anatomy of the central nervous system.
na (tiny openings in the veins of the right atrium
Willis was born on January 27, 1621, in
of the heart); and Vieussens’s veins (small veins
Great Bedwyn, Wiltshire, England. As did many
on the surface of the heart).
men of his time, Willis chose to follow a career
In his major work, Neurographia universalis in the church. His early pursuit of the ministry,
(General neurography) (1684), Vieussens was the however, was thwarted when the English Civil
first to describe the centrum ovale precisely; thus War broke out. After deciding that such a career
it is sometimes called Vieussens’s centrum. Be- would be risky, he turned to medicine. He alter-
cause Félix Vicq d’Azyr (1748-1794) achieved a nated between the classroom at Oxford Univer-
more refined understanding of its structure, it is sity and the battlefield as he fought for the Roy-
more often called the centrum semiovale, or Vicq alist Army from 1643-1646.

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For 15 years Willis served as an Oxford pro- Francis Willughby

fessor of natural philosophy. In 1660 he was ap- Life Sciences
1635-1672
pointed Sedleian Professor of Natural Philoso- & Medicine
phy. When the anatomist began his Sedleian lec- English Natural Historian
tures, he ignored the traditional Aristotelian 1450-1699
science, instead emphasizing iatrochemistry and
the correlation between chemical and physical F rancis Willughby was a gifted amateur ob-
server and collector of natural history speci-
mens. His work in zoology, particularly with in-
interactions. With the help of his students,
Christopher Wren (1632-1723), Robert Hooke sects and vertebrates, together with his moral
(1635-1703), and John Locke (1632-1704), and and financial support, constituted a major con-
his associate, Richard Lower (1631-1691), Willis tribution to the pioneering work of John Ray in
actively engaged in anatomic and physiologic re- biological systematics.
search. Lower’s extraordinary skill in anatomical Francis Willughby was born the third child
dissection allowed Willis to conduct his pioneer- and only son of Sir Thomas Willughby and his
ing study of the central nervous system and wife, country gentry living in the county of War-
cerebral circulation. wickshire. Willughby was educated at Sutton
In 1664 Willis’s careful studies of the ner- Coldfield School and at Trinity College, Cam-
vous system and various diseases were outlined bridge. There he met John Ray (1628-1705),
in his comprehensive work, Cerebri Anatome, cui eight years his senior and a lecturer at the col-
accessit Nervorum descriptio et usus. His work was lege, who later became a pioneering biological
the most accurate account of the nervous system systematist. Following his graduation in 1656
to date and was the first to clearly identify the Willughby continued his studies at Cambridge
distinct sub-cortical structures. Willis’s work de- and through extensive private reading of natural
tailed the concept of circulation of the blood and history at the Bodleian Library, Oxford Universi-
introduced the world to the term “reflex action.” ty. In the early 1660s Willughby and Ray under-
He described the circle of arteries located at the took a series of collecting expeditions through
base of the brain (which is still called the Circle various parts of England and Wales. This travel
of Willis) and explained its function. was largely underwritten by Willughby. The two
men evidently decided to try and place the plant
Britain’s new authority on the brain also and animal worlds within some scientific sys-
documented the spinal accessory nerve, the tem. In 1663 Willughby became one of the
nerve responsible for motor stimulation of the founding members of the Royal Society of Lon-
major neck muscles, also called the eleventh cra- don. In the spring of 1663 Willughby and Ray,
nial nerve. In 1671 he first described myasthe- in company with Phillip Skippon and Nathaniel
nia gravis, a chronic muscular fatigue marked by Bacon, who had also been students of Ray’s at
progressive paralysis and fever. Cambridge, traveled in the Netherlands, Ger-
As a follower of the Paracelsian School of Ia- many, and Italy. They spent the winter of 1663-
trochemistry, Willis attempted to understand 64 in Padua, where Willughby registered and
anatomy and physiology by studying the body’s studied anatomy at the university there. In 1664
chemical interactions. Willis was the first to Willughby left Ray and Skippon in Italy, return-
identify sugar in the urine of diabetics, a discov- ing to England via Spain. Willughby purchased
ery that led to the classification of diabetes mel- many engravings of plants and animals and con-
litus. His acute observations of various epi- tinued with certain botanical experiments, main-
demics also resulted in the first clinical descrip- ly having to do with sap rising in birch trees.
tion of typhus fever and launched the English When Ray returned to England, he and Willugh-
tradition of epidemiology. by continued this activity, while Ray also helped
arrange and classify Willughby’s specimens.
In 1674 he published Pharmaceutice ratio-
Willughby’s father died in 1665, and in 1668
nalis, a series of case histories, post mortems,
Willughby married Emma Barnard, by whom he
and therapies that vied to establish anatomy and
had a daughter and several sons. He had been
chemical experimentation as the basis of phar-
planning a trip to the American colonies to
macology. His book, however, was not consid-
study the animal life there when he died at his
ered a success.
home in Middleton, England, in the summer of
Willis died a year later on November 11, 1672.
1675, in London, England.
Ray had been living and working at
KELLI A. MILLER Willughby’s home as tutor to his friend’s chil-

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dren; he continued there for several years in that nior member of the university’s medical faculty.
Life Sciences capacity while simultaneously working on The income from this post enabled him to col-
& Medicine Willughby’s collections. Ray was also a trustee of lect natural history specimens throughout Italy,
Willughby’s estate, with Skippon and Francis often with colleagues or students. Later appoint-
1450-1699 Jessop, another colleague, as co-trustees. ed to teach the history of medicinal plants, he
Willughby’s will provided Ray an annual stipend also established and directed a botanical garden,
of sixty pounds. Ray spent some time in editing but soon was covering all natural history. Owing
and completing two books of Willughby’s work to increasing student interest in his subject, he
and observations, Ornithologia (1676), and His- was made a full professor of the natural sciences
toria piscium (1686). There was considerable de- at Bologna in 1561. He did pioneering work in
bate in the nineteenth century concerning chick embryology and became an authority on
Willughby’s share in the conclusions reached in both pharmacology and on civic hygiene for the
these books and in Ray’s own later publications. City of Bologna. His dozen sumptuously illus-
Willughby was an extremely able amateur natu- trated published works, most of which appeared
ralist whose observations informed much of after his death, were published with financial as-
Ray’s work. He was also a warmly supportive sistance from Pope Gregory XIII. They included
friend and colleague. But, taken as a whole, his studies of mammals, birds, reptiles, fish, and in-
work did not match the stature of Ray’s accom- vertebrates.
plishments. Willughby was a young man of
many varied interests, some of which ran in Prospero Alpini
other directions, including family history, for- 1553-1616
eign language vocabularies, and the recreational Italian botanist and physician who first exam-
games played by people in late seventeenth-cen- ined plants outside of their uses for medicine.
tury England. Unfortunately, he died before ac- Born in Marostica, he studied medicine at the
complishing much of the work in natural history University of Padua. His major contributions re-
that he had planned. Ray’s editions of Willugh- sulted from his travels, especially to Egypt,
by’s books incorporated conclusions drawn from where he brought home exotic plants and
Willughby’s field work and experiments, his col- sought to categorize them. Some of his descrip-
lections, and their many discussions concerning tions were included in the writings of Linnaeus,
scientific method. With the aid of Skippon and the great Swedish organizer plants and animals,
Jessop, Ray, a very self-effacing person, placed all who named a genus after him.
of these materials within an understandable sci-
Giulio Cesare Aranzio
entific context. Ray’s own later publications on
1530-1589
animals probably benefited in some measure
from the close association with his younger col- Italian physician and surgeon who saw in the
league. But Ray’s conceptual and organizational ancient surgical texts the foundations of a mod-
genius, coupled with his own very extensive ern practice. A lecturer in anatomy for 22 years
study and field work, merit his firm position as at Bologna, he sought to treat head wounds by
one of the fathers of modern biology. adhering to the precepts of Hippocrates. A hu-
manist surgeon, Aranzio sought to return to the
KEIR B. STERLING masters of antiquity for practical advice. In 1564
he coined the term hippocampus, a structure in
the brain, and described some of the blood ves-
sels in the brain. He was also the first to do plas-
Biographical Mentions tic surgery on people whose noses had deterio-
rated due to syphilis.

Giovanni Arcolani (Arculanus)
1390?-1484
Ulisse Aldrovandi Italian surgeon who was an early pioneer of den-
1522-1605 tistry. Born in Verona, Arcolani was the first to
Italian physician and one of the founders of recommend the filling of teeth with gold fillings.
modern natural science. Aldrovani studied law, As a surgeon, he specialized in dentistry in gen-
mathematics, philosophy, and medicine at the eral and wrote about his findings in a book,
universities of Bologna, Pisa, and Padua, receiv- Practica, published in 1483. He followed the
ing his medical degree from Bologna in 1553. teachings of Avicenna and was an opponent of
He did not practice medicine, but became a ju- Marliani, an avid supporter of Aristotle.

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Gaspere Aselli milk-like contents of the lymph vessels of the in-

1581-1625 testines. His book, Vasa lyphatica et hepatic exse- Life Sciences
Italian physician who investigated the anatomy quiae (1653), or The Lymphatic Vessels and the Se- & Medicine
of the digestive system. As a professor of anato- cretion of the Liver, introduced color plates into
my at Pavia, he cut open a recently fed dog and anatomical studies. He discovered the pancreatic 1450-1699
noted white structures though the mesentery duct in 1644 and the parotid glands in 1659. By
and along the surface of the intestines that emit- the late seventeenth century the glands of diges-
ted a milky fluid when cut. He called these tion were known. This attacked and destroyed
structures white veins or lacteals. Observing Galen’s physiology, which centered on the liver
these in different species, he explored the func- as blood maker.
tion of the digestive juices. His investigations
Gaspard Bauhin
opened up the field of exploration of the diges-
1560-1624
tive system, paving the way for others to over-
throw Galen’s liver-centered physiology. Danish physiologist and botanist who described
more than 6,000 medicinal plants. Encouraging
Pedro Barba both individual and collaborative efforts, he
1608-1671 convinced the universities to work together to
Spanish physician who first wrote about the use share discoveries in their botanical gardens. He
of the bark of the cinchona tree to treat malaria. wrote a large book called Pinax theatri botani,
Until the early seventeenth century malaria was published in 1627. He evoked new interest in
treated like other fevers by bleeding and purg- plants as the range of remedies increased and as-
ing. In 1632 Jesuit missionaries brought the sisted in the renewed interest in classical drugs.
bark of the cinchona tree back to Spain from
Basilius Besler
Peru, where they had observed its effective use
1561-1629
by the natives. Barba recognized the value of the
tree, which produced quinine, an effective treat- German naturalist whose botanical illustrations
ment against malaria. are popular for prints and posters even to this
day. His magnificent engravings were the first
Mariano Santo di Barletta large folio depictions of historical botanicals. He
1488-1550 drew from the specimens in the garden of the
Italian surgeon who developed a method for the Prince Bishop of Eichstatt. His artwork is vivid,
surgical removal of bladder stones. Earlier, in the realistic, and colorful.
first century A.D., Celsus described a risky
method of inserting a finger into the rectum, Geradus Blasius
causing the stones to bulge into the body cavity. 1626-1692
Mariano developed a surgical procedure where Dutch anatomist who studied the structure of
the stone could be removed by an instrument, the brain. He discovered a thin membrane that
avoiding the complications of Celsus’s procedure. encloses the brain and spinal cord. Because of its
resemblance to the web of a spider, he called it
Caspar Bartholin arachnoid, meaning “resembling a spider’s web.”
1585-1629
Danish anatomist and theologian who was a Theophile Bonet
prodigy of his time. He went to grammar school 1620-1689
at age three and lectured in Greek and Latin at Swiss anatomist who is known for writing the
age eleven. He became fascinated with anatomy most complete record of its time regarding surgi-
and studied with Fabricius at Padua, where he cal, medical, and pharmacological knowledge
wrote a manual on anatomy. His fame arose from both traditional and current at that time.
his massive learning and reputation as a teacher.
He first described the olfactory nerves and the Jacobus Bontius
suprarenal glands and published a textbook 1598?-1631
called De studio medico for his sons in 1628. Physician and naturalist, perhaps of Danish ori-
gin, who is known for supplying the first scien-
Thomas Bartholin tific documentation of the disease beriberi, is a
1616-1680 disease known to Asia and the South Pacific and
Danish physiologist who investigated the anato- is caused by a nutritional deficiency of vitamin
my of the digestive system not only in animals B1; this disease is known in groups where there
but also in humans. He wrote about chyle, the is a high intake of rice. He observed the disease

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firsthand in the South Pacific and published his Robert Burton

Life Sciences findings in 1642. 1577-1640
& Medicine British clergyman, author, and Oxford dean of
Louise Bourgeois divinity best known for his astute observations
1450-1699 1563-1636 and descriptions of depressive disorders in The
French midwife who was the first woman to Anatomy of Melancholy (1621). This treatise,
write a textbook on midwifery, Observations Di- which influenced English writing, outlined the
verse sur la Sterilite, Perte de Fruict, Foecundite, causes, symptoms, and cures of depression, al-
Accouchements, et Maladies des Femmes, et Enfants though some of the etiologies were attributed to
Nouveaux Naiz (Diverse Observations on Sterili- myth rather than fact. Similar in tone to Augus-
ty, Loss of Fruit, Fecundity, Childbirth, and Dis- tine’s Confessions, Burton’s self-reflective point of
eases of Women, and Newborn Infants; Paris, view provides insight into his own melancholia.
1609). Bourgeois, later Boursier, was a well-edu-
cated woman who was trained and licensed at Andreas Caesalpinus
the famous Paris hospital, Hôtel Dieu. She raised 1519-1603
the respectability and social standing of mid- Italian physician and botanist whose attempts to
wives, eventually becoming official midwife to create a philosophically grounded system of plant
the court of Henry IV. Her book, based on the classification helped establish botany as an inde-
teachings of French surgeon Ambroise Paré, and pendent scientific discipline. His De plantis libri
written in the vernacular, was widely read in her XVI (1583), the first textbook of botany, described
time and established her reputation as a pioneer and classified over 1,500 plants. Cesalpino also
of scientific midwifery. wrote about anatomy and practical medicine and
some historians believe that his ideas about the
Robert Boyle heart and blood anticipated William Harvey’s dis-
1627-1691 covery of the circulation of the blood. Cesalpino
British chemist and natural philosopher who is believed that the heart was the most important
primarily known for his experiments on the organ of the body and that observations made in
physical properties of gases. In The Sceptical the course of bloodletting could lead to insights
Chymist (1661) Boyle proposed a corpuscular into the movement of the blood.
theory of matter. With the assistance of Robert
Hooke, Boyle constructed an air pump with Rudolph Jacob Camerarius
which he investigated the physical properties 1665-1721
of air. The second edition of his landmark German botanist who is primarily remembered
work New Experiments Physio-Mechanicall, for establishing the existence of plant sexuality.
Touching the Spring of the Air and its Effects In addition to identifying and defining the male
(1662) established the relationship that is now and female reproductive parts of plants Camer-
known as Boyle’s law: at a constant tempera- arius described the function of these parts and
ture the volume of a gas is inversely propor- the role of pollen in fertilization. He conducted
tional to the pressure. pioneering experiments on heredity in plants.
His publications On the Sex of Plants (1694) and
Hieronymus Brunschwig Botanical Works (1697) are landmarks in the his-
1450?-1512? tory of botany.
German-Alsatian physician, pharmacologist,
and military surgeon, also known as Brun- Giovanni Battista Canano
schwygk, Braunschweig, or Bruynswijck. His 1515-1579
Buch der cirurgia (Book of Surgery), published Italian anatomist best known for his drawings of
in 1497 and the first printed, illustrated surgical the muscles and their relationship to bones, par-
textbook, deals mainly with wounds and in- ticularly the upper extremity. Giovanni and An-
juries, especially fractures, cuts, and gunshot tonio Maria Canano studied muscles with Vesal-
wounds. He also wrote treatises in German and ius’s brother and Bartolomeo Nigrisoli, whose fa-
Latin on pharmaceutical distillation processes ther taught anatomy in Padua. Giovanni
and on the plague. The 1512 edition of Liber de Canano’s most famous work, published in 1542,
arte distillandi (Book on the Art of Distilling) is a had no title, no date, no name of publisher, and
classic of botanical medicine, demonstrating no place of publication given. A facsimile copy
how to obtain essential oils and other chemicals published in 1962 was entitled Musculorum Hu-
from plants. mani Corporis Picturata Dissectio. Although

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Canano had found valves in veins, Vesalius and Giovanni Colle

Eustachius insisted that they did not exist. How- 1558-1630 Life Sciences
ever, four years before his death, Fabricius redis- Italian physician who, following the explanation & Medicine
covered them. In 1552 Canano was appointed of how blood circulation works in 1628 by
physician to Pope Julius III at Rome. William Harvey, was the first to give a brief ac- 1450-1699
count of how a blood transfusion is performed
Berengario da Carpi in the same year.
1470-1550 Valerius Cordus
Italian anatomist and surgeon who was the first 1515-1544
to name the appendix (1521) and the vas defer- German physician, botanist, pharmacologist,
ens. Da Carpi was also one of the first to illus- and chemist who won the admiration of his con-
trate his texts with figures. Other original obser- temporary scientists even before his early death
vations included description of the thymus and from malaria. Cordus synthesized ether; devel-
the action and existence of the heart valves. He oped ways to categorize plants; invented phy-
showed that the kidney is not a sieve and that the tography, the systematic science of describing
bladder of an unborn child had urinary pores. plants; updated and augmented the authoritative
first-century catalog of medicinal plants pre-
Julius Casserius (Giulio Casserio) pared by the Greek physician Dioscorides Peda-
1552-1616 nius Anazarbeus; and wrote the first pharma-
Italian teacher of anatomy, physics, and surgery copoeia, the Nuremberg Dispensatorium (1546).
who studied under Fabrici in Padua. Casserius’s (A pharmacopoeia is a reference source detailing
engraved anatomical plates were ornate and em- the dosages and administration of medicinal
bellished with detailed landscapes. His first pub- preparations and drugs.) Swiss naturalist Kon-
lication, De vocis auditusque organis (1601), rad von Gesner (1516-1565) edited and pub-
about speech and hearing, had 34 plates, some lished several of Cordus’s posthumous works,
comparing human vocal cords with those of the including the revision of Dioscorides (1561).
cat. His Tabulae Anatomicae (1627), an incom- Jean-Baptiste Denis
plete volume, was finished by others. He was 1640-1704
succeeded by Spigelius.
French physician who was one of the first to at-
tempt therapeutic transfusions of blood from an-
Elizabeth Cellier imals to humans. In 1667, with the help of Paul
English midwife who established a corporation Emmerez, a surgeon and anatomist, Denis in-
of midwives in London in 1687 and a foundling jected blood from a lamb into a fifteen-year-old
hospital. Cellier, who married Frenchman Peter boy who had suffered from a fever. After several
Cellier and converted to Roman Catholicism, apparently successful experiments, a patient
was falsely accused of treason in 1680, but de- died after two injections of calf’s blood. Al-
fended herself and was acquitted. She wrote though Denis was not found guilty of malprac-
about the trial in a short but sensational publica- tice, Denis and Emmerez discontinued their ex-
tion entitled “Malice Defeated.” She is believed periments.
to have been buried in Great Missenden Church,
in Buckinghamshire, England. Pierre Dionis
1643-1718
French surgeon who, after studying at Confra-
Peter Chamberlen, the Elder ternity of S. Come, was the first surgeon to
1560-1631 Queen Maria Theresa. He was also a professor of
English midwife credited with introducing ob- surgery and anatomy and he wrote extensively
stetric forceps to the midwifery profession. The on medicine.
Chamberlen family of male midwives, which in-
cluded Peter Chamberlen the Younger and Johannes Dryander
nephew Peter Chamberlen III, practiced in Lon- 1500-1560
don and claimed to have a superior way to deliv- German anatomist and astronomer who is
er babies with less pain to women. They alleged- known as one of the first to dissect human ca-
ly kept Peter the Elder’s forceps a “closely guard- davers in Germany. He also wrote anatomy
ed secret,” training select physicians to use them books which he illustrated. He graduated from
but for a price. the University of Erfurt in Germany and lectured

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on astronomy and mathematics in Paris from pressure to the limbs and blood vessels. Gers-
Life Sciences 1528 to 1533. dorff also published a book on surgery in which
& Medicine he first pictured an amputation of a leg. At that
Joseph Guichard Duverney time the surgeon would wrap the wound on ei-
1450-1699 1648-1730 ther side of the limb to be amputated and then
French anatomist who graduated from the Uni- cover the stump with the bladder of a bull or
versity of Avignon and became a professor of hog.
anatomy in Paris. He named the nerves of the
brachial plexus, which are spinal nerves supply- Valentine Greatrakes
ing impulses to the arm and hand and was the 1629-1683
first to produce a book regarding the functioning Irish man who, with what would today be called
of the ear in 1683. Duverney also discovered a faith healing, cured many people suffering from
ganglion, or bundle of nerves, behind the eyes psychosomatic illness—illness that originates or
and was the first to note the tensor tarsi muscle is made worse by the patients’ belief that they
of the eye. are ill. His ability to connect with the patients
psychologically foreshadowed the concept of
Johann Sigmund Elsholtz healing the whole man.
1623-1688
German doctor who was an early pioneer in the Nehemiah Grew
use of opium, whose main active ingredient is 1641-1712
morphine, as an analgesic. Together with Johann English botanist and microscopist who was one
Major, Elsholtz gave an opium solution intra- of the founders of plant anatomy. His pioneering
venously to a dog and noted afterwards that the text, The Anatomy of Vegetables Begun (1672) de-
dog did not react to the prick of a pin. In 1676 scribed the structure of bean seeds, the existence
Elsholtz observed the shimmering thermolumi- of cells, and introduced many of the terms used
nescence of heated fluorspar. He died in Berlin to describe the parts of plants. In The Anatomy of
in 1688. Plants (1682), he discussed the anatomy of flow-
ers, the microscopic structure of plant tissues,
Charles-François Felix and suggested that the stamen functioned as the
1635?-1703 male sex organ of plants and the pistil as the fe-
French surgeon who single-handedly raised the male organ.
status of surgeons above that of barbers and
closer to that of physicians with his operation of Clopton Havers
an anal fistula on Louis XIV. At this time, sur- 1655?-1702
geons did not have the social or educational sta- English physician who is known for his study of
tus of physicians and competed with barbers for bone structure and growth, as well as his book
surgical work. This single surgery on the king of Osteologia Nova, which was the first publication
France gained royal support and did much to to describe bone structure in great detail. The
further the respect of the profession. intricate vessel system consisting of canals and
glands that supplies nutrients in the bones,
Jean François Fernel called the Haversian system, is named after him.
1497-1558 Havers graduated with his medical degree from
French physician and astronomer who was the Cambridge University; he practiced medicine in
first to describe appendicitis, or the inflamma- London and was a Fellow of the Royal Society.
tion of the appendix, and the first to describe
peristalsis which is the wavelike motion of mus- Nathaniel Highmore
cle in the throat to push food down to the stom- 1613-1685
ach. Fernel was the first to use the terms physiol- English physician who precisely described the
ogy and pathology and was the first to precisely cavity of the superior maxillary bone, a bone
record observations of endocarditis, or the in- below the nose and holding the upper row of
flammation of the lining of the heart. teeth. This cavity, or sinus, is in the upper part
of the maxillary bone and opens into the middle
Hans von Gersdorff nose; it is called the antrum of Highmore. A
1454-1517 mass of tissue on the back of the testis, called
German surgeon who advanced the emerging Highmore’s body, is named for him as well.
profession of surgery by stopping the bleeding Highmore graduated from Oxford University in
associated with amputation of limbs by applying 1642 with his medical degree.

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Juan Huarte de San Juan tivating exotic and fungal plants, including the
1530?-1592 potato (1588). L’Ecluse also wrote extensively on Life Sciences
Spanish physician and philosopher who, at a the subject of botany. He was appointed director & Medicine
time when Jews were being expelled from Spain, of the emperor’s garden in Vienna, Austria, from
wrote of the superiority of Jewish physicians. 1573-87 and in 1593 was made professor of 1450-1699
Using geographic determinism as his rationale, botany at Leyden in the Netherlands. L’Ecluse
he advocated study in Egypt where Jewish first studied law in Belgium, then medicine in
physicians taught because it was an excellent Germany; he received a medical degree in 1555.
ground to develop the imagination. The as- Leonardo da Vinci
sumption was that mental faculties necessary for 1452-1519
science required imagination, and Spain’s cli-
mate was not conducive to studying medicine. Italian artist and scientist whose insatiable cu-
Huarte may have been a converso, a Spanish riosity and artistic and scientific imagination ex-
convert to Christianity. emplify the genius of Renaissance humanism.
Although primarily remembered for paintings
Edward Jorden such as The Last Supper and the Mona Lisa,
1569-1632 Leonardo was skilled as an engineer, inventor,
English physician who wrote “A Briefe Discourse draftsman, mathematician, architect, sculptor,
of a Disease Called the Suffocation of the Moth- and anatomist. Leonardo believed that art re-
er,” in which he valiantly defended 14-year-old quired accurate anatomical knowledge that
Mary Glover, accused of witchcraft. Jorden could only be obtained through dissection, com-
wrote that her fits, actions, and “passions of the parative anatomy, and physiological experi-
body” were not because of the devil but because ments. He may have dissected as many as thirty
of her uterus and the problems that women had human bodies, but he did not complete many of
because of “womanhood.” Unfortunately the his ambitious projects, including his plan for a
judges did not accept his explanations. great treatise on human anatomy.

Johannes de Ketham Andreas Libavius

?-1490? 1540?-1616
German physician, also known as Johannes von German physician who investigated the practical
Kirchheim, who was professor of medicine at application of chemistry to the discipline of
the University of Vienna around 1460. His Fasci- medicine. Libavius wrote a number of books on
culus medicinae (Compilation of Medicine, 1491) medicine and chemistry, the best known is prob-
contains the first printed anatomical illustra- ably Alchymia, published first in 1597 then in
tions, including the famous dissection scene. 1606. He described in this book the methods of
The book consists of many short, anonymous preparation for various chemicals; it is regarded
medical essays, some of which existed in manu- as the publication that set the standard for sev-
script 200 years prior. The Italian translation, enteenth-century chemistry texts in France.
Fasciculo de medicina, with more and better illus-
Johann Daniel Major
trations and text, was popular for about 30 years
1634-1693
after its publication in 1493.
German physician who is thought to be the first
Daniel Le Clerc to successfully inject a medicinal compound into
1652-1728 the vein of a human subject (1662). His book
Swiss physician who practiced medicine in Chirurgia infusoria was concerned with the sub-
Geneva and wrote extensively on the subject of ject of infusory surgery, which are procedures in
medicine. His published works include Surgery which a solution is directly injected into the
(1695), History of Medicine (1696), and Historia veins. Major practiced medicine in Wittenberg as
naturalis . . . nascentium (1715). Le Clerc became well as Hamburg, Germany; he was appointed
a member of the French Academy of Sciences in professor of medicine at Kiel, Germany, in 1665,
1699; he gave up the practice of medicine in where he also planted a botanical garden.
1704 for the public life.
Edme Mariotte
Charles L’Ecluse 1620-1684
1526-1609 French physicist and ordained Roman Catholic
French botanist, also known as Carolus Clusius, priest who performed a number of experiments
who helped found the science of botany by cul- on light and sight, among other things. He dis-

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covered the punctum caecum, which is where the medicinal use of plants from the Indies, and a
Life Sciences optic nerve enters the back of the eyeball from the history of medicine.
& Medicine brain. He experimented with rainbows and light
diffraction, and discovered the macula lutea, Jakob Nufer
1450-1699 which is in the center of the retina where the fl. 1500
most acute vision is. Mariotte was one of the first Swiss sow gelder who performed the first suc-
members of the French Academy of Sciences. cessful cesarean section on a living woman.
When Nufer’s wife went into labor, he sought
François Mauriceau the aid of a village midwife, then another, until
1637-1709 the entire 13 midwives in Sigershaufen had been
French surgeon who contributed to the practice consulted. None could deliver the baby. In des-
of obstetrics, the branch of medicine concerned peration, he decided to try. Experienced in geni-
with the care of pregnant women. He was the tal surgery on pigs, he took a knife and opened
first to use the term pudendal, which refers to her uterus, extracting the baby. His wife is re-
the external genitals of a woman, and the term ported to have recovered, bore additional chil-
fossa navicularis, which is a deep depression of dren, and lived to age 77.
the skin in the vagina. Mauriceau described a
number of conditions during pregnancy and Guy Patin
birthing, such as tubal pregnancy. 1601-1672
French physician who first documented FOP, or
John Mayow fibrodysplasia ossificans progressiva, a disease
1640-1679 wherein bones grow in connective tissue. In
English chemist and physiologist who first sug- 1692, a patient with what is now known as FOP
gested the existence of oxygen, which he called went to Patin, who recorded the encounter in
spiritus nitroaereus. According to Mayow, the his writings. Leader of the Paris medical com-
purpose of breathing was to acquire this special munity, Patin was outspoken in his opposition
life-giving substance from the air. Mayow inves- to the social-service programs administered by
tigated the anatomical and physiological basis of Théophraste Renaudot (1586?-1653), who ad-
respiration and called attention to the analogy vocated free medical treatment for the poor.
between combustion and respiration. He was
the first to argue that the seat of animal heat was Jean Pecquet
in the muscles. In 1674 he published the first 1622-1674
description of a case of mitral stenosis. French physician and anatomist credited with a
number of discoveries. Among the aspects of
Maria Sibylla Merian human physiology Pecquet was first to observe
1647-1717 are the course of the lacteal vessels, the cistern
German naturalist who devoted her life to the chyli (sometimes called the reservoir of Pecquet
study and painting of insects and flowers. As a in his honor), and the termination of the tho-
child she was fascinated by caterpillars, moths, racic duct at the place where it opens into the
and butterflies, and made numerous lifelike left subclavian vein. In 1651, he published a
sketches. In 1679 she published “Wonderful book in which he helped to popularize experi-
Transformation and Singular Flower-Food of ments in air pressure conducted earlier by Gille
Caterpillars,” which won her scientific recogni- Personne de Roberval (1602-1675). The book
tion for its catalog and drawings of almost 200 introduced the term “elater” to describe the ten-
European butterflies and moths in various dency of air to expand.
stages of metamorphosis. Merian died in Ams-
terdam in 1717. Heinrich von Pfolspeundt
fl. 1460
Nicolas Monardes German physician and member of the Teutonic
1507-1578 Order of Knights. Pfolspeundt was one of the
Spanish botanist and physician who contributed first doctors in the late medieval, early Renais-
to the sciences of botany and zoology; he classi- sance period to take medical practices beyond
fied plants and animals of the East and West In- the crude conditions that had prevailed through-
dies. He is noted for having transplanted several out much of the Middle Ages. During his time, a
plants from America to Spain, and his name is number of other German physicians, particular-
used in the genus classification of plants Monar- ly those in Strasbourg, served to advance the
da. Monardes wrote books on plant life, the study of medicine.

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Felix Plater Théophraste Renaudot

1536-1614 1586?-1653 Life Sciences
French physician who studied in Montpelier at French physician who organized an early state- & Medicine
the time of an outbreak of plague in his home- supported medical care program for the poor. A
town. Although his diary narrates the adven- longtime protégé of Cardinal de Richelieu, Re- 1450-1699
tures in procuring corpses and observations of naudot served as court physician to King Louis
executions, most secondary sources credit him XIII, who commissioned him to organize a sys-
with psychiatric insights. His De Corporis Hu- tem of public assistance. The result, in 1630,
mani Strucura et Usu is illustrated with 50 en- was the bureau d’adresse, an organization whose
graved plates that draw on the previous images many functions included a free dispensary and a
of Pare and Vesalius. service to direct poor patients to doctors offering
free medical care. Renaudot ran into opposition
François Rabelais from the Paris medical establishment, led by
1483?-1553 Guy Patin (1601-1672), and in 1642, after the
French physician and writer whose most deaths of Richelieu and Louis, they denied him
scathing works, Pantagruel (1532) and Gargan- the right to practice medicine in the capital. In
tua (1534), satires on the human condition and addition to his other activities, Renaudot is re-
theology, were vehemently condemned by the membered as the father of French journalism.
Church. His name is a created anagram of Al-
cofribas Nasier. Originally a Franciscan priest, Eucharius Rösslin
he engaged in literary exchanges with humanist 1490?-1526
scholars. Later, he changed to the Benedictines German physician who published the first print-
because his Greek language books were confis- ed textbook for midwives. Rösslin’s Die swangern
cated. In 1530 he went to Montpellier and be- frawen und hebammen roszgarten (A Garden of
came a doctor within a year. He then moved to Roses for Pregnant Women and Midwives) was
Lyons where he lectured on human anatomy and published in 1513 and went through forty edi-
practiced medicine. tions. It was still in use in the 1730s. An English
translation of the text by Richard Jonas, entitled
Thomas Raynalde The Byrth of Mankynde, published in 1540, was
English physician who published The Byrthe of the first book of its kind to be printed in Eng-
Mankynde (1540, 1545). This was the first Eng- lish. A revised, illustrated Latin translation of
lish translation of Rösslin’s Der Rosengarten, a Rösslin’s book was published by Jacob Fueff in
German manual for midwives, itself a synopsis 1554 as De conceptu et geratione hominis.
from medieval writers. It was the only book that
dealt with obstetrics apart from medicine and
François Rousset
surgery. The copperplates depict subjects that
1535-1590
had been exclusive women’s knowledge: the
birth chair, birthing room, development of the French physician who was the personal physi-
fetus, and its relation to the uterus. In its intro- cian to the Duke of Savoy and who is known for
duction, Raynalde wrote that many might not publishing in 1581 a record of 15 cesarean sec-
think it proper to have such matters written in tions. Rousset’s account confirms that the dan-
“our mother and vulgar language for the detec- gerous procedure was indeed practiced at that
tion and discovery by men.” time; these particular procedures were per-
formed over a span of 80 years. As a point of in-
Francesco Redi terest, one woman was recorded to have under-
1626-1697 gone six of these procedures.
Italian physician and scientist who demonstrated
that maggots and flies do not arise by sponta- Olof Rudbeck
neous generation in putrefying meat, but from 1630-1702
eggs laid by adult flies. Redi designed a series of Swedish naturalist who in 1651 discovered the
carefully controlled experiments using different lymphatic system, notably that of the digestive
kinds of meats in flasks that were open, or sealed system and the thoracic duct. The lymph system
to keep out air and flies, or covered with gauze to of vessels moves lymph from the tissues to the
admit air, but keep out flies. Despite the putre- bloodstream. Rudbeck was a student of medi-
faction that occurred in all cases, maggots only cine at the University of Uppsala, Sweden,
appeared in the open and uncovered flasks. where he later became a professor of botany and

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anatomy and, at age 31, chancellor. While at opment of the fetus, De Formato Foetu (1626),
Life Sciences Uppsala he also built a botanical garden. were neither illustrated nor published during his
& Medicine lifetime. In his will, he asked that Bucretius per-
Johannes Scultetus form the necessary tasks to do both. The plates
1450-1699 1595-1645 in Spieghel’s books were acquired from Giulio
German surgeon, also known as Johann Schultes Casserio’s relatives.
or Shultes who wrote Armamentarium chirur-
gicum (Surgical Armamentarium), the late seven- Nicolaus Steno
teenth and early eighteenth century’s most pop- 1638-1686
ular guidebook of surgical instruments, tech- Danish anatomist and geologist, also known as
niques, and procedures. Edited by his nephew, Niels Steensen (or Stensen), whose landmark
also named Johannes Scultetus (d. 1663), the treatise The Prodromus of Nicolaus Steno’s Disserta-
work was first published posthumously in 1655, tion Concerning a Solid Body Enclosed by Process of
then translated into most modern European lan- Nature Within a Solid (1669) advanced the study
guages, appearing in its final new Latin edition of geology and helped establish the science of
in 1741. Its contents include mastectomy, splint- crystallography. Steno described the structure of
ing, lithotomy (the removal of stones from the quartz crystals, suggested that fossils were the re-
bladder), trephination, wound and injury repair, mains of ancient organisms, and that the study of
cesarean section, and amputation. the earth’s strata could provide a history of the
planet. His most famous anatomical contribution
Marco Aurelio Severino was the discovery of the parotid salivary duct,
1580-1656 which is also known as Stensen’s duct.
Italian anatomist, also known as Severinus,
whose contributions to medicine include the de- Gasparo Tagliacozzi
scription of abnormal formations of tissue and 1546-1599
growths such as tumors, descriptions of abscess- Italian surgeon known as the “father of plastic
es, and the investigation of inflamed or swollen surgery.” He became famous throughout Europe
lymph nodes. Severino showed the similarity of for his inventive operation, called Italian or
function in the anatomy of different animals. He tagliacotian rhinoplasty, which he performed on
also studied how the venom of snakes can kill patients who lacked a complete nose either be-
and investigated antidotes for such poisons. Sev- cause of trauma or birth defect. The patient’s
erino received his medical degree from the Uni- nose was attached to a skin pedicle on the upper
versity of Naples, Italy. arm and held in place with a brace until it
healed. Although he became quite famous, cer-
Jane Sharp tain Church officials felt that such emphasis on
fl. 1650 physical appearance was blasphemy and perse-
English midwife who was the first to author a cuted him.
text for the instruction of other English mid-
wives, entitled The Midwives Book, or the Whole Edward Topsell
Art of Midwifery Discovered; Directing Child-bear- 1572-1638
ing Women How to Behave Themselves (London, English clergyman and author who is best
1671). The book consisted of six sections: known for two works of natural history, The His-
anatomy, signs of pregnancy, sterility, the con- torie of Four Footed Beastes (1607) and The Histo-
duct of labor, diseases of pregnancy, and post- rie of Serpents, Or the Second Book of Living Crea-
partum diseases. Sharp’s book, which went tures (1608). He completed his studies at Cam-
through several editions, was an influential and bridge University in 1592. He served as curate or
practical manual that reflected the state of the vicar at a number of Anglican churches while au-
art in midwifery, and also recognized restrictions thoring at least three volumes of religious writ-
on the contemporary education of women. ings and sermons. Basing his later material in
large part on the earlier studies of the Swiss natu-
Adriaan van den Spieghel ralist Conrad Gesner, Topsell also included many
1578-1625 of the prevailing zoological ideas of his time and
Belgian physician who studied in Padua, taught place. Each of his animals, some of them fantasti-
anatomy and surgery, and like Vesalius came cal (such as flying dragons), were given personal
from Brussels. Spieghel wrote on fevers and characteristics, reflecting moral lessons that
botanical subjects. His anatomical texts, De Hu- Topsell wanted to impart. Most of his illustra-
mani Corporis Fabrici (1627), and on the devel- tions were taken from Gesner’s woodcuts.

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Jeremiah Trautman Richard Weston

German physician who performed the first 1591-1652 Life Sciences
completely documented cesarean section, in English agriculturist who advanced the field of & Medicine
Wittenberg, Germany, on April 26, 1610. The agriculture by developing the concepts of crop ro-
mother is reported to have lived 25 days and tation and irrigation of hay fields to increase the 1450-1699
then died, most likely from an infection of the volume of crops. Weston also brought forward
genitals following the procedure. The child the idea of canal locks to regulate the level of
lived for nine years. water in the canals. He was involved in making
the Wey River navigable to Guilford, England.
Nicolas Tulp
1593-1674
Thomas Wharton
Dutch physician who is remembered for his de-
1610?-1673
scription of the disease beriberi, which results
from a deficiency in nutrition and is marked by British physician and Oxford professor who was
inflammation of the nerves and swelling. Tulp is one of the first physicians to study glands. In
also known for his description of ileocecal 1656 Wharton discovered the duct in the sub-
valves, which are muscles that open from the maxillary gland (the submaxillary gland is either
small intestine into the large intestine. Tulp was of the two salivary glands located inside the
the personal physician and friend of Dutch mouth). The duct has been subsequently named
painter Rembrandt. Wharton’s duct. Wharton then suggested that all
glands had ducts for the secretion of fluid; how-
ever, Wharton also believed that the function of
Giovanni Vigo the thyroid gland was to “round out the fullness
1460-1525 of the neck.”
Italian surgeon who collected all that was known
to medical science during his time and compiled
the most comprehensive book on surgery as Daniel Whistler
well. Vigo practiced medicine in Rome, where 1619-1684
he was the personal physician to Pope Julius II. English physician who in 1645 provided the
first scientific description of a vitamin D defi-
St. Vincent de Paul ciency, or rickets. Whistler described the condi-
1581-1660 tion, wherein “the whole bony structure is as
flexible as softened wax,” in his Oxford doctoral
French priest who established hospitals for the
dissertation, Inaugural Medical Disputation on the
poor in Paris. In 1625, Vincent founded the
Children’s Disease of the English Which the Inhabi-
Congregation of the Mission, an organization of
tants Idiomatically Call the Rickets. Five years
priests dedicated to helping the poor, and he
later, in 1650, Francis Glisson (1597-1677) ob-
later established the Confraternities of Charity.
served the same condition. Not until the early
These were associations composed primarily of
twentieth century would physicians be able to
women from noble families, who not only assist-
devise preventive measures against rickets.
ed Vincent in caring for destitute patients, but
also financially supported him in setting up hos-
pitals for foundlings and others. He cofounded Richard Wiseman
the Daughters of Charity (or Sisters of Charity of 1622?-1676
St. Vincent de Paul), a similar organization for
nuns, with St. Louise de Marillac (1591-1660). British surgeon who served as personal surgeon to
Vincent was canonized in 1737. King Charles II. Wiseman’s greatest contributions
were collected in Severall Chirurgical Treatises
(1676). The work includes classic descriptions of
Johann Conrad Wepfer tuberculosis of the joints (tumor albus) and scro-
1657-1711 fula (“the king’s evil,” or tuberculosis of the lymph
German physician who advanced the emerging glands), instructions for amputating above the in-
science of pathology, the study of the cause and jury, and accounts of successful urethrotomies
nature of diseases. Wepfer perfected the observa- and other operations. He increased the knowl-
tion of a patient’s case history and studied the edge of gunshot wounds, cancer, ulcers, rectal
progression of each disease; he related these ob- disorders, urological diseases, fractures, disloca-
servations with findings from the autopsies. tions, and sexually transmitted diseases.

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John Woodall volved in putting questions to nature, rather than

Life Sciences 1556-1643 passively collecting facts.
& Medicine English physician for the East India Company Bartholin, Caspar. De studio medico. 1628. Early medical
textbook; Bartholin was the first to describe the olfac-
whose handbook The Surgeon’s Mate (1617) pro- tory nerves and the suprarenal glands.
1450-1699 vided an extensive overview of the medicines
Bartholin, Thomas. Vasa lyphatica et hepatic exsequiae
available to a physician at the time. The book,
(The Lymphatic Vessels and the Secretion of the
which proved highly popular, also covered a Liver). 1653. Introduced the use of color plates in
number of conditions the surgeon might en- anatomical studies.
counter, most notably “the scurvy called in La- Bauhin, Gaspard. Pinax theatri botani. 1627. A compre-
tine Scorbutum.” The book noted a number of hensive botanical work.
natural remedies for scurvy, in particular “the
Belon, Pierre. Les Observations de Plusieurs Singularitez et
Lemmons, Limes, Tamarinds, Oranges, and Choses Mémorables (Observations of Several Curiosi-
other choices of good helps from the Indies....” ties and Memorable Things). 1553. Includes Belon’s
accounts of places, objects, animals, and plants men-
Gabriele de Zerbis tioned by ancient writers, which he encountered
1445-1505 while on a series of diplomatic missions to Constan-
tinople and the Middle East. Belon’s detailed record of
Italian physician, anatomist, and medical scientific curiosities subsequently served as an itiner-
philosopher, also known as Gabriele Zerbi or ary for travelers interested in scientific discoveries.
Gabriello Zerbus. He wrote the first printed Belon, Pierre. L’Histoire de la Nature des Oyseaux (The
book on geriatrics (Gerontocomia, 1489), the first Natural History of Birds). 1555. Contains important
on medical ethics (De cautelis medicorum, c. comparative studies of bird and human skeletal struc-
1495), and one of the most accurate anatomical tures, marking the beginning of comparative anatomy
texts before Belgian anatomist Andreas Vesalius and becoming an early contribution to the future de-
velopment of evolutionary theory.
(1514-1564) (Liber anathomie corporis humani et
singulorum membrorum illius, 1502). Zerbis also Belon, Pierre. L’Histoire Naturelle des Etranges Poissons
Marins (The Natural History of Strange Marine Fish).
wrote Quaestionum metaphysicarum libri XII
1551. Contains descriptions and illustrations of fish
(1482) and the posthumously published Anato- and cetaceans, such as porpoises and whales, which
mia infantis (1537), edited by Johann Dryander. Belon had dissected. This work also established a
classification system for marine fish, a system based
Theodor Zwinger largely on Aristotle’s animal classifications, which in-
Swiss physician known for his work Theatrum cluded both cetaceans and hippopotami under “fish-
vitae humanae, a type of universal encyclopedia es.” However, Belon recognized that the milk glands
of cetaceans were mammalian in type, and noted that
in which he presented various texts. Born in these creatures were air-breathing mammals, even
Basel, Zwinger was educated in philology, lan- though they lived underwater.
guages, and medicine. He taught Greek and was
Benivieni, Antonio. The Hidden Causes of Disease. 1507.
a professor of theoretical medicine. Presented a new method of thinking in medical sci-
ence—that of the discovery of cause of death by au-
topsy—by which the science of pathology was estab-
lished.
Bibliography of Borelli, Giovanni. De motu animalium (On Motion in Ani-
mals). 1680-81. Contains a sustained analysis of the
Primary Sources mechanics of muscle contraction, with the movements

of individual muscles and groups of muscles treated

geometrically in terms of mechanical principles.
Arcolani, Giovanni. Practica. 1483. Contains Arcolani’s Bourgeois, Louise. Observations Diverse sur la Stérilité,
writings on surgery and, in particular, his specializa- Perté de Fruict, Foecundité, Accouchements, et Maladies
tion—dentistry. des Femmes, et Enfants Nouveaux Naiz (Diverse Obser-
vations on Sterility, Loss of Fruit, Fecundity, Child-
Bacon, Francis. Advancement of Learning. 1605. Contains
birth, and Diseases of Women, and Newborn Infants).
Bacon’s proposal for a new science of observation and
1609. The first textbook on midwifery written by a
experiment to replace traditional Aristotelian science.
woman. Bourgeois’s book, based on the teachings of
The Baconian method, also known as the inductive
French surgeon Ambroise Paré and written in the ver-
method, involves the exhaustive collection of particu-
nacular, was widely read in her time and established
lar instances or facts and the elimination of factors
her reputation as a pioneer of scientific midwifery.
that do not accompany the phenomenon under in-
vestigation. Generally suspicious of mathematics, de- Brunfels, Otto. Herbarum vivae eicones (Living Images of
ductive logic, and intuitive thinking, Bacon believed Plants). 1530-36. A three-volume work containing il-
that valid hypotheses should be derived from the as- lustrated descriptions of plants, most of which with
sembly and analysis of “Tables and Arrangements of medical uses. This was the first printed botanical text
Instances,” and that the scientist must be actively in- to include accurate and realistic images.

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Brunschwig, Hieronymus. Buch der cirurgia (Book of Descartes, René. L’Homme, et un traité de la formation du
Surgery). 1497. The first printed, illustrated surgical foetus (Man, and A Treatise on the Formation of the Life Sciences
textbook, dealing mainly with wounds and injuries, Foetus) 1664. Includes a summation of Descartes’s
especially fractures, cuts, and gunshot wounds. ideas about the human body based on dissections & Medicine
and physiological studies. Although Descartes argued
Brunschwig, Hieronymus. Buch der Wund Artzney (Book 1450-1699
that animals were purely mechanical and had no
of Wound Dressing). 1497. Contains descriptions of
soul, he described human beings as a union of mind
how to treat soldiers wounded by newly introduced
and body. The interaction between mind and body,
guns, cannons, and lead shot, which pierced the
according to Descartes, took place in the pineal
flesh, leaving gaping wounds and major infection.
gland, the only unpaired organ in the brain.
Also includes the earliest printed illustration of surgi-
cal instruments. Díaz de Isla, Ruy. Tractado contra el mal serpentino (Trea-
tise on the Serpentine Malady). 1539. An important
Brunschwig, Hieronymus. Liber de arte distillandi (Book
work lending support for the belief that syphilis was a
on the Art of Distilling). 1512. A classic of botanical
new disease. Written as early as 1505, Díaz suggested
medicine, including demonstrations of how to obtain
that the disease was brought back by Columbus and
essential oils and other chemicals from plants.
his men, and that he had treated one of them in
Burton, Robert. The Anatomy of Melancholy. 1621. This 1493. As some of these men were known to be fight-
treatise, which influenced English writing, includes ing at the siege of Naples, the spread of syphilis was
astute descriptions of the causes, symptoms, and blamed on them.
cures of depression disorders, though some of the eti-
Dürer, Albrecht. The Great Piece of Turf. 1503. A life-sized
ologies were attributed to myth rather than fact. Simi-
representation of grasses and dandelions in a clod of
lar in tone to St. Augustine’s Confessions, Burton’s self-
earth. No one as famous as Dürer had ever painted
reflective point of view provides insight into his own
anything so apparently insignificant as a piece of turf.
melancholia.
Yet this single painting had a tremendous artistic and
Caesalpinus, Andreas. De plantis libri XVI. 1583. The first scientific impact in Europe. Like Leonardo da Vinci,
textbook of botany, including description and classifi- Dürer took great pride in the accuracy of his plant
cation of more than 1,500 plants. drawings.
Canano, Giovanni Battista. Musculorum humani corporis Dürer, Albrecht. The Women’s Bath. 1496. An ink drawing
picturata dissectio (Picture of the Dissection of the depicting a group of nude women of all ages in a
Muscles of the Human Body). 1541. Important public bath, representing an attempt to show what
anatomical study based directly on structures of the the aging process does to the human body. Dürer’s
human body and living animals, rather than the dis- nudes perhaps most clearly reflect his devotion to
section of the ape as performed by Galen. Includes capturing reality.
the use of copperplate illustrations, which allowed
Eustachio, Bartolommeo. Opuscula Anatomica. 1563. A
finer details than woodcuts, and featured the fine
collectively titled work containing a remarkable series
muscles of the hand and the valves of the deep veins,
of treatises on, among other structures, the kidney
describing their function in controlling blood flow.
(De Renum Structura), the auditory organ (De Auditus
His illustrations also showed a novel approach to the
Organis), and the teeth (De Dentibus). The work on
myology (study of muscles), as they depicted only a
the kidney, the first to be dedicated to that organ,
few muscles and their movement of the fingers.
contains the first account of the suprarenal gland and
Carpi, Jacopo Berengario da. Isagogae breves. 1523. An the first detailed analysis of the concept of anatomical
anatomical work containing illustrations of the variation. De Dentibus was the first detailed study of
human body with the skin removed, and the figures the development of the teeth, describing the first and
positioned to show their dissected muscles while second dentitions, the structure of both the hard and
standing and observing a landscape. Another conven- soft tissues, and possible reasons for the sensitivity of
tion of da Carpi’s unique medical illustrations is the the hard tissues of the tooth.
use of multiple views of a single part of a muscle, a
Fabrici, Girolamo. De venarum ostiolis (On the Valves of
technique that likely influenced Leonardo da Vinci.
the Veins). 1603. Contains the first description of
Casserius, Julius. De vocis auditusque organis. 1601. An valves in veins.
anatomical study dealing with speech and hearing,
Falloppio, Gabriele. Observations Anatomicae. 1561. An
including 34 plates, some comparing human vocal
important anatomical work containing original de-
cords with those of the cat.
scriptions of the eye, ear, teeth, and female reproduc-
Colombo, Realdo. De re anatomica (On Anatomy). 1559. tive system, and introducing many anatomical terms
A posthumously published anatomical treatise that including vagina, placenta, cochlea, labyrinth, and
included several important original observations. A palate. In this series of commentaries on the De hu-
clearly written and organized work, Colombo careful- mani corporis fabrica of Vesalius, Falloppio was the first
ly described the organs within the thoracic cavity, the to describe the uterine fallopian tubes as small trum-
membrane surrounding the lungs, the membrane sur- pets, and to distinguish the vagina as a separate struc-
rounding the abdominal organs, and, most impor- ture from the uterus. He also described structures that
tantly, general heart action and the minor, or pul- were filled with a watery fluid and others that have a
monary, circulation of the blood. yellow humor or fluid; these were possibly the ovaries
Cordus, Valerius. Dispensatorium. 1546. The first phar- with the egg encased in the follicle and fluid.
macopoeia, or reference source detailing the dosages Fernández de Oviedo, Gonzalo. Summary of the Natural
and administration of medicinal preparations and History of the Indies. 1526. Contains the earliest refer-
drugs. ence to a New World origin for syphilis. The belief

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that syphilis was a new disease was common from the conveying scientific information in published form
Life Sciences fifteenth century on, though there were some dis- was to be a model for years to come.
agreements in the medical community over its ori-
& Medicine gins.
Grew, Nehemiah. The Anatomy of Plants. 1682. Includes
discussion of the anatomy of flowers, the microscopic
1450-1699 Fuchs, Leonhard. De historia stirpium. 1542. Botanical structure of plant tissues, and the suggestion that the
work including over 500 illustrations that accurately stamen functions as the male sex organ of plants and
portray a wide variety of plants, most of which were the pistil as the female organ.
useful in medicine. The book is particularly notewor-
Grew, Nehemiah. The Anatomy of Vegetables Begun. 1672.
thy because Fuchs chose superior artists to illustrate
A pioneering text that described the structure of bean
his text, which was both scholarly and accurate.
seeds, the existence of cells, and introduced many of
Gerard, John. The Herball, or Generall Historie of Plantes. the terms used to describe the parts of plants.
1597. A botanical work that combined medical
knowledge of plants with poetic prose, personal ob- Harvey, William. De generatione animale. 1651. Contains
servations, and elaborate illustrations. It is significant the famous statement, “all living things come from an
for its content, but also because, due to its popularity, egg,” and the assertion that the egg is a composite of
it demonstrates the extent to which publishing trans- both parents. Harvey is credited with coining the
formed Elizabethan English society. It became a land- term epigenesis to denote the developmental process
mark in botanical publishing, and is considered one of the embryo as it is gradually differentiated and
of the monuments of the English language. emerges from the formless egg mass. Eventually a the-
ory of epigenesis modified from that of Harvey was
Gersdorff, Hans von. Feldbuch der Wundartzney (Field- adopted and is currently accepted.
book of Wound Dressing). 1517. Includes descrip-
tions of how to extract bullets with special instru- Harvey, William. Exercitatio anatomica de motu cordis san-
ments and how to dress wounds with hot oil. Gers- guinis in animalius (On the movement of the heart and
dorff also showed how to enclose amputated stumps blood in animals). 1628. Landmark medical work in
with animal bladders. which Harvey proved that human blood flows from
the left ventricle of the heart, through the arteries of
Gesner, Konrad von. Bibliotheca universalis (Universal Li- the body, and then into the veins, which eventually
brary). 1545-55. A comprehensive bibliography of returned the blood to the right side of the heart. Har-
European authors, for which Gesner is regarded as vey confirmed that blood in the right ventricle went
the “father of bibliography.” Though without a specif- to the lungs and returned to the left side of the heart,
ic medical section, this work inspired William Osler as part of the pulmonary circulatory system. He also
to create his monumental Bibliotheca Osleriana illustrated the functioning of the valves found in the
(1929). heart and veins, and assumed the presence of capil-
Gesner, Konrad von. De chirurgia scriptores (Authors on laries connecting arteries with veins, though final
Surgery). 1555. Contains the first useful bibliography confirmation would come later in the century with
of surgery. the improvement of microscopic study. Harvey’s me-
thodical research exposed the fallacies of the Galenic
Gesner, Konrad von. Historia animalium (History of Ani- concept of blood circulation, proving that the heart is
mals). 1551-87. A five-volume work that is common- a hollow muscle that contracts regularly to provide
ly regarded as the basis of modern zoology. Unlike the single motive force of the blood’s movement.
many of his contemporaries, Gesner supplemented
knowledge of the natural world taken from antiquity Havers, Clopton. Osteologia Nova. 1691. The first publi-
with his own biological research. This 4,500-page cation to describe bone structure in great detail. The
work consists of a comprehensive catalog of all ani- intricate vessel system consisting of canals and glands
mals known up to that time and over a thousand that supplies nutrients in the bones, called the Haver-
beautiful woodcut illustrations, including the famous, sian system, is named after the author.
but inaccurate, depiction of the rhinoceros by Al- Hildanus, Fabricius. De combustionibus (On burns). 1607.
brecht Dürer. One of the earliest books to deal exclusively with in-
Gesner, Konrad von. Opera Botanica (Botanical Works). juries caused by heat and fire. Hildanus categorized
1551, 1571. Gesner was the first botanist to grasp the burns in a practical, systematic way.
importance of floral structures to establish a system- Hildanus, Fabricius. De gangraena et sphacelo (On gan-
atic key for plant classification. This work features grene and sloughing). 1593. Contains the recommen-
close to 1,500 plates of his own composition. dation that amputation for gangrene, a potentially
Glisson, Francis. Anatomie hepatitis. 1654. A medical text lethal result of major infection, should be made high
concerning the anatomy of the liver, including the above the infected part.
first description of the layer of connective tissue that
Hooke, Robert. Micrographia. 1665. A tremendously im-
covers the liver, now known as Glisson’s capsule. This
portant review of observations concerning the devel-
book was chiefly the result of lectures Glisson made
opment and improvement of the microscope. Hooke
on the subject in 1640.
described in detail the structure of feathers, the
Glisson, Francis. Tractatus de rachitide. 1650. Contains stinger of a bee, and the foot of the fly. He also noted
one of the earliest clinical descriptions of rickets, a structures similar to cells in the tissue of trees and
disease characterized by softening of the bones; Glis- plants, and discerned that in some tissues the cells
son attributed the condition primarily to nutritional were filled with a liquid, while in others they were
deficiency. Glisson laid out his empirical findings in a empty; he therefore supposed that the function of the
academic manner and defended against any anticipat- cells was to transport substances throughout the
ed disagreements with his position. This manner of plant.

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Jorden, Edward. “A Briefe Discourse of a Disease Called into the veins. Major is thought to be the first to suc-
the Suffocation of the Mother.” 1602. Contains Jor- cessfully inject a medicinal compound into the vein Life Sciences
den’s valiant defense of 14-year-old Mary Glover, who of a human subject.
was accused of witchcraft. Jorden wrote that her fits, & Medicine
Merian, Maria Sibylla. “Wonderful Transformation and
actions, and “passions of the body” were not caused Singular Flower-Food of Caterpillars.” 1679. A cata-
by the devil, but by her uterus and problems of 1450-1699
log of caterpillars, moths, and butterflies, illustrated
“womanhood.” Unfortunately the judges did not ac- with her own drawings of almost 200 European but-
cept his explanations. terflies and moths in various stages of metamorpho-
Ketham, Johannes de. Fasciculus medicinae (Compilation sis.
of Medicine). 1491. The first printed medical work Paracelsus. De generatione stultorum. 1603. Revealed the
with anatomical illustrations. The book consists of association of cretinism with endemic goiter.
many short, anonymous medical essays, some of
which existed in manuscript 200 years prior. The Paracelsus. Grosse Wund Artzney (Great Surgery). 1536.
Latin version had six illustrations—a uroscopy chart Offers a detailed analysis of gunshot wounds and ar-
in red and black, phlebotomy figure, zodiac man, the gues against treating them with hot oil, which was
female viscera, wound man, and disease man. The common among military surgeons before the work of
1493 Italian translation, Fasciculo de medicina, con- the French surgeon Ambroise Paré. Paracelsus’s work
tains 10 illustrations, with the most notable addition was translated into Latin as Chirurgia magna.
being a dissection scene in which a professor presides Paracelsus. Von der Bergsucht oder Bergkrankheiten. 1567.
over a group of barber-surgeons cutting open a One of the first books on occupational health haz-
human cadaver. ards, focusing on the diseases of miners.
Leonardo da Vinci. Unpublished notebooks. c. 1470- Paracelsus. Von der frantzösischen Kranckheit. 1553. Con-
1519. Contains, among many other things, meticu- tains Paracelsus’s studies of syphilis, which he called
lous anatomical sketches based on dissections of both “French disease” or “French gonorrhea.” He advocat-
human and animal corpses. Da Vinci created about ed mercury for its cure.
750 anatomical drawings, and planned an anatomical
atlas of the stages of man from the womb to the tomb, Paracelsus. Von den Kranckheyten so die Vernunfft berauben
though this was never completed. als da sein. 1567. Contains Paracelsus’s rejection of
the popular notion that unwelcome mental states are
Leoniceno, Niccolò. De epidemia quan vulgo morbum gal- caused by demons. He instead described psychiatric
licum vocant (On the Epidemic Vulgarly Called the disorders in terms of purely physical occurrences.
French Disease). 1497. Contains the assertion that
ancient authors had indeed discussed syphilis; thus Paré, Ambroise. Briefve collection de l’administration
syphilis was not a new disease, but poor translations anatomique (A short collection on governing the
hindered modern understanding. body). 1549. Includes description of Paré’s improved
podalic version, an obstetrical technique employed as
Lister, Martin. Tractatus de Araneis.The world’s first scien- a means of extraction in cases of difficult birth.
tific work on spiders, published in English as Martin
Lister’s English Spiders (1678). Modern entomologists Paré, Ambroise. Deux livres de chirurgie (Two books on
study Lister’s book and value both his astute observa- surgery). 1573. Contains both scientific and fanciful
tions about spiders and the precise drawings by accounts of birth defects.
Michael Roberts. Paré, Ambroise. Dix livres de la chirurgie (Ten books on
Lower, Richard. Diatribae Thomae Willisii de febribus vindi- surgery). 1564. Includes discussion of dental and oral
catio (Vindication of the discourse of Thomas Willis surgery, amputations, and several other topics.
on fevers). 1665. A vigorous polemic, in defense of Paré, Ambroise. La méthode curative des playes et fractures
Thomas Willis, that refuted Edmund Meara’s Galenic de la teste humaine (The method of curing wounds
view of blood circulation and defended William Har- and fractures of the human head). 1561. Contains
vey’s conclusions about the physiology of the blood. Paré’s research on the treatment of head wounds, un-
Lower’s work contained some of the earliest correct dertaken after the 1559 death of Henri II, who re-
observations about lung function, the interaction of ceived a lance wound to the eye while competing in a
the heart and lungs, the differences between arterial tournament and died under Paré’s care.
and venous blood, and the relation of respiration to Paré, Ambroise. La méthode de traicter les playes faictes par
blood color. hacquebutes et aultres bastons à feu, et de celles qui sont
Lower, Richard. Tractatus de corde (Treatise on the Heart). faictes par fléches, dardz, et semblables (The method of
1669. Contains many noteworthy advances in cardi- treating wounds made by harquebuses and other
ology, including the first accurate anatomical descrip- firearms, and those made by arrows, darts, and the
tion of the structure of heart muscle. Lower improved like). 1545. Describes Paré’s experiments with various
Harvey’s theory of blood circulation and speculated substances in which he soaked bandages for the treat-
about why dark blood from a vein turns bright red ment of military wounds.
when exposed to air. One particularly famous section Pollaiuolo, Antonio. The Battle of Ten Naked Men. 1460s.
of this book, “Dissertatio de origine catarrhi” (Disser- An illustration depicting male nudes in violent action
tation on the origin of catarrh), disproved the tradi- as they battled in mortal combat. Concentration on
tional belief that nasal congestion was caused by the exterior muscles of the body, to show the body in
mucus dripping down from the brain or the pituitary. motion, was adopted by artists and reached its culmi-
Major, Johann Daniel. Chirurgia infusoria. 17th century. nation with Pollaiuolo’s large engraving. However, he
Contains discussion of infusory surgery, which are crammed so many contracted muscles and sinews
procedures in which a solution is directly injected into each figure that the drawings are not realistic.

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Rabelais, François. Pantagruel and Gargantua. 1532; side of the heart to the lungs through an artery and
Life Sciences 1534. Two scathing literary satires on the human con- picked up the vital spirit or air. The “vital spirit” was
dition and theology. Originally published under the then received in the left side of the heart, which then
& Medicine pseudonym Alcofribas Nasier, both books were vehe- pumped blood into the arteries of the entire body.
mently condemned by the Church.
1450-1699 Sharp, Jane. The Midwives Book, or the Whole Art of Mid-
Ray, John. Historia Plantarum. 1686-70. A three-volume wifery Discovered; Directing Child-bearing Women How
botanical work in which Ray developed a classifica- to Behave Themselves. 1671. First textbook by an Eng-
tion scheme for plants, introduced the concept of lish woman for the instruction of midwives. The
species, and established the basic taxonomic princi- book consisted of six sections: anatomy, signs of preg-
ples later adopted by Linnaeus for his classification nancy, sterility, the conduct of labor, diseases of preg-
system. nancy, and postpartum diseases. Sharp’s book, which
went through several editions, was an influential and
Raynalde, Thomas. The Byrthe of Mankynde. 1540. An im-
practical manual that reflected the state of the art in
portant obstetrical work in English, based on Euchar-
midwifery, and also recognized restrictions on the
ius Rösslin’s Die swangern frawen und hebammen rosz-
contemporary education of women.
garten. Raynalde’s was the only book that dealt with
obstetrics apart from medicine and surgery. The cop- Sydenham, Thomas. Observationes medicae (Medical ob-
perplates depict subjects that had been exclusive servations). 1676. Contains the best descriptions of
women’s knowledge: the birth chair, birthing room, measles and scarlet fever up to that time, and the first
development of the fetus, and its relation to the clear distinction between these two diseases. The
uterus. fourth edition (1685) reported significant progress in
smallpox research.
Rondelet, Guillaume. Libri de Piscibus Marinis (Book of
Marine Fish). 1554. Contains detailed descriptions of Sydenham, Thomas. Schedula monitoria de novae febris in-
250 types of marine animals, including whales, ma- gressu (A warning essay on the emergence of a new
rine invertebrates, and seals, each accompanied by il- fever). 1686. Includes description of chorea minor, or
lustrations. St. Vitus’s dance, now called Sydenham’s chorea or
rheumatic chorea.
Rösslin, Eucharius. Die swangern frawen und hebammen
roszgarten (A Garden of Roses for Pregnant Women Sydenham, Thomas. Tractatus de podagra et hydrope (Trea-
and Midwives). 1513. First printed textbook for mid- tise on gout and dropsy). 1683. Includes discussion
wives, indicating the beginning of gynecology as a of the difference between gout and rheumatism.
medical specialty. The work, illustrated with wood- Vesalius, Andreas. De humani corporis fabrica. 1543. A
cuts, went through 40 editions and was still in use in landmark anatomical work, with more than 200
the 1730s. woodcut illustrations, that helped usher in the renais-
Santorio, Santorio. On Medical Measurement. 1614. A sance in medicine. Vesalius insisted on the impor-
landmark text that has been called the first systematic tance of conducting human dissections (performed
study of basal metabolism. The book was widely read on executed criminals) and showed that the human
and highly respected by his contemporaries. body was the key to medical knowledge, not the re-
ceived wisdom of ancient scholars such as Galen,
Scultetus, Johannes. Armamentarium chirurgicum (Surgi- whom he disproved on many points. The illustrations
cal Armamentarium). 1655. The most popular guide- in Vesalius’s work were once attributed to the famous
book of surgical instruments, techniques, and proce- Italian painter Titian, but were later credited to one of
dures during the late seventeenth and early eigh- his assistants, Jan Stephen van Calcar. The poses are
teenth centuries. Edited by the author’s nephew and astounding, showing a body without skin standing or
posthumously published, its contents include mas- posing in front of landscapes of various kinds.
tectomy, splinting, lithotomy (the removal of stones
from the bladder), trephination, wound and injury Vieussens, Raymond. Neurographia universalis (General
repair, cesarean section, and amputation. Neurography). 1684. Contains the first precise de-
scription of the centrum ovale (sometimes called S’s
Serres, Olivier de. Theatre d’agriculture. 1600. An im- centrum). The beautifully executed copperplate illus-
mensely popular work that provided a complete trations make Neurographia universalis second in im-
guide to agricultural practices and helped to outline portance only to Willis’s Cerebri anatome among sev-
the ideals of French Protestant culture. Divided into enteenth-century books on neuroanatomy.
sections that explain specific agronomic and horticul-
tural practices, the work covers subjects as diverse as Vieussens, Raymond. Novum vasorum corporis humani sys-
methods of tilling, dressing, and sowing, the nature tema (New System of the Vessels of the Human
of soils, the art of grafting, the domestication of ani- Body). 1705. A classic of cardiology, including the
mals, the maintenance of kitchen gardens, the planti- earliest accurate descriptions of mitral stenosis, aortic
ng of trees, and the comportment of the country gen- insufficiency, aortic regurgitation, and several other
tleman. In essence, this book operated as a guide- heart diseases and circulatory disorders.
book for the French landowner. Vieussens, Raymond. Tractatus duo (Treatise on Two Sub-
jects). 1688. A two-part study dealing with human
Servetus, Michael. The Restoration of Christianity. 1553.
anatomy and fermentation.
Discussed the pulmonary transit of the lungs within
the framework of how the Holy Spirit entered man. Whistler, Daniel. Inaugural Medical Disputation on the
Since, according to the Bible, God breathed into man Children’s Disease of the English Which the Inhabitants
the breath of life or soul, Servetus reasoned that there Idiomatically Call the Rickets. 1645. Contains the first
must be a point of contact between the air and blood. description of the disease rickets, addressed by
He concluded that blood was pumped from the right Whistler in his thesis at the University of Leyden.

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Willis, Thomas. Cerebri Anatome, cui accessit Nervorum Woodall, John. The Surgeon’s Mate. 1617. A highly popu-
descriptio et usus. 1664. A comprehensive work pre- lar handbook that provided an extensive overview of Life Sciences
senting Willis’s careful studies of the nervous system the medicines available to physicians at that time.
and various diseases. His work was the most accurate The book covered a number of conditions, most no- & Medicine
account of the nervous system to date and was the tably scurvy, along with its natural citrus remedies.
first to clearly identify the distinct sub-cortical struc- 1450-1699
Zerbis. Gabriele de. De cautelis medicorum. c. 1495. The
tures. Willis’s also detailed the concept of circulation first printed work on medical ethics.
of the blood and introduced the world to the term
“reflex action.” He described the circle of arteries lo- Zerbis, Gabriele de. Gerontocomia. 1489. The first printed
cated at the base of the brain (still called “The Circle book on geriatrics.
of Willis) and explained its function. Zerbis, Gabriele de. Liber anathomie corporis humani et
singulorum membrorum illius. 1520. One of the most
Wiseman, Richard. Severall Chirurgical Treatises. 1676. accurate anatomical texts before that of Vesalius.
Includes classic descriptions of tuberculosis of the Zwinger, Theodor. Theatrum vitae humanae. 1565. A type
joints (tumor albus) and scrofula (“the king’s evil,” or of universal encyclopedia in which Zwinger brought
tuberculosis of the lymph glands), instructions for together various texts.
amputating above the injury, and accounts of success-
ful urethrotomies and other operations. JOSH LAUER

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Mathematics

Chronology


1500 Hindu-Arabic numerals come into 1640 French mathematician Blaise Pascal
general use in Europe, replacing Roman publishes a one-page Essai sur les Coniques,
numerals. in which he makes important contribu-
tions to the study of conic sections by stat-
1525 Albrecht Dürer, a German artist,
ing his theorem that the opposite sides of
publishes Underweysung der Messung, in
a hexagon inscribed in a conic intersect in
which he teaches the theory and method
three collinear points.
of perspective, a forerunner of projective
geometry.
1662 English statistician John Graunt, in
1545 De Ludo Aleae by Italian mathemati- his Natural and Political Observations...
cian Girolamo Cardano marks the begin- Upon the Bills of Mortality, is the first to
nings of probability theory. apply mathematics to the integration of
vital statistics.
1594 Scottish mathematician John Napi-
er first conceives of the notion of obtain-
1666 Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz, German
ing exponential expressions for various
mathematician and philosopher, inaugu-
numbers, which he eventually dubs “loga-
rates the study of symbolic logic by calling
rithms.”
for a “calculus of reasoning” in his essay
1637 Amateur mathematician Pierre de “De Arte Combinatoria.”
Fermat, who founded modern number
theory and pioneered analytic geometry 1669 Isaac Newton circulates a paper,
and calculus, writes his famous last (or “De Analysi per Aequationes Numero Ter-
great) theorem, the proof of which re- minorum Infinitas,” in which he lays the
mains the greatest unsolved problem in foundations for differential and integral
mathematics for nearly 400 years. calculus; four years later, and completely
independent of Newton, G. W. Leibniz in
1637 With his La Géometrie, René
Germany also develops calculus.
Descartes founds analytic geometry by
showing how geometric forms may be sys-
1679 Leibniz publishes Characteristica
tematically studied by analytic or algebraic
Geometrica, which marks the beginnings
means.
of topology as a mathematical discipline.
1638 Galileo Galilei publishes Discorsi e
Dimonstrazioni Matematiche Intorno a Due 1687 Newton’s Philosophiae Naturalis
Nuove Scienze, in which he points out fun- Principia Mathematica, one of the greatest
damental differences between finite and scientific works ever written, inaugurates
infinite classes of numbers. the practice of applied mathematics.

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Overview:
Mathematics
Mathematics 1450-1699
1450-1699


Background easy and cheap to mass-produce, and language
and type were slowly standardized.
In the years after 1450 European mathematics
flourished, yet during the previous 850 years al- One of the earliest mathematical texts print-
most all mathematical developments occurred in ed was Luca Pacioli’s (1445-1517) Summa de
other parts of the world. In Medieval Europe the Arithmetica (1494). It was difficult to read, and
religious and philosophical works of the ancient many commentators have noted that there were
Greeks and Romans were still preserved, but superior alternatives, such as Nicolas Chuquet’s
many mathematical texts had been lost. Yet while (c. 1450-1500) Triparty (1484), which con-
European mathematics suffered through the Dark tained practical exercises in geometry and com-
Ages, elsewhere in the world mathematical inno- merce and was clearly written. However, it re-
vation continued. In India mathematics was well mained in manuscript form, and so Pacioli’s
advanced by A.D. 700, especially in trigonometry. printed book reached a much wider audience.
The use of the zero helped improve the Hindu Most texts early in the period relied heavily on
numerical system, which was the basis for the ancient sources, such as Rafael Bombelli’s (1526-
numbers we use today. Chinese mathematicians 1572) influential treatise on algebra (1572). This
developed a decimal system and discovered solu- fascination with ancient texts also led to the revival
tions for a number of cubic and quadratic equa- of ancient mystical themes within mathematics.
tions. The Arab regions of the Middle East were Scholars like John Dee (1527-1608) became inter-
geographically fortunate, having easy access to ested in the occult power of numbers and symbols,
Babylonian, Greek, and Indian mathematics. Arab assigning numerical values to letters in words to ex-
mathematicians assembled, and then developed, pose hidden meanings. These magical elements led
a wide range of knowledge. However, while these some scientists, such as Francis Bacon (1561-1626)
cultures made fundamental discoveries in mathe- and Giordano Bruno (1548-1600), to ridicule or
matics, they all reached a peak of activity, then downplay the role of mathematics. Yet the populari-
faded. For various reasons the continuation of ty of numerology and astrology gave rise to many
mathematical research was not given support or mathematical and scientific innovations, such as
encouragement in these societies. precise computations of the position and motion of
Europeans rediscovered many of the ancient the stars and planets.
Greek texts through contact with Arab mathe- Slowly European mathematics caught up
matics. However, these works suffered some- with Indian, Chinese, and Arabic mathematical
what from the multiple translation process, from knowledge, but often information was not
Greek to Arabic to Latin, in which mistakes were shared. Scipione del Ferro (1465-1525) discov-
often compounded. Innovations were often re- ered a method of solving some cubic equations,
sisted, such as Gerbert’s (c. 945-1003) and which his pupil, Antonio Maria Fior, kept secret
Leonardo of Pisa’s (c. 1170-1240) separate at- in order to win mathematical contests. However,
tempts to popularize Arabic-Hindu numerals. Fior was utterly defeated in 1535 by Niccolò
Not until the sixteenth century were they widely Fontana, better known as Tartaglia (1500-1557),
accepted. who figured out the method. Girolamo Cardano
(1501-1576) heard of Tartaglia’s victory and per-
suaded him to allow one of the cubic solutions to
The Printing Press Aids the Development
be printed. However, Cardano also worked out
of Mathematics several more cases, and Tartaglia became furious
By the middle of the fifteenth century translators when those too were published. Secretive find-
such as Regiomontanus (1436-1476) had recov- ings in mathematics and science were common,
ered most of the ancient Greek sources from but many thinkers eventually began to see the
Arabic copies. However, the books were few and benefits of sharing information. A number of im-
extremely expensive, as they had to be painstak- portant figures, such as Fr. Marin Mersenne
ingly handwritten. The development of movable (1588-1648), acted as intermediaries between
type and papermaking after 1450 resulted in an many mathematicians, corresponding widely and
information revolution in Europe. Books became spreading new ideas.

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Mathematical innovations came from many of the most puzzling mathematical challenges, his
sources. The symbols + and – were originally Last Theorem, which remained unsolved until the Mathematics
used by German bookkeepers, as they allowed final decade of the twentieth century.
easy cocomputation of deficiencies and excesses 1450-1699
in stock. A Welsh doctor, Robert Recorde (1510-
1558), created the = sign, and François Viète The Invention of Calculus
(1540-1603) introduced the use of letters to rep- Many fields of mathematics were developed in
resent numbers in algebraic equations. Such de- this period. Number theory, induction, new
velopments combined to give mathematics its methods for calculating π, decimal fractions, and
modern look and allowed easy communication a host of other important work helped make the
across language barriers. years 1450-1699 one of the most productive peri-
Albert Girard (1595-1632) was one of a ods of mathematical research. However, it was the
number of mathematicians who expanded the invention of calculus that was the crowning
field of algebra, writing an influential text, Inven- achievement of the time. A number of seemingly
tion nouvelle en l’algebre (1629). Girard was a independent developments combined to give rise
military engineer, and like others of this profes- to this new field. René Descartes (1596-1650) in-
sion he found mathematics increasingly useful. troduced algebra into geometry, and along with
The development of cannons led to the study of others, such as Fermat, developed the field of an-
the flight of cannonballs. Cannons also made alytic geometry, which describes curves in the
older fortifications obsolete, as tall, thin, straight form of equations. The study of curves led to a
walls were easily toppled, and so new, geometri- number of new techniques being developed to
cally elaborate fortifications were constructed to analyze their slope and rate of change. Descartes
withstand the impact of artillery. developed a method for finding the perpendicular
to the tangent of a curve, while Fermat worked
on the problem of finding the maxima and mini-
John Napier Develops Logarithms ma of variables. Bonaventura Cavalieri (1598-
1647), a Jesuit priest, developed a method for cal-
The development of logarithms by John Napier culating the area or volume of a geometric figure,
(1550-1617) had practical applications in many the method of indivisibles. Then Isaac Newton
areas, from astronomy to bookkeeping. Starting (1642-1727) and Gottfried Leibniz (1646-1716)
from ideas suggested by Chuquet, Napier pro- independently put all the pieces together and de-
duced many tables of computed logarithms, veloped methods for differentiation and integra-
numbers that reduced multiplication and divi- tion, the beginnings of calculus.
sion problems to simple addition and subtrac-
tion. Henry Briggs (1561-1630), a keen as- Newton is also important for the way he
tronomer, expanded and helped popularize viewed mathematics. His writings popularized
Napier’s works. Napier is also remembered for the use of mathematical analysis in scientific
his system of rods to make calculations easier, subjects, such as physics and optics. He helped
and many versions of such devices were con- make mathematics the new language of science.
structed, eventually producing the slide rule, a Mathematics had also been readily adopted in
device that remained popular until the invention areas as diverse as commerce, mapmaking, navi-
of the electronic calculator. gation, astronomy, astrology, and even gambling.
The continuation of mathematical development
The development of European painting pro- in Europe owed much to the practical applica-
duced a new interest in geometry. To create an il- tions the field offered. Financial support and pa-
lusion of depth in a two-dimensional painting, tronage from wealthy individuals and govern-
the art of perspective was revived. Gerard Desar- ments enabled many mathematicians to dedicate
gues (1591-1661), an architect and engineer, their lives to their studies.
studied the figures created when a plane inter-
sects a cone, and introduced the concept of pro-
jective geometry. Geometrical studies also Looking ahead to the 1700s
helped improve mapmaking and navigation.
Mathematics in the following century would be
The popularity of gambling led Blaise Pascal dominated by calculus. Newton and Leibniz’s
(1623-1662) and Pierre de Fermat (1601-1675) to creation was to occupy the minds of the best
calculate probabilities of winning at dice games. and brightest mathematical minds of the eigh-
Both men also contributed to a wide range of teenth century, Leonhard Euler (1707-1783),
other mathematical topics. Fermat left behind one Joseph Lagrange (1736-1813), and Pierre Simon

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Laplace (1749-1827) to name a few. Yet, despite teenth century also saw important work in other
Mathematics the work of these great mathematicians, by the mathematical fields. Advances in analytic geom-
end of the eighteenth century calculus was a etry, differential geometry, and algebra would all
1450-1699 field in trouble. While calculus worked, it play important roles in the development of mod-
seemed to have no logical foundation. It would ern mathematics.
be the mathematicians of the nineteenth century
who had to deal with such objections. The eigh- DAVID TULLOCH

Advancements in Notation Enhance the

Translation and Precision of Mathematics


Overview goal of scholars often limited to the rapid incor-
poration of ideas that might benefit political or
During the Renaissance in Western Europe, a re-
commercial interests, in general the introduction
discovery and advancement of classical mathe-
of mathematical symbols can be viewed as an at-
matics laid the foundation for the empiricism of
tempt not only to streamline mathematical opera-
the Scientific Revolution. One of the pillars of
tions so that they could be more easily rendered
this intellectual reawakening in mathematics
by printed type but also to make such operations
was the increased use of mathematical symbols
more precisely translatable.
that enabled scholars to communicate with each
other more easily and accurately across geo- Although the conventional view of histori-
graphical, national, and linguistic boarders. ans for centuries held that Arab scholars merely
preserved the classical mathematics of the
Background Greeks until Europe emerged from its Medieval
Age, recent reevaluations of the contributions of
Although the use of symbols in mathematical Arab mathematicians have cast light on many
operations dates to antiquity, scholars often dif- important mathematical innovations advanced
fer in the awarding of credit for the first use of by Arabic scholars. With regard to the develop-
mathematical symbols. For example, according ment of mathematical symbolism, the writings
to some interpretations based on extant archaeo- of Arab (Moroccan) mathematician al-Mar-
logical evidence, some scholars credit ancient rakushi ibn Al-Banna (1256-1321) and Arab
Egyptian civilizations with the use of specific (Moorish and Tunisian) mathematician Abu’l
symbols for the operation of addition and with a Hasan ibn Ali al Qalasadi (1412-1486) exhibit a
symbol that denoted equality. Other scholars cite use of mathematical symbols to describe alge-
the first use of such symbols by Greek, Hindu, braic operations that scholars argue provides ev-
or Arabic cultures. Regardless, although symbol- idence of still earlier origins of algebraic notation
ic use was certainly present in indigenous math- in Arabic mathematics.
ematical systems scattered throughout the
world, there is no evidence of any concerted at- Regardless of intent or origin, an examina-
tempt at a universification of symbolism until tion of mathematical works produced during the
after the advent of the printing press at the start European Renaissance reveals an increasing re-
of the European Renaissance, around 1450. liance on mathematical symbols and the concur-
rent steady reduction in text to describe mathe-
Beginning at this time, expansion in trade matical processes. Of particular benefit to those
and foreign wars by European nations fueled the attempting to duplicate mathematical operations
need for an easily translatable mathematics, espe- was a reduction in the extensive use of often
cially arithmetic and geometry that were exten- confusing word abbreviations in the description
sively used in commercial trades and in the devel- of mathematical methods.
opment of weapons. In addition, the growing
availability and capability of printing technology
made it possible to quickly and accurately ex- Impact
change scholarly ideas. Although these exchanges As a direct consequence of increased commercial
were not always altogether altruistic, with the trade during the Renaissance, there arose a form

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of commercial arithmetic made more easily un- to represent both known and unknown quanti-
derstandable by the introduction of various sym- ties (e.g., using vowels to represent unknowns Mathematics
bols. Prior to the widespread use of symbols to and consonants to represent known quantities).
denote numbers and operations, reading mathe- 1450-1699
In his work De Thiende (Art of Tenths), Flem-
matics was a cumbersome and tedious exercise.
ish-born Dutch mathematician Simon Stevin
Moreover, differences in language—and different
(1548-1620) demonstrated computation without
usage of words within individual languages—in-
the use of common fractions. Stevin formalized
creased the errors in translation that usually
and synthesized prior concepts of decimal num-
manifested themselves in errant mathematical
bers into a notation system capable of represent-
calculations. In particular, prior to the introduc-
ing decimal numbers, and he described the meth-
tion of algebraic symbols, algebraic expressions
ods by which to add, subtract, multiply, and di-
were laboriously scripted. As a result of the sen-
vide decimal numbers. Stevin’s work was critical
sitivities of language, particularly when translat-
for the advancement of the empiricism and quan-
ing from Arabic, there was often great confusion
tification of physics.
and difficulty in reproducing and advancing al-
gebraic concepts. In his 1637 work Discours de la méthode
(Discourse on Method) French philosopher
German mathematician Johann Widman’s
René Descartes (1596-1650) championed the
1489 work, Behede und hubsche Rechnung was the
logic of mathematics as a paradigm for reasoning
first printed book to utilize and set out the plus
and, in so doing, elevated the use of mathemati-
(+) and minus (-) signs for the mathematical op-
cal symbolism into philosophical reflections on
erations of addition and subtraction. Although
the nature and value of mathematics. Descartes
the introduction of symbols for such elementary
incorporated the notation of English mathemati-
operations may seem a modest accomplishment
cian Thomas Harriot (1560-1621) with regard to
by modern mathematical standards, it is impor-
the use of symbols for inequalities and made im-
tant to remember the state of mathematics dur-
portant modifications to the symbolism for ex-
ing the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries. As late
ponential notation first advanced by Italian
as 1550 most learned scholars did not know how
mathematician Rafael Bombelli (1526-1572).
to multiply or divide. Accordingly, the advance-
ment of mathematical symbols, even for elemen- In a later work titled La Géometrie, Des-
tary operations, contributed to the slow evolu- cartes advanced the still-used convention where-
tion of standardized notational systems that in letters near the beginning of the alphabet are
could be incorporated more easily into texts that, used to represent known quantities in equations
in turn, promoted a wider growth of scientific lit- and letters near the end of the alphabet are used
eracy upon which mathematics itself could flour- to represent unknown quantities This innova-
ish. In 1557 English mathematician Robert tion by Descartes allowed the rapid formulation
Recorde (1510-1558) introduced the equals sign and evaluation of equations with regard to the
(=) in a work titled Whetstone of Witte and made determination of unknown variables (e.g., in the
popular the plus and minus symbols published equation ax = b it is apparent upon inspection
by Widman. that the quantity designated by x is an unknown
variable).
The rediscovery of the work of Pisan (later a
part of Italy) mathematician Leonardo Pisano Fi- The development of symbolism in coordi-
bonacci (1170-1250)—who borrowed exten- nate geometry in the works of Descartes and
sively from other cultures during his travels— French mathematician Pierre de Fermat (1601-
fueled the development of a notational system 1665) allowed the easier quantification of geom-
equipped to translate Fibonacci’s mathematical etry and the application of algebraic methods to
puzzles and word problems. geometric problems in navigation and engineer-
ing. Moreover, the advancements by Descartes
The increased use of mathematical symbol-
laid a solid foundation for English physicist and
ism was given an important boost in French
mathematician Sir Isaac Newton’s (1642-1727)
mathematician François Viète’s (1540-1603)
profoundly important Philosophiae Naturalis
Canon Mathematicus, which covered many as-
Principia Mathematica (Mathematical Principles
pects of trigonometry and included the use of
of Natural Philosophy).
decimal fractions (printed in differential smaller
type). Moreover, Viète made a systematic compi- Curiously, not everyone readily accepted the
lation of notation related to algebraic methods. increased use of symbolism in mathematics. The
In subsequent works, Viète used letter symbols English philosopher Thomas Hobbes (1588-

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1679) argued that symbols only made the de- came the standard notation for the new calculus.
Mathematics scription of mathematics shorter—that symbols The symbols still used for differentials (dx and
were nothing more than a convenience for the dy) and the sign for the integral appear in papers
1450-1699 printer—and that they did nothing for the ulti- that Leibniz published on the calculus.
mate understandability of mathematical opera-
This normalization of mathematics—occur-
tions. Hobbs decried excessive use of symbolism
ring despite increased nationalism and provin-
as a “double labor” of the mind.
cialism in language—made possible the mathe-
Other notable advances in seventeenth-cen- matical advances necessary to allow the quantifi-
tury mathematical symbolism also include Eng- cation of accurate descriptions of uniform and
lish mathematician William Oughtred’s (1574- accelerated motion (e.g. along parabolic curves)
1660) advancement of a symbol for π as the and the development of analytic geometry and
ratio of the diameter of a circle to its circumfer- calculus.
ence. In addition, in his work Clavis Mathemati-
ca, Oughtred advanced the use of “x” as a sign K. LEE LERNER
for mathematical multiplication. It was not,
however, until the 1660s that the symbol ÷ was
widely used to denote division. In his 1685 Trea- Further Reading
tise on Algebra English mathematician Rev. John
Abbott, D., gen. ed. The Biographical Dictionary of Scien-
Wallis (1616-1703) introduced a symbol used to tists: Mathematicians. New York: Peter Bedrick Books,
represent numerical infinity in operations. 1985.
In the later decades of the seventeenth cen- Ball, W. W. Rouse. A Short Account of the History of Mathe-
tury German mathematician Gottfried Wilhelm matics. New York: Dover Publications, 1960.
von Leibniz (1646-1716) invented symbols of Cajori, F. A History of Mathematical Notations. Chicago:
such operational utility that they quickly be- Open Court Publishing Co., 1928.

The Reappearance of
Analysis in Mathematics


Overview haps the most celebrated accomplishment was
that of Niccolo Fontana (1500?-1557), better
Important mathematical developments occurred
known as Tartaglia, who managed to solve cubic
during the sixteenth century, but it was not clear
equations, in which the variable appeared to the
how to fit them into the framework of classical
third power. This was a notable advance over
mathematics, which was still used as the center
previous techniques, and in the course of the
of the curriculum. In particular, the work in al-
century equations with variables to the fourth
gebra did not look like part of the system of ax-
power (called quartic equations) were also
ioms and theorems used to set out the discipline
solved. There was argument at the time about
of geometry. The French mathematician
who had first accomplished which stages of
François Viète (1540-1603) presented the new
these advances, but there was no doubt that
mathematics in a way that could make it accept-
methods for solving of equations had been im-
able to those who insisted on having a classical
mensely improved.
background for mathematics. Thanks to his
work, algebra could thereafter be presented in a These new discoveries, however, did not
way that was both easier to explain and to ex- conform to those of classical Greek mathematics
tend to further new results. represented by the Elements of Euclid (330?-260?
B.C.). Even within the world of Greek mathemat-
ics some of Euclid’s successors had come up with
Background additional approaches to mathematics beyond
In the sixteenth century a number of Italian those of the Elements. Diophantus (fl. A.D. 250)
mathematicians made advances in the branch of was the first mathematician to approach the busi-
mathematics devoted to solving equations. Per- ness of solving equations in more than one vari-

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of Tartaglia and others had required was the

substitution of one expression into another in an Mathematics
effort to reduce an equation to a form that could
be handled. Euclid’s arithmetic (stated in the El- 1450-1699
ements in geometric form) allowed for the substi-
tution of equals for equals, but since the algebra-
ic expressions involved unknowns, different ex-
pressions could not be recognized as being
equal. Viète argued that this process of replacing
one expression by another was defensible if the
resulting solution could be substituted back into
the original equation and tested, according to
Pappus. As a result, the algebraic techniques of
the Italian equation solvers could be worked
into a Greek scheme, although that was not part
of what the Renaissance had inherited from clas-
sical mathematics.
Viète called his new approach the ars analyt-
ice, (analytic art). This referred to the technique
of solving an equation by breaking it down (from
which the word “analysis” comes). The presenta-
tion of mathematics in Euclid involved the
François Viète. (Library of Congress. Reproduced with method of synthesis, building up the subject
permission.) from its elements. Algebra had never followed
that mode of presentation, but this was partly
able systematically, but the system he used was connected with its looking like a bag of tricks
not that of Euclid. In an effort to make the work rather than a connected discipline. Viète was the
of Diophantus at home in the world of Greek first to recognize that algebra could be presented
mathematics, Pappas (300?-350?) came up with in a more coherent fashion by dividing equations
the categories of zetetics and poristics as part of into classes which could be treated as a whole.
the machinery used by Diophantus. Zetetics in- This enabled mathematicians to proceed by solv-
volved setting up equations and poristics in- ing a certain class of equations and then trying to
volved checking the truth of earlier results by use reduce other equations to examples within that
of equations. class. His method of classification and discovery
brought the haphazard techniques for solving
Since little progress was made for more than cubic and quartic equations into the framework
a millenium in the areas of algebra in which Dio- of the heritage of classical mathematics.
phantus had worked, the terminology and divi-
sions that Pappus used seemed to be sufficient.
With the developments in the sixteenth century, Impact
however, change was called for, and the individ-
The presentation of algebraic results under the
ual who made those changes to mathematics was
heading of analysis accomplished a good deal to
François Viète, a French mathematician who
make the solving of equations more academically
wrote in Latin (the scholarly language of the
respectable. The mathematical curriculum in the
time) under the name of Vieta. As a humanist he
sixteenth century remained centered on the Ele-
felt obliged to find room for the new mathemat-
ments, and, in the next century, even the work of
ics under the heading of the Greek learning that
a mathematician of the stature of Sir Isaac New-
humanism had reintroduced into Europe. Since
ton (1642-1727) was still presented in geometri-
the new mathematics did not quite fit, he had to
cal form. Those who had accomplished the feats
expand the categories of Pappus to find room for
of solving cubic and quartic equations could be
the Italian advances in algebra already made, and
dismissed as not being mathematicians (or
for those likely to come in the future.
philosophers, in the sense of natural philosophy)
Viète introduced the new area of exegetics if their work did not adhere to the canons of
into the classification Pappus had created. This Greek mathematics. Viète’s stretching of the no-
had to do with determining the value of the un- tions of Greek mathematics put algebraic progress
known in a given equation. What the techniques on the map of the academic world as well.

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Much of Viète’s own nomenclature for alge- the variables represented. In the course of the
Mathematics bra was supplanted in the seventeenth century nineteenth century, different rules for dealing
by the work of René Descartes (1596-1650). with equations had to be developed according to
1450-1699 Descartes’s algebra and the simultaneous work of the nature of the numbers being considered, but
his colleague Pierre de Fermat (1601-1665) the possibility for extending algebra in this way
would have been impossible without Viète tak- depended on having a language for the commu-
ing the isolated results of his Italian predecessors nication of algebraic results. Viète supplied that
and systematizing them. The influence of language by merging Greek and algebraic tradi-
Descartes and Fermat has continued throughout tions into the analytic art.
the subsequent development of mathematics,
THOMAS DRUCKER
while that of Viète has ceased to be nearly so vis-
ible. Nevertheless, both Descartes and Fermat
were well aware of what they had inherited in
the form of the analytic art. Further Reading
Klein, Jacob. Greek Mathematical Thought and the Origin of
There was a good deal of discussion in the Algebra, translated by Eva Brann. Cambridge, MA:
nineteenth century about whether algebra was Massachusetts Institute of Technology Press, 1968.
about numbers or about symbols. The issue re-
Mahoney, Michael S. The Mathematical Career of Pierre de
flects Viète’s ability to transform the discussion Fermat. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press,
about specific numerical examples, which he re- 1973.
ceived from earlier algebraists, into classes of Otte, Michael, and Marco Panza, eds. Analysis and Synthe-
equations that looked as though they could be sis in Mathematics: History and Philosophy. Dordrecht:
solved regardless of the kinds of numbers that Kluwer Academic Publishers, 1997.

John Napier Discovers Logarithms

Overview However, the flurry of discoveries in physics
and mathematics that began in the fifteenth centu-
Logarithms are of fundamental importance to an
ry gave rise to more and more need for calculation,
incredibly wide array of fields, including much
and what had been inconvenient now became
of mathematics, physics, engineering, statistics,
drudgery. Unfortunately, in those days before com-
chemistry, and any areas using these disciplines.
puters (or even slide rules), no other options exist-
However, until the early seventeenth century,
ed, so scientists and their assistants plugged away,
they were unknown. Invented by a Scottish am-
laboriously multiplying and dividing by hand.
ateur mathematician named John Napier (1550-
1617) after 20 years of work, they were met Towards the end of the seventeenth century,
with almost immediate acceptance by mathe- John Napier, a Scottish laird, began to look for an
maticians and scientists alike. In the intervening easier way to undertake these operations. One
centuries, logarithms and their converse, expo- observation he made dealt with multiplying
nents, have proven to be among the most useful powers of numbers. For example, 4
8 = 32. If
mathematical tools of all time. we write these as powers of two, we have 22
23
= 25. Napier observed that the exponents on the
Background left side of the equation add up to equal the ex-
Arithmetic (addition, subtraction, multiplica- ponent in the answer (that is, 2  3 = 5). This
tion, and division) dates back to human prehis- meant that, instead of multiplying two numbers
tory. Of these most basic operations, addition together, one could simply add the exponents to-
and subtraction are relatively easy while multi- gether, and then calculate the final answer using
plication and division are much more difficult to exponents. Or, in terms of our example,
master. Until the Renaissance, however, mathe- 4
8 = 22
23 = 2(2 + 3) = 25 = 32.
matics and the sciences were not very dependent
on mathematical calculation, and these difficul- This series of operations has a few draw-
ties, while vexing, were not insurmountable. backs. First, it is far too much work for such a

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work had led up to it, foreshadowed it, or

heralded its arrival. It stands isolated, Mathematics
breaking in upon human thought abruptly
without borrowing from the work of other 1450-1699
intellects or following known lines of math-
ematical thought.

Impact
As mentioned above, Napier’s work was greet-
ed with instant enthusiasm by virtually all
mathematicians who read it. The primary rea-
son for this is because his tables of logarithms
vastly simplified computation. Along these
same lines, the principles upon which the slide
rule works are dependent on the addition of
logarithms, a fact that helped speed up com-
putation in precalculator days. Mathematicians
also quickly found other uses for logarithms,
and invented other related concepts such as
fractional exponents, the number e, and simi-
lar mathematical tools. Although these were
not of great importance to the average person
John Napier. (Library of Congress. Reproduced with
permission.) of the seventeenth century, Napier’s invention
was of such a tremendous boon that, directly
or indirectly, it has affected virtually everyone
simple problem. Second, in this form, it will only in some way.
work for integer multiples of integers—it is just
too limited in scope to be of general use. Napier’s Simplifying computation
breakthrough came in realizing that this method As mentioned above, the invention of logarithms
could be extended in such a way as to make it greatly simplified mathematical operations.
more generally useful. After this breakthrough, While this sounds relatively straightforward, its
he spent the next 20 years calculating the first importance may not be obvious. Consider, how-
table of logarithms, publishing his results in ever, the fate of an astronomer or physicist be-
1614. It is worth noting that a Swiss mathemati- fore and after 1614:
cian, Joost Bürgi (1552-1632) apparently invent-
ed logarithms some time before Napier, but for To determine a planetary orbit, an as-
some inexplicable reason, neglected to publish tronomer needed to make a number of relatively
his results and their utility until 1620. Because of sophisticated calculations, many of which used
this, he lost his claim to scientific priority and is rather large numbers and several operations of
not given credit for his work. multiplication and division. To multiply, for ex-
ample, two five-digit numbers required several
There are, of course, some differences be- minutes, five sets of multiplication, and adding
tween what Napier called logarithms and our the results of each of these sets. At any point of
current definition. These differences are, howev- this laborious process a mistake could be made,
er, not fundamental, and all of Napier’s work so each calculation had to be checked for accu-
easily translates to current usage with only racy. This could take many minutes for each
minor adjustments. In general, it is safe to say multiplication, and division was much more dif-
that the fundamental concepts of Napier’s sys- ficult. With Napier’s system, on the other hand,
tem remain intact, even after nearly 400 years— this operation took just a few minutes. First, the
a remarkable achievement. What is even more astronomer would look up the logarithms of
remarkable is that Napier performed this work each factor. Next, he would add these loga-
in intellectual near-isolation. Or, as Lord Moul- rithms together, and then would find in the ta-
ton said in a 1914 tribute marking the 300th an- bles the number for which this sum was the log-
niversary of Napier’s paper, arithm (called the antilogarithm).
The invention of logarithms came on the Saving five minutes of calculation time is
world as a bolt from the blue. No previous not significant—but saving five minutes of cal-

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culation time for each of several thousand calcu- terial populations, astronomical calculations,
Mathematics lations makes a dramatic difference. This single and any number of engineering problems all
mathematical invention was responsible for an make use of e, and solutions to many of these
1450-1699 incredible decrease in mathematical drudgery problems also require the use of logarithms. In
while simultaneously increasing computational the eighteenth century, the brilliant mathemati-
accuracy and scientific output. In fact, Pierre- cian, Leonhard Euler (1707-1783) would help
Simon Laplace (1749-1827) commented that give logarithms and exponential functions an
Napier had “by shortening labors doubled the important place in higher mathematics and the
life of the astronomer.” The next such dramatic calculus.
increase in computational efficiency would be
the invention of the slide rule in the 1620s, very The effects of logarithms on society
shortly after publication of Napier’s original While logarithms and exponents are basic
paper. By removing the necessity to look up val- mathematical concepts, they are rather esoteric
ues of logarithms and antilogarithms, the slide for those who do not work with them regular-
rule sped up computation even more, while fur- ly. This was especially true for the average per-
ther reducing the chance of error. In fact, the son in the seventeenth century, who was cer-
slide rule would remain virtually unchanged for tainly had no appreciation for any mathemat-
nearly four hundred years, an indispensable tool ics beyond simple arithmetic. Even today the
for anyone performing computations. The only average person is likely to have only a passing
device to simplify calculations even further has familiarity with these concepts. Logarithms,
been the electronic calculator, which has re- however, are so fundamental to the mathemat-
placed the slide rule in virtually every office in ics of many disciplines and are so ubiquitous
the world. in mathematical problem solving that most
people’s lives have been affected in some way
Mathematical spin-offs by them. For example, the mathematics by
Logarithms not only led directly to the invention which aircraft, internal combustion engines,
of slide rules, but also produced other intellectu- electrical generators, and petroleum refineries
al spin-offs. Exponents, for example, were al- are designed depend intimately on the use of
ready well known in Napier’s time, but were of these concepts. Compound interest calcula-
limited utility because of the contemporary in- tions, important to anyone with either a bank
sistence of using only integers as exponents for account or a loan, are made simpler and more
other integers. For example, one could write the accurate by use of e. The mathematics upon
term 23, but not 22.5. This limitation placed an which television and radio broadcast and re-
unnecessary constraint on the use of exponents. ception is based also depend on these mathe-
However, shortly after publication of Napier’s matical tools. Except for very isolated, primi-
paper, mathematicians realized that logarithms tive tribes, it is likely that everyone has been
were simply exponents. Since logarithms were exposed to at least one of these categories of
also written in decimal notation, this opened the objects, or to the fruits of one.
door to a wider use of fractions and decimals as
exponents, again simplifying mathematical com- Put simply, John Napier, laboring on his
putation. Similarly, mathematicians realized that own, created a mathematical concept that has
they could use exponents with fractions and proven extraordinarily useful to mathematicians,
decimal numbers as the base. Today, neither of scientists, financiers, and many others. Because
these seems a revelation, but in the early 1600s, of the incredible utility of logarithms and expo-
this was a major breakthrough. nents, technical and statistical calculations were
made much simpler and more reliable, and all of
Another spin-off of Napier’s work was the
society has benefited as a result.
realization that, when examined mathematical-
ly, his work produced the number e, the base P. ANDREW KARAM
for the natural logarithms. Like π, e is a tran-
scendental number that will never terminate or
repeat; it has also, like π, proven itself to be an Further Reading
incredibly versatile number that pops up in cal- Maor, Eli. e: The Story of a Number. Princeton, NJ: Prince-
culations performed in just about every field ton University Press, 1994.
that uses mathematics. Compound interest, ra- Boyer, Carl and Merzbach, Uta. A History of Mathematics.
dioactive decay, the growth and decline of bac- New York: John Wiley and Sons, 1991.

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Militarizing Mathematics


Mathematics
1450-1699

Overview battles remained anything but predictable, but

the characteristics of an army’s main weapons
Humanity has an uncanny knack of finding a
were better known, making their use in battle
military application for almost any discovery
more certain.
made by science. Mathematics is no exception
and, in fact, because of its utility in describing At sea, mathematics found increasing use,
many physical phenomena, has been extraordi- too. As navies and merchant fleets ranged fur-
narily useful to the military. This process began ther from shore, becoming true blue water fleets,
during the Renaissance, continues today, and is their dependence on accurate navigation grew.
likely to be ever more important as we develop This, in turn, was dependent on the accurate use
heavily computerized weapons and armies for of trigonometry to determine a ship’s location
the future. from the position of the sun or various stars.
Some sea captains, especially those with more
Background scientific knowledge, began to try to balance the
forces acting on their ships to maximize their
Early warfare was a rather hit-or-miss affair. performance. Finally, waging naval warfare on
Armies were generally composed of a large num- an intercontinental scale put a heavy emphasis
ber of poor people on foot with sharp weapons, on logistics to make sure that a ship could be
and a small number of wealthy people on horses supplied with food, water, gunpowder, shot, and
with sharp weapons. They would rush into bat- other supplies, travel all over the world and still
tle, shooting arrows and hacking at each other fight effectively. This, too, benefited from the in-
until one side realized it could not win and ei- creased use of mathematics rather than operat-
ther withdrew or was slaughtered. Sometimes, ing solely by rule of thumb.
one army would ensconce itself inside a castle or
some other fortification, where they would be
relatively immune from the ravages of the other Impact
side for as long as their food and water held out.
The increased use of mathematics in warfare di-
Sometime around the fourteenth century, rectly affected military technology and strategy,
with the introduction of gunpowder from China, making warfare more efficient and more pre-
all this began to change. Almost simultaneously, dictable. These are significant developments,
firearms and artillery pieces gave foot soldiers a and are in some ways intimately related because
weapon to use at longer range and against those the process of making weapons more predictable
in armor, and gave besieging armies a weapon allows them to be used to their maximum ad-
that could bring down castle walls. Because of vantage. This, in turn, makes them more effi-
this, gunpowder is possibly the most significant cient in battle. The reason for this is not obvi-
advance in the history of warfare, and one of the ous, but is relatively simple, as the following ex-
most important inventions in human history. ample will demonstrate.
With the advent of gunpowder and artillery,
battlefield strategies changed. Enemy troops Land warfare
could now be attacked from a greater distance, Take two cannons, both of which are the same
giving the side with superior artillery a tactical size and weight and hold the same amount of
advantage. Since city walls were no longer im- gunpowder. One cannon was cast and bored by
penetrable, they began to be replaced by designs eye, based on the judgment of the person over-
that were more effective against cannons, while seeing the process while the other was cast and
making best use of the cities’ own cannons. In bored according to a master set of plans drawn up
addition, the fledgling science of ballistics, based by an engineer. The first is loaded with a batch of
almost entirely on mathematics, helped make gunpowder mixed according to an old formula
the flight of shot from a cannon more pre- that has been handed down over the decades, and
dictable; another significant advance. poured into the barrel to a level that “looks” right.
Much of the these new weapons’ effective- The other receives a standardized amount of a
ness was due to the use of mathematical analysis standardized batch of powder. They are loaded
to perfect both their design and use. Of course, with cannonballs, aimed and fired.

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The second gun will fire more consistently provements, in turn, helped navies defend their
Mathematics every time. Because the barrel is a standard size, national interests and project national power to
it can fire a shot that has been designed to fit as newly discovered colonies and trading partners.
1450-1699 closely as possible without jamming, so the shot
will travel farther. Because the powder is uni- Effects on society
form and the same amount is used every time, The same technology that produced cannon bar-
the crew will know exactly how far the shot will rels of precisely the same dimensions helped
travel for a given cannon elevation. In addition, make the first internal combustion engines effi-
the new science of ballistics will have provided cient enough for use in automobiles and aircraft.
the gun crew with a table of different trajectories It also helped create piston cylinders on early
and their effects. In short, the performance of steam engines, an invention that powered both
the second gun is more predictable than that of the Industrial Revolution and our current auto-
the first. Because of this, a general will know ex- motive age. Making gunpowder as consistent
actly where to place his artillery pieces to get the and effective as possible helped produce what is
best use out of them. Of course, this example is now the science of chemistry and all that it has
a great simplification, but the fact remains that given humanity. The navigational improvements
the mathematical control of ammunition and that made navies so much more efficient also
weapons use could give a great advantage to the made commercial travel more efficient, opening
gun crews using those weapons. up the world for exploration, exploitation, and
Naturally, both attackers and defenders used colonization by the European powers.
artillery, and defenders gained the same advan- These spin-offs weren’t always positive. The
tages in their use of guns. In addition, defenders military changes that accompanied the use of
soon learned that elevating their weapons gave gunpowder made noncombatants more vulnera-
even greater range, while replacing their high ble during wartime because they had no place to
walls with lower, sloping embankments helped retreat for protection. The growing efficiency
mitigate the worst effects of cannonballs. In this, and complexity of warfare also helped spur the
too, mathematical analysis of the variety of angles formation of professional armies, specialists in
from which attacks could come helped prepare warfare who had mastered the weapons and
for the most likely scenarios. techniques of their trade. The growing effective-
ness of weapons on killing noncombatants,
Naval warfare helped lead to rules of warfare, which were de-
Naval gunnery benefited from mathematics in signed to protect civilian populations while al-
the same way that land-based artillery did, al- lowing the wholesale slaughter of soldiers. So
though firing a gun from a rolling ship at a mov- warfare changed, from the standpoint of the mil-
ing target was much more difficult than hitting a itary and civilians both.
stationary target with stationary weaponry.
This is not to suggest that mathematics
Mathematics was also useful in such seemingly
alone is to blame for these trends. Most of these
mundane tasks as determining the optimum
“improvements” would have happened regard-
amount of food and water with which to provi-
less of the use of mathematics. Just about every-
sion a ship. (Even these simple tasks can help a
thing mentioned above would have been deter-
ship to fight more efficiently: carrying too much
mined empirically at some point. The use of
food left less room for powder and shot, while
mathematics simply made the process more effi-
scrimping on supplies adversely affected a crew’s
cient, a trend that has continued to this day.
efficiency and effectiveness over long periods of
time.) In addition, improved navigational tech- P. ANDREW KARAM
niques facilitated coordinating with other ships,
and a better understanding of the physical
stresses on naval vessels helped captains to sail Further Reading
them better and more quickly. All of these im- Dyer, Gwynne. War. New York: Crown Publishers, 1985.

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Algebraic Solution of Cubic

Mathematics
and Quartic Equations

1450-1699

Overview zero. The letter x, of course, is the unknown to

be found. Until quite recently, however, mathe-
The solution of the cubic and quartic equations
maticians did not have the tools available to deal
was one of the major achievements of Renais-
with the case in which A, B, and C are all posi-
sance algebra. The publication of the results in
tive numbers. Further, there was a tendency to
Girolamo Cardano’s book The Great Art brought
avoid the appearance of negative numbers. A
charges that Cardano had broken his promise to
method of solution for some quadratic equations
Tartaglia, who claimed he had made the major
had been developed by the ancient Babylonians
discovery in the cubic case. Attempts to identify
based on a process now taught as “completing
all solutions of the cubic, quartic, and higher
the square.” The al-jabr discusses the six possi-
order equations would require the invention of
ble variations of the quadratic equation that can
complex numbers and would lead to the discov-
be written without negative numbers or a zero,
ery of the theory of groups, one of the most im-
for example, Ax2 = Bx, or Ax2 + Bx = C. In the
portant ideas in modern abstract algebra.
latter case there are two possible solutions given
by the quadratic formula, which involves the
Background common operations of arithmetic, addition, sub-
Our word “algebra” is derived from the Arabic traction, multiplication, and division as well as
Kitab al-jabr w’almuqabala, a book by the Arabic taking a square root.
Mathematician Muhammad ibn-Musa al- A cubic equation has the modern form
Khwarizmi (c. 780-c. 850) which described an
Ax3 + Bx2 + Cx + D = 0.
art of “restoration and reduction,” that is, find-
ing the value of unknown quantities in an With B set to zero, this is known as the reduced
equality by rearranging terms. The book was cubic equation. The quartic or biquadratic equa-
translated into Latin in 1145 as the Liber alge- tion has the form
brae et almucabala by Robert of Chester (fl. Ax4 + Bx3 + Cx2 + Dx + E = 0.
1145), an English scholar living in Muslim
Spain. In Christian Western Europe mathemat- As with the earlier solution of the quadratic,
ics was in a far less advanced state than in coun- in treating these equations Cardano had to con-
tries under Muslim control. The Greek scholarly sider many special cases to avoid negative quan-
tradition had continued in the Byzantine Em- tities and the need to take the square root of a
pire, which, however, was under frequent attack negative number. As with the quadratic, Car-
by its neighbors. In 1543 Turkish forces overran dano’s solution to the cubic and quartic involved
its capital, Constantinople. Byzantine scholars adding subtracting, multiplying, dividing, and
found refuge in Italy, where rich and powerful taking roots, in this case including cube roots as
families like the Medici added scholars to their well as square roots.
entourage and manuscripts to their libraries. Cardano freely admitted that the solutions
The appearance of Gutenberg’s printing press he presented were not his original discovery. The
made mathematical ideas far more widely avail- solution to the reduced cubic equation x3 + Ax =
able. Over 200 new books on mathematics ap- B had been found in 1515 by Scipio del Ferro
peared in Italy before 1500. (1465-1526), a professor at the University of
In 1545 a book entitled Ars Magna, or The Bologna. He communicated this solution to his
Great Art, by the Italian mathematician Girolamo student Antonio Fior some 20 years later. The
Cardano (1501-1576), appeared. This work in- Italian mathematician Niccolò Fontana, better
corporated significant new results—the solution known as Tartaglia (1500?-1557), then an-
of the cubic and quartic equations. In modern nounced that he had discovered the solution to
treatments of algebra, a quadratic equation is the cubic equation lacking a first order term, x3
any equation of the form + Ax2 = B, as well as the solution to del Ferro’s
case. Fior doubted that Tartaglia could have
Ax2 + Bx + C = 0 found such a solution and arranged a contest in
where A is a number other than zero, and B and which he and Tartaglia exchanged sets of 30
C are constants that can be positive, negative, or problems. At the end of the agreed-upon time

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Tartaglia had solved all of Fior’s problems while of his illegitimacy. Although his patients once in-
Mathematics Fior could solve none of Tartaglia’s. Cardano in- cluded the Pope, he went to jail for heresy in
vited Tartaglia to his home, hinting that he 1570 for having cast a horoscope of Jesus, only
1450-1699 might be able to introduce him to a possible pa- to become the papal astrologer a year later.
tron. There, Tartaglia disclosed his method to Tartaglia too had engaged in questionable prac-
Cardano in return for assurances that it would tices. He published a translation of Archimedes
not be published. by the Belgian scholar William of Moerbeke (c.
1220 -1286) in a manner suggesting that it was
The solution to the quartic was obtained by
his own work. Ferrari was probably involved in
the Italian Ludovico Ferrari (1522-1565), who
intrigues as well. It is reported that he was poi-
had been Cardano’s secretary and would become
soned by a relative.
his son-in-law. Cardano wrote that Ferrari had
developed it at his request. The essence of the so- A major step forward in algebra would
lution was to define a new variable, related to the occur with the work of the French lawyer and
unknown, in such a way that the quartic could be writer François Viète (1540-1620). While the
written as a cubic, which could then be solved. above discussion has followed modern practice
Tartaglia responded to Cardano’s book by in using letters to represent both known and
publishing one of his own, describing his own known numbers, it is only in the work of Viète
research on the cubic equation and attacking that this is accomplished. The al-jabr used no
Cardano’s integrity for breaking his promise. The mathematical symbols at all, while Cardano’s
meeting between Cardano and Tartaglia had work used letters for known quantities but not
taken place in 1539. Cardano learned of del the unknown. With Viète’s new notation it be-
Ferro’s solution in 1542, however, and felt he came easier to think of solving an algebraic
was no longer bound by his promise, as equation as finding the values of x for which a
Tartaglia’s results had been in good measure an- definite function of the variable x would equal
ticipated by del Ferro. Ferrari rose to the defense zero. This set the stage for the study of functions
of Cardano, and issued a public mathematical themselves and the study of transformations of
challenge to Tartaglia, to which Tartaglia re- functions caused by introducing new variables,
sponded. After six such exchanges Ferraro and ideas important in modern algebra, trigonome-
Tartaglia engaged in a public oral debate in a try, and calculus.
church in Milan in 1548. The solution of equations involving powers
Despite the argument over whether Car- of unknown quantities has repeatedly served to
dano had acted properly, there are important inspire new developments in mathematics. The
discoveries that are undoubtedly Cardano’s. It Greek mathematician Diophantus (fl. third cen-
was Cardano who discovered a systematic tury A.D.) raised the question of the existence of
method to get the general cubic equation into whole number solutions for equations involving
reduced form so that del Ferro’s solution could whole number powers of different unknowns.
be used. Cardano was also the first to show that The French mathematician Pierre de Fermat
the cubic equation could have three real solu- (1601-1665) conjectured that there would be no
tions. He was also among the first mathemati- whole number solutions, A, B, C, to equations of
cians to use imaginary numbers in expressing the form
the solutions of algebraic equations, although a An + Bn = Cn
full understanding of their properties would not
come for nearly three centuries. When n is greater than two. The search for a
proof of Fermat’s conjecture would occupy
mathematicians for centuries.
Impact The introduction of complex numbers, that
The extreme competitiveness of the mathemati- is numbers of the form, a + ib, where the “imagi-
cians involved in solving the cubic and quartic nary” unit i has the property that i2 = -1, was
equations is consistent with the aggressive indi- motivated in part by the study of algebraic equa-
vidualism of the Renaissance. Cardano was more tions. If complex numbers are allowed as solu-
flamboyant than most. The illegitimate son of a tions, then every quadratic equation has two so-
lawyer, he played dice and chess to gain income. lutions, every cubic three, and every quartic
He received a medical degree from the Universi- four. Understanding the nature of complex
ty of Padua in 1526, but was prevented until numbers was a source of many new ideas in
1534 from practicing in his native Milan because nineteenth-century mathematics.

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With the solutions of the cubic and quartic cians would lead to a general theory of transfor-
equations known, it might seem that the solu- mations now known as group theory, which is Mathematics
tion of the quintic equation, which included the considered one of the major areas of both ab-
fifth power of the unknown, and even higher stract and useful mathematics by modern math- 1450-1699
order equations would be achieved eventually. ematicians and scientists.
Despite several centuries of effort, these solu-
DONALD R. FRANCESCHETTI
tions were not found. That such exact solutions,
involving roots and arithmetic operations only,
are not possible was demonstrated in 1824 by Further Reading
the Norwegian mathematician Niels Henrik Abel Bell, Eric Temple. Development of Mathematics. New York:
(1802-1829). Abel’s results were generalized to McGraw-Hill, 1945.
all equations involving powers of the unknown Boyer, Carl B. A History of Mathematics. New York: Wiley,
higher than fourth by the French mathematician 1968.
Evariste Galois (1811-1832). The study of alge- Kline, Morris. Mathematical Thought from Ancient to Mod-
braic transformations by these two mathemati- ern Times. New York: Oxford University Press, 1972.

The Development of Analytic Geometry

Overview tionships and the development of the concept of
mathematical function that it permitted.
The fundamental idea of analytic geometry, the
representation of curved lines by algebraic equa- To illustrate both the importance of notation
tions relating two variables, was developed in and the function concept, we could consider one
the seventeenth century by two French scholars, of the classic problems in algebra, solution of the
Pierre de Fermat and René Descartes. Their in- quadratic equation. In modern notation such an
vention followed the modernization of algebra equation would be written Ax2 + Bx + C = 0.
and algebraic notation by François Viète and Here it is understood that A, B, and C represent
provided the essential framework for the calcu- numbers, x represents the unknown quantity to
lus of Isaac Newton and Gottfried Leibniz. The be found, and the small 2 appearing in the first
calculus, in turn, would become an indispens- term means that the unknown x is to be squared
able mathematical tool in the development of or multiplied by itself. While the solutions to
physics, astronomy, and engineering over the some forms of this equation were known to the
next two centuries. ancient Babylonians, the notation was not fully
developed until the work of the French mathe-
matician François Viète (1540-1602), who stan-
dardized the use of letters to represent both con-
Background stants and variable quantities. Given this nota-
tion, it is then an easy thing to think about the
The relationship between geometry and algebra
equation as having the form f(x) = 0. Where the
has evolved over the history of mathematics.
function f(x) = Ax2 + Bx + C. One can then think
Geometry reached the greater degree of maturity
of a second variable, say y, being defined by the
sooner. The Greek mathematician Euclid (335-
function, y = f(x) = Ax2 + Bx + C, so that we have
270 B.C.) was able to organize a great many re-
a relation between the two variables x and y that
sults in his classic book, the Elements. Algebra
can be studied in itself.
was a far less organized body of ideas, drawing
on Babylonian, Egyptian, Greek, and Hindu The essential idea behind analytic geometry
sources, and dealing with problems ranging is that a relation between two variables, such that
from commerce to geometry. Until the Renais- one is a function of the other, defines a curve.
sance, geometry might be used to justify the so- This idea appears to have been first developed by
lutions to algebraic problems, but there was little the French lawyer and amateur mathematician
thought that algebra would shed light on geom- Pierre de Fermat (1601-1665). In his book Intro-
etry. This situation would change with the adop- duction to Plane and Solid Loci, written in 1629
tion of a convenient notation for algebraic rela- and circulated among his friends but not pub-

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lished until 1679, he introduced the idea that able geometrical curve and showed that those
Mathematics any equation relating two unknowns defines a special curves known as conic sections—the cir-
locus or curve. Fermat allowed one of the vari- cle, ellipse, hyperbola, and parabola—are all de-
1450-1699 ables to represent a distance along a straight line scribed by algebraic equations in which the
from a reference point. The second variable then highest power of x or y is two. The study of such
denoted the distance from the line. Fermat went curves was gaining in importance as a result of
on to derive equations for a number of simple discoveries in physics and astronomy, particular-
curves including the straight line, the ellipse, the ly the discovery by the German scientist Jo-
hyperbola, and the circle. Since Fermat did not hannes Kepler (1571-1630) that the planets
consider negative distances, he could not display move not in perfect circles or combinations of
the full curves, but other mathematicians would perfect circles but in ellipses. Further, Kepler
soon overcome this problem. had shown the planets do not move at constant
The French philosopher René Descartes speed but at a speed that varies with their dis-
(1596-1667) also discovered an algebraic ap- tance from the Sun. Analytic geometry provided
proach to geometry, apparently independently. a useful description of the shape of such orbits.
Descartes was one of the dominant intellectual An explanation of the actual motion would soon
figures of the seventeenth century, best known follow as Isaac Newton (1642-1727) proposed
as a philosopher, the author of several important his laws of motion and universal gravitation and
physical theories, and a major contributor to developed the techniques of the calculus to
mathematics. Descartes’s work on geometry ap- apply them.
pears as one of the three appendices to his fa- The two basic problems of the calculus are
mous book Discourse on the Method of Rightly easily expressed in terms of analytic geometry.
Conducting Reason and Reaching the Truth in the The first is finding the tangent line to the curve
Sciences. The other two appendices are on optics described by y = f(x) at any point, and the sec-
and meteorology. As the title suggests, Descartes ond is finding the area between a segment of the
saw mathematics primarily as a route to sure curve and the line y = 0. Solving these problems
knowledge in the sciences. leads directly to the solution of two others: find-
In his appendix on geometry, Descartes ing the values of x for which y = f(x) is a mini-
began by pointing out that the compass and mum or maximum, and finding the length of a
straight-edge constructions of geometry involve segment of a curve. Fermat had solved the prob-
adding, subtracting, multiplying, dividing, and lem of finding tangents and the associated prob-
taking square roots. He proposed assigning a let- lem of finding maxima and minima by 1629.
ter to represent the length of each of the lines When Descartes’ Geometry appeared in 1637,
appearing in a construction, and then writing Fermat criticized it for not including a discus-
equations relating the lengths of the lines, ob- sion of tangents or maxima and minima.
taining as many equations as there are unknown Descartes replied that these results could be
lines. Finding the unknown lengths then be- readily obtained by anyone who understood his
comes a matter of solving the set of equations work, and that Fermat’s work showed far less
thus obtained. understanding of geometry than his own. The
dispute over the importance and priority of Fer-
After thus showing that algebra can be ap- mat’s and Descartes’ contributions would even-
plied in solving classic geometric problems, tually subside, with each man acknowledging
Descartes then discussed solving problems that the other’s contributions.
have curves as their solution. In this type of prob-
lem there are not enough equations to determine The full development of the calculus would
all the unknown quantities, and one ends up with be achieved by Newton and German scientist
a relation between two unknowns. It is at this Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz (1646-1716), work-
point that Descartes suggested using the length ing independently of each other. As in the case
away from a fixed point on a given line to repre- of Fermat and Descartes, a dispute as to priority
sent x, and the distance from x on a line drawn in broke out, but in this case a more bitter and long
a fixed direction to represent y. If the fixed direc- lasting one.
tion is chosen at a right angle to the first line, we In 1696 the Swiss mathematician Johann
obtain the modern system of rectangular or Bernoulli (1667-1748) published a problem in
Cartesian coordinates, named after Descartes. applied calculus as a challenge to other mathe-
Descartes then proposed that any equation maticians. The problem, known as the brachis-
involving powers of x and y describes an accept- tochrone, is to find the curve along which a sliding

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bead will move from one point to another in the and Descartes more generally with all areas of
least time with gravity as the only external force. physics and astronomy. Mathematics
The answer is an upside-down version of the cy- The techniques of calculus, built on the in-
cloid, the curve generated by a point on the cir- 1450-1699
sights of analytic geometry, have become the
cumference of a wheel as it rolls along a level sur- fundamental mathematics of the physical sci-
face. In 1697 Bernoulli was able to publish his ences and engineering. With the addition of dif-
own solution along with those obtained from four ferential equations, which represent a further
other mathematicians, Newton and Leibniz development of the basic ideas of calculus and
among them. Newton’s solution had been submit- analytic geometry, the mathematical framework
ted anonymously, but this did not fool Bernoulli, has proven robust enough to incorporate the
who said, “I recognize the lion by his claw.” new areas of thermal physics and electromagnet-
ism in the nineteenth century and quantum the-
ory in the twentieth. Thus the modern universi-
Impact
ty curriculum for future scientists and engineers
Analytic geometry represents the joining of two always includes several semesters devoted to an-
important traditions in mathematics, that of alytic geometry and calculus.
geometry as the study of shape or form and that
of arithmetic and algebra, which deal with quan- DONALD R. FRANCESCHETTI

tity or number. This combination was needed if

the physical sciences were to progress beyond Further Reading
the notions of Aristotelian philosophy about Bell, Eric Temple. Development of Mathematics. New York:
perfect and imperfect motions to a natural phi- McGraw-Hill, 1945.
losophy based on observation and experiment. Boyer, Carl B. A History of Mathematics. New York: Wiley,
It is not surprising then that both Fermat and 1968.
Descartes were concerned with the scientific is- Kline, Morris. Mathematical Thought from Ancient to Mod-
sues of their day, both with optics in particular, ern Times. New York: Oxford University Press, 1972.

The Printing of Important Mathematics Texts

Leads the Way to the Scientific Revolution


Overview and religious leaders initiated the founding of
universities in major cities. The Crusades, while
By the late fifteenth century the scholars of Eu-
largely an exercise in futility, did manage to open
rope were poised to fully reclaim the classical
trade routes to the Byzantine and Islamic peo-
mathematical heritage that was nurtured and ex-
ples. Both of these events led to the recovery of
panded by Islamic scholars and reintroduced
classical learning. At first, scholars set to work
into the West in the thirteenth century. Crucial in
on translating Greek and Arabic texts into Latin.
the growth of the mathematics of the period was
Next, some scholars, notably Leonardo of Pisa
the publication of mathematical texts. These
(a.k.a. Fibonacci, 1170-1240) and Jordanus de
texts helped pave the way for the growth of com-
Nemore (fl. 1200s), contributed original mathe-
merce and the onset of the Scientific Revolution.
matics. New mathematical techniques were nec-
essary to accommodate the new business of the
Background trading companies of Italy. In order to succeed,
Many changes in economics, culture, and educa- these new kinds of merchants needed to learn
tion were taking place in Europe in the four- this new mathematics, so some mathematicians
teenth and fifteenth centuries. These changes soon found themselves in demand as teachers
had an effect on the mathematics of that time. and textbook authors. All of this work was more
These changes can be traced back even further widely distributed with the invention of the
to the Middle Ages. National boundaries became printing press by Johannes Gutenberg (c. 1398-
stabilized. In order for these new nations to ex- 1468) around 1450, and the subsequent rapid
pand economically and culturally, both secular growth of printing with moveable type.

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What are some of the influential books an original piece of work. Concerned with the
Mathematics printed during this period? The first printed lack of teaching materials, Pacioli gathered
arithmetic text was published in 1478. This mathematical materials from various sources and
1450-1699 work had no title and was by an unknown au- published them in a large comprehensive text.
thor. It is now commonly referred to as the Trevi- Very little in the book is the original work of Pa-
so Arithmetic because of its place of publica- cioli; in fact, much of the material can be found
tion—Treviso, north of Venice in Italy. The text in the Liber abbaci of Leonardo of Pisa, a very in-
is meant to be a training manual for young stu- fluential work of its time. However, given the
dents seeking to enter the new trading business- book’s scope and the fact that is was one of the
es in Italy. In it one finds how to write and com- first texts printed, it became widely circulated
pute with numbers (only the four basic opera- and hence very influential. Its circulation and in-
tions) and how to apply these techniques to fluence was also extended due to the fact that
questions of partnerships and trading. For ex- the book was printed in the vernacular Italian
ample, one problem tells of three partners who and not Latin.
invest unequal amounts in a partnership. If the
The arithmetic in the Summa is standard for
partnership earns a profit, one must solve the
the time, including many techniques for the four
problem of how the profit should be fairly divid-
arithmetical operations and the extraction of
ed. The Treviso Arithmetic itself was not very in-
square roots. There are also problems in com-
fluential, except for the fact that its publication
mercial arithmetic and an important study of
paved the way for an incredible amount of print-
double entry bookkeeping. The Summa also
ed mathematical texts in the years following.
deals with algebra up to and including the solu-
The first significant work in mathematics to tion of quadratic equations. The algebra here is
be printed was the Elements of Euclid (c. 330-c. verbal with no symbols used. Pacioli is one of
260 B.C.), printed in Venice in 1482. All mathe- the first to write on the so-called problem of the
matics of the time relied heavily on the Elements. points for determining the division of the stakes
Indeed the Elements was a foundational work for in a game of chance if the game is stopped be-
all mathematics well into the eighteenth and fore it is finished. The study of this problem
nineteenth centuries. It is natural, then, that this later led Blaise Pascal (1623-1662) and Pierre de
work should be among the first printed. Euclid’s Fermat (1601-1665) to the invention of the sci-
work had been translated before by Islamic ence of probability. The geometry in the Summa
mathematicians and in turn these Arabic ver- is basic, being a rehash of portions of Euclid
sions were translated into Latin, notably by the along with some work on using algebra to solve
English monk Adelard of Bath (1075-1164) and geometric problems, which was first done by Re-
Gerard of Cremona (1114-1187). Adelard trans- giomontanus (born Johann Müller, 1436-1476).
lated the Elements from the Arabic version of al-
Regiomontanus’ greatest work is De Triangulis
Hajjai (c. 786-833). To Adelard’s translation the
Omnimodis (On Triangles of Every Kind) finished
Italian Johannes Campanus of Novara (1220-
in 1464 (so Pacioli certainly had access to it) but
1296) added proofs for the propositions and
not printed until 1533. Regiomontanus was one
other supplementary material. This became the
of the scholars involved in translating classical
standard translation of the Elements and was the
works, having translated Ptolemy’s (100-170) Al-
one published in 1482. The fact that this version
magest from Greek to Latin. Regiomontanus was
was the one that was printed illustrates its im-
also a leader in using the new printing technology
portance during this period.
to publish mathematical works.
Printed versions of other translations of the
De Triangulis Omnimodis is the first European
Elements later appeared on the scene. Interest-
trigonometry text, even though it does rely heav-
ingly, one of the defenders of the Campanus ver-
ily on earlier Islamic texts. Trigonometry was im-
sion was the Italian friar Luca Pacioli (1445-
portant to kings and merchants alike—for astro-
1517), who published corrections and commen-
logical predictions and making calendars and for
tary to the Campanus version. However, it is
astronomy and navigation. Trigonometry at the
Pacioli’s work Summa de Arithmetica, geometria,
time was primarily concerned with the sine of an
proportioni et proportionalita, finished in 1487
arc of a circle, which is defined to be half of the
and first printed in 1494, that is the next signifi-
chord of double the arc on a circle. Regiomon-
cant publication under consideration.
tanus’ work discussed this function and also
The Summa is regarded as the first printed made use of the sine of the complement of the
work on algebra. Again the honor does not go to arc, the precursor of the modern cosine function.

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These are the only two trigonometric functions text with commercial applications along the lines
used in De Triangulis Omnimodis. of Pacioli’s Summa. Recorde’s works are written in Mathematics
Regiomontanus’s work is made up of five dialogue form, with an engaging style in which all
steps are carefully explained. This might explain 1450-1699
books and is a compilation of the trigonometry
known in Europe at the time. The first book is the fact that The Ground of Arts remained in print
concerned with lengths and ratios and is based on for over 24 editions over a period of 150 years.
Euclid’s Elements. In fact the entire work is written Recorde also wrote less successful companion
in the style of the Elements, with theorems proven texts on geometry (The Pathway to Knowledge,
based on axioms and results from Euclid’s work. 1551), algebra (The Whetstone of Witte, 1557),
However, Regiomontanus also includes many ex- and astronomy (The Castle of Knowledge, 1556).
amples. In this book Regiomontanus shows how The algebra texts of the time concentrated
to solve triangles; that is, given various combina- on solving equations no higher than second de-
tions of sides and/or angles, to find the other sides gree. Indeed, Pacioli deemed that the solution of
and angles. For example, Theorem 28 of Book I the general cubic equation by a formula analo-
states, “When the ratio of two sides of a triangle is gous to the quadratic formula could not be
given, its angles can be ascertained.” Theorem 1 found. Pacioli was proven wrong by Scipione del
of Book II of De Triangulis Omnimodis is a perfectly Ferro (1465-1526) and Niccolò Fontana, better
modern statement of the law of sines for plane tri- known as Tartaglia (1499-1557). The publica-
angles. The remainder of Book II uses the law of tion of the solution of the general cubic equation
sines to solve other triangles. This is standard ma- occurred in 1545 with the publication of Ars
terial in a modern course on triangle trigonome- Magna, sive de Regulis Algebraicis (The Great Art,
try. To solve these triangles, Regiomontanus used or On the Rules of Algebra) by Girolamo Car-
his sine table, which was based on a circle of ra- dano (1501-1576).
dius 60,000. The sines for other radii could be
determined from this using the properties of simi- The Ars Magna is a book on solving algebra-
lar triangles. ic equations, including cubic and quartic equa-
tions. The major breakthrough in the work is
In De Triangulis Omnimodis Regiomontanus the first publication of the solution of cubic and
was also the first European to make use of alge- quartic equations by radicals, that is, with a for-
bra when solving triangles, solving a quadratic mula similar to the quadratic formula. Cardano
equation to find the remaining sides of a triangle also shows his awareness of imaginary numbers
given the lengths of the base, the altitude to the in Ars Magna because they appear in the formula
base, and the ratio of the unknown sides. This for the solution of the cubic equation. Our mod-
can be accomplished using the Pythagorean the- ern algebraic symbolism is not present in the
orem and the given ratio. Book III of De Trian- work, nor is the use of general coefficients. Car-
gulis Omnimodis deals with spherical geometry, dano lists many different cases of cubic equa-
and correspondingly Book IV deals with spheri- tions corresponding to the various ways neces-
cal trigonometry. Naturally this material is of sary to write the equation with all positive coef-
great use in astronomy. In these books Re- ficients. Cardano also supplies geometric proofs
giomontanus shows how to solve spherical tri- of the validity of his results. While this renders
angles, whose sides are arcs of great circles on a the work quite difficult for a modern reader, it
sphere. Included is the spherical law of sines was a revelation to the readers of the time. Until
and the first use of the law of cosines for spheri- the invention of a suitable algebraic notation,
cal triangles. the Ars Magna was the best that any mathemati-
Because of their trading companies and cian could do on the subject.
banks, the Italians led the way in arithmetic and By the time of René Descartes (1596-1650),
algebra related to commerce, followed in turn by suitable algebraic notation and the use of general
the Germans with their trading towns on the coefficients had both been developed. Descartes
Baltic Sea and the support of German banking uses these to good effect in La Géométrie, an ap-
tycoons. It is German texts that greatly influ- pendix to his 1637 work Discours de la méthode
enced the important texts written in English. pour bien conduire sa raison et chercher la vérité
The first English text author of any impor- dans les sciences (A Discourse on the Method of
tance is Robert Recorde (1510-1558). Recorde is Rightly Conducting the Reason and Seeking
responsible for the first series of mathematics Truth in the Sciences). La Géométrie is a ground-
texts in England written in English, the first of breaking work, one of the greatest scientific
which is The Ground of Arts (1543), an arithmetic works of the Renaissance. However, its influence

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was not initially felt. Descartes wrote in French The Summa also popularized using the methods
Mathematics rather than Latin, and while writing in the ver- of algebra to solve geometric problems, which
nacular was essential for works that wished to were initiated in the West in Regiomontanus’ De
1450-1699 popularize mathematics (see Pacioli and Triangulis Omnimodis. This started mathemati-
Recorde), for works that were on the cutting cians down the road towards analytic geometry,
edge, Latin was the language of the learned. a road that ended with van Schooten’s Geometria
Also, Descartes was not very forthcoming with a Renato Des Cartes.
details and explanations in his work. The pro-
After Regiomontanus’ work, many other
found influence that La Géométrie exerted on
trigonometry works were published, and Euro-
mathematics is due to Franz van Schooten
pean trigonometry began to surpass the
(1615-1660) and his publication of Geometria a
trigonometry of the Islamic mathematicians. In
Renato Des Cartes in 1649. Analytic geometry is
addition, trigonometry supplied the tools neces-
truly born in this work, and from there it is a
sary for the advances in astronomy soon to fol-
short step to the invention of the calculus and a
low, culminating with the overthrow of the
whole new era of mathematics. In his Latin edi-
Ptolemaic system of the world in favor of the
tion van Schooten added commentary, figures,
Copernican system.
alternate techniques, and a logical ordering of
the material. He also added the work of other Research in algebra was stimulated by the
mathematicians, notably Sluse, van Heuraet, and Ars Magna. For the next 200 years mathemati-
de Witt. It is important to realize that Descartes’s cians, inspired by the discovery of solutions in
work accounts for approximately 100 pages, radicals to the cubic and quartic equations,
while the additional work of van Schooten and sought to generalize those results to higher de-
the others accounts for nearly 900 pages. This gree equations. Although we now know that
and later editions were the primary source of an- they would search in vain (general equations of
alytic geometry for mathematicians until the degree five and higher cannot be solved using
middle of the eighteenth century. radicals only), a great deal of important mathe-
matics in the fields of higher algebra, which in-
Impact cludes the theory of groups, rings, and fields,
was discovered along the way. In addition, a new
All of these works exerted significant influence.
kind of number was born of the solution of the
They became the standard textbooks of the time
cubic. Mathematicians turned to the study of
in the universities and training schools. Impor-
imaginary numbers to better understand the so-
tant pioneers in mathematics and the sciences
lutions given by Cardano’s cubic formula.
studied from these works. Isaac Newton (1642-
1727) mastered Euclid’s Elements, although it is Cardano’s book also showed that analytic
unclear what version he used. However it is methods could be quite powerful. Problems
known that Newton studied from van Schooten’s could be solved without having to resort to geom-
Geometria a Renato Des Cartes, as did Christiaan etry, which up to this time was the foundation for
Huygens (1629-1665), Gottfried Leibniz (1646- all of mathematics. The Ars Magna exerted such
1716), John Wallis (1616-1703), Jakob and Jo- influence that it could be said that too much em-
hann Bernoulli (1654-1705 and 1667-1758, re- phasis was placed on algebraic methods, perhaps
spectively), and Leonhard Euler (1707-1783). postponing the marriage of algebra and geometry
Pacioli was well versed in Campanus’ version of later found in van Schooten’s Latin Géométrie and
Euclid, as was every other mathematician of the in the development of the calculus.
time, including John Dee (1527-1608), the edi-
tor of the first English version of the Elements. GARY S. STOUDT

Pacioli’s Summa was studied by the six-

teenth-century Italian mathematicians; it was the
common starting point from which they ad- Further Reading
vanced the study of algebra. Scipione del Ferro Boyer, Carl. History of Analytic Geometry. New York:
and Cardano were known to be familiar with the Scripta Mathematica, 1956.
Summa. It also helped popularize the use of ab- Ore, Oystein. Caradano: The Gambling Scholar. Princeton,
breviations for mathematical terms, which led to NJ: Princeton University Press, 1953.
the invention of algebraic symbolism, which in Swetz, Frank J. Capitalism and Arithmetic: The New Math
turn was crucial to the growth of mathematics. of the 15th Century. LaSalle, IL: Open Court, 1987.

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Marin Mersenne Leads an International

Mathematics
Effort to Understand Cycloids

1450-1699

Overview introduced his own correspondents to others

with whom they might pursue independent cor-
French mathematician, theologian, and educator
respondence. Thus he established a network of
Marin Mersenne (1588-1648) made numerous
communications that reinforced, enriched, and
contributions to mathematics, including the
extended the body of knowledge.
prompting of a greater understanding of cycloids,
which in turn directly affected the development Mersenne also devoted much effort to theo-
of the pendulum clock. By opposing irrational or ries of the nature of prime numbers, particularly
superstitious interpretations of phenomena, in- large prime numbers. Although some of his the-
cluding numbers, Mersenne helped elevate the ories proved to be flawed, today a number of
level of mathematics and mathematical research. computer programs are devoted to searching for
Indeed, it was his insistence on empirical evi- what are still called Mersenne Primes.
dence, as well as his curiosity about cycloids, that
Among the many other specific problems
affected Christiaan Huygens’s (1629-1695) work,
that Mersenne pursued was the nature of a partic-
which in turn resulted in Huygens patenting a
ular type of curve known as a cycloid. Cycloids
pendulum clock. Without a doubt, though,
are achieved by tracing the path of a fixed point
Mersenne’s great contribution to his time was his
on the edge of a cylinder rolling smoothly along a
indefatigable devotion to collecting, sharing, and
straight lane. Cycloids provided a means for cal-
distributing scientific and mathematical informa-
culating the “curve of least time”—the curve by
tion among a wide community of correspondents
which a fixed point takes the least amount of time
and scholars. In this way, he was a sort of one-
to make the transit between two points, A and B.
man repository or clearinghouse, very much
The origins of research into cycloids remain in
aware of the vital importance of feedback and
some dispute. While various sources for its initia-
commentary to scientific progress.
tion are invoked, there is general agreement that
French mathematician Charles Bouvelle (c. 1471-
c. 1553) was in 1501 the first to accurately de-
Background
scribe the curve’s nature, but he did not produce
Marin Mersenne was the child of a laborer who the equations necessary for deriving the specific
escaped the poverty of his birth by education— properties of cycloid curves.
which may have been subsidized by the Jesuits.
He studied at the College of Mans, and from Because those properties promised great
1604 to 1609 studied at Le Fleche, a Jesuit insti- practical as well as theoretical and mathematical
tution, followed by two years of theological stud- benefits—particularly in determining the mathe-
ies at the Sorbonne in Paris. In 1611 Mersenne matical mechanics of moving objects, as well as
joined the Minim Friars, an order that took its in calculating the nature of curves for arches,
name from its commitment to reducing worldly and the curves described by a pendulum—the
involvement and focusing on prayer and contem- search for those properties, including the area of
plation, study and reflection. In 1619 Mersenne the space contained within the curve, grew heat-
took up residence in a Minim monastery in Paris, ed and acrimonious, with arguments over the
where he lived for the rest of his life. accuracy of solutions, and even the authorship
of solutions generating anger and accusations.
Minimizing worldly concerns may have
As a result of these conflicts, and the near-
been a major concern of Mersenne’s religious
universal attraction of mathematicians to the
order, but it hardly kept him from contact with
cycloid question, the cycloid itself came to be
the larger world. His correspondence with the
known as either the “apple of discord” or the
leading scientific and philosophical thinkers of
“Helen of Geometers”—a source of irresistible
his time quickly became legendary. Mersenne’s
appeal, but over whose appeal battles would be
letters spanned much of the known world, and
waged.
consisted not only of his own insights, but also
of exhortations to the recipients of his letters Galileo (1564-1642) in the late 1500s made
that they pursue certain fields of inquiry or in- an empirical approach to solving the cycloid. As
vestigation. Furthermore, Mersenne invariably a result of experiments he determined that the

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religious philosophy. Beset by a toothache in

Mathematics 1658, however, Pascal claimed to have experi-
enced a mathematical vision, the result of which
1450-1699 was the development of mathematical functions
that allowed the determination of the areas of
sections of cycloids, the volumes of areas gener-
ated by the rolling sphere, as well as the centers
of gravity for these sections. According to leg-
end, Pascal derived all of these functions within
eight days of his toothache.
What makes the achievement of these
mathematicians the more remarkable in regard
to cycloidal properties is that these properties
and functions were determined without benefit
of the most appropriate mathematical tool for
tackling problems of motion over space: the cal-
culus. The calculus would have simplified much
of the investigation into cycloids, but it had not
been invented at the time Galileo, Mersenne,
Roberval, Pascal, and others were performing
their cycloidal research.
The cycloid’s mechanical properties were
Marin Mersenne. (The Granger Collection, Ltd.
Reproduced with permission.) most determinedly attacked by Christiaan Huy-
gens, who perceived that a pendulum described
a cycloidal curve as it moved rhythmically back
area of the cycloid is approximately three times
and forth. Combining his understanding of cy-
that of the circle that generates the curve, a
cloids with the emergent knowledge of gravity,
property he believed accurately would be of use
Huygens found that a body drawn by gravity
to the building of arches in bridges and other
along a cycloidal arch requires the same amount
structures. Galileo is also believed to have given
of time to reach the bottom of the arch.
the cycloid its name.
Huygens’s application of his finding to the
Although Galileo’s experimental conclusions
pendulum, using devices that insured that the
were useful, the search for a purely mathemati-
pendulum swung in a cycloid, enabled the at-
cal proof continued. It was Marin Mersenne who
tachment of a pendulum to the workings of a
put into motion the research that resulted in that
clock. Huygens built his first pendulum clock in
proof. Along with every other mathematician of
1657. This represented the largest advance in the
the time, Mersenne felt the attraction of the cy-
clockmaker’s art since the development of the
cloid. His network of correspondents was cru-
waterclock in Greece of the second century B.C.
cial here, for he used the network to make the
cycloidal challenge more widely known. One of Huygens would spend much of the rest of
the recipients of Mersenne’s letters was French his life refining the relationship of the pendulum
mathematician Gilles Personne de Roberval to the cycloid, moving ever closer to the accu-
(1602-1675), who used purely mathematical rate tracking of the passage of time. As impor-
techniques in 1634 to prove that the area of the tant—and perhaps more so—as the availability
cycloidal arch is three times the area of the cir- of accurate, pendulum-kept time on land, was
cle. Unfortunately, Roberval neglected to publish the applicability of the pendulum clock to keep-
his proof, with the result that his achievement ing accurate time at sea or in transit over large
was considered plagiarism by those who proved distances, allowing for a far more accurate and
the area later but published sooner. efficient means of determining a traveler’s pre-
cise location.
Other mathematicians applied themselves
to determining other properties of the cycloid. Above all, it was Huygens’s application of
Blaise Pascal (1623-1662) had enjoyed a bril- his understanding of the cycloid to specific
liant career as a mathematician, making large questions of motion, velocity, and the effects of
contributions to pure mathematics, but had gravity on bodies in motion that extended the
abandoned mathematics in favor of devotion to realm of the cycloid from pure mathematics and

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applied mathematics to the world of physics, ultimately become the very essence of the world-
and the revolution in the understanding of wide scientific community. Of no small conse- Mathematics
physics that would take place in the century quence to all of the various approaches to the cy-
after Huygens’s death. cloid was the fact that the knowledge gained, 1450-1699
when coupled with Huygens’s mechanical in-
sights, established accurate timekeeping as an
Impact achievable goal, radically altering the nature of a
The widespread—if often angry and accusato- world whose rhythms had previously been gov-
ry—nature of investigations into the properties erned by only the loosest sense of time.
of cycloids is perhaps the best early example of
KEITH FERRELL
the growth of scientific community. Thanks in no
small part to Mersenne’s energy as a correspon-
dent and instigator, the full and diverse power Further Reading
and ability of a group of mathematicians and sci-
Dunham, William. Journey through Genius: The Great The-
entists was brought to bear on a single problem. orems of Mathematics. New York: John Wiley & Sons,
While competition certainly figured in the search 1990.
for cycloidal solutions, there was also an under- Katz, Victor. A History of Mathematics: An Introduction.
lying current of collaboration, however unofficial 2nd ed. New York: Addison-Wesley, 1998.
or even unwanted. This sort of collaboration and Swetz, Frank J., ed. From Five Fingers to Infinity: A Journey
review by fellow scientists would become far through the History of Mathematics. Chicago and
more common in the century ahead, and would Lasalle: Open Court, 1994.

Mathematicians Revolutionize the

Understanding of Equations


Overview (calculus) and embracing virtually every field of
human endeavor. If in the centuries to come
The progress of mathematics from its origins in
mathematics would prove to be the key to the
simple counting to its ability to handle and ma-
universe, the equation, and the rules for equa-
nipulate variables, unknowns, and changing
tions that were refined, established, and devel-
properties accelerated during the 1600s. Mathe-
oped during the 1600s, would prove to be the
matics had from earliest times been a supremely
key to mathematics.
practical science, either for enumerating items
(counting) or for establishing the relationships
among shapes (geometry). Most ancient mathe-
Background
matics took the form either of simple counting
or of geometric measurement. The evolution of The process of establishing equivalencies, of mak-
mathematics in the 1600s was nothing short of ing both sides of an equation balance out, is the
explosive, and the evolution of the equation— essence of much of mathematics. Put simply, an
and the power of the equation as a tool for solv- equation challenges the mathematician to prove
ing complex problems of many sorts—lay at the that something is equal to something else, that
heart of the growth of mathematical capability. the propositions on both sides of the equal sign
Equations are mathematical formulae whose can indeed be made to equal each other. From
purpose is, at least in principle, simple: equa- that simple proposition, vastly complex mathe-
tions consist of factors that must be balanced or matical structures can be constructed and solved.
made equal. By introducing systems for accom- In order for equations to become effective,
modating variables and unknowns, and the tools however, a large leap of process had to be made.
for solving those items, the equation became a In short, the mathematics of equations had to
powerful mathematical tool, with applications become formalized—a set of rules had to be es-
that reached far beyond the realm of numbers, tablished and agreed to. While much of that
affecting everything from construction (geome- standardization took place during the 1500s and
try) to theories of the motions of the planets 1600s (and was aided immeasurably by the fact

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that printing was by that time well established), his reputation as a major contributor to the de-
Mathematics equations themselves are at least as old as the velopment of equations.
ancient Greeks. In that book, Girard made a formal ap-
1450-1699
Diophantus of Alexandria (c. 210-c. 290) proach to what would later become known as
was among the first to extend complex mathe- the Fundamental Theorem of Algebra. In
matics beyond the more common geometries of essence, the Fundamental Theorem states that
his time and into what is today known as alge- for any polynomial equation (an equation with
bra. Among other things, Diophantus introduced at least one algebraic term multiplied by at least
the use of symbols into equations; previously one positive variable raised to an integral power)
equations had been written in words. Diophan- there is a root in the complex numbers. In math-
tus’s employment of Greek symbols to represent ematical terms, this root is expressed as a + bi,
frequently used quantities and other factors with a and b representing real numbers and i
played an important role in simplifying the con- representing the square root of -1. Numbers ex-
struction (and solution) of complex equations. pressed as a + bi are called complex numbers.
It was the Arabian mathematician Muham- Refined and extended by mathematicians
mad ibn Musa Al-Khwarizmi (c. 780-c. 850) more gifted than Girard, and proved in 1799 by
who translated and expanded Diophantus’s German mathematician Johann Karl Friedrich
work, in a book that gave the science of equa- Gauss (1777-1855), the Fundamental Theorem
tions its modern name. Al-Khwarizmi’s book remains central to algebra today.
was called ilm al-jabr wa’l muqubalah (The Study The greatest of all contributors to the evolu-
of Transposition and Cancellation), although al- tion of algebra and equations (up to his lifetime
jabr (or al-jebr) can also be translated as “the re- at least) was the French philosopher René
union of broken parts.” That reunion meant the Descartes (1596-1650). In the course of his life,
balancing of both sides of an equation, and al- Descartes so revolutionized mathematics and
jabr has, of course, been transformed over the made so many large contributions to philosophi-
centuries into the word algebra, which is the cal thought that aspects of both disciplines are
branch of mathematics most closely associated still referred to as Cartesian in his honor. (And
with equations. (In addition to naming algebra, so influential was his writing that his theory of
Al-Khwarizmi imported certain concepts, in- the working of the universe, although false, was
cluding the zero and numerals, from Hindu accepted as accurate until disproved by Isaac
sources. When Al-Khwarizmi’s work was trans- Newton [1642-1727.])
lated into Latin, those numerals became known
Descartes’s philosophy—and his approach
as Arabic numerals.)
to mathematics—rested upon his belief in ab-
The introduction of standardized symbolo- solute fact, in the “mechanical” nature of the
gy laid the groundwork for modern equations. universe. By beginning with an absolute fact, he
Another large forward step was taken by French thought, one could progress to an understand-
mathematician François Viète (1540-1603), who ing of the whole of the universe. This search for
first used letters of the alphabet to represent un- absolutes, and absolute accuracy, guided his
knowns and constants in equations. In Viète’s great mathematical works. (He even found a way
system vowels were used to represent un- to overcome any doubts: the very act of doubt-
knowns, and consonants represented constants. ing proved the existence of the doubter. From
Although he is known to this day as the “father this he derived his famous maxim, Cogito, ergo
of algebra,” Viète disliked the term, preferring sum (I think, therefore I am).
“analysis” to refer to the process of using equa- In applying his search for absolutes to
tions to solve propositions. mathematics, Descartes began by further formal-
By the turn of the seventeenth century, equa- izing the nature of equations. Adapting Viète’s
tions and algebra were in flux with new discover- work with alphabetical symbols for numbers,
ies and approaches. Among the most dramatic and further focusing it, Descartes used the early
was the work of Albert Girard (1595-1632). A letters of the alphabet to represent constants,
French mathematician, Girard was an engineer as and letters at the end of the alphabet to repre-
well as a mathematician, and he applied many of sent variables. It is to Descartes that we owe the
his mathematical insights to his engineering familiar use of x and y variables in algebra. In
work, particularly the development of fortifica- addition he devised a system for displaying ex-
tions. But it was his 1629 book L’invention en Aal- ponents, and he was the first to use the square
gèbre (The Invention of Algebra) that solidified root symbol.

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This systematic approach served Descartes be expressed as equations was a vital contribution
well as he undertook the great mathematical to the development of modern science. Mathematics
work of his life, the unification of algebra and
geometry. According to legend, Descartes was re- 1450-1699
Impact
stricted to bed rest as a result of ill health, and
Without a formalized system for expressing math-
thus confined amused himself by watching the
ematical variables, equations would have re-
movements of a housefly around his sickroom.
mained cumbersome and unwieldy, expressed in
Insight struck as he watched the fly flit about—
different ways by different mathematicians. The
every position of the fly’s constantly varying mo-
accretion of standardized approaches to equa-
tion could be expressed as a point that could be
tions, though, played an enormous role in trans-
located in three dimensions by determining the
forming mathematics into a collaborative effort,
coordinates of three intersecting lines, represent-
one in which researchers and thinkers throughout
ing east/west, north/south, and up/down.
the world shared a common means of expression,
From that insight it was another step for however different their approach to similar prob-
Descartes to develop an equation that could lems might be. Mathematics began to develop its
translate any point into an equation, and con- now-familiar set of rules expressed in a common
versely any equation composed of representa- language. (All of this, it should be repeated, was
tions of points into a geometrical curve. aided immeasurably by the printing press and
Descartes then separated the world of curves mass distribution of ideas and treatises.) Thus one
into two types: geometric curves were those that generation could build upon the work of previous
were mathematically pure and could be ex- generations without having to re-discover or re-
pressed as equations; mechanical curves cannot invent basic principles, approaches, and proofs.
be expressed in equations. Descartes’s combination of algebraic equations
with geometric points, quite simply, provided the
Descartes’s fusion of algebra with geometry basis for Isaac Newton to develop calculus, which
transformed both, and set in motion a wave of in turn altered and refined our understanding of
mathematical progress that led directly to New- how the universe works.
ton’s development of calculus, which further ex-
KEITH FERRELL
tended Descartes’s insight by applying algebraic
equations to variables that are constantly chang-
ing, such as objects in motion. Further Reading
Dunham, William. Journey through Genius: The Great The-
Because of the great power and usefulness of orems of Mathematics. New York: John Wiley & Sons,
Descartes’s application of equations to analyzing 1990.
geometric functions, the resultant discipline be- Katz, Victor. A History of Mathematics: An Introduction.
came known, and is still known, as analytic geom- 2nd ed. New York: Addison-Wesley, 1998.
etry, and the coordinates represented in its equa- Swetz, Frank J., ed. From Five Fingers to Infinity: A Journey
tions are known as Cartesian coordinates. His in- through the History of Mathematics. Chicago and
sistence that virtually all natural phenomena could Lasalle: Open Court, 1994.

Girard Desargues and Projective Geometry

Overview geometry. Projective geometry was concerned
with projections, or the extent to which the
In 1639 Girard Desargues (1591-1661), a mili-
shape of a figure is changed by the perspective
tary engineer and architect, published the Brouil-
from which that figure is viewed.
lon project d’une atteinte aux événements des ren-
contres d’un cône avec un plan (Proposed Draft of Desargues’s projective geometry, however,
an Attempt to Deal with the Events of the Meet- was overshadowed by the work of his contem-
ing of a Cone with a Plane). In this work Desar- porary, René Descartes (1596-1650). These two,
gues established the principles of projective along with other important scientists and mathe-
geometry, an alternative to traditional Euclidean maticians of the time, helped to move math and

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science towards more practical applications. few admirers. Only 50 copies of the Brouillon
Mathematics Also, the frequent collaboration between these project were printed, many of them later de-
figures led to the creation of the powerful and stroyed by the publisher. Desargues’s projective
1450-1699 important French Académie des Sciences. geometry slipped into obscurity for nearly 200
years after the publication of his defining text on
the subject.
Background
The group of mathematicians and scientists
Mathematic techniques of the seventeenth cen- with whom he associated, however, is notable
tury responded rapidly and radically to the con- for more than the academic achievements of its
clusions that figures such as Johannes Kepler members. The group’s informal meetings, which
(1571-1630) and Galileo Galilei (1564-1642) began in Mersenne’s “cell” in the Convent of the
derived from their studies of astronomy. A text Annunciation in Paris, later became what is still
such as Galileo’s The Assayer (1623), for in- today the principle scientific organization of
stance, succeeded in both ridiculing the expla- France, the Académie des Sciences. As the gath-
nation of comets proposed by Jesuit scholars erings of these scientists grew larger, their influ-
and establishing new views on scientific reality ence on government increased as well. The au-
and the scientific method. Likewise, Kepler’s The thor and administrator Charles Perrault suggest-
New Astronomy (1609) overturned the tradition- ed the establishment of a scientific academy to
al concept of the universe as a series of inter- Jean-Baptiste Colbert, Minister of Finance to
locking celestial spheres, and necessitated the re- Louis XIV. The academy allowed for and encour-
vision of the laws of planetary motion. aged practical applications of scientific discover-
This revision was achieved through a com- ies while providing a forum for intellectual ex-
bination of mathematical and philosophical change on a previously unprecedented scale.
analysis that occurred in the work of Descartes, After its establishment in 1666, the academy
a French mathematical philosopher intent on es- provided a royal pension and financial assistance
tablishing a new approach to the universe. for research to its members.
Descartes’s Discourse on Method, published in
1637, worked towards a new mathematics able
Impact
to surpass the philosophical and analytical limi-
tations of traditional geometry. As an architect and military engineer, Desargues
was interested in problems concerning the role of
In “Geometry,” the third appendix of the
perspective in architecture and geometry. His
Discourse on Method, Descartes explained the fun-
principal work, Brouillon project, was immensely
damentals of algebraic geometry. However, this
unsuccessful, even though it laid the foundations
new geometry did not consist only of the appli-
of projective geometry. The title was cumber-
cation of algebra to geometry. Instead, it may be
some (consider the simplicity of Apollonius’s
better characterized as the translation of algebraic
[245?-190? B.C.] Conics) and the prose was re-
operations into the language of geometry. Indeed,
markably unwieldy. He introduced more than 70
the overall theme of Descartes’s “Geometry” is es-
new terms in this text, of which only one, involu-
tablished by its opening sentence:
tion, has survived. This term, which denotes
Any problem in geometry can easily be re- quite literally the twisted state of young leaves, is
duced to such terms that a knowledge of used to designate the projective transformation
the lengths of certain lines is sufficient for of a line that coincides with its inverse. (Most of
its construction. the terms that Desargues proposed were based
Desargues developed a projective geometry, on obscure botanical references.) The deliberate
which may be seen as a counterpoint to use of these confusing terms resulted in a decid-
Descartes’s analytic geometry. In fact, Desargues edly negative reception. Indeed, Blaise Pascal was
spent many years in Paris with a group of math- one of the few able to comprehend Desargues’s
ematicians that included Descartes and Pascal as deliberate obfuscation. The work was ignored for
well as the Jesuit scientist Marin Mersenne roughly two centuries, until the French mathe-
(1588-1648) and Etienne Pascal (1588-1651). matician Michel Chasles (1793-1880) completed
Desargues’s work on projective geometry was his standard history of geometry.
printed principally for this limited readership of In addition, Descartes’s contemporaneous
friends. Unfortunately, however, his views were work further limited interest in Desargues’s vol-
very unorthodox and unpopular during his ume. The crystalline simplicity of Descartes’s
life—Blaise Pascal (1623-1662) was one of his prose eased readers through difficult concepts. As

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a result, mathematicians were far more interested views echoed those of most of his contempo-
in developing the applications made possible by raries, and this perception dominated mathemat- Mathematics
Descartes’s powerful contribution to mathematics. ics for quite some time.
1450-1699
Despite its unwieldy explication, the thought Prior to the rediscovery of projective geom-
behind Desargues’s work is actually quite simple. etry, Desargues was known instead for a proposi-
Projective geometry was indebted to Leon Battista tion that does not even appear in the Brouillon
Alberti’s (1404-1472) treatment of perspective project. This theorem, applicable to either two or
and Kepler’s principle of continuity. Alberti’s ac- three dimensions, states:
count of perspective was of key importance for If two triangles are so situated that lines
Renaissance painting and architecture. His De pic- joining pairs of corresponding vertices are
tura seeks to link painting to mathematics and concurrent, then the points of intersection
provides criteria for artists interested in creating of pairs of corresponding sides are
the illusion of reality in their works. However, in collinear, and conversely.
Alberti’s treatment of perspective, artists had to
use an “eye point” that existed somewhere be- This theorem was first published in 1648 by
yond the edge of the picture. This point was ordi- Abraham Bosse (1602-1676), an engraver, in La
narily positioned at a distance equal to the dis- Perspective de M. Desargues (Desargues’s Perspec-
tance between the picture and the eye of the ob- tive). It became one of the most important
server. This was one of the key problems with propositions of projective geometry.
Alberti’s perspective, and a popular problem for While Desargues’s work was overlooked in
mathematicians to attempt to rectify. Desargues’s the seventeenth century, his involvement with
construction allowed this function to be carried his contemporaries, indicated through his pub-
out by a point that always lies within the picture, lications, correspondences, and frequent public
thereby eliminating distortion. speeches, was of vital importance. The develop-
ment of organizations such as the Académie des
This attention to visual perception charac-
Sciences in France and the Royal Society in
terizes projective geometry. It seeks to under-
England testify to the growing power of scien-
stand the extent to which different shapes, or
tists at this time. These groups, which used
appearances, share the same origin. For exam-
mathematics as a vehicle for practical applica-
ple, when a circle is viewed obliquely, it resem-
tions and philosophical speculations, formed at
bles an ellipse. Likewise, the outline of the shad-
a time when nation-states were also beginning
ow of a lampshade will appear as either a circle
to develop into their modern incarnations.
or a hyperbola, depending on whether it is pro-
Mathematic developments of the seventeenth
jected on the ceiling or on the wall. In other
century are emblematic of the transition from
words, the shape of a figure may change but, de-
the medieval, which focused on exterior causes
spite these changes, the figure maintains many
and the cosmological, to the Age of Reason,
of the same properties. The circle and hyperbola
which was concerned with interior perception
emitted by the lamp appear quantitatively and
and the individual.
qualitatively distinct. However, the method of
analysis proffered by projective geometry allows DEAN SWINFORD
one to measure their similarities.
Desargues’s projective geometry had little ef- Further Reading
fect on the seventeenth century. It lay dormant Boyer, Carl B., and Uta C. Merzbach. A History of Mathe-
until the nineteenth century, when great ad- matics. 2nd ed. New York: John Wiley & Sons, 1989.
vances in the subject were made by figures such Coxeter, H.S.M. Projective Geometry. 2nd ed. New York:
as Chasles, Charles Dupin (1784-1873), and Vic- Springer-Verlag, 1987.
tor Poncelet (1788-1867). While Desargues’s Eves, Howard. An Introduction to the History of Mathemat-
contemporary, Blaise Pascal, expressed apprecia- ics. 4th ed. New York: Holt, 1976.
tion for the work, Descartes could not stifle his Field, J. V., and J. J. Gray. The Geometrical Work of Girard
dismay when he heard of the Brouillon project. Desargues. New York: Springer-Verlag, 1987.
For Descartes, the notion of treating conic sec- Rosenfeld, B. A. A History of Non-Euclidean Geometry:
tions without the use of algebra seemed both im- Evolution of the Concept of Geometric Space. New York:
possible and implausible. Descartes believed that Springer-Verlag, 1988.
new achievements in geometry could only be ob- Young, Laurence. Mathematicians and Their Times. Ams-
tained through the use of algebra. Descartes’s terdam: North-Holland Publishing Company, 1981.

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Mathematical Induction Provides a Tool for

Mathematics
Proving Large Problems by Proceeding
1450-1699 through the Solution of Smaller Increments


Overview were often elusive, approachable only fitfully, in
increments.
The development of mathematical induction was
one of the great forward steps in mathematics. But as mathematics became a more and
An elegant principle that played a large part in more important and precise tool, much thought
the continuing evolution of mathematical logic, and investigation was applied to the task of
and affected the development of other mathemat- proving large theorems. That thought, research,
ical disciplines, including algebra and analytic and experimentation led to the development of
geometry, mathematical induction is related to mathematical induction, also known as the in-
the nonmathematical process called inductive duction principle.
reasoning. As opposed to deductive reasoning, Some scholars see evidence of mathematical
by which a large general truth is taken as the induction in the works of Greek mathematicians
starting point from which smaller, more specific including Pappas (c. 260-?), whose works col-
truths are derived, induction provided a tool for lected most of the Greek mathematical work that
moving from the specific to the general, from has survived to the present. Because Pappas was
small individual truths to larger overall ones. By primarily a collector of mathematical ideas,
the process of induction, the truth of an entire rather than an originator of them, it is likely that
mathematical proposition is proved one step at a his work with induction was derived from earli-
time, with each step being used as a building er thinkers.
block toward proving the next step, with the ulti-
Other evidence of early inductive reasoning
mate goal of proving the entire proposition. The
can be found in works of both Islamic and Tal-
nature of mathematical induction is such that it
mudic scholars, particularly Levi ben Gerson
offers effective proofs of certain propositions
(1288?-1344?). In referring to his approach to
while at the same time eliminating the need to
solving complex problems, Levi ben Gerson
prove every example of a proposition. While
wrote that he pursued a mathematical process of
many feel that induction was perceived as long
“rising step-by-step without end.” That step-by-
ago as ancient Greece, the method was not clear-
step approach is the very essence of induction,
ly expressed until 1575, when Sicilian mathe-
although that essence would not be formalized
matician Francisco Maurolico (1494-1575) used
for another 250 years.
the method to prove a theorem. Maurolico’s ap-
proach did not have a name: that waited for Eng- Part of the problem faced by Levi ben Ger-
lish mathematician John Wallis (1616-1703), son was his reliance on words rather than sym-
who described the method as induction in his bols when presenting his insights into algebra. By
1655 book Arithmetica Infinitorum (Infinitesimal the 1500s mathematics was in a state a rapid
Arithmetic). Nearly a decade later, with the evolution, with new insights and methodologies
posthumous publication of Blaise Pascal’s (1623- being developed at a steady pace, and the science
1662) Traite du Triangle Arithmetique (Treatise On itself becoming a more purely symbolic activity.
the Arithmetic of Triangles), mathematical induc- Italian (Sicilian) Francisco Maurolico, a
tion became widely known as an effective and in- Benedictine monk and also the head of the Sicil-
dispensable mathematical tool. ian mint, applied himself through most of the
1500s to collecting and translating the world’s
mathematical knowledge. He also wrote original
Background treatises on mathematics, including the Arith-
Deductive reasoning was one of the great ad- meticorum Libri Duo (Two Mathematics Books),
vances in human knowledge. By the process of in which he used the inductive principle to
deduction a large truth serves as a starting point prove a theorem.
from which smaller and more specific truths are Put simply, mathematical induction reduces
logically derived. But deductive reasoning was a mathematical proposition or theorem to sim-
not applicable to all areas of knowledge. In math- ple statements that can be proved, each state-
ematics, particularly, large truths—or proofs— ment serving as a step toward the solution of the

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larger proposition. When searching, for exam- While Pascal’s brilliance led him into many
ple, for properties of whole numbers, mathemat- fields of research and reflection, including reli- Mathematics
ical induction solves for the simplest example of gious philosophy, it was in pure mathematics that
a whole number’s property, which is of course he made his largest contributions, laying the 1450-1699
the number 1. The next step is to select a ran- groundwork (along with Pierre de Fermat [1601-
dom whole number, represented as k. If you can 1675]) for the modern science of probability, as
prove that the statement that was true for 1 is well as insights into calculus and geometry.
also true for the number k, you have also proved His “Treatise on the Triangle” focused on the
that is true for the number k+1. properties of a triangle composed of numbers,
By proving those two statements, you have but also on other mathematical ideas and con-
induced that the statement is true for all whole cepts. Among them was his approach to proving
numbers, or n. propositions for which there are infinitely many
Maurolico’s principle attracted some atten- cases. He informed his readers that faced with
tion but remained nameless until the work of such a proposition they should initially prove
English mathematician John Wallis. Considered that the proposition is true for the first case. Fol-
by many to be the most important English math- lowing that, they should prove the proposition
ematician before Isaac Newton (1642-1727), for a given (or random) case. With those two
Wallis made many large contributions to both proofs, the proposition is solved for the next
mathematics and science, including helping to case, and for an infinite number of other cases.
found England’s Royal Society (the most presti- Using induction, Pascal provided a method
gious of all scientific bodies) and formulating for for solving the binomial theorem, which was es-
the first time the law of conservation of momen- sential for solving problems in which two quan-
tum. He also engaged in many bitter scientific tities vary independently. The success of Pascal’s
and mathematical quarrels. book, along with the name Wallis gave to the
It is perhaps as a writer on mathematics that process, insured that Maurolico’s induction prin-
Wallis made the largest of his contributions. He ciple became widely known, and continues to
was obsessed with the history of mathematics serve mathematics to this day.
and devoted to preserving that history for the
modern world. Among his many books was Impact
Arithmetica Infinitorum, published in 1656. In
that book, among many examples of mathemati- Mathematical induction, the ability to prove for
cal properties, including infinite series and an- all cases of a numerical property, was a major
ticipations of integral calculus, Wallis recapitu- step forward in the transition of mathematics
lated mathematical induction, referring to it as from the purely practical—counting—to the
per modum inductonis (by the method of induc- more theoretical. Rather than being restricted to
tion) and gave the procedure the name by which concrete items, mathematics was able to deal
it is still known. with variables, with unknowns, with relation-
ships among variables and unknowns, with infi-
For mathematical induction to become well nite series of properties. These abilities vastly ex-
known, however, it would require almost anoth- tended the reach of mathematics, both in rela-
er decade and the 1665 publication another tion to calculations and equations related to the
book, which, ironically had been written before real world, and to more purely theoretical pur-
Wallis’s volume. suits. The ability to solve for all cases of a propo-
This was Blaise Pascal’s Traite du Triangle sition yielded a mathematical tool that in turn
Arithmetique (Treatise on the Triangle), one of helped mathematicians determine many of the
the key mathematical treatises of its time. Pascal properties of numbers in sequence. The induc-
was the son of a mathematician, although his fa- tion principle also offered an important, and
ther initially opposed the child’s early interest in still-used, tool for both the devising and also the
mathematics. Pascal’s genius quickly became ob- solving of complex codes.
vious and his father relented; the boy immersed
KEITH FERRELL
himself in mathematics. Pascal’s interest went
beyond the theoretical: by the time was 19 he
had invented an early version of the mechanical Further Reading
calculator. Only the excessive cost of manufac- Dunham, William. Journey through Genius: The Great The-
turing his calculator kept the machines from be- orems of Mathematics. New York: John Wiley & Sons,
coming successful. 1990.

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Katz, Victor. A History of Mathematics: An Introduction. Swetz, Frank J., ed. From Five Fingers to Infinity: A Journey
Mathematics 2nd ed. New York: Addison-Wesley, 1998. through the History of Mathematics. Chicago and
Lasalle: Open Court, 1994.
1450-1699

The Emergence of the Calculus

Overview paradoxes remained mathematically unsolvable
in practical terms until the concepts of continu-
The calculus describes a set of powerful analyti-
ity and limits were introduced.
cal techniques, including differentiation and in-
tegration, that utilize the concept of a limit in Archimedes also built upon the work of
the mathematical description of the properties of Greek astronomer, philosopher, and mathemati-
functions, especially curves. The formal devel- cian Eudoxus of Cnidus (c. 400-c. 350 B.C.). Eu-
opment of the calculus in the later half of the doxus developed a method of exhaustion that
seventeenth century, primarily through the inde- could be used to calculate the area and volume
pendent work of English physicist and mathe- under curves and of solids (e.g. the cone and
matician Sir Isaac Newton (1642-1727) and pyramid) that relied on the concept that time,
German mathematician Gottfried Wilhelm Leib- space, and matter could be divided into infini-
niz (1646-1716), was the crowning mathemati- tesimally small portions. Moreover, the method
cal achievement of the Scientific Revolution. The of exhaustion pointed the way toward a primi-
subsequent advancement of the calculus pro- tive geometric form of what in calculus terms
foundly influenced the course and scope of would become known as integration.
mathematical and scientific inquiry.
Although other advances by classical math-
ematicians also set the intellectual stage for the
Background ultimate development of calculus during the Sci-
Important mathematical developments that laid entific Revolution, it is apparent that ancient
the foundation for the calculus of Newton and Greek mathematicians failed to find a common
Leibniz can be traced back to mathematical link between problems dedicated to finding the
techniques first advanced in ancient Greece and area under curves and to the problems requiring
Rome. In addition to existing methods to deter- the determination of a tangent. That these
mine the tangent to a circle, the Greek mathe- process are actually the inverse of each other be-
matician and inventor Archimedes (c. 290-c. came the fundamental theorem of the calculus
211 B.C.) developed a technique to determine eventually developed by Newton and Leibniz.
the tangent to a spiral, an important component During the Medieval Age philosophers and
of his water screw. mathematicians continued to ponder questions
The majority of other ancient fundamental relating to the movement of objects. These in-
advances ultimately related to the calculus were quiries led to early efforts to plot functions relat-
concerned with techniques that allowed the de- ing such variables as time and velocity. In partic-
termination of areas under curves (principally ular, the work of French Roman Catholic bishop
the area and volume of curved shapes). In addi- Nicholas Oresme (c. 1325-1382) proved an im-
tion to their mathematical utility, these advance- portant milestone in the development of kine-
ments both reflected and challenged prevailing matics (the study of motion) and geometry, es-
philosophical notions regarding the concept of pecially Oresme’s proof of the Merton theorem,
infinitely divisible time and space. Two centuries which allowed for the calculation of the distance
before the work of Archimedes, Greek philoso- traveled by an object when uniformly accelerat-
pher and mathematician Zeno of Elea (c. 495-c. ed (e.g. by acceleration due to gravity). Oresme’s
430 B.C.) constructed a set of paradoxes that proof established that the sum of the distance
were fundamentally important in the develop- traversed (i.e. the area under the velocity curve)
ment of mathematics, logic, and scientific by a body with variable velocity was the same as
thought. Zeno’s paradoxes reflected the idea that that traversed by a body with a uniform velocity
space and time could be infinitely subdivided equal to the middle instant of whatever period
into smaller and smaller portions, and these was measured. In other words, the area under

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the curve was a sum of all distances covered by a

series of instantaneous velocities. This work was Mathematics
to prove indispensable to the quantification of
parabolic motion by Italian astronomer and 1450-1699
physicist Galileo Galilei (1564-1642) and later
influenced Newton’s development of differentia-
tion techniques.
During the Renaissance in Western Europe,
a rediscovery of ancient Greek and Roman math-
ematics spurred the increased use of mathemati-
cal symbols, especially to denote algebraic
processes. The rise in symbolism also allowed the
development and increased application of the
techniques of analytical geometry principally ad-
vanced by French philosopher and mathemati-
cian René Descartes (1596-1650) and French
mathematician Pierre de Fermat (1601-1665).
Beyond the practical utility of establishing that
algebraic equations corresponded to curves, the
work of Descartes and Fermat laid the geometri-
cal basis for calculus. In fact, Fermat’s method-
ologies included concepts related to, and to the
determination of, minimums and maximums for Gottfried Leibniz. (Library of Congress. Reproduced with
functions that are mirrored in modern mathe- permission.)
matical methodology (e.g. setting the derivative
of a function to zero). Both Newton and Leibniz rounding whether Newton or Leibniz deserved
were to rely heavily on the use of Cartesian alge- credit for the development of the calculus was
bra in the development of their respective calcu- grounded in the actions of both men during the
lus techniques. late seventeenth century. There is clear and un-
Although many of the fundamental elements ambiguous historical documentation that estab-
for the calculus were in place, the recognition of lishes that Newton’s unpublished formulations of
the fundamental theorem relating differentiation the techniques of calculus came two decades
and integration as inverse processes continued to prior to Leibniz’s preemptory publications in
elude mathematicians and scientists. Part of the 1684 and 1686. Although their correspondence
difficulty related to a lingering philosophical re- (mostly through a third party) makes Leibniz’s
sistance toward the philosophical ramifications path to calculus less clear, scholars generally con-
of the limit and the infinitesimal. clude that Leibniz independently developed his
own set of the techniques. Although the mathe-
Accordingly, in one sense the genius of matical outcomes were identical, the differences
Newton and Leibniz lay in their ability to put in symbolism and nomenclature used by Newton
aside the philosophical and theological ramifica- and Leibniz evidence independent development.
tions of the utilization of the infinitesimal to de- The dispute regarding credit for the calculus
velop a very practical branch of mathematics. quickly evolved into a feud that drew in support-
Neither Newton or Leibniz gave serious address ers along blatantly nationalistic lines that subse-
to the deeper philosophical issues regarding lim- quently divided English mathematicians who re-
its and infinitesimals in their publications on lied on Newton’s “fluxions” from mathematicians
technique. In this regard Newton and Leibniz in Europe who followed the conventions estab-
worked in the spirit of empiricism that grew lished by Leibniz. In particular, the publications
during throughout the Scientific Revolution. and symbolism of Leibniz greatly influenced the
mathematical work of two brothers, Swiss math-
ematicians Jakob Bernoulli (1654-1750) and Jo-
Impact hann Bernoulli (1667-1748).
Although largely carried over into the eighteenth
century, and affecting more the elaboration of the Working separately, the Bernoulli brothers
calculus rather than the initial development of widely applied the calculus. Johann Bernoulli
the techniques, the acrimonious controversy sur- was the first to apply the term integral, and he

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spread Leibniz-based methodologies and first textbook in calculus was published by

Mathematics nomenclature among influential French mathe- French mathematician Guillaume François An-
maticians. Jakob Bernoulli incorporated the cal- toine l’Hospital (1661-1704). L’Hospital’s Analyse
1450-1699 culus into his work regarding probability and des Infiniment Petits four l’intelligence des lignes
statistics. In addition to the greater utility and courbes first appeared in 1696 and helped bring
translatability of Leibniz’s notational systems, the calculus into wider use throughout conti-
Bernoulli’s spread of Leibniz’s notation is one of nental Europe.
the major reasons modern calculus much more
Although the philosophical debate on the
closely resembles the original notations set forth
logical consistency of the calculus would gain
by Leibniz than those of Newton.
importance in the eighteenth century, it is a
In modern mathematical texts, Newton is telling note of the intellectual climate of the time
often cited as the inventor of the differential cal- that within a few decades the calculus was
culus, and Leibniz is given credit for the devel- quickly embraced and applied to a wide range of
opment of integration. Both men, however, de- practical problems in physics, astronomy, and
veloped techniques for differentiation and inte- mathematics. Why the calculus worked, howev-
gration. Accordingly, any awarding of credit for er, remained a vexing question that would even-
the development of the respective techniques tually open calculus to attack on philosophical
more properly recognizes the varying mathemat- and theological grounds. This school of critics—
ical and philosophical emphasis exhibited by eventually to be led in eighteenth-century Eng-
Newton and Leibniz. land by the Anglican Bishop George Berkeley
Following Leibniz’s publication, Newton (1685-1753)—argued that the fundamental the-
published his own work in his Philosophiae Nat- orems of calculus derived from logical fallacies
uralis Principia Mathematica (Mathematical Prin- and that the great accuracy of calculus actually
ciples of Natural Philosophy), Opticks, and in resulted from the mutual cancellation of funda-
John Wallis’s works. Newton’s writing carefully mental reasoning errors.
reflected ancient Greek philosophical ideas. In Within a century the attacks upon calculus,
fact, the concept of the limit in Principia is de- because they resulted in an increased rigor in
fined as a “ratio of evanescent quantities.” mathematical analysis, ultimately proved benefi-
The publications of Newton and Leibniz cial to the development of modern mathematics.
emphasized the utilitarian aspects of calculus. The practical genius of Newton and Leibniz,
Nevertheless, the respective development of grounded in their respective recognition of the
nomenclature and techniques by Newton and fundamental theorem of calculus (that differenti-
Leibniz also mirrored their own philosophical ation and integration are inverse processes), en-
leanings. Newton developed the calculus as a dured to provide a powerful analytical tool that
practical tool by which to attack problems re- fueled Enlightenment Age inquiries into the nat-
garding the effects of gravity and as an accurate ural world and offered the mathematical basis
calculator of planetary motion. Accordingly, for the development of modern science.
Newton emphasized analysis, and his mathe- K. LEE LERNER
matical methods attempted to describe the ef-
fects of forces on motion in terms of infinitesi-
mal changes with respect to time. Leibniz’s cal- Further Reading
culus sought to derive integral methods by
Boyer, Carl. The History of the Calculus and Its Conceptual
which discrete infinitesimal units could be Development. New York: Dover, 1959.
summed to yield the area of a larger shape.
Boyer, Carl. A History of Mathematics. 2nd ed. New York:
Thus, he derived inspiration from the idea that John Wiley and Sons, 1991.
incorporeal entities were the driving basis of ex-
Edwards, C. H. The Historical Development of the Calculus.
istence and change in the larger world experi-
New York: Springer Press, 1979.
enced by mankind.
Hall, Rupert. Philosophers at War: The Quarrel Between
Although philosophical debates regarding Newton and Leibniz. New York: Cambridge University
the underpinning of the calculus simmered, the Press, 1980.
first texts in calculus were able to appear before Kline, M. Mathematical Thought from Ancient to Modern
the end of the seventeenth century. Despite the Times. New York: Oxford University Press, 1972.
fact that modern scholars now credit much of Kuhn, Thomas S. The Structure of Scientific Revolutions.
the content of the text to Johann Bernoulli, the Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1970.

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The Enduring and Revolutionary Impact of

Mathematics
Pierre de Fermat’s Last Theorem

1450-1699

Overview Fermat’s fascination with numbers was rooted

in the writings of the ancient Greek mathemati-
Pierre de Fermat (1601-1665) was a contempo-
cian and philosopher Diophantus (fl. A.D. 250),
rary of the renowned philosopher and mathe-
author of the Arithmetica. The Arithmetica original-
matician René Descartes (1596-1650). Fermat,
ly was comprised of 13 books, though only six are
like Descartes, was fascinated with numbers and
known to have survived the Dark Ages. These
their properties and relationships, and indeed
books comprised a collection of mathematical
corresponded with Descartes about his insights
problems for which only whole number solutions
and conjectures. Unlike Descartes, however,
are possible. As Diophantus was the author of
Fermat was neither a professional mathemati-
these mathematical problems, they now are
cian nor a professional philosopher. Neverthe-
known, not surprisingly, as Diophantine prob-
less, though he was considered an amateur
lems. Pythagoras’s famous theorem is an example.
mathematician, Fermat now is known as the
“Prince of Amateurs.” Interestingly, in ancient Greece, arithmetica,
Despite his amateur status, Fermat con- meaning “arithmetic,” did not mean mere com-
tributed much to mathematics, including provid- putation, as it presently does. Rather, arithmetic
ing the necessary groundwork for the fields of an- meant “theory of numbers,” and as such was
alytic geometry and infinitesimal analysis. What is more philosophical in its approach toward un-
more, Fermat is credited with founding number derstanding numbers and their properties than
theory, the calculus, and, along with Blaise Pascal straightforward mathematical theory.
(1623-1662), inventing probability theory. So it was through Fermat’s study of Dio-
Notwithstanding these incredible accom- phantus’s Arithmetica that he became interested
plishments, Fermat perhaps is most famous for in exploring further the mysteries of numbers
his Last Theorem, a theorem whose solution and their properties, especially with regard to
evaded the brightest minds of mathematics for Diophantine problems. Indeed, one of Fermat’s
over 350 years, but whose solution—and quest favorite pastimes was to write to other mathe-
for the same—revolutionized number theory. maticians, asking them whether they could
According to one contemporary mathematician, prove a particular theorem, some of which he
the proof of Fermat’s Last Theorem, which was found in other texts, and some of which he cre-
finally completed in the fall of 1994, is the his- ated on his own. Fermat then would taunt these
torical and intellectual equivalent of “splitting mathematicians, who struggled to provide
the atom or finding the structure of DNA.” proofs to Fermat’s challenging theorems, by stat-
ing that he had the proofs although he would
refuse to reveal them.
Background
Needless to say, the mathematicians with
Fermat was born into a wealthy family in the whom Fermat corresponded grew increasingly
town of Beaumont-de-Lomagne in southwest frustrated. Indeed, such taunting moved Descartes
France. He was well educated both at a Francis- to label Fermat a braggart, and the English mathe-
can monastery and the University of Toulouse, al- matician John Wallis (1616-1703) to refer to Fer-
though there is no indication that he was particu- mat as “that damned Frenchman.” Such responses
larly attracted to mathematics during this period. proved only to motivate Fermat even more as his
Due in large part to familial influence, Fer- challenges became ever more complicated and
mat eventually became a lawyer and later en- frustrating. These challenges, however, paled in
tered the civil service. Upon entering the civil comparison to his ultimate taunt, known as Fer-
service, he served the local parliament as a mat’s Last Theorem, referred to as such because it
lawyer, then as a councillor, acting mainly as a was the last of Fermat’s theorems to be proved.
liaison between the local municipality and the
king. Thus, it appears that politics was his pro-
fession. Although Fermat succeeded well in his Impact
professional life, his true love and devotion in- Pythagoras’s theorem states that the square of the
creasingly turned toward the study of numbers. hypotenuse of a right triangle is equal to the

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Theorem. Another way of stating the theorem is

Mathematics that there are no integer solutions to the equa-
tion xn + yn = zn, where n is an integer greater
1450-1699 than two. (The equation contained within the
Last Theorem was henceforth referred to as Fer-
mat’s Equation.)
However, a significant problem remained:
Could Fermat actually prove this theorem? In a
cryptic notation left in his copy of Arithmetica
Fermat claimed to have found a proof for the
theorem: “I have discovered a truly remarkable
proof which this margin is too small to contain.”
Unfortunately, Fermat died on January 9, 1665,
without ever revealing the proof of his Last The-
orem, thereby leaving both an enduring mystery
and an incredible taunt for the world to ponder.
For years afterward mathematicians tried in
vain to prove the theorem (which more appro-
priately should have been labeled a conjecture,
inasmuch as no proof existed). Partial proofs up
to n=7 were achieved, but as there are an infinity
of numbers, such proofs amounted to very little
Pierre de Fermat. (Corbis-Bettman. Reproduced with toward proving the theorem completely. Some
permission.)
were so intrigued by the possibility of a proof
that they offered monetary rewards to those who
sum of the square of its sides. Symbolically, the discovered a proof for all n greater than two. In
theorem may be expressed as x2 + y2 = z2. If x is the early 1900s, for example, Dr. Paul
assigned the value 3; y, the value 4; and z, the Wolfskehl, a German industrialist and amateur
value 5, the equation may be solved: 9 + 16 = mathematician, offered a prize of 100,000 marks
25. Of course, the combination of 3, 4, and 5— (approximately equivalent to $1 million today)
known as a Pythagorean triple—is not the only to the first person to solve Fermat’s Last Theo-
solution to this theorem. Indeed, mathemati- rem. Needless to say, no serious contenders for
cians have proved that there exists an infinity of the prize money came forward. Indeed, many
Pythagorean triples that provide solutions to the mathematicians grew skeptical of whether a
equation. proof even was possible.
Around 1637, when he was 36 years old, Despite overwhelming skepticism and
Fermat wondered whether there might also be an seemingly impossible odds, on June 27, 1997,
infinity of Pythagorean Triples to a slight varia- approximately 360 years after Fermat conjured
tion of Pythagoras’s theorem. Specifically, Fermat up his infamous theorem, and nearly 100 years
wondered whether a cubed version of Pythago- after the establishment of the Wolfskehl Prize,
ras’s theorem—x3 + y3 = z3—had any solutions. the prize money was finally bestowed on an
Surprisingly, Fermat could not find any Fermat- unassuming, yet profoundly brilliant mathemat-
ian triples, that is, Fermat was unable to find any ics professor from Princeton University. After
solutions to his cubed variation of Pythagoras’s struggling in secrecy and the isolation of his attic
theorem. Indeed, Fermat could not find any for eight years, Andrew Wiles (1953-) published
triples for any Pythagorean variation where the a 100-page proof of Fermat’s Last Theorem in
exponents were integers greater than two. the Annals of Mathematics (May 1995).
As a result, Fermat noted in the margin of What was just as amazing as the fact that
his prized copy of Arithmetica that “It is impossi- Fermat’s Last Theorem was finally proved, was
ble for a cube to be written as a sum of two the process by which Wiles achieved the proof.
cubes or a fourth power to be written as the sum To prove Fermat’s Last Theorem, he had to unite
of two fourth powers or, in general, for any two completely disparate branches of mathemat-
number which is a power greater than the sec- ics, thereby developing a completely novel ap-
ond to be written as a sum of two like powers.” proach to number theory in order to achieve the
This statement became known as Fermat’s Last proof.

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The two disparate areas of mathematics equations. Work was still being done toward
Wiles united concerned elliptic curves and mod- proving the Taniyama-Shimura conjecture, but Mathematics
ular forms. Elliptic curves are equations used to little progress had been made. Gerhard Frey, a
measure the perimeter of ellipses and, as a re- mathematician from Saarbrücken, had discov- 1450-1699
sult, have been famously used to compute the ered something interesting. Frey discovered that
elliptical trajectory of planetary orbits. Elliptic Fermat’s Equation could be translated into the
equations take the form of y2 = x3 + ax2 + bx + c, form of an elliptic equation, but this elliptic
where a, b, and c are any whole numbers. equation was quite odd in that it suggested a
Hence, elliptic equations, like the Fermat’s Equa- possible solution to Fermat’s Equation, and fur-
tion, are also Diophantine equations; indeed, thermore, the elliptic equation had no modular
Diophantus devoted a large portion of the Arith- form equivalent. Consequently, if Frey’s elliptic
metica to the study of elliptic equations. version of Fermat’s Equation was valid, then two
conclusions followed: (1) it was possible for
In contrast, modular forms are highly ab-
there to be a solution to Fermat’s Equation,
stract, complex mathematical objects that dis-
which would prove that the Last Theorem was
play an unusual amount of symmetry. Modular
false; and (2), the Taniyama-Shimura conjecture
forms are symmetric in the sense that they can
was false because there existed an elliptic equa-
be moved about in mathematical space in any
tion without a modular form equivalent.
conceivable way, but remain unchanged. To take
a highly simplified example, imagine a perfect Stated conversely, what Frey essentially had
square drawn on a sheet of paper. If one were to discovered was that if the Taniyama-Shimura
rotate the sheet of paper exactly one-quarter conjecture was correct, then the elliptic version
turn, the square would appear to remain com- of Fermat’s Equation was invalid, which meant
pletely unchanged. Indeed, the square would that, indeed, there were no solutions to Fermat’s
appear to remain unchanged if one were to turn Last Theorem. So, in a nutshell, Frey had proved
the paper one-half turn, three-quarters, or even, that if the Taniyama-Shimura conjecture was
of course, one full turn. This unchanging aspect correct, then so was Fermat’s Last Theorem.
of the square as it is moved about on the two-di- Ultimately, proving the Taniyama-Shimura
mensional surface of the sheet of paper demon- conjecture was precisely what Andrew Wiles did
strates the square’s symmetry. in order to finally prove Fermat’s Last Theorem.
The study of elliptic equations and of mod- As a result, Wiles opened up new avenues of re-
ular forms have historically been completely un- search previously unavailable, indeed, un-
related endeavors: elliptic equations were used known, to mathematicians. Thereafter problems
to study real world phenomena, whereas modu- in elliptic equations could be solved in the mod-
lar forms were studied for their interesting prop- ular forms world, and vice versa. Furthermore,
erties in imaginary, mathematical space. Howev- the impact of recognizing the underlying unity
er, in September 1955 two young mathemati- between these two branches of mathematics
cians at the University of Tokyo—Goro Shimura would allow mathematicians to better under-
and Yutaka Taniyama—posed the following con- stand each branch.
jecture: for every elliptic equation there is an In the history of knowledge, such unifica-
equivalent modular form. This conjecture, gen- tion of disparate branches of thought is not un-
erally known as the Taniyama-Shimura conjec- known. For example, prior to the nineteenth
ture, was so shocking that, initially, few paid century physicists studied magnetism and elec-
much attention to it. Over time, however, the tricity completely separately. But then it was dis-
mathematical community discovered that if the covered that these two areas of physics were in-
Taniyama-Shimura conjecture was correct, many extricably linked, thereby creating the study of
useful applications could be developed, includ- electromagnetism. From the study of electro-
ing solving mathematical problems that re- magnetism came the further discovery that light
mained resistant to resolution. was nothing more than electromagnetic radia-
The problem with the Taniyama-Shimura tion, which in turn allowed physicists to better
conjecture, like the problem with Fermat’s Last understand the nature of the world. Likewise,
Theorem, was that nobody knew how to prove the quest for the proof of Fermat’s Last Theorem
the conjecture. Twenty-nine years later, in the has greatly impacted the future of mathematics,
fall of 1984, and half a world away, a small and our knowledge of the world generally.
group of number theorists met in Oberwolfach, Despite the fact that the mystery of Fermat’s
Germany, to discuss current research in elliptic Last Theorem has finally been solved, the mys-

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tery of whether Fermat actually solved it re- on these seemingly intractable mysteries. Impor-
Mathematics mains. Although it is highly improbable that tantly, like the revolution sparked by the quest
Fermat did in fact have a proof, there neverthe- for the proof of Fermat’s Last Theorem, solutions
1450-1699 less remains the possibility. Consequently, the to these problems, should they be found, likely
mystery of whether there exists Fermat’s proof to will provide us with a better understanding of
his Last Theorem persists. If in fact Fermat did the nature of numbers. As Pythagoras (580?-
prove his Last Theorem, the discovery of just 500? B.C.) understood so long ago, the nature of
what that proof is may further illuminate our numbers is the language of nature.
understanding of mathematics.
MARK H. ALLENBAUGH
In any event, there are many more mathe-
matical mysteries challenging—indeed, taunt-
ing—the world’s best mathematicians to this day. Further Reading
On May 24, 2000, the Clay Mathematics Insti- Bell, Eric T. The Last Problem. Washington, DC: Mathe-
tute published the Millenium Prize Problems,of- matical Association of America, 1990.
fering a $1 million prize for the solution to each Boyer, Carl B. A History of Mathematics. 2nd ed. New
of seven unsolved mathematical problems. As York: John Wiley & Sons, 1991.
some of these problems are over 100 years old, Mahoney, Michael. The Mathematical Career of Pierre de Fer-
the Institute hopes that the prize money, like mat. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1994.
that of the Wolfskehl Prize, will motivate and in- Singh, Simon. Fermat’s Enigma. New York: Anchor
spire current and future mathematicians to work Books, 1997.

Mathematics, Communication,
and Community


Overview tion or exchange. But with the advent of print-
ing, mathematical communication became newly
Perhaps more than any other scientific subject,
convenient. Regiomontanus (1436-1476), one of
mathematics seems to depend upon individual
the most important early printers, was also prob-
genius and moments of inspiration. Mathemati-
ably the most important mathematician in Eu-
cal theorems and concepts are even named after
rope during the fifteenth century. Although he
their discoverers. But in fact, mathematical re-
died prematurely, Regiomontanus did begin an
search did not begin to flourish until the six-
important era in the publication of the major
teenth century, when reliable communication
texts of classical science and mathematics, and of
networks helped support an international com-
textbooks based upon them. The first printed
munity of like-minded scholars who stimulated
edition of Euclid’s (330?-260? B.C.) famous book
each other’s work through the exchange of ideas
on geometry appeared in 1482. During the next
and the spirit of competition. A dynamic balance
century, more than one hundred different edi-
between individual discovery and communal
tions of Euclid alone were published, along with
validation characterizes mathematics to this day.
scores of other mathematical treatises.

Background The proliferation of mathematical books

The invention of the printing press in the fif- helped to stimulate mathematical education,
teenth century gave an enormous boost to the not only in universities but also in schools that
field of mathematics. While the great mathemati- helped to prepare men to work in areas such as
cal works of antiquity had been preserved in Eu- surveying, which required the use of arithmetic
rope, they were often studied through incom- and geometry. Mathematics began to be applied
plete manuscripts, and advances to algebra, to new fields and to older subjects in new
trigonometry, and geometry made in Islamic ways. Bookkeeping, mechanics, surveying, art,
countries during the Middle Ages were little architecture, cartography, optics, and music
known. There was little enthusiasm for innova- were all transformed by the application of
tive ideas, and few opportunities for collabora- mathematical techniques, and mathematics was

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in turn influenced by the demands of these cians with whom Mersenne corresponded. This
real-world activities. was one of many ways that Mersenne encour- Mathematics
The availability of somewhat standardized aged the exchange of mathematical ideas.
1450-1699
printed versions of texts by Euclid and Mersenne became the coordinator of mathe-
Archimedes (287?-212? B.C.), the increase in in- matical activity for scholars based in Paris, as well
terest in mathematical education, and the expan- as for interested foreigners who visited the French
sion of the application of mathematics to impor- capital. He held frequent salons at his convent that
tant new areas established promising conditions brought together leading thinkers in a number of
for mathematical activity. The printed texts pro- other scholarly fields as well as mathematics.
vided a kind of uniform starting point for those These evolved into something resembling formal
interested in addressing problems posed by the scientific conferences by the mid-1630s. Another
classical authors, and the use of mathematics to significant encounter that Mersenne brought
solve practical problems provided another outlet about was the first meeting of the great French
for mathematical novelty. The desire to exchange mathematicians Blaise Pascal (1623-1662) and
mathematical ideas with others interested in the René Descartes (1596-1650). In addition to these
still-esoteric subject drove far-flung investigators important personal meetings and exchanges,
to begin correspondence with each other. Mersenne built up a correspondence network that
came to include most of the important mathemati-
Communication among scholars living in
cians in Europe. It was through Mersenne that
different countries throughout Europe was great-
Galileo and his followers maintained contact with
ly facilitated by the widespread use of Latin in
scientists elsewhere in Europe. Mersenne relayed
scholarly work. Well into the seventeenth centu-
correspondence between mathematicians interest-
ry, most scientific and mathematical books were
ed in common problems, and he often smoothed
published in Latin, and virtually every educated
relationships among various personalities, such as
person would read and write Latin fluently.
those between the notoriously difficult Descartes
While vernacular languages were used to write
and France’s other leading mathematicians Pierre
and publish some elementary texts, Galileo
de Fermat (1601-1665), Gilles Personne de
(1564-1642) was in the 1630s the first promi-
Roberval (1602-1675), and Pascal.
nent scientist to publish important scientific
texts in his native language. But throughout the But Mersenne was something more than a
sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, the use of secretary. In addition to establishing and main-
Latin as a universal language for European taining contact among Europe’s mathematicians,
scholars made correspondence between mathe- Mersenne also directly influenced mathematical
maticians much simpler. work. He often criticized or challenged the
mathematical work of others, setting one mathe-
But how did these scholars find one anoth-
matician against another to advance work in an
er? Prior to the existence of scientific societies or
area where problems seemed to fester. He also
scholarly journals, identification of others who
set out mathematical problems for others to
shared common research interests or mathemati-
solve, thus contributing to the era’s spirit of
cal talent depended upon individual encounters
competition among mathematicians eager to
and connections. Some mathematicians were af-
claim new solutions and techniques for them-
filiated with universities or monasteries and so
selves. Mersenne’s extensive correspondence,
had institutional relationships that put them in
covering more than 20 years, from the early
touch with others at similar posts, but many ac-
1620s up to his death in 1648, was finally itself
tive mathematicians in this era were more or less
published in the twentieth century and stands as
independent. It fell to enthusiastic individuals to
a tangible monument to his great influence on
bring other mathematicians into contact. One of
the development of mathematics and the inter-
the most important of the mathematical impre-
national mathematics community. While
sarios was a Jesuit priest by the name of Marin
Mersenne was undoubtedly the most significant
Mersenne (1588-1648).
mathematical correspondent of his century, oth-
Mersenne’s duties to his Jesuit order were ers such as John Collins of London performed a
for the most part strictly intellectual. He pub- similar role in their own countries.
lished several books of his own, beginning in
1623, on a variety of topics including theology,
ancient and modern science, and mathematics. Impact
These publications often included the first pub- Many conditions came together to bring about
lished accounts of the work of other mathemati- the flowering of mathematics in the sixteenth

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century. The dissemination of published mathe- mathematics became more and more special-
Mathematics matical books, the expansion of education in ized, so did its institutions. By the end of the
mathematics, new areas of application, and the twentieth century, hundreds of mathematical
1450-1699 establishment of an international community of journals and dozens of mathematical societies
scholars connected via correspondence, trans- reflected the diversity of the field and its pro-
formed mathematics from a limited academic found degree of international cooperation. Eng-
subject to an actively evolving scientific endeav- lish is treated as a common, although not uni-
or. Historians agree that by the seventeenth cen- versal, language of exchange, and the highly
tury, the practice of mathematics had come to symbolic nature of mathematics itself helps
fully resemble the modern mathematics of later scholars from different nations to easily under-
centuries. stand one another’s work.
From the start they were given by Mersenne, Mathematics developed a public face in the
European mathematicians established ever-closer sixteenth century that has lasted to the present:
ties among one another. Detailed exchanges of a new mathematical concept can be accepted
problems and proofs, counterexamples, and only after the mathematical community has been
challenges took place across national boundaries persuaded of its truth. A mathematician with a
and between (mostly) men of very different so- new discovery or proof must convince his peers
cial and professional standing. New ideas, tech- of his accomplishment, otherwise it is no ac-
niques, and applications began to develop quick- complishment at all. The importance of a com-
ly as enthusiasts stirred each other to work hard- munity to modern mathematics, then, cannot be
er and more rigorously on problem after exaggerated—mathematics is at its very core a
problem. While this often had the positive effect social activity, no matter how essential the con-
of stimulating fresh discoveries, it also set the tribution of individual work might be.
stage for a number of bitter disputes over who
LOREN BUTLER FEFFER
first came upon an important idea. Most notori-
ous among these “priority disputes” was the bit-
ter battle waged between Isaac Newton (1642-
Further Reading
1727) and Gottfried Leibniz (1646-1716) over
Boyer, Carl. A History of Mathematics. Rev. by Uta
who had discovered the calculus.
Merzbach. New York: Wiley, 1989.
Communication among mathematicians Cooke, Roger. The History of Mathematics. New York:
grew faster and easier as technology improved. Wiley, 1997.
Letters moved more and more quickly thanks to Dear, Peter. Discipline and Experience: The Mathematical
new roads and later railroads and improved Way in the Scientific Revolution. Chicago: University of
ships. The telephone, telegraph, and eventually Chicago Press, 1995.
computers sped communication further. At the Hay, Cynthia, ed. Mathematics from Manuscript to Print,
same time the mathematical community fostered 1300-1600. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1988.
institutions to aid communication among re- Hollingdale, Stuart. Makers of Mathematics. London: Pen-
searchers. Mathematicians joined the earliest sci- guin, 1989.
entific societies as they formed in the late seven- Katz, Victor. A History of Mathematics. Reading, MA: Ad-
teenth century, and starting in the nineteenth dison-Wesley, 1998.
century began to form societies and publications Struik, Dirk, ed. A Source Book in Mathematics, 1200-1800.
that were specialized to their interests alone. As Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1986.

Mathematicians Develop
New Ways to Calculate π


Overview while developing new formulae to add digits
During the Renaissance, mathematicians contin- more quickly. Part of this fascination with π was
ued their centuries-old fascination with π. As part the equally old quest to “square the circle,” and
of this, they calculated π to ever-greater precision part was simply human curiosity. In spite of their

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lack of success in quadrature (the term for squar- sides to each of these polygons, they would
ing the circle), these efforts did yield greater in- gradually approach the same circumference, and Mathematics
sights into the nature of π, some aspects of geom- if they had infinitely many sides, they would
etry, and other areas of mathematics. have exactly the same circumference as the circle 1450-1699
itself. In effect, the circumferences of the two
polygons would gradually approach that of the
Background circle that was being “squeezed” between the in-
The ancient Egyptians and Babylonians may terior and exterior shapes.
have been the first to notice that the ratio of a The next advance in calculating the value of
circle’s circumference to its diameter was not an π came in the 1500s when François Viète (1540-
even number. By about 2000 B.C., in fact, the 1603) developed an elaboration on Archimedes’
Egyptians had determined this ratio was about method. While his basic method would have
31/8, while the Babylonians put it at about 4 x been both understood and appreciated by the
(8/9)2. These come out to be equal to 3.125 and Greek, Viète became the first to use an analyti-
about 3.161, respectively; not far from the mod- cally derived infinite series to aid in the calcula-
ern value of 3.1416.... These relationships re- tions. This, in and of itself, was a major accom-
mained largely unchanged until the time of the plishment for not only π-calculators, but for all
Greeks, nearly 1,600 years later. of mathematics.
Among the ancient Greeks, Archimedes The first attacks on Archimedes’ method it-
stands out as a mathematician who made partic- self were not launched until 1621, when Dutch
ularly important advances in determining the physicist and mathematician, Willebrord Snell
value of pi, among his many other accomplish- (1580-1626) developed a superior method of
ments. Using a method that remained largely calculation. This was verified by another Dutch-
unchanged for nearly two millennia, Archimedes man, Christiaan Huygens (1629-1695). His
determined that π had a value of between method would yield as many accurate digits for
3.14084 and 3.14258; remarkably close to the π in just a few iterations as could be garnered by
actual value. In reaching this value, he also de- Archimedes’ method using a polygon of over
veloped mathematical techniques that seemed to 400,000 sides.
anticipate the development of some parts of dif-
ferential calculus. The next significant advance took only an-
other 44 years, when English mathematician
One of the driving forces behind calculating John Wallis (1616-1703), like Viète, used an in-
π to greater and greater numbers of digits was a finite series to calculate the value of π. Unlike
fascination, in some cases an obsession, with the Viète, Wallis’s formula did not rely on a series of
quadrature problem. This problem simply asked square roots, which are always difficult to calcu-
a person, using only an unmarked straight edge late by hand. Instead, Wallis developed a
and a compass, to create a square with exactly method that used ratios of whole numbers and
the same area as a circle of a given diameter. The trigonometric operations, giving a much faster
quadrature problem seems to have originated and more accurate way to calculate π, and allow-
with the ancient Greeks, and occupied an inor- ing many more decimal places to be added to its
dinate amount of attention for nearly 2,000 known value. Wallis’s contribution is significant
years. Part of the reason for the attention is that from another standpoint; it was the last impor-
success seemed, in many cases, tantalizingly tant advance to be made that did not use calcu-
close, while remaining just out of grasp. Some- lus and the methods of analytical geometry, re-
where along the way, mathematicians and other cently invented by Isaac Newton (1642-1727)
“circle-squarers” realized that, if only they could and Gottfried Leibniz (1646-1716).
determine the exact value of π, they would have
a much better chance of developing an algo-
rithm that would let them achieve their goal. So Impact
work continued.
The impacts of these advances range from signifi-
Archimedes’ method for calculating π relied cant to almost trivial. On the trivial side, it be-
on the fact that a polygon drawn on the outside came ever easier to calculate π to an ever-longer
of a circle would always have a greater circum- string of digits. More important than simply
ference than the circle itself, while a polygon knowing a string of digits for π, however, was the
drawn on the inside of a circle would always mathematical understanding that came from this
have a smaller circumference. By adding more process. Finally, the analytical process that began

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with Viète led to a much deeper understanding was revolutionary, and was, in fact, the first
Mathematics of the nature of π, eventually proving that the known use of analytically derived infinite series
exact value of π could never be known because it in any part of mathematics. The improvements
1450-1699 is a transcendental number; a number that nei- made by Snell and Wallis helped to greatly ex-
ther repeats itself nor terminates. This discovery, tend the utility of infinite series, which are today
in turn, was to forever quash attempts to square used in a very large number of scientific, mathe-
the circle, something that had remained in the matical, and engineering applications. These
public imagination for many centuries. mathematical tools would likely have been de-
From one standpoint, adding calculated veloped regardless of their use in attacking this
decimal places to the known value of π was akin one problem, but it is very likely that continued
to mounting the heads of dead animals on the frustration in attempts to solve the quadrature
wall; it accomplished little except to give some problem served to accelerate progress in these,
fleeting fame to a mathematician. However, from and other related areas.
another standpoint, even so apparently mun- Finally, over time the quadrature problem
dane a task could still carry some degree of sig- had attained a notoriety approaching that of Fer-
nificance. For example, Viète was able to show mat’s Last Theorem, finally solved in 1993. Al-
his method generated digits much more quickly though the quadrature problem was not re-
than did Archimedes’. By reproducing the digits solved during this period (indeed, it was later
of those who came before, each method was val- found to be impossible to do), it did capture the
idated, as was the math that went into develop- public attention. Or, more appropriately, it cap-
ing that method. And, by generating an increas- tured the attention of those who were literate,
ingly long string of digits for π, mathematicians educated, and had some amount of free time in
began to suspect that it was not so simple a which to pursue such idle interests; a very small
number as it at first appeared. These suspicions fraction of the total population. However, this
gained ground, even as circle-squarers appeared, relatively small number of people was very im-
each convinced he or she had accomplished a portant in the society of the times because they
millennia-old task. Finally, a very small subdisci- were the ones upon whom much of society rest-
pline began to take shape that looked for pat- ed. The educated elite helped set public policy,
terns in the digits of π. It was thought that, by wrote the works by which their age is known,
studying the digits closely enough, one might be advised the government, ran businesses, taught,
able to find a method to predict the next digit and did the myriad other things that helped es-
without having to go through the laborious cal- tablish, preserve, and spread their culture and
culations already developed. Unfortunately, such government throughout the world. Those na-
efforts were in vain, and many properties of π tions with a relatively large middle and upper
remain inscrutable to this day. However, it is also class, such as the Dutch and English, dominated
of interest to note that, even today, stories ap- world affairs more than their relatively small size
pear in the media on a regular basis noting that would suggest; while larger nations, such as
someone (or, increasingly, a new computer) has Russia, remained relative backwaters both cul-
broken the record for calculating π by generat- turally and politically for many centuries.
ing another few million digits. So, even today, The nations that became dominant—especial-
the digit hunters continue to be noticed by the ly France, Holland, and England—were the same
general population. nations in which the quadrature problem seemed
There was, however, a great deal of mathe- to gain the most notoriety, because it was these na-
matical understanding that came from these at- tions that had relatively large groups of intellectuals
tempts to determine the value of π once and for who could appreciate and try to solve it. Their in-
all. For example, in addition to being the best terest and near misses, in turn, encouraged their
way to calculate π for nearly 2,000 years, contemporaries to try their hands at the problem,
Archimedes’ method for calculating π was one or to at least encourage further attempts. This cul-
stepping stone on the way to developing differ- minated in a decree by the French Academy that
ential calculus. He, and many centuries of math- they would no longer accept for publication any
ematicians who followed him, was limited by papers claiming to have solved this problem. The
the lack of decimal notation (i.e. writing 3.25 in- final proof, in the nineteenth century, of π’s status
stead of 31⁄4), but he was squarely on the track of as a transcendental number, drove the last nail into
methods that would later be used to develop the this particular coffin, forever dashing mathematical
concepts of calculus. Further along in history, hopes of a solution. However, it should be noted
Viète’s use of infinite series to help calculate π that no small number of mathematically unin-

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formed continue to try to repeal rigorous mathe- Further Reading

matical proof, including the government of one Backmann, Petr. A History of Pi. New York: St. Martin’s Mathematics
state in the United States. This fact alone demon- Press, 1971.
strates the continuing hold of π on the imagination Boyer, Carl and Uta Merzbach. A History of Mathe-
1450-1699
of the general public, and the continuing impact of matics.New York: John Wiley and Sons, 1991.
this number on the general public, as well as on Dunham, William. Journey through Genius: The Great Theo-
mathematicians and scientists. rems of Mathematics.New York: Penguin Books, 1990.
P. ANDREW KARAM

Mastering the Seas: Advances in

Trigonometry and Their Impact upon
Astronomy, Cartography, and Maritime
Navigation


Overview Background
Until the advent of modern navigational tools in Trigonometry, the subdivision of mathematics
the sixteenth century, mariners had since ancient concerned with the unique functions of angles
times used similar methods of navigating, largely and their applications in geometry calculations,
by instinct. Even as late as the earliest voyages to was primarily developed and advanced from a
the New World by Spanish and Portuguese ex- need to compute measurements in various sci-
plorers, mariners who embarked on voyages entific fields such as map making, navigation,
across open waters, out of the sight of land, astronomy, and surveying. Incorporating ele-
could primarily only navigate by keeping a daily ments of geometry, algebra, and simple arith-
record of the general distances and directions metic, plane trigonometry covers problems in-
they traveled, surrounding currents, wind pat- volving angles and distances on one plane.
terns, hazards, and sightings of land. These jour- Angle and distance problems in three-dimen-
nals, or ship logs, were used to notice “land- sional space, which occupy more than one
marks” at sea and retrace one’s path back to their plane, are the subject of spherical trigonometry.
port of origin. Though pin-point navigation The latter branch of trigonometry was almost al-
from these journals was difficult, the body of in- ways applied to questions in astronomy and
formation collected over numerous voyages was navigation and thus was mastered and devel-
immensely useful and often later incorporated oped, most especially by the Arab and Chinese
into more mathematically accurate charts. civilizations, faster than plane trigonometry. In
fact, trigonometry did not separate itself as a
Practical inventions of the sixteenth through unique discipline from astronomy until the later
the nineteenth centuries, and innovations of ex- thirteenth century.
isting instruments, were largely responsible for
the modernization of navigation on the high seas. The computation of trigonometric problems
With increased ability to accurately plan voyages, is reputed to have developed following the calcu-
trade boomed, transforming forever the shape of lation of a table of chords by Hipparchus (fl. c.
Europe and the Americas. Though early Euro- 100 B.C.) in the second-century B.C. However, to
pean exploration sparked interest in the lands what extent he developed and applied the uses of
across the Atlantic, advancements in navigation the tables are unknown as the complete original
made colonial settlement and international trade work is lost. The oldest extant work on trigon-
a perceptible reality. These marvels, however, ometry, dating to the middle of the second-
would have been impossible without the signifi- century, is contained in Ptolemy of Alexandria’s
cant developments in the field of mathematics— (fl. A.D. 127-145) voluminous work on astrono-
most especially in trigonometry—that under- my, The Almagest. The cornerstone equations of
scored scientific and engineering advancements trigonometric problems, those involving right tri-
of the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. angles (both plane and spherical), were most

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likely derived by Hindu astronomers and mathe- result is obtained as a power of the base, chal-
Mathematics maticians, translated into Arabic around 750 lenged other mathematicians to develop formu-
A.D., and then slowly filtered into Western Eu- las suitable to their use. The eventual outcome
1450-1699 rope through contact with Arab civilizations in of this line of inquiry was the understanding of
the Middle East and in Spain. Moorish as- calculus, which in turn enabled English physi-
tronomers in Spain improved upon these basic cist Sir Isaac Newton (1642-1727) to set forth
formulas over the course of the next several hun- the first modern physical theories, transforming
dred years, adding the laws of cosines, and the the predominant modes of scientific and theo-
use of tangents and cotangents. In the mid-tenth retical inquiries in physics, mathematics, and as-
century, Arab astronomer and mathematician tronomy.
Abu al-Wafa’ (940-998) discovered a more accu-
rate method for computing sines, one of the pri-
mary mathematical operations used in naviga- Impact
tional calculations, and also introduced secant Developments in trigonometry aided navigation
and cosecant functions (assigning them both the not only through astronomy, but also in the de-
more familiar terms of sine and cosine.) velopment of more systematized and accurate
Western Europe, through repeated contact methods of cartography, the science (and ar-
with the Arab world—mostly during the Cru- guably, art) of graphically representing a certain
sades (1095-1228)—became more familiar with geographic region on a map or chart. Many, but
advanced mathematics, including trigonometry. certainly not all, ancient and medieval maps in
In Europe, Prussian astronomer Johann Müller Europe represented more stylized depictions of
(1436-1476), known as Regiomontanus, was re- land forms, rarely endeavored to identify dis-
sponsible for systematizing plane and spherical tances, and often depicted mythological crea-
trigonometry and establishing it as a discipline tures or reflected prevailing religious thought.
separate of astronomy. Later developments in al- Contact with the New World provided a need
gebra allowed Regiomontanus’s successors to for more scientifically sophisticated maps, which
unify some elements of plane and spherical could represent landforms with a greater degree
trigonometry (substituting ratio for a trigono- of accuracy and aid in the establishment of loca-
metric line, and the angle for the arc), thus sim- tion at sea.
plifying the lengthy equations that the original On longer journeys, as became standard
author had previously scripted. during the Age of Exploration, the ancient
method of dead reckoning did not work. Over
In the years following the initial explo-
great distances, the approximated rhumb lines
rations to the New World, the need for creating
of the Mediterranean chart could not be taken as
accurate maritime charts pushed for a deeper
straight, and the equations devised by as-
understanding of the relationships between
tronomers and mathematicians failed to approxi-
spherical trigonometry (used in collecting data
mate location. In other words, longer voyages
and navigating) and plane trigonometry (until
required some means of taking into account the
the late seventeenth century, the predominate
curvature of Earth. To this end, the Mercator
mathematical system used to create charts and
projection was developed in 1569 by Gerardus
maps). Sixteenth-century French mathematician
Mercator (1512-1594) to represent sections of
François Viète worked to figure out properties of
the spherical Earth on flat charts. Instead of
plane triangles similar to those that were known
bearings and distances, location was defined by
for arc-triangles, such as the cosine and tangent
the larger and more defined latitude and longi-
laws. Viète’s success inspired others to find simi-
tude. Mercator’s charts featured equally spaced
lar formulas and properties. Similar means of
representations of the lines of longitude, or
computing plane triangle properties, as well as
meridians, and compensated for the distortions
the formula for half-angles, appeared in the
in distances that appear in attempting to illus-
work of Austrian mathematician Georg Rheticus
trate a curved surface by representing the lines
(1514-1574) in 1568, and nearly 90 years later
of latitude, or parallels, closer together at the
in a publication by English mathematician
Equator and further apart at the Poles. Mercator
William Oughtred (1574-1660).
guarded the secret of calculating his maps, but
English mathematician John Napier (1550- mariners soon realized that east-west distances
1617) invented logarithms, which he called were slightly distorted at some latitudes. Not
“analogies,” in 1619. Logarithms, defined as the until 1599, when English mathematician Ed-
powers of a base such that a certain numerical ward Wright provided an explanation of the

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trigonometry involved in Mercator’s map projec- century to determine the length of a degree of
tions, could the distorted distances be corrected. longitude. The principle of the magnetic com- Mathematics
pass, long known in China and the Arab world,
Innovations in cartography continued to be 1450-1699
was introduced in Europe with the basic modern
made in the seventeenth and even into the eigh-
design emerging in the West in the seventeenth
teenth centuries, but practical applications of
century. The advent of ironclad and steel ships
spherical trigonometry in astronomy and planar
required the addition of magnetic stabilizers to
trigonometry in chart making did not yield the
keep compass readings of magnetic north accu-
solution to perhaps the most problematic piece
rate. The determination of true directional north
of the puzzle of navigation: determining longi-
still required mathematical computation.
tude while at sea. Latitude, one’s north-south
position, could be determined by measuring the As the problems of navigating the open wa-
altitude of the Sun at noon or the altitude of any ters came to be solved, there was an increased
star, provided it was tabulated in one of the vari- need to refocus attention back to the careful navi-
ous astronomical almanacs of the time, when it gation of those waters closer to port. The enor-
crossed the local meridian. In higher latitudes, mous increase of commercial vessel traffic, a result
most marine navigators determined latitude by of the discovery of the New World and the estab-
observing the altitude of the polestar, or the lishment of large-scale maritime mercantile trade,
angle between its direction and the horizontal; made navigating ships into harbor precarious. A
as ships approached the equatorial latitudes, growing concern among ship pilots was the avoid-
stars were often below or too close to the ob- ance of other vessels. The largest of the merchant
servable horizon and navigators had to rely on and military ships were easy to see, but were also
measurements of the position of the Sun. more difficult to maneuver. Sail power and vary-
Knowledge of one’s east-west position—longi- ing winds close to shore complicated matters fur-
tude—was critical, especially on long transat- ther. Simple trigonometric formulas could be em-
lantic voyages on which water and foodstuffs ployed to predict the velocity and path of another
were prone to ruin or were in short supply. Cal- ship, but a more practical solution, the designa-
culating longitude required determining the pre- tion and division of incoming and outgoing ship-
cise time as one element of the equation—a ping lanes, was also needed to manage traffic.
measurement that could not readily be deter- Rising investments in merchant endeavors
mined at sea. The calculation of longitude using and bitter rivalries over colonial territories led
astronomical observations and trigonometry was some European nations to begin to build strong
a mathematical possibility first introduced in navies. Designing military vessels was a special
1474 by Regiomontanus. Nevil Maskelyne challenge, as they needed to be sturdy, yet also
(1732-1811), who was appointed British As- quick and maneuverable. Simple trigonometry
tronomer Royal in 1765, also proposed that advanced sail designs and allowed for design
complex trigonometry could be used in con- and implementation of heavy weaponry. Rela-
junction with a voluminous catalog of observed tively new advances in war weaponry, especially
and predicted star positions to calculate longi- cannons and mortars, required a basic knowl-
tude. The mathematically intensive task was edge of the principles of trigonometry to aim the
cumbersome and impractical, and the problem implements and determine the trajectory of their
of determining longitude was eventually settled projectiles. Thus, new mathematical under-
with the invention and acceptance of a portable standing facilitated nearly all aspects of the Eu-
timepiece by English inventor John Harrison ropean maritime and colonial endeavors.
(1693-1776) in 1773.
ADRIENNE WILMOTH LERNER
Besides the chronometer, other practical me-
chanical devices were employed in aiding naviga-
tion. The patent log, designed by English inven- Further Reading
tor Humphry Cole in 1688, aided in approximat-
Sobel, Dava. Longitude: The True Story of the Lone Genius
ing the speed at which a ship was traveling. Who Solved the Greatest Scientific Problem of His Time.
Innovations to the original design of the patent New York: Penguin, 1996.
log made it more reliable, and an 1861 design by Turner, Gerald L’estrange. Scientific Instruments 1500-
another Englishman, Thomas Walker, remains in 1900: An Introduction. Berkeley: University of Califor-
use. Telescopes were employed in the eighteenth nia Press, 1998.

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Mathematics, Science,
Mathematics
and the Society of Jesus
1450-1699


Overview ponent of the Catholic Church commented,
“They are so good that I wish they were on our
Founded in the year 1540 by St. Ignatius Loy-
side.”” In 1556, when Ignatius died, there were
ola, the Society of Jesus quickly became one of
1,000 Jesuits. Seventy years later, the order had
the preeminent religious orders of Europe and
over 15,000 members teaching at several hun-
the world. In addition to teaching, the Jesuits
dred colleges and universities, most of which
considered the acquisition of knowledge to be a
were Jesuit-run.
source of spirituality because it could help hu-
mans to better understand God’s universe. Fol- At that time only royalty, the aristocracy, the
lowing this philosophy, many Jesuits became clergy, and the upper class of society received
mathematicians and scientists, conducting re- much in the way of formal education. The Je-
search and teaching at universities as they con- suit’s prominence in education in Catholic na-
tributed to man’s store of knowledge. This led tions gave them unparalleled access to those in
the Society of Jesus to become perhaps the power. This, in turn, helped them to become re-
world’s most scientifically prolific religious order spected and feared. The universities also gave
as well as some of the world’s best teachers, tra- the Jesuits the impetus to produce scientists of
ditions that continue to this day. their own, which was encouraged by their ad-
monition to find God in the laws of nature as
well as in the Church.
Background Most Jesuit mathematicians of the sixteenth
In the early 1530s Ignatius of Loyola, a Spanish and seventeenth centuries are referred to as
soldier, was wounded in battle. He experienced “geometers” and, because of this, it is often as-
a profound religious conversion during his con- sumed that Jesuits concentrated on geometry
valescence and, along with six companions, and the mathematics of classical Greece to the
vowed to follow a life of poverty and chastity exclusion of other methods. However, it is im-
and to make a pilgrimage to Jerusalem. In 1539, portant to recall that, until Isaac Newton’s
realizing they would not be able to make this (1642-1727) invention of the calculus, and the
journey, the seven men promised to accept any mathematical advances that accompanied this,
work assigned them by the Pope that would most mathematical proofs were geometrical in
help the Church. In 1539, Ignatius presented nature. In fact, even Newton used geometry to
the Pope with an organizational outline for a prove many aspects of his calculus, and it was
new religious order, the Society of Jesus. Unlike only in later decades that purely mathematical
existing religious orders, the Society of Jesus proofs, without geometry, became accepted. In
swore an oath of personal loyalty to the Pope. In particular, it is interesting to note that the work
addition, there was great emphasis placed on of Andre Tacquet (1612-1660) on infinitesimals
flexibility, independent thought, and similar in- helped provide the groundwork for the devel-
novations. This resulted in a religious order that opment of the calculus by exploring aspects of
was to become important as the Church’s emis- limits that were important to understand fully.
saries abroad, as teachers, missionaries, diplo- In this, he ran counter to some religious argu-
mats, and the like. ments regarding the nature of infinity, since
Almost from the start, the Society of Jesus many felt that God’s infinity should not have to
had its detractors. In fact, its familiar name, the accommodate a mathematical infinity. However,
Jesuits, was first given as a pejorative nickname, Tacquet’s work remained important, and was
and was adopted by the Society soon after its among the first to describe many of the con-
founding. Because their training emphasized cepts later expanded on by Newton, Gottfried
obedience to the Pope and to their hierarchy, ed- Leibniz (1646-1716), and Blaise Pascal (1623-
ucation, and a rational approach to religious be- 1662) in their work.
lief, the Jesuits quickly became Europe’s teach- Other noteworthy Jesuit mathematicians of
ers, opening colleges and universities through- this time included Ignace Pardies (1636-1673),
out Europe. In fact, at one point Francis Bacon Gregory St. Vincent (1584-1667), Honoré Fabri
(1561-1626), a prominent Protestant and an op- (1607-1688), and Christoph Clavius (1538-

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1612). There were, of course, many other Jesuit veloped polar coordinates, which are crucial to
mathematicians and geometers; in fact, one refer- solving some types of math and physics problems. Mathematics
ence notes no fewer than 631 Jesuits involved in He was also important in developing analytic
mathematical work in the first two centuries of geometry, taught today alongside calculus in most 1450-1699
the order’s existence, whose work ranged from colleges and universities. Pardies investigated
mediocre to superb, as well as noted Jesuit as- problems in a manner that later inspired Newton,
tronomers, physicists, biologists, and geologists. and even questioned some of Newton’s findings in
All in all, the Society of Jesus has likely con- a way that forced Newton to go back to clarify his
tributed more to the sciences than any other reli- thinking on some crucial points. Other Jesuits,
gious order in the world. In the next section, we particularly those who were born in the sixteenth
will examine the impacts that this devotion to century, seemed more likely to concentrate on the
learning has had on science and on society. classical teachings and wisdom of Aristotle, Eu-
clid, and other ancient thinkers, rather than pur-
suing new avenues of inquiry. However, such
Impact
teachers and thinkers became fewer and fewer
The impact of the Society of Jesus and its priest- over time, and their impact on society and on sci-
scientists can be seen in three primary areas: ad- ence lessened with the passing years.
vances in scientific and mathematical knowl-
edge, the impact of this research on Jesuit-led As important as the Jesuit’s research was,
education, and the effects on the Catholic they clearly made their most significant contri-
Church and its followers. bution to European society through their teach-
ing; and their teaching was, in turn, influenced
The first and most obvious impact, of by their research.
course, is that on science itself. Jesuit mathe-
maticians and scientists made a number of sig- Because of the Jesuit’s emerging tradition of
nificant discoveries that helped expand our intellectual independence and inquiry, their col-
knowledge of mathematics, physics, and the leges and universities also tended to incorporate
world around us. Their discoveries helped pave these traits into their teachings. There is no sub-
the way for many of Newton’s discoveries, as stitute for learning from those who are making
well as helped to consolidate the intellectual ter- important discoveries, and many of Europe’s
ritories he and his contemporaries opened for leaders were educated by priests who were ac-
inquiry. Jesuits were also among the first to dif- tive in adding to the sum of human knowledge.
ferentiate between science and pseudo-science, At the same time, these priests were celebrating
questioning some of the more dubious claims the joy and the importance of learning, and
and “discoveries” made in an era that did not al- teaching that physics, mathematics, and other
ways clearly differentiate between the natural branches of knowledge were not incompatible
and the supernatural. On the other hand, Jesuits with religious beliefs. This combination may
were also in the forefront as the Church attempt- well have helped encourage the same spirit of
ed to combat the effects of the Reformation, and rational inquiry that furthered the Renaissance
they often took the role of reactionaries trying to and led to the Enlightenment, which led in turn
protect the Church from change. This also led, to the French Revolution and the revolutions in
in some cases, to attempts to hew to the status North and South America.
quo, including an emphasis on geometrical Finally, and possibly most important, is the
proofs as noted above, but it did not preclude effect that all of the above had on European soci-
Tacquet’s work on infinitesimals or Fabri’s sup- ety of the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries.
port of Galileo (which landed him in prison for This was the time of the Renaissance, the rebirth
50 days). of Western civilization after centuries of feudal
In addition, Jesuit mathematicians had a sig- rule. Although the Medieval period was not nec-
nificant impact on the mathematics of this era. Ac- essarily the long centuries of intellectual dark-
cording to one writer, “One cannot talk about ness so often pictured, it was also not the hotbed
mathematics in the sixteenth and seventeenth cen- of new ideas that was to come. Man was begin-
turies without seeing a Jesuit at every corner.” ning to realize that it might just be possible to
Fabri, for example, worked on the problems of understand nature and, to some extent, to pre-
tides, optics, heliocentrism (whether the earth or dict and control it, and this was heady knowl-
the sun was the center of the universe), and tried edge. It affected philosophy, politics, and reli-
to unify all of physics in a manner similar to gion, and all of these, to some extent, affected all
geometry. Gregory Saint Vincent (1584-1667) de- of society.

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The two biggest controversies in which Je- tinuing presence of Jesuit (and other orders)
Mathematics suit scientists became embroiled were those re- priest-scientists through the centuries that this
garding the legitimate place of Earth in the uni- belief is overly simplistic and, in fact, is just
1450-1699 verse and the nature of the infinite. In both wrong. And this may have been one of the more
cases, there were those who felt that science was important societal contributions of Jesuit scien-
intruding on God’s prerogatives or that science tists and mathematicians at the time; their
was attempting to dethrone humans and God demonstration that a priest could also be a good
from their rightful places in the cosmos. The scientist helped show Europe, recently emerged
Church came down as squarely opposed to the from superstition, that a good Christian could
Copernican solar system (in which the Earth also believe in science and view the world in a
and planets orbit the Sun), just as it was not in rational way. This realization has served
favor of mathematical infinities (or their con- mankind well for over 400 years.
verse, the infinitesimal). And, in both cases, sci-
P. ANDREW KARAM
entists and mathematicians, including some Je-
suits, showed the Church to be in error. These
were but two steps in a process that continues to Further Reading
this day, in which scientific findings seem to de-
tract from the authority of the Church, weaken- Books
ing it ever so slightly. MacDonnell, Joseph. Jesuit Geometers: A Study of Fifty-Six
Prominent Jesuit Geometers during the First Two Centuries
of Jesuit History. The Institute of Jesuit Sources, 1989.
It is important, however, to recognize one
important fact: most current scientific and reli- Websites
gious leaders do not perceive that science and “Jesuits and the Sciences.” Loyola University of Chicago.
religion are mutually exclusive. While the scien- http://www.luc.edu/science/jesuits/jessci.html.
tific controversies of earlier years may have fos- “Jesuit Geometers.” http://www.faculty.fairfield.edu/facul-
tered this view, it should be obvious by the con- ty/jmac/sj/sjgeom.html.

Mathematical Challenges and Contests

Overview ious to identify and solve important problems,
and to be the first to do so. The rewards for such
During the sixteenth century, mathematics was
competition were primarily personal—a tri-
transformed from the traditional study of classi-
umphant solution would bring the author pres-
cal texts and problems to a dynamic science
tige among his mathematical peers—but were
characterized by active research in problems
sometimes more tangible. Mathematical teachers
both abstract and applied. Such research de-
who lost competitions or challenges could find
pended on the lively exchange of ideas and tech-
their jobs to be in jeopardy. On the other hand,
niques, which fostered a spirit of competition
improved posts or access to patronage could
among investigators. The practice of offering
come to victorious mathematical debaters, and
challenges and contests characterized sixteenth-
some mathematical contests later in the seven-
and seventeenth-century mathematics, and left a
teenth and eighteenth centuries even offered
permanent legacy of mathematical competitions.
prize money to the successful author, augment-
ing the spoils of intellectual victory.

Background Two of the most famous mathematical chal-

Sixteenth-and seventeenth-century European lenges of the sixteenth century involved the Ital-
mathematicians were keenly aware of one anoth- ian mathematician Niccolo Tartaglia (1499?-
er’s work, thanks to efficient correspondence 1557). Tartaglia was a largely self-taught scholar
networks and the rise of printed mathematical who overcame poverty and a traumatic child-
books. This awareness helped speed the pace of hood disfigurement—he was stabbed in the head
research, but it also gave mathematical work a during a military assault on his hometown of
competitive spirit. Mathematicians became anx- Brescia, and formally adopted his nickname

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Tartaglia, or “stammerer.” He made his living as a

mathematics teacher in Verona and Venice, and Mathematics
became well known in mathematical circles early
in his career by his successful participation in a 1450-1699
number of mathematical debates, and later by
publications in pure mathematics and the appli-
cation of mathematics to problems of warfare.
One of the most popular fields of mathe-
matical study in the sixteenth century was alge-
bra; of particular interest was the search for
methods to solve third (and higher) order equa-
tions. A solution to the basic problem of solving
cubic equations was found sometime in the first
two decades of the sixteenth century by Scipione
del Ferro (1465-1526), a mathematics lecturer
at the University of Bologna. He did not publish
his work, but he did share it with a few disci-
ples. In 1535 one of these disciples, Antonio
Fiore, sought to exploit his master’s secret and
issued a challenge to Tartaglia, by then known as
a master debater. The two exchanged 30 mathe-
matical problems for each other to solve;
Tartaglia’s challenge included a range of mathe- Niccolo Tartaglia. (Library of Congress. Reproduced with
permission.)
matical problems, but all of Fiore’s problems for
Tartaglia were cubic equations. Under the pres-
sure of competition, Tartaglia figured out the found out some years later that Ferro had discov-
method for a general solution of such problems ered a method for solving cubics prior to
(not knowing that Fiore was in possession of Tartaglia, Cardano felt justified in including
such a method), and was able to dispatch all 30 Ferro’s method in a book he published in 1545.
of Fiore’s problems in less than two hours. Fiore This infuriated Tartaglia, and led to an angry feud
made little progress solving any of Tartaglia’s and finally a debate between Tartaglia and Car-
problems, and Tartaglia emerged from the en- dano’s disciple Lodovico Ferrari (1522-1565);
counter with his reputation greatly enhanced. Cardano himself refused to enter into a challenge
with Tartaglia. Tartaglia traveled to Milan again,
Tartaglia did not publish the method of solv-
hoping that he could vanquish Ferrari in a debate
ing cubic equations either, perhaps hoping to keep
and thereby secure a superior teaching post. But
it secret for use in future challenges or debates.
Ferrari quickly showed a better grasp of the prob-
This decision came to cause him grief. In 1539
lems offered than Tartaglia had, and Tartaglia fled
Tartaglia was approached by a wealthy and well-
the city after the first day of their contest, think-
connected Milanese mathematician and physician
ing it better to leave the contest unresolved than
named Girolamo Cardano (1501-1576). Cardano
to lose outright to Ferrari. But news of his poor
was anxious to have the method for solving cubic
performance in Milan dogged Tartaglia, and his
equations, and he tried several strategies to make
career suffered accordingly.
Tartaglia share his secret. First, he asked Tartaglia
to include his method in a book Cardano was pub-
Tartaglia’s two debates are perhaps the most
lishing; when that failed, he challenged Tartaglia to
famous in mathematics history, but they were by
a debate. Although Tartaglia did not agree to de-
no means unusual events for their time. Chal-
bate Cardano, he was finally persuaded by hints of
lenges were a vital part of mathematical practice.
patronage opportunities to come to Milan. While
They helped to identify superior mathemati-
he was in Milan as Cardano’s guest, Tartaglia did fi-
cians, to spur work on the solution of particular
nally share the formula—disguised as a poem—
problems, and to display for mathematical audi-
after extracting a pledge of secrecy from his persis-
ences the range of active problems at a given
tent host.
time. For example, the challenge between
While Cardano initially honored his promise Tartaglia and Ferrari including problems not
to keep Tartaglia’s formula a secret, he used it as a only associated with cubic and quartic equa-
basis for further discoveries of his own. When he tions, but also ranged through topics including

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astronomy, optics, architecture, and cartography. By the eighteenth century, the practice of
Mathematics Prior to the establishment of mathematical soci- mathematical contests had been well estab-
eties and periodical journals, challenges and the lished. Scientific societies large and small issued
1450-1699 correspondence and books they inspired were challenges to draw attention to themselves and
one of the primary means of identifying and dis- to particular mathematical problems, but per-
seminating mathematical progress. haps most important for the advance of research
have been challenges like those of Fermat issued
by prominent mathematicians themselves. By
singling out particular theorems or problems for
Impact attention, mathematicians such as David Hilbert
Tartaglia’s debates were like mathematical duels (1862-1943), who issued 23 important prob-
—one mathematician would issue a challenge to lems for study in 1900, have helped shape re-
another, and the dispute would usually be re- search agendas for the entire mathematical com-
solved publicly in a face-to-face exchange. Math- munity. Challenges may have lost the personal
ematical challenges evolved into another form in vitriol that colored Tartaglia’s debate, but the
the seventeenth century, when mathematicians spirit of competition continues to surge through
set out important unsolved problems for general research mathematics. Young mathematics stu-
solution by their peers. Skilled investigators dents routinely enter mathematical competi-
throughout Europe would take up such prob- tions, ranging from local contests to internation-
lems, and compete with one another to have the al olympiads. Intense pressure to produce the
first, and the best, solution. first proof of an unsolved theorem, or to find a
counterexample to discredit it, is an essential
Some of the best-known mathematical chal- feature of mathematical practice. Careers are still
lenges of the seventeenth century came from made or lost on the basis of priority of solution,
Pierre de Fermat (1601-1665). Fermat is remem- and the entire international mathematical com-
bered today for his extraordinary contributions munity can be caught up in the evaluation of the
to mathematics, especially number theory, but he reported solution of important unsolved prob-
was a lawyer by profession and mathematics was lems such as Fermat’s Last Theorem. In this way,
just one of his several avocations. These other in- research mathematics retains some of the spirit
terests may explain Fermat’s lack of publications, of an age when many kinds of disputes could be
and his practice of presenting his mathematical settled by a duel.
ideas rather casually in letters to friends. In 1657
Fermat issued a series of problems as challenges LOREN BUTLER FEFFER
to other mathematicians. These problems were
stated in the form of theorems to be proved. Be-
cause of Fermat’s failure to publish or present Further Reading
formally his own work, historians are not sure Boyer, Carl. A History of Mathematics. Rev. by Uta
how many of these theorems Fermat had solved Merzbach. New York: Wiley, 1989.
himself, or what his methods might have been. Cooke, Roger. The History of Mathematics. New York:
The challenge problems reflected Fermat’s inter- Wiley, 1997.
est in prime numbers and divisibility, and in pro- Dear, Peter. Discipline and Experience: The Mathematical
ducing general solutions based upon a single Way in the Scientific Revolution. Chicago: University of
paradigmatic solution. The final one of these Chicago Press, 1995.
problems (to show there is no solution for xn + yn Hay, Cynthia, ed. Mathematics from Manuscript to Print,
= zn for n > 2) resisted conquest until the late 1300-1600. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1988.
1990s. The solution by Andrew Wile (1953-) of Hollingdale, Stuart. Makers of Mathematics. London: Pen-
what had come to be known as Fermat’s Last guin, 1989.
Theorem received enormous attention from even Katz, Victor. A History of Mathematics. Reading, MA: Ad-
nonmathematicians, and is considered one of the dison-Wesley, 1998.
greatest mathematical achievements of the twen- Struik, Dirk, ed. A Source Book in Mathematics, 1200-1800.
tieth century. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1986.

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Biographical Sketches


Mathematics
1450-1699

Isaac Barrow
1630-1677
English Mathematician

A geometer and theologian who also con-

tributed to the field of optics, Isaac Barrow is
best known for the influence he exerted over the
career of the young Isaac Newton (1642-1727).
Among his most important published works
were Euclidis elementorum libri XV and Lectiones
geometricae, in which he interpreted and synthe-
sized the ideas of more well-known geometers
for a popular audience.
Barrow’s father, Thomas, was a merchant
and linen draper for King Charles I, and his
mother Anne died shortly after her son’s birth in
London in 1630. The boy proved an unruly stu-
dent, and after a stint at the Charterhouse
school, he was sent to Felsted School in Essex,
where schoolmaster Martin Holbeach had a rep-
utation as a stern disciplinarian. Barrow thrived
in this environment, and became immersed in Isaac Barrow. (Library of Congress. Reproduced with
subjects that included Latin, Greek, Hebrew, permission.)
French, logic, and the classics.
In the unrest leading up to the English Civil
By 1660, when Barrow returned to his
War (1642-48), Barrow’s father suffered financial
homeland, the political tides were turning again,
losses, and the son was forced to take a job as a
and with the restoration of King Charles II to the
tutor. In 1646, however, he obtained a scholar-
throne, Barrow was ordained in the Anglican
ship to Trinity College, Cambridge, from whence
Church and appointed to the Regius professor-
he graduated two years later. In 1649, he was
ship. He had become increasingly interested in
elected as a college fellow, and in 1652 earned
mathematics while abroad, and now began sup-
his M.A., whereupon he went to work as a col-
plementing his income by teaching geometry
lege lecturer and university examiner. He pub-
and astronomy at Gresham College. This led to
lished his first work, Euclidis elementorum libri
his 1663 appointment as Lucasian professor of
XV, in 1654. A translation of writings by Euclid
mathematics at Cambridge, a position that car-
(c. 325-c. 250 B.C.), the book became highly
ried with it enough funds that he could give up
popular, and eventually appeared in a pocket-
his other teaching jobs.
sized edition.
As a further hallmark of his restored for-
With his rising fortunes, Barrow seemed a
tunes, Barrow was appointed as the first fellow
natural choice to take a highly respected Regius
of the recently founded Royal Society of London
professorship in Greek, but again political ten-
in 1663. In the six years that followed, he devel-
sions intervened. The university chancellor re-
oped a series of lectures on geometry, or Lec-
sponsible for choosing among the candidates
tiones geometricae, in which he brought together
was none other than Oliver Cromwell, leader of
ideas from René Descartes (1596-1650), John
the Puritans who overthrew Charles in the Civil
Wallis (1616-1703), and James Gregory (1638-
War; and given Barrow’s ties to the monarchy, he
1675) in a format comprehensible to the rising
had no chance of obtaining the position. Embit-
generation of scholars.
tered, Barrow spent nearly five years away from
England, travelling through France, Italy, and Among the latter was Isaac Newton, for
Turkey on a Trinity College fellowship. whom Barrow served as scholarship examiner in

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1664. Biographers have generally credited Bar-

Mathematics row with providing the initial spark of inspira-
tion that, under considerable development by
1450-1699 Newton, would lead to the latter’s epochal work
in physics. Particularly notable was Barrow’s
work in optics, which has long been overshad-
owed by Newton’s considerably more impressive
achievements in that field. As the student be-
came greater, the teacher’s impact receded: in
1669, Barrow stepped down as Lucasian profes-
sor in favor of Newton.
Barrow went on to serve as royal chaplain,
and in 1673 returned to Trinity College at the
king’s request. He became vice chancellor in
1675, but died two years later at age 47. Barrow
had never married, and the evidence indicates
that he died of a drug overdose.
JUDSON KNIGHT

Jakob Bernoulli
1645-1705
Jakob Bernoulli. (Corbis-Bettman. Reproduced with
permission.)

T he first member of his distinguished family

to attain international notoriety, Jakob
Bernoulli contributed greatly to mathematicians’ Bernoulli took a position as professor of
understanding of calculus and probability theo- mathematics at the University of Basel, where he
ry. He maintained a correspondence with Got- would spend the remainder of his career, in
tfried Wilhelm von Leibniz (1646-1716), and 1687. Two years later, he published his famous
was one of the first scholars to fully grasp the Bernoulli inequality, a theorem already de-
latter’s “infinitesimal calculus,” as that branch of rived—unbeknownst to Bernoulli—by Isaac
mathematics was then called. Barrow (1630-1677) in the latter’s Lectiones geo-
metricae. He also solved a problem of long
The Bernoullis came from Holland, which standing concerning a catenary, a shape that re-
at the time was controlled by Spain, and fled sults when a flexible, nonelastic cable is sus-
Spanish oppression, winding up in the Swiss pended between two fixed points. Mathemati-
town of Basel. Against his father’s wishes, Jakob cians had traditionally maintained that a cate-
studied mathematics and astronomy, but it was nary is a parabola, but Bernoulli showed that it
in theology that he earned his degree in 1676, at was not.
age 31. He then went to work as a tutor in
France, where he became acquainted with the Another shape that intrigued Bernoulli was
writings of René Descartes (1596-1650), and in the brachistochrone, a curve of quickest descent
1681 traveled to Holland and England, where he between two points A and B, where B does not
met physicist Robert Boyle (1627-1691). lie directly beneath A. The latter problem re-
ceived the attention of both Leibniz and
Upon his return to Basel in 1682, Bernoulli
Bernoulli’s younger brother Johann (1667-
established a school for science and mathemat-
1748). So intense was the rivalry between the
ics, and published a number of articles in Eu-
two brothers that Johann claimed Jakob’s
rope’s two leading scientific journals, Journal des
brachistochrone solution as his own. This set a
sçavans and Acta eruditorum. In a 1684 article,
pattern for intrafamily competition, much of it
he showed his grasp of calculus at a time when
centering around Johann, that would continue
the discipline was new, and in subsequent pieces
into the next generation, locking the latter in a
expanded on the base of understanding he had
struggle with his son Daniel (1700-1782), most
developed. It was Bernoulli who in 1690 coined
famous member of the clan.
the term “integral calculus” to describe the
branch concerned with determining a function As for Jakob and the shapes that interested
where a derivative is known. him, one of the foremost was the logarithmic spi-

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ral, the shape made by the cross-section of a

chambered nautilus. Among its most interesting Mathematics
properties is self-similarity: any section, if proper-
ly scaled, is congruent to other parts of the curve. 1450-1699
When he died, having never married or fathered
children, he had this spiral engraved on his head-
stone, along with the motto Eadem mutato resurgo
(Though changed, I arise again the same.) His Ars
conjectandi (The Art of Conjecture), published
posthumously in 1713, is considered one of the
foundational texts on probability.
JUDSON KNIGHT

Johann Bernoulli
1667-1748
Swiss Mathematician

S o great was the reputation of the Bernoulli

family, and so numerous its members—a
condition not unlike that of their German con-
temporaries the Bachs—that historians often
Johann Bernoulli. (Corbis-Bettman. Reproduced with
have a hard time sorting out the various person-
permission.)
alities. Thus Johann Bernoulli was also known as
Jean, while his equally famous older brother
Jakob (1654-1705) has been variously identified covery of Bernoulli. L’Hospital was, however, a
as Jacques, James, or Jakob I to distinguish him talented thinker in his own right as well. Thus
from other Bernoullis of that name. Another some years later, when Bernoulli presented his
abiding characteristic of the Bernoulli family was famous brachistochrone problem, Leibniz cor-
a tendency toward rivalries, conflicts that always rectly posited that only five people would solve
seemed to center around Johann—who strug- it: Leibniz himself, the two Bernoulli brothers,
gled first with his brother, and later with his son Sir Isaac Newton (1642-1727), and L’Hospital.
Daniel (1700-1782), most notable among a
prominent line. The brachistochrone problem, which con-
cerned the curve marking the quickest descent
Johann originally studied medicine, but
of an object between two points at different alti-
from the beginning of his academic career, his
tudes (but not along a vertical line), was but one
passion was mathematics. Thus his doctoral dis-
of several points of contention for the
sertation was a mathematical treatise presented
Bernoullis. Jakob claimed to have found the so-
as a study of muscle contractions. By 1691,
lution first, and in the case of the isoperimetric
when he was 24, Bernoulli had travelled from
problem—involving the comparison of different
the family’s home in Switzerland to Paris, where
polygons with equal perimeters—there is no
he became associated with some of the leading
doubt that Jakob was first, though Johann did
scientists and philosophers of the day. Of these,
improve on his brother’s findings.
none was more significant than Gottfried Wil-
helm von Leibniz (1646-1716), whose friend,
This rivalry was a driving force in Johann’s
correspondent, and loyalist Bernoulli would re-
career: in 1695, he took a position at the Univer-
main for the rest of his life.
sity of Gröningen in the Netherlands, knowing
Hired by the young Marquis de L’Hospital that Jakob would keep him off the faculty at his
(1661-1704) as the latter’s tutor in 1692, own University of Basel. Following Jakob’s death
Bernoulli eventually “sold” a number of his in 1705, however, Johann took his place as pro-
mathematical discoveries to the wealthy young fessor of mathematics at Basel, where his stature
man. Thus L’Hospital’s Rule, which enabled as a leading figure in the European intellectual
mathematicians to determine the limiting value world would grow during the four subsequent
of a fraction in which both numerator and de- decades. Soon he had a new rival within the fam-
nominator tend toward zero, was actually a dis- ily, however: his brilliant son Daniel, whose fa-

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mous law concerning fluid pressure (Bernoulli’s Greek mathematician Diophantus of Alexandria
Mathematics principle) he attempted to present as his own. (3rd century A.D.) In addition to reproducing
Despite his apparent disloyalty to blood kin, 143 problems of Diophantus, whose writings
1450-1699 Bombelli had discovered in the library of the
Johann proved a loyal supporter of Leibniz
throughout his career. In early years, he defend- Vatican, the book also introduced a number of
ed the German mathematician as the founder of symbols in algebraic notation.
calculus against supporters of Newton, who had Attempting to improve on the already estab-
simultaneously developed his own calculus. Late lished Cardano-Tartaglia formula, Bombelli set
in life, Bernoulli made a name for himself in the out to develop his own highly precise theory of
realm of mechanics, supporting Leibniz’s views imaginary numbers (e.g., the square root of a
on what became known as the conservation of negative number). This led to the conclusion that
energy. Thanks in part to Bernoulli’s efforts, the real numbers can result from the operations of
Leibnizian concept of “living force” would gain complex numbers (i.e., numbers that are a mix-
acceptance over countervailing (but not entirely ture of real and imaginary). His findings on com-
inaccurate) ideas presented by René Descartes plex numbers would have a larger impact than
(1596-1650). Today living force is known as ki- Bombelli, who considered such numbers irrele-
netic energy, and Bernoulli as credited as the one vant, might have guessed. Euler would quote
of the first thinkers to recognize the principle of him in his own Algebra, and Leibniz called him
conservation. an “outstanding master of the analytical art.”
JUDSON KNIGHT JUDSON KNIGHT

Rafaello Bombelli Charles de Bouelles

1526-1573 c. 1470-c. 1553
Italian Mathematician French Mathematician

T he career of Italian algebraist Rafaello

Bombelli helped bridge the late Renaissance
and the early period of the Enlightenment. The
F rench priest Charles de Bouelles, whose
name is variously rendered as de Boville,
Bovillus, Bovelles, and Bouvelles, was responsi-
last among many Italian mathematicians who ble for a number of contributions to mathemat-
contributed to a developing theory of equations, ics. Most notable among these were his work on
Bombelli became the first to conceive a consis- the quadrature, or squaring, of the circle, and
tent theory of imaginary numbers including his writings on perfect numbers. He also pub-
rules for operations on complex numbers. His lished the first book on geometry written in
work, whose implications for complex numbers French, and conducted an early study of the cy-
Bombelli never fully appreciated, won him ad- cloid, the shape generated by following a fixed
miration among future mathematical giants such point on the circumference of a circle that rolls
as Gottfried Wilhelm von Leibniz (1646-1716) along a straight line.
and Leonhard Euler (1707-1783). Little is known about Bouelles’s early life, ex-
Born in Bologna, Bombelli opted not to fol- cept that he came from an aristocratic family in
low his father, Antonio, in the latter’s profession the town of Saucourt, located in the Picardy re-
as wool merchant. Instead, he became an engi- gion of France. He studied in Paris until about the
neer, and rather than attend university, received age of 25, part of this time under the noted educa-
his training as apprentice to engineer-architect tor Jacques Lefèvre d’Etaples (c. 1455-1536), but
Pier Francesco Clementi of Corinaldo. He spent left in 1495 after a new outbreak of the Plague.
much of his career under the patronage of the For more than a decade, he traveled throughout
Bishop of Melfi, Monsignor Alessandro Rufini, Switzerland, Germany, Italy, Spain, and other parts
and was responsible for the draining of the Val of Europe before returning to France and the
di Chiana marshes (1551-60), as well as the un- priesthood in 1507. His first appointment was as a
successful 1561 attempt to repair the Ponte canon at the cathedral of Saint Quentin, followed
Santa Maria, a bridge in Rome. by a stint in the town of Noyon, where he also
Bombelli’s work in mathematics began dur- served as a theology professor.
ing the 1560s, first with the writing of Algebra. Thanks in large part to the patronage of
The latter is particularly significant because it Charles de Hangest, an official at Noyon,
reintroduced scholars to the work of the ancient Bouelles was free to engage in mathematical in-

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vestigations. His first mathematical text ap-

peared as Geometricae introductionis in 1503, Mathematics
though it proved so popular that translations in
French and Dutch eventually made their appear- 1450-1699
ance as well—a remarkable feat at a time when
virtually all scientific material was published ex-
clusively in Latin.
In Geometricae, Bouelles addressed the age-
old problem of squaring the circle, which con-
cerned the attempt to map the area of a circle
onto a square of equal size. Thanks to the highly
accurate determination of pi in circulation today,
the quadrature of the circle is no longer a chal-
lenge, but in Bouelles’s day and afterward, it
continued to bedevil mathematical scholars.
Bouelles in 1510 published Liver de XII
numbers. The latter addressed the subject of per-
fect numbers, or those integers which are a sum
of all their factors excluding the number itself:
for instance, 6 = 1 + 2 + 3, and 28 = 1 + 2 + 4 +
7 + 14. During the following year, he published
Le livre de l’art et science de géométrie, the first
William Brounker. (Archive Photos, Inc. Reproduced
known work on geometry in French. Later years with permission.)
saw the publication of Prover biorum vulgarium
libri tres (1531) and Liber de differentia vulgarium
linguarum et gallici sermonis varietate (1533). elder William died a year later, and thus at age
Bouelles died in Noyon at about the age of 83. 26, the son became a peer of the realm.

JUDSON KNIGHT Brouncker received the degree of Doctor of

Physick in 1647, a year that would prove monu-
mental in more than one respect. It was then
Viscount William Brouncker that the forces led by Oliver Cromwell deposed
1620-1684 Charles I, establishing a theocratic and egalitari-
English Mathematician an dictatorship under which all persons with
ties to the royalty or nobility were in danger of
imprisonment or even death. Therefore with ap-
I n 1662, Viscount William Brouncker pro-
posed to the newly restored English monarch
Charles II that an institution be established to
parent deliberation, Brouncker began a period of
virtual invisibility that would last until the
advance scientific discussion and learning. The restoration of the monarchy 13 years later. Dur-
result was the Royal Society of London, of which ing this time of self-imposed internal exile, his
Brouncker served as first president. In a career only notable work was a translation of Musicae
that put him into contact with such preeminent compendium by René Descartes (1596-1650). In-
figures as Pierre de Fermat (1601-1665) and deed, this was the only book of Brouncker’s en-
John Wallis (1616-1703), Brouncker examined a tire career, his other writings being confined to
number of problems, particularly the use of con- correspondence, manuscripts, and contributions
tinued fractions to express π. published in other mathematicians’ works.
Other than the fact that he was born in Cas- In 1660, with the restoration of the monar-
tle Lyons, Ireland, to Sir William and Lady Wine- chy under Charles II, son of Charles I, Brouncker
frid Brouncker in 1620, the details of Brouncker’s suddenly reappeared at center-stage of English
childhood are sketchy. He and his younger public life. He won election to parliament in that
brother Henry probably studied with tutors; then year, and in 1662, when Charles established the
at age 16, Brouncker entered Oxford, where he Royal Society as a result of a proposal put forth
excelled at a range of subjects that included by Brouncker, the latter was elected its first presi-
mathematics, music, languages, and medicine. dent with no opposition. Brouncker would be re-
While he was still in school, in 1645, his father elected annually until 1677, when he decided to
was named a viscount by King Charles I. The step down from leadership of the Royal Society.

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Brouncker enjoyed a lively interaction with Duke Wilhelm IV of Kassel, a city in what is
Mathematics other mathematicians of the day. When Wallis now western Germany.
requested help in developing an expression of π The art and science of making and main-
1450-1699 other than as an endless decimal, Brouncker ap- taining clocks was very much in its infancy then,
plied the use of continued fractions to the prob- but rulers and merchants quickly recognized the
lem. He also used continuous fractions for the importance of these skills; thus Bürgi’s position
quadrature, or squaring, of a rectangular hyper- was analogous to that of a youthful computer
bola. He and Fermat both worked on the Pell whiz in the 21st century. Just as the latter might
Equation, and he interacted with James Gregory go to work for a major corporation to avail him-
(1638-1675) on the subject of binomial series. or herself of the company’s resources and equip-
The fact that he never married made it easi- ment, Bürgi made use of the duke’s observatory
er for Brouncker to devote his time to a number for astronomical work. Not only did he build
of institutions and offices. In 1664, he became clocks, but he developed instruments for mak-
president of Gresham College, and entered gov- ing astronomical measurements, among them a
ernment service as commissioner of the navy. He proportional compass that in some respects im-
held the latter position until 1668, at which time proved on a similar instrument constructed by
he became comptroller of the treasurer’s ac- Galileo (1564-1642).
counts. He also served as master of St. Cather- His most important work while at Duke
ine’s Hospital in London from 1681 to 1684, the Wilhelm’s court, however, was his computation
year he died. Since he had no heirs, his title of logarithmic tables. Bürgi did not approach
passed to his brother Henry, who was also un- this as a theoretical problem, but as a practical
married; therefore upon Henry’s death in 1687, one: in order to process astronomical data, he
the family line and its title came to an end. needed to make computations quickly. Thus as
JUDSON KNIGHT early as 1584, he began making improvements
to the existing system of prosthaphairesis, a
method of applying trigonometric formulae to
Joost Bürgi problems as a means of converting multiplica-
1552-1632 tion to addition. Eventually he chanced on the
idea of logarithms, exponents that indicate the
German Mathematician
power to which a number is raised to produce a
given number. These would greatly facilitate
I n his work as a clockmaker and astronomer,
Joost Bürgi needed accurate mathematical in-
formation, and for this reason developed the
quick multiplication, and to this end, Bürgi
compiled an extensive logarithmic table.
concept of logarithms into a practical method of Eventually Rudolf II, a Holy Roman emper-
computation. He did this as much as a decade or noted as much for his mental instability as for
before John Napier (1550-1617), the Scottish his interest in science, took an interest in Bürgi.
mathematician generally credited with the foun- Upon the death of Wilhelm, Rudolf summoned
dational work in logarithms; but because Bürgi Bürgi to his court, and gave him Kepler as an as-
did not consider himself a mathematician, he sistant. Arriving in 1603, Bürgi again set to work
waited to publish his findings in 1620, long after in the observatory, working on astronomical cal-
Napier. Thus Bürgi was destined to become culations and the development of better instru-
much less famous than either Napier or his ments for measuring. Among Kepler’s unpub-
young assistant, Johannes Kepler (1571-1630). lished notes are papers containing evidence that
Bürgi has the distinction of being one of the Bürgi used the decimal point, and improved on
few people in world history from Liechtenstein, a method for calculating the roots of algebraic
a principality smaller in area than Washington, functions.
D.C. At the time of his birth in 1552, however, Bürgi remained at the court of the Holy
the region was still part of the German-con- Roman emperor after the unstable Rudolf ceded
trolled Holy Roman Empire. He probably re- power to his brother, Matthias, in 1606, and
ceived little in the way of a formal education, again after Ferdinand II succeeded Matthias in
since he was unable to read Latin, the language 1619. His stint at the court lasted until 1631, at
of educated men during that era, but from an which point he returned to Kassel, where he died
early age he excelled in the practical realm of a year later. By then Napier, who had published
clockmaking. In 1579, 27-year-old Bürgi re- two works on logarithms and established himself
ceived an appointment as court watchmaker for as the mathematician who developed them, was

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long dead. The sole complete copy of Bürgi’s log-

arithmic table is in a library in Gdansk, Poland. Mathematics
JUDSON KNIGHT 1450-1699

Girolamo Cardano
1501-1576
Italian Mathematician

A mathematician and physician, Girolamo or

Geronimo Cardano lived a turbulent per-
sonal and professional life, and became em-
broiled in a conflict over cubic equations so full
of drama and surprises that it sounds more like
a movie script than an incident from the history
of mathematics. He was also one of the first
mathematicians to conceive the idea that nega-
tive numbers have square roots, but lacked the
conceptual framework for understanding these
imaginary numbers.
Born in Pavia, Italy, on September 24, 1501,
Cardano was the illegitimate son of Fazio Car-
Girolamo Cardano. (Library of Congress. Reproduced
dano and Chiara Micheri. The father was a suc- with permission.)
cessful lawyer and friend of Leonard da Vinci
(1452-1519), but the fact that his parents did
not marry until after his birth—and the father ing young mathematician, Ludovico Ferrari
did not begin living with the family until Car- (1522-1565), and shared Tartaglia’s methods
dano was seven years old—provided a constant with him. Ferrari had learned how to solve a type
source of stigma for the young Cardano. of cubic equation called a “depressed cubic,”
which lacks a second-power term, and the two
Cardano studied mathematics, astrology, men discovered a method for reducing any gen-
and the classics at the University of Pavia, and eralized cubic equation to a depressed cubic.
went on to earn his doctorate in medicine there With the use of Tartaglia’s methods, they could
in 1526. He then began his medical practice in solve the equation.
Saccolongo, a town near Padua, and in 1531
married Lucia Bandareni, with whom he had They could not share this information with
two sons and a daughter. Cardano supplement- the mathematical community, however, because
ed his income by teaching mathematics at a Tartaglia had yet to publish his method, and the
school in Milan from 1534 to 1536, but soon his prospects of him doing so any time soon ap-
medical practice had become so successful that peared dim. It so happened, however, that in
he was able to devote himself fully to it. His in- 1534 Cardano and Ferrari were examining the
terest in mathematics continued for the rest of papers of the late Sciopione dal Ferro (1465-
his life, however, and in his first mathematical 1526) when they discovered that he had solved
work, Practica arithmetice et mensurandi singularis the depressed cubic equation two decades earli-
(1539), he proved himself adept at solving cubic er. Practically on his deathbed, dal Ferro had ex-
equations. plained the secret to his student, Antonio Fior,
who later foolishly challenged Tartaglia to a
His interest in the latter led Cardano into a
mathematical contest. As a result, Tartaglia had
fascinating entanglement with Nicolò Fontana,
been able to discover the method that he later
a.k.a. Tartaglia (1499-1557). Tartaglia had solved
claimed as his own.
even more difficult cubic equations than those in
Practica arithmetice, but refused to explain how In 1545, Cardano—who reasoned that he
he had done so, yet after much pressure from was no longer under any obligation to
Cardano, he agreed to share his secret—provided Tartaglia—published his findings in his Ars
that Cardano would not pass it on to anyone magna. Tartaglia was incensed, and began a let-
until Tartaglia had published it. Soon afterward, ter-writing campaign against Cardano, which co-
however, Cardano took as his servant a promis- incided with a series of other misfortunes span-

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ning nearly two decades in the latter’s life: in Practica aritmetica, published in four parts
Mathematics 1546, his wife died; in 1560, his son Giambat- between 1606 and 1617, was Cataldi’s first sig-
tista was executed for murdering his own wife; nificant published work. In a generous if per-
1450-1699 in 1565, Ferrari died of poisoning; and in 1570, haps eccentric gesture, he arranged for Francis-
Cardano was accused of heresy by the Inquisi- can monks to distribute copies of the book to
tion. The charge, that he had claimed astrologi- poor children. Perhaps his most important work
cal causes and not divine intervention as the was Trattato del modo brevissimo di trovar la radice
force behind events in the life of Jesus Christ, quadra delli numeri, which though he seems to
was enough to land him in jail. He was released have completed it in 1597, did not see publica-
upon agreeing to stop teaching, and only in tion until 1613. In Trattato, Cataldi employed
1573, when Pope Gregory XIII granted him a infinite series and unlimited continued fractions
lifetime pension, did his world return to some to find a number’s square root. This was perhaps
semblance of normalcy. the first serious examination of continued frac-
tions on record.
Cardano had only a few years left, but even
in the midst of the turmoil resulting from the In the area of applied mathematics, Catal-
heresy charge, he had revised his Ars magna by di—both in the Trattato and in other works—
adding a section on what are now known as addressed the topic of artillery range. He also
imaginary numbers. He did not recognize them edited a 1620 edition of the first six books in
as such, however, and regarded them as a mere Euclid’s (c. 325-c. 250 B.C.) Elements. In latter
mathematical novelty. He died in Rome on Sep- years, he attempted to establish a Bologna math-
tember 21, 1576. ematics academy, with uncertain results. He died
in his home town on February 11, 1626.
JUDSON KNIGHT
JUDSON KNIGHT

Pietro Antonio Cataldi

1548-1626 Bonaventura Cavalieri
Italian Mathematician 1598-1647
Italian Mathematician
I n the course of a career that spanned more
than six decades, Pietro Antonio Cataldi made
contributions in a number of areas. Not only
was he one of the first mathematicians to work
P raised by thinkers ranging from his friend
Galileo (1564-1642) to twentieth-century
writer Isaac Asimov, Bonaventura Cavalieri is
on continued fractions or infinite algorithms, best known for his work on the concept of indi-
providing definitions, common forms, and sym- visibles. This laid the foundation for the devel-
bolism, but his research in algebra and perfect opment of the infinitesimal, and with it calculus
numbers, as well as his extensive writing and as conceived by Sir Isaac Newton (1642-1727).
editing of texts, added greatly to the sum of
mathematical knowledge. In his will, the unmar- Cavalieri’s true first name is not known:
ried Cataldi requested that a school of math and Bonaventura was a religious name adopted when
sciences be established in his home, a wish that he joined a monastery at age 17. As for the cir-
went unfulfilled. cumstances of his birth, it is known only that he
was born in Milan in 1598. In his mid-teens,
Cataldi, who was born in Bologna on April
Cavalieri joined the Jesuatis, an order under the
15, 1548, studied at the Academy of Design in
Augustinian rule not to be confused with the Je-
Florence before going to work as a math instruc-
suits, and in 1615 took minor orders at a Milan
tor at age 17. He continued in this position, lec-
monastery.
turing in Italian rather than Latin (the accepted
language of scholarly discourse at that time), The following year found him at another
until his early to mid-twenties. From 1570 or monastery in Pisa, where he came under the in-
1572 until 1584, he taught at the University of fluence of Benedetto Castelli, a former student of
Perugia and the Perugia Academy; then he re- Galileo. Castelli inspired in his young friend an
turned to Bologna at age 36, at which point he interest in geometry, and eventually introduced
received his diploma. It was around this time him to Galileo himself. Cavalieri became a de-
that Cataldi—who would publish more than 30 voted protegee of the latter, and sent him more
books during his career—began his most impor- than a hundred letters over the course of the
tant writing. years that followed.

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Cavalieri was still only 23 years old when surface and the volume of rotating solids. He died
he received ordination as a deacon under Cardi- in Bologna on November 30, 1547. Mathematics
nal Federigo Borromeo (1564-1631). Again, he
JUDSON KNIGHT 1450-1699
had the good fortune of positive association:
Borromeo encouraged Cavalieri’s scholarship,
and helped him obtain a position as teacher of Giovanni Ceva
theology at the monastery of San Girolamo in 1647?-1734
Milan. Cavalieri first began work on his method Italian Mathematician
of indivisibles at San Girolamo, and continued
this after receiving an appointment as prior of
St. Peter’s at Lodi. A s an engineer, Giovanni Ceva concerned
himself with applied mathematics; but his
other career, as a geometer, took him deep into
Despite his youth, Cavalieri was soon struck
down with an attack of gout, which occurred the realm of pure math. He became the era’s
while on a visit back to Milan. As a result, he foremost authority on geometric problems,
was confined to his bed for several months, and working particularly with transversals, and is
during this time wrote much of the book that also credited with Ceva’s theorem, on a triangle’s
would appear in 1635 as Geometrica. center of gravity. Other writings addressed areas
of mathematical application ranging from me-
Meanwhile, in 1628, Cavalieri took an in- chanics to economics.
terest in a teaching position at the University of
Bologna—Europe’s first university, established The son of a wealthy and influential fami-
470 years before. He sought and received a ly—his younger brother Tomasso (1648-1737),
glowing letter of recommendation from Galileo, was destined to become a famous mathematician
who informed the patron of the university that as well—Ceva studied at Pisa. Some of his most
“few, if any, since Archimedes have delved as far significant writing appeared during the late
and as deep into the science of geometry” as 1670s and early 1680s, when he was in his early
Cavalieri. Not only did Cavalieri receive the ap- to mid-thirties. Perhaps his most notable work
pointment, which he held until his death, but was De lineis rectis (Concerning Straight Lines),
his order appointed him prior of Bologna’s published in 1678. This work contained Ceva’s
Church of Santa Maria della Mascarella. During theorem, on the geometry of triangles, which in
the nearly two decades that remained for him, turn related to an area of interest throughout
he published 11 books. much of Ceva’s career: center of gravity. His the-
orem found the center of gravity for an equilat-
Drawing on ideas first explored by eral triangle at the place where lines drawn from
Archimedes (c. 287-212 B.C.), but barely consid- the vertices to opposite sides intersected.
ered in the intervening centuries, Cavalieri pro-
posed that indivisibles could be used for the de- Ceva followed De lineis with Opuscula mathe-
termination of area, volume, and center of gravi- matica (A Short Mathematical Work) in 1682.
ty. Later, Evangelista Torricelli (1608-1647), who Here he again returned to centers of gravity, this
improved on the idea, wrote that “the geometry time expanding his studies to other shapes. The
of the invisible was, indeed, the mathematical book also contained an infamous error on Ceva’s
briar brush, the so-called royal road, and one part, his statement that the periods of oscillation
that Cavalieri first opened and laid out for the pendulums are on the same ratio as their lengths.
public as a device of marvelous invention.” It It is easy to understand how he could have
would later prove, as Asimov observed more mistakenly deduced such a correlation, and in
than four centuries later, “a stepping-stone to- any case Ceva corrected his mistake in a later
ward . . . the development of the calculus by book, Geometrica motus (The Geometry of Mo-
Newton, which is the dividing line between clas- tion, 1692). The latter concerned the geometry
sical and modern mathematics.” of motion, and contained elements that fore-
Cavalieri also put forth what came to be shadowed the infinitesimal calculus soon to be
known as Cavalieri’s Theorem. The latter states developed independently by Gottfried Wilhelm
that for two solids of equal altitude, if sections von Leibniz (1646-1716) and Sir Isaac Newton
made by planes parallel to and at equal distance (1642-1727).
from the bases always have a given ratio, then the Ceva married in the 1670s and fathered a
volumes of the two solids will have the same ratio. daughter in 1679. When he was a little more
Furthermore, Cavalieri developed a general proof than 40 years old, in 1686, he went to work for
of Guldin’s theorem, which concerns the area of a the Duke of Mantua, a region where he would

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spend much of his career. In addition to holding variables and exponents, names which failed to
Mathematics a professorship at the local university, Ceva catch on because mathematicians already had
served the duke in a variety of official capacities. accepted terms for these, such as the Latin census
1450-1699 He continued his mathematical studies, howev- for the second power.
er, and in 1711 published a study of economics, More significant was Chuquet’s use of expo-
De re numeraria (Concerning Money Matters), in nential notation. Lacking symbols for multipli-
which he applied his knowledge. cation or variables, his version of 3x2, for in-
Indeed, applied mathematics was at the cen- stance, would have looked like this: .3.2. He also
ter of Ceva’s later career. As a hydraulic engineer accepted the use of 0 as an exponent, which al-
in Mantua, he was responsible for a number of ways yields a result of 1; and of negative num-
projects, but—in an act that suggests he may bers, which when used as exponents yield a dec-
have been an early conservationist—he success- imal fraction.
fully opposed a scheme to divert the River Reno Equally interesting—though perhaps not as
into the Po. As time went on, Ceva found that significant, since Chuquet was not in a position
professional and family pressures kept him away historically to carry it forward—was his work on
from his mathematical studies, however. He died what would become known as logarithms. He
on February 3, 1737, and was buried at St. Tere- recognized that the sum of two indices and the
sa de Carmelitani Scalzi, a church in Mantua. product of their powers is the same. For exam-
JUDSON KNIGHT ple, 32 x 33 = 32+3; or, to put it another way, 9 x
27 = 243 = 35. Using this knowledge, Chuquet
created a rudimentary logarithmic table for all
Nicolas Chuquet the powers of 2 from 0 to 20; as a result, he dis-
1445-1488 cerned what would be shown in modern nota-
French Mathematician tion as 1 = log20, 2 = log21, 4 = log22, and so on.
Finally, Chuquet was able to provide the so-

T he origins of modern exponential notation—

the 2 in x2, for instance—can be traced to
Nicolas Chuquet, a mathematician who at the
lution to a problem that in modern terms would
be written as 4x = -2, perhaps the first notable use
of a negative number in an algebraic equation.
dawn of the modern era struggled to find sym- Chuquet even came close to the idea of an imagi-
bols corresponding to the ideas with which he nary number—e.g., the square root of a negative
grappled. He was one of the first to treat zero and integer—but failed to recognize how this could
negative integers as exponents, and appears also be of practical value. (The book One Two Three...
to have been a pioneer in his isolation of a nega- Infinity by George Gamow [1904-1968] provides
tive number within an algebraic equation. Chu- a good example of imaginary numbers applied to
quet also approached the subject of logarithms, the solution of a practical problem.)
and even touched on imaginary numbers, con-
cepts far beyond his time. Chuquet died in Lyon in 1488. Today a
street in the 17th arrondisement of Paris, rue
Chuquet was born in Paris in 1445, and Nicolas Chuquet, is named after him.
from about 1480 worked in Lyon as a medical
doctor and copyist or master of writing. In 1484, JUDSON KNIGHT

he published his principal work, Triparty en la

science des nombres. At this time, arithmeticians Scipione dal Ferro
lacked even the most basic notational symbols 1465-1526
such as those for addition, subtraction, multipli-
Italian Mathematician
cation, and division. Chuquet became one of the
first to offer symbols—though these bore little
resemblance to the ones in use today—for what
he called, respectively, plus,moins,multiplier par,
S cipione dal Ferro left behind no published
writings, and were it not for papers found
after his death, his role in unlocking one of the
and partyr par. He also provided notation for the key mathematical challenges of his day might
previously inexpressible concept of square root: never be known. At the time, mathematicians
rather than
 4 , he would have written R)24. were struggling with the solution to third-power
Triparty also contains a rule for average equations, and the frustration associated with the
numbers: if a,b,c, and d are all positive integers, quest had prompted Luca Pacioli (1445-1517) to
then (a + c)/(b + d) is greater than a/b, but less suggest that such a solution was impossible. Un-
than c/d. The book also offered new names for beknownst to his colleagues, however, dal Ferro

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had found a way to solve such problems, but he mentor, and he recklessly engaged the superior
kept this knowledge to himself. mind of Nicolò Fontana, a.k.a. Tartaglia (1499- Mathematics
1557). As a result of the competition, which he
The son of Floriano, a papermaker, and Fil- 1450-1699
won, Tartaglia discovered the depressed cubic
ippa dal Ferro—the family name is sometimes
method and appropriated it as his own.
rendered as Ferreo, Ferro, and del Ferro—dal
Ferro was born in Bologna on February 6, 1465. Only in 1543, when Girolamo Cardano
He probably attended the University of Bologna, (1501-1576) and his assistant Ludovico Ferrari
Europe’s oldest institution of higher education; (1522-1565) paid a visit to Hannibal and saw
but other than this supposition, virtually noth- the notebook, did the truth come out. Tartaglia
ing is known about his early life. It was at had deceived Cardano into believing that he was
Bologna in 1496 that dal Ferro obtained what the original discoverer of the depressed cubic
turned out to be lifetime employment as a lec- solution, but now Cardano published the new
turer in arithmetic and geometry. At some point information. Unlike Tartaglia, Cardano was
he must have married, though there is no record eager to give credit where credit was due, refer-
of such, and fathered a daughter, Filippa, who ring to dal Ferro’s work as “a really beautiful and
grew up to marry one of his students, Hannibal admirable accomplishment.” Ironically, however,
Nave or Annibale dalla Nave. neither dal Ferro nor Tartaglia ultimately re-
ceived credit; rather, the depressed cubic is
Dal Ferro made his most important discov- known today as Cardano’s formula.
ery some time between 1505 and 1515, but the
fact that he was so secretive about it makes it dif- JUDSON KNIGHT
ficult to pinpoint the date. Since the time of the
Babylonians, mathematicians had known how to
solve quadratic equations, ones in which (despite
Girard Desargues
the somewhat deceptive name) the highest 1591-1661
power is 2; but the solution to cubic equations, French Mathematician
or those in which the highest order is 3—e.g.,
ax3 + bx2 + cx + d = 0—had eluded them.
After Pacioli, with whom dal Ferro was ac-
T he significance of Girard Desargues’s work
did not become apparent until long after his
death; indeed, at the time of his passing in 1661,
quainted, made his statement in 1494, there it would have been hard to imagine that anyone
followed many years of competition between would remember him a generation later. His
the leading mathematicians of the day, each of ideas about geometry broke with Euclidean tra-
them eager to find a solution to the cubic equa- dition, and thereby aroused the criticism of no
tion. Meanwhile, dal Ferro worked out the so- less a figure than his acquaintance René
lution to what was called the depressed cubic, Descartes (1596-1650); yet Desargues is today
or one in which the second-power term was recognized as a prophet of projective geometry
missing. Though this did not completely solve nearly two centuries ahead of his time.
the larger problem, it would make such a solu-
tion possible—yet dal Ferro kept his discovery Desargues’s father Girard, who with his wife
under his hat. Jeanne Croppet had nine children, served as a
tithe collector in Lyon. In an era when the
His reason for this may have been the then- church still dominated political affairs, this was
common practice of public challenges, in which the equivalent of a tax collector; and as in the
two prominent mathematicians engaged in a sort time of Christ, it appears that collectors of the
of intellectual boxing match. Often a mathemati- church’s tax fared well: the Desargues family
cian’s patronage, or his continued economic sup- owned several houses, a chateau, and a vine-
port by a wealthy benefactor, was at stake; and yard. Little is known about the early life of the
dal Ferro, who greatly feared the threat of a chal- younger Girard, born on February 21, 1591, but
lenge, may have held out his secret as a sort of it appears that by 1626, when he was 35, he had
trump card to ensure victory. gone to work in Paris as an engineer.
But dal Ferro, who died on November 5, His career was an intriguing one. At one
1526, did not take his secret to the grave. He point, Desargues proposed a scheme to pump
had written it in a notebook, which his son-in- waters from the Seine throughout Paris—an idea
law Hannibal kept; and he had shared it with his which, like his geometry, was ahead of its time.
lackluster assistant, Antonio Fior. Fior was even Later, as an architect during the 1640s and 1650s,
more paranoid about a challenge than his former he designed a number of houses in Paris, apply-

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ing his concepts on perspective to the design of ters’ guilds, whose established method of per-
Mathematics staircases. Employed by the French government forming their job was under challenge.
under Cardinal Richelieu, he also assisted in the Desargues, who also pioneered a method of
1450-1699 1627-28 siege of the Huguenot stronghold at La using cycloidal or epicycloidal teeth for gear
Rochelle, where members of the Protestant sect wheels, died a nearly forgotten man in Septem-
were forced through starvation to capitulate. It ber 1661. Had it not been for the efforts of his
appears that during the siege, he met Descartes, friend, the engraver Abraham Bosse, his writings
and by 1630 had become part of a Parisian intel- might have been lost. Only with the rediscovery
lectual circle that also included Marin Mersenne of Desargues’s ideas by Jean-Victor Poncelet
(1588-1648) and Etienne Pascal (1588-1651). In (1788-1867) in the nineteenth century did the
time, Desargues would exert a powerful influence significance of his work for projective geometry
on Pascal’s son Blaise (1623-1662), who was des- become known.
tined to shine brighter than any of the group
other than Descartes. JUDSON KNIGHT

During the 1630s, Desargues published sev-

eral works, one of which was particularly no- Pierre de Fermat
table. Traité de la section perspective (Treatise on 1601-1665
the Perspective Section, 1636), challenged exist- French Mathematician
ing ideas of perspective, and presented what
came to be known as Desargues’s theorem. Ac-
cording to the latter, two triangles may be placed
such that the three lines joining corresponding
O ne of the most intriguing figures in the his-
tory of mathematics, Pierre de Fermat was
the classic talented amateur. A lawyer and gov-
vertices meet in a point, if and only if the three ernment official, he spent much of his time too
lines containing the three corresponding sides busy with other affairs to devote any attention to
intersect in three collinear points. This theorem, his mathematical studies. But in the time that he
which holds true in either two or three dimen- did have, he conceived the principles of analytic
sions, would provide an early foundation for geometry, independent of cofounder and ac-
what came to be known as projective geometry. quaintance René Descartes (1596-1650); estab-
lished number theory and, with friend Blaise
In 1639, Desargues published Brouillon pro- Pascal (1623-1662), the theory of probability;
ject d’une atteinte aux événements des recontres laid down the fundamentals of differential calcu-
d’une cône avec un plan (Proposed Draft of an At- lus; and left behind a problem that bedeviled
tempt to Deal with the Events of the Meeting of mathematicians for 325 years.
a Cone with a Plane). As its title suggests, the
Fermat, who added the aristocratic “de” to
essay dealt with conic sections, and presented
his name in his early 1630s, was the son of Do-
what amounted to a unified theory of conics. As
minique Fermat, a successful leather merchant,
with Desargues’s other groundbreaking ideas,
and Claire de Long, who came from a highly re-
however, those in Brouillon were slow to find ac-
spected family of lawyers. In 1631, Pierre Fer-
ceptance, in part because of the highly arcane
mat married his fourth cousin, Louise de Long,
terminology the author used, substituting tree,
with whom he had five children. By then he had
stump, and other botanical terms for various
studied at a number of institutions, including
geometrical constructs.
the universities of Toulouse, Bourdeaux, and Or-
Desargues meanwhile came under attack leans. Having earned his degree in civil law from
from Descartes for what the latter perceived as the latter, he began his law practice, and with
an attack on geometry—which indeed Desar- the purchase of several key posts started a climb
gues’s work was, though what was really threat- to the upper echelons of French jurisprudence.
ened was the limited Euclidean worldview that By 1648 he had received an appointment as
then dominated. Jean Beaugrand (1595-1640) king’s councilor.
charged that Desargues had lifted his ideas from With no mathematical training, Fermat in
the ancient Greek mathematician Apollonius of the 1630s he became involved with the Paris
Perga (262-190 B.C.), and the two exchanged at- mathematical circle of Marin Mersenne (1588-
tacks in print for many years. His ideas on per- 1648), Gilles Personne de Roberval (1602-
spective also won Desargues a number of detrac- 1675), and Etienne Pascal (1588-1651), father
tors outside the world of mathematics, including of Blaise. He quickly earned a reputation as a
artists, other architects, and even the stonecut- brash upstart who in his first communication

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with the group claimed to have found fault with perhaps also during this time that, while reading
a statement of Galileo (1564-1642) regarding a Latin translation of Arithmetic by Diophantus of Mathematics
the path of a freely falling cannonball. As time Alexandria (3rd century A.D.), Fermat jotted
went on, Roberval and Mersenne became in- down a theorem in the margin: for the equation 1450-1699
creasingly irritated with Fermat, who had a habit xn + yn = zn, where n is greater than 2, there are no
of presenting them with incredibly difficult positive integer solutions for x,y, and z.
problems. In time they began to suspect that he Though the theorem was apparently true, its
did not know the solution to such problems proof remained elusive to mathematicians, who
himself, and started requesting that he provide would grapple with the problem for more than
full explanations regarding how such solutions three centuries. Only in 1994 did English mathe-
were derived. matician Andrew Wiles (1953-), who had devot-
Fermat also ran afoul of Descartes, an al- ed much of his career to the quest, present a cor-
most inevitable result of the fact that both men rect proof of what had long since become known
discovered analytic geometry. Descartes actually as Fermat’s Last Theorem. Given the complexity
made the discovery earlier, but Fermat, in his of Wiles’s proof, some mathematicians have
1637 Introduction to Plane and Solid Loci, was first questioned whether Fermat himself was able to
to present his findings to the Paris group. The prove the theorem. As for Fermat himself, his
latter continued to regard Fermat as an outsider, only answer was a note in the space beside his
and his brash ways did little to win friends dur- theorem: “I have discovered a truly remarkable
ing the ensuing dispute with Descartes. proof which this margin is too small to contain.”
With his restoration of writings by the JUDSON KNIGHT
Greek mathematician Apollonius of Perga (262-
190 B.C.), as well as his Method for Determining
Maxima and Minima and Tangents to Curve Lines Albert Girard
(1636), Fermat laid the groundwork for differ- 1595-1632
ential calculus. Yet from 1643 to 1654, he re- French Mathematician
mained so occupied with professional and polit-
ical concerns—and, thanks to an outbreak of the
plague in 1651 that very nearly killed him, per-
sonal ones—that he had little communication
A mathematician who contributed to a num-
ber of areas ranging from arithmetic to alge-
bra, Albert Girard enjoyed little recognition dur-
with other mathematicians. During this time, ing his lifetime. A 1626 treatise on trigonometry
however, he did manage to develop Fermat’s by him contains the first use of the abbreviations
Theorem for determining whether or not a num- sin,cos, and tan, and he was also perhaps the first
ber is prime: if n is any whole number and p any mathematician to offer a formula for the area of
prime, then np – n is divisible by p. a triangle inscribed on a sphere.
A 1654 letter from Pascal, in which the lat- Girard was born in 1595 in St. Mihiel,
ter requested Fermat’s help with a problem in- France, but he was destined to spend most of his
volving consecutive throws of a die, led to a se- life away from his homeland. The reason for this
ries of communications in which the two men was that as a member of the Reformed Church,
set down the elements of probability theory. Pas- he found himself ostracized in stridently
cal took less interest in another growing area of Catholic France. He therefore moved to the
interest for Fermat, number theory. Fermat was, Netherlands, where he studied under Willebrord
however, able to correspond with Dutch physi- Snell (1580-1626) at the University of Leiden,
cist and astronomer Christiaan Huygens (1629- and later he went to work for Prince Frederick
1695) about that subject until Huygens, too, Henry of Nassau. Yet just as the French did not
concluded that number theory—now an impor- consider him fully one of their own because of
tant branch of mathematics—was useless. his religion, he was not Dutch either, and he
Fermat had been weakened by the plague, never succeeded in securing the patronage so
and his latter years saw him in increasingly poor- necessary to the career of a mathematician in the
er health. He died on January 12, 1665, and was seventeenth century. On the other hand, he was
buried in the Chapel of St. Dominique in Castres. able to supplement his income in an unusual
During the last decade of his life, he conducted way, as a professional lute-player.
experiments with optics, and made a discovery In his writings on geometry, Girard identi-
known as Fermat’s Principle, which states that fied multiple types of quadrilaterals and pen-
light travels by the path of least duration. It was tagons, defined 69 of 70 types of hexagons, and

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became the first mathematician to state that the

Mathematics area of a spherical triangle is proportional to its
spherical excess. He became the first to establish
1450-1699 the definition fn+2 = fn+1 + fn for the Fibonacci se-
quence, and improved on the work of Rafaello
Bombelli (1526-1573) for extracting the cube
roots of binomials. In addition, Girard devel-
oped a simplified means for demarking the cube
root still in use today.
Also a widely published translator, Girard
was responsible for translating a number of
works from French into Flemish, the language of
Holland, and from Flemish into French. Many of
these concerned military applications of mathe-
matics, or specifically fortifications, and it is like-
ly that he served in the Dutch army as an engi-
neer—yet another way he managed to support
himself. Poor, obscure, and just 37 years of age,
Girard died in Leiden on December 6, 1632.
Were it not for an explanation of his circum-
stances included in an edition of works by Simon
Stevin (1548-1620) which he translated, histori-
ans would know almost nothing about his life. James Gregory. (Library of Congress. Reproduced with
permission.)
JUDSON KNIGHT

rors, an idea upon which Newton later drew

James Gregory without giving Gregory credit.
1638-1675 Frustrated in his efforts to secure a position
Scottish Mathematician
in London, Gregory in 1664 travelled to Italy,
where he spent four years in study and research.
His Vera circuli et hyperbolae quadratura (1667)
J ames Gregory published papers on a number
of mathematical and scientific subjects, and a
look at his unpublished papers suggests an even
discussed the means of finding the area for a cir-
cle or a hyperbola, and Geometriae pars univer-
more wide-ranging talent. Among his most no- salis the following year examined convergent
table contributions were his laying of the and divergent series. The latter work also con-
groundwork for the development of calculus, as tained Gregory’s foundational ideas for what be-
well as his experiments in optics, which greatly came calculus.
influenced the later work of Isaac Newton (1642- By 1668, Gregory was back in London,
1727). Yet Gregory had the misfortune to be where he won election to the Royal Society and
caught up in political struggles that pitted his an appointment as chairman of mathematics at
new ideas against a stodgy and powerful academ- St. Andrew’s College in Scotland. It seemed that
ic establishment, and this greatly limited the in- at 30, he had found lasting career success, but
fluence and perhaps even the length of his career. this was not to be: at St. Andrew’s, Gregory was
Gregory was born in Drumoak, Scotland, confronted with an extremely conservative col-
the son of John, a minister, and Janet Anderson lege governing board, who greeted all his efforts
Gregory. Because her son was sickly, Janet Gre- to update the curriculum with hostility.
gory proceeded to teach him at home, including He was not the only one dissatisfied with
in the curriculum subjects—most notably, the current state of academic affairs: in an inci-
geometry—barely known to most men at the dent more like something from the twentieth
time, let alone most women. From 1651 to than the seventeenth century, a group of stu-
1662, Gregory studied in Aberdeen, first at dents revolted against the university establish-
grammar school, then at the city’s Marischal Col- ment, demanding change. Gregory was away in
lege. He then traveled to London, where he pub- London at the time, hoping to secure support
lished his Optica promota (1663). The latter sug- for his plan to establish the first public observa-
gested that telescopes should use concave mir- tory in Britain at St. Andrew’s; nonetheless, the

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administration found him a convenient scape- natural resources. He published A Briefe and True
goat for the uprising, and punished him by Report, an account of his findings, in 1588. Mathematics
withholding his salary. During the three decades that followed, 1450-1699
When Edinburgh University offered him a Harriot’s patrons—first Raleigh and then Henry
position as chairman of its mathematics depart- Percy, Earl of Northumberland (1564-1632), for
ment, it seemed that once again Gregory’s for- whom he went to work in 1595—ran afoul of
tunes had taken a turn for the better. But within the English royal house. Harriot himself, though
a year he was dead at age 37, having suffered a occasionally caught up in the turmoil even to
massive stroke. His papers lay dormant for many the extent of being accused of atheism in 1603,
years, and only began receiving attention after in general passed the time unscathed, and con-
some of them were published in 1939. Based on tinued his scientific observations. He studied the
the many subjects covered in his unpublished parabolic path of projectiles; determined the
writings, it seems clear that if Gregory had been specific weights of materials; calculated the areas
allowed greater intellectual freedom, he might of spherical triangles, and thus confirmed that
well have emerged as one of the preeminent the Mercator projection preserves angles; inde-
mathematical thinkers of his time. Ironically, St. pendently discovered the sine law of refraction
Andrew’s—now St. Andrew’s University—today associated with Willebrord Snell (1580-1626);
operates one of the World Wide Web’s best sites built telescopes; and in 1607, long before the
on the history of mathematics (http://www- birth of Edmund Halley (1656-1742), observed
groups.dcs.st-andrews.ac.uk/%7Ehistory). what came to be known as Halley’s Comet.
JUDSON KNIGHT As an astronomer, Harriot also made a map
of the Moon (1609), calculated the orbits of
Jupiter’s moons (1610-12), studied sunspots and
Thomas Harriot the Sun’s rotation speed (1610-13), and ob-
1560?-1621 served another comet (1618). In his writings as
English Mathematician a mathematician, not only did he become the
first to use > and <, he was one of the first to

T homas Harriot invented the signs for

“greater than” (>) and “less than” (<) in use
today, and was one of the first mathematicians to
adopt the plus sign and minus sign, lowercase
letters for variables, and the equal sign of Robert
Recorde (1510-1558). He was also among the
use a number of now-commonplace symbols. first to write an equation with the sum of all
Much of his work involved astronomy, naviga- terms equal to zero, as is common today.
tion, and geometry: an employee and associate For a decade, from the mid-1580s to the
of Sir Walter Raleigh (1554-1618), he was at the mid-1590s, Harriot had lived on an Irish prop-
center of English efforts to conquer the seas and erty granted him by Raleigh. From 1595, how-
the New World. ever, he had resided at Northumberland’s estate
Harriot was educated at St. Mary’s Hall, Ox- at Syon, and continued there even after
ford University, from whence he received his Northumberland was arrested by King James in
B.A. in 1580. For a time, he appears to have 1605. By the time his patron was released from
worked as a mathematics tutor in London before the Tower of London in 1622, Harriot was
securing employment with Raleigh in 1584. The dead, having succumbed to a cancer of the nos-
famous gentleman-explorer needed someone to tril on July 2, 1621. (Raleigh was dead, too, ex-
teach navigation to his sailors, and for this pur- ecuted by James in 1618.) Harriot left behind a
pose Harriot composed a manuscript—long vast array of papers, many of them published as
since lost—called the Articon. Artis analyticae praxis, a significant algebra text,
During the following year, Raleigh sent Har- in 1631.
riot with a group of colonists to Roanoke Island JUDSON KNIGHT
off the coast of what is now North Carolina.
(These were not the inhabitants of the famous
“Lost Colony”: the first settlement lasted only 10 Gottfried Wilhelm von Leibniz
months before being disbanded, and the doomed 1646-1716
Lost Colony settlers arrived in 1587.) Working German Mathematician and Philosopher
with artist John White (d. 1593?), Harriot was re-
sponsible for studying the indigenous peoples, as
well as the local vegetation, animal life, and other H is invention of differential and integral cal-
culus, which he developed independent of

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Sir Isaac Newton (1642-1727), was but the this time, and by 1676 Leibniz was en route
Mathematics most visible of philosopher and mathematician from Paris to Hanover, where he would serve the
Gottfried Wilhelm von Leibniz’s contributions. Duke of Brunswick for the rest of his life. On his
1450-1699 In his writings, he commented on areas ranging way, however, he stopped in Holland, where he
from physics to religion, and developed a met with Spinoza, microscopists Jan Swammer-
philosophical system that placed him on a level dam (1637-1680) and Anton van Leeuwenhoek
with the two other most prominent Continental (1632-1723), and others.
rationalists, René Descartes (1596-1650) and Leibniz introduced his differential calculus
Benedict Spinoza (1632-1677). Many of his in a 1684 paper, and unveiled integral calculus
ideas were ahead of their time; yet he was two years later. In 1689, Newton published his
ridiculed by Voltaire (1694-1778) and others, own work, and eventually it became apparent
and at his death, his passing hardly attracted that the two men had developed more or less
any notice. the same method from quite different ap-
Born in Leipzig, Saxony, on July 1, 1646, proaches—geometric in Newton’s case, algebra-
Leibniz was the son of Friedrich and Catherina ic in Leibniz’s. There would follow a heated de-
Schmuck Leibnütz, whose son later altered his bate as to whose calculus was better, and even
last name and added the aristocratic “von.” the two great men became drawn into the par-
Catherina was the third wife of Friedrich, a tisan squabbling. In time Leibniz’s methods and
lawyer and professor who had one other child notation, which were simply more efficient,
with her, as well as two from previous marriages. prevailed; but for a century, English mathe-
The father died when Leibniz was six, and al- maticians fell behind their Continental coun-
ready by that point the boy had shown himself terparts due to a nationalistic insistence on
an intellectual prodigy. At the age of 12, he Newtonian methods.
could read Latin, and had already begun con- In addition to calculus, Leibniz was the first
ceiving such grandiose ideas as the composition mathematician to use the integral sign. He intro-
of a universal encyclopedia. duced the term “function”; put forth a theory of
Leibniz entered the University of Leipzig special curves; developed a general theory of tan-
when he was 15 years old, and earned his gents; and made a number of other contributions
bachelor’s degree by the age of 17. By 1664, to mathematics. His calculating machine, which
the 18-year-old had received a master’s degree could perform arithmetic functions, was a pre-
and written a dissertation for his doctorate in cursor to the computer, and won him election to
law, which the university refused to award be- the Royal Society in 1673. In his philosophical
cause of his youth. He then moved to the Uni- writings, he posited the existence of “monads,”
versity of Altdorf in Nuremberg, which agreed or thinking entities that occupied no space, and
to award him his doctorate at the grand old whose every part comprised its totality. The con-
age of 20. cept seemed preposterous until the late 20th cen-
tury, when it became apparent that the structure
After holding several jobs, Leibniz went to
of human brain cells, as well as that of holo-
work for the Elector of Mainz, a powerful no-
graphic images, resembles Leibniz’s monads.
bleman of the Holy Roman Empire. Leibniz
would produce vast quantities of writings on a But Leibniz was also cursed by his state-
variety of subjects while in the Elector’s employ, ment, again in his philosophical writings, that
and still managed to write more than 15,000 the present life is “the best of all possible
letters, many of them to other leading intellec- worlds”—an idea for which Voltaire, perhaps
tuals of the time. misunderstanding Leibniz’s point, skewered him
in Candide, whose Dr. Pangloss was based on
Tensions between the German states and
Leibniz. Though he enjoyed some honors during
France led to his appointment to a diplomatic
his lifetime, including his election as first presi-
mission in Paris in 1672. There Leibniz met the
dent of the Berlin Academy when it was founded
astronomer Christiaan Huygens (1629-1695),
in 1700, as well as election to the Académie
destined to become a lifelong friend, as well as
Royale des Sciences in Paris, Leibniz was largely
the mathematicians Descartes and Blaise Pascal
forgotten by the time of his death on November
(1623-1662). In the following year he traveled
14, 1716. He was buried in an unmarked grave,
to London, where he became acquainted with
and neither the Royal Society nor even the Berlin
such luminaries as the chemist Robert Boyle
Academy saw fit to publish an obituary.
(1627-1691) and the microscopist Robert
Hooke (1635-1703). The elector died around JUDSON KNIGHT

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Marin Mersenne bers. The theorems turned out to be incorrect,

Mathematics
but inspired later investigations into number
1588-1648 theories and large primes—sometimes called
French Mathematician Mersenne primes. 1450-1699

Mersenne was also the one who suggested

A s a mathematician and scientist, Marin
Mersenne was far from the equal of his more
well-known friends and acquaintances, including
that Huygens use a pendulum as a timekeeping
device, and this led to the latter’s introduction of
Galileo (1564-1642), René Descartes (1596- the pendulum clock in 1656. By then, however,
1650), Pierre de Fermat (1601-1665), Blaise Pas- Mersenne was long gone, having died in Paris on
cal (1623-1662), and Christiaan Huygens (1629- September 1, 1648, at the age of 60.
1695). Yet without Mersenne, the world would JUDSON KNIGHT
know far less about these giants: in a time when
there were no scientific journals, Mersenne
served as a disseminator of knowledge. An avid John Napier
correspondent, he also conducted weekly scien- 1550-1617
tific discussions in Paris that became the basis for Scottish Mathematician
the French Académie Royale des Sciences. In ad-
dition, he inspired investigations into number
theory and prime numbers, as well as Huygens’s
invention of the pendulum clock.
I n 1914, on the brink of World War I, the
Royal Society of Edinburgh took time to com-
memorate the 300th anniversary of Mirifici loga-
rithmorum canonis descriptio, in which John
Mersenne was born on September 8, 1588,
Napier first presented his system of logarithms.
near the town of Oize in France, and at the age
Fifty years later, on the verge of the computer
of 23 became a Catholic friar. While in school,
revolution, Napier University of Edinburgh was
he met Descartes, destined to become a lifelong
named in honor of Scotland’s great mathemati-
friend. He also became acquainted with Galileo,
cian—a man who, as a pioneer of logarithms
who he defended against attacks from the
and an inventor of an early calculator, helped
church. Eventually Mersenne would be respon-
make that revolution possible.
sible for a “meeting of the minds” between his
two distinguished friends. He passed on to Members of the Scottish nobility, both
Descartes a question from Galileo regarding the Napier’s father, Sir Archibald Napier, and his
path of falling objects on a rotating Earth, and mother, Janet Bothwell, came from old and
this led to Descartes’s suggestion of the logarith- highly distinguished families. At the age of 13,
mic spiral as the likely path. Napier entered the University of St. Andrews,
but did not complete his education; rather, he
Again and again, Mersenne performed this traveled in Europe for a time before returning to
role of bringing great minds together, and both Scotland at age 21. In the following year, he
with his correspondence and his weekly meet- married Elizabeth Stirling, with whom he had
ings, he began creating what a modern person two children. Elizabeth died in 1579, and Napi-
might call a vast database of knowledge. At the er married Agnes Chisholm, with whom he fa-
meetings, figures such as Descartes, Fermat, and thered 10 more children. His father died in
Pascal assembled under one roof to share ideas 1608, at which point Napier inherited Merchis-
and argue for opposing theories. Mersenne also ton Castle and the title eighth laird of Merchis-
had an opportunity to read manuscripts by ton; hence his later nickname, “the Marvelous
Descartes and others, in some cases long before Merchiston.”
they were published.
Much of Napier’s most important mathe-
Though Mersenne wrote widely on mathe- matical work, including the Descriptio and its
matical and scientific subjects, he would always companion the Constructio (1619), dates from
be more well-known as a disseminator of works the final decade of his life, the 1610s, when he
by other thinkers—including ancient Greeks was in his sixties. In these and other writings, he
such as Euclid (c. 325-c. 250 B.C.), Archimedes became one of the very first mathematicians to
(c. 287-212 B.C.), Apollonius of Perga (262-190 use the decimal point. Among the concepts he
B.C.), and others, whose works he edited. Of his introduced were “Napier’s analogies,” formulae
own writings, the most significant was Cogitata for spherical triangles; “Napier’s rules of circular
physico-mathematica (1644), in which he put parts,” tables for the right spherical triangle; and
forth several theorems regarding prime num- of course logarithms.

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He arrived at the latter not through pure marily as a philosopher and mystic that he is re-
Mathematics mathematics, but through his interests as an as- membered. On the one hand, he held firmly to
tronomer, which forced him to make large and mindsets associated with the medieval world, in
1450-1699 detailed calculations. Eventually Napier hit particular with his belief that all knowledge has
upon the idea of using a logarithm, or the power its roots in theology. On the other hand, he dis-
to which a given number must be raised to yield played an openness to new ideas more charac-
a given product, as a means of simplifying such teristic of the Renaissance and the modern age
computations. The sum of two indices and the that lay beyond it.
product of their powers is the same: thus 22 x 23
Born Nicholas Krebs in the German town of
= 22+3; or, to put it another way, 4 x 8 = 32 = 25.
Kues in 1401, Cusa studied law and mathemat-
By putting together logarithmic tables, as he did
ics at the University of Padua in Italy. He later
with the help of mathematician Henry Briggs
received his doctorate in canon law before mov-
(1561-1630), Napier provided a means of rela-
ing to Cologne in the 1420s. There he took an
tively easy computation that remained in use
interest in the philosophical writings of the an-
until the advent of the calculator and computer
cients, particularly Plato (427-347 B.C.), and
in the twentieth century.
began forming the foundations of his own mys-
Napier also invented several rudimentary tical philosophical system.
calculators, the most famous of which was
“Napier’s bones,” a set of rods marked with In 1431, a year after he entered the priest-
numbers which he introduced in Rabdologia hood, Nicholas took part in the Council of Basel,
(1617). So named either because they were convened in an attempt to shore up the church
often made of bone or ivory, or because of the against the rising tides of dissent that would cul-
bone-like shape of the rods, the bones were but minate in the Reformation. Six years later, he
the most famous of many practical (and some took part in a failed mission of reconciliation be-
impractical) creations from “the Marvelous Mer- tween the Western and Eastern churches, travel-
chiston.” In his role as landowner, Napier exper- ling to Constantinople—which, unbeknownst to
imented with fertilizers, invented a hydraulic anyone at that time, would fall permanently into
screw, and developed a revolving axle for pump- Muslim hands in less than two decades’ time.
ing water. He also designed an early submarine Despite the mission’s lack of success,
and tank, as well as a mirror for using the Sun to Nicholas won recognition for his diplomatic
set enemy ships on fire, and claimed to have cre- work, and was ultimately granted the position of
ated a prototype for what would later become cardinal. He gained even greater favor with the
known as the machine gun. papacy when an old friend, Italian humanist
Napier was not without his eccentricities: Enea Silvio Piccolomini, assumed St. Peter’s
an ardent Protestant, he wrote a highly popular throne as Pius II in 1458. Two years later,
tract identifying the pope as the Antichrist. De- Nicholas settled permanently in Rome.
tractors, no doubt awed by his wide-ranging ge- By then he was just six years away from the
nius, claimed that he practiced black magic, and end of his life, and had long since formed his
kept a black rooster as a spiritual familiar. rather idiosyncratic philosophical system.
The great mathematician and inventor was Though he had an interest in mathematics far
only 67 years old when he succumbed to gout, no beyond that of a typical medieval, mathematical
doubt exacerbated by overwork, on April 4, 1617. knowledge in Nicholas’s mind served to increase
His burial place is unknown, though it may be the the mystery in the world rather than to unravel
church of St. Cuthbert’s Parish in Edinburgh. it. Certainly he was not the first to see the disci-
pline in those terms: Pythagoras (c. 580-c. 500
JUDSON KNIGHT
B.C.), who he greatly admired, was perhaps the
most notable of all mathematical mystics.
Nicholas of Cusa Among Cusa’s mathematical interests were
1401-1464 the ideas of infinity and of squaring the circle—
German Mathematician and Philosopher that is, mapping the area of a circle onto an
equally large square, using only a ruler. In his

N icholas of Cusa is a figure difficult to assess

within the context of mathematics. Certain-
ly he wrote extensively about the subject, in par-
mind, these concepts were linked, because an
infinitely large circle would be the same as a
square—and, as he noted, would have neither a
ticular on the properties of circles, but it is pri- center, a radius, nor a diameter.

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study, it was during this time that Oughtred de-

veloped a keen interest in the subject such that Mathematics
even after he was ordained as a priest, he tutored
math students without receiving any pay. His 1450-1699
salary as a clergyman, he said, was sufficient to
cover his needs.
Following his ordination in 1603, Oughtred
received an assignment to serve as vicar of Shal-
ford in 1604. Six years later, he was appointed
rector of Albury, where he would remain until his
death 50 years later. During the 1620s, he began
tutoring, and in 1628 the Earl of Arundel offered
to become Oughtred’s patron in return for his
teaching the earl’s son, Lord William Howard.
Oughtred’s Clavis mathematicae, published
in 1631, was probably intended as a textbook
for young Lord William, but with its summation
of all significant arithmetic and algebraic knowl-
edge up to that time, it proved to have much
wider appeal. The author used the book to in-
troduce a number of proposed mathematical
symbols, but most were cumbersome and failed
Nicholas of Cusa. (Corbis Corporation. Reproduced with
to catch on; yet x and :: became permanent fix-
permission.)
tures of the landscape.
Ultimately Oughtred, encouraged by the
In the realm of astronomy, Nicholas antici-
warm reception Clavis mathematicae received,
pated Copernicus (1473-1543) by many years in
would publish numerous other books. In The
saying that the center of the universe was the
Circles of Proportion and the Horizontal Instrument
Sun rather than the Earth. He also suggested
(1632), he discussed the idea of a slide rule as
that many stars in the universe had their own
an instrument to aid in navigation. Though one
worlds revolving around them; however, even
of his students later claimed that he had invent-
these scientific statements were heavily laced
ed it, Oughtred is generally credited with both
with Nicholas’s mysticism, and his belief that the
the circular and the linear slide rule, which he
center of the universe is God. He died on August
may have invented as early as 1621. The slide
11, 1464, in the town of Todi—then part of the
rule would remain an important tool of compu-
Papal States—near Rome.
tation for more than 350 years, until the advent
JUDSON KNIGHT of handheld calculators.
In the English Civil War (1642-60),
Oughtred supported the Crown against Oliver
William Oughtred Cromwell’s radical Puritans, and with the tri-
1574-1660 umph of Cromwell was forced to keep a low
English Mathematician profile. By that point he was already up in years,
and he died on June 30, 1660, not long after

A n Anglican priest who tutored students in

mathematics, William Oughtred invented
both the linear and the circular slide rules. He
King Charles II had been restored to the throne.
JUDSON KNIGHT

also introduced the symbol x for multiplication,

and :: for proportion. Blaise Pascal
Oughtred was born in Eton on March 5, 1623-1662
1574. His father, Benjamin, taught writing at French Mathematician and Philosopher
Eton School, which Oughtred attended as a
king’s scholar. At age 15, he entered King’s Col-
lege at Cambridge, where he earned his B.A. de-
gree seven years later, as well as an M.A. in
A mathematical prodigy who first made a
name for himself at age 16, Blaise Pascal
had a meteoric career that concluded before he
1600. Though mathematics was not his area of was 40. His efforts were further curtailed by his

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growing interest in a religious sect during the

Mathematics latter half of his life. Yet during his brief years of
fruitful work, he helped develop the foundations
1450-1699 of projective geometry with Girard Desargues
(1591-1661); established probability theory
with Pierre de Fermat (1601-1665); made possi-
ble new forms of calculus; and created a number
of inventions, including the syringe, the hy-
draulic press, and the world’s first mechanical
calculator.
Today the French town of Clermont, or
Clermont-Ferrand as it is now known, is famous
as the birthplace of three things: Michelin tires,
the Crusades (Pope Urban II preached the ser-
mon beginning the First Crusade here in 1095),
and Blaise Pascal. Son of mathematician and
civil servant Etienne Pascal (1588-1651) and his
wife Antoinette Bégon, Pascal came from a tight-
ly knit family. His mother died when he was
three, and this only drew him closer to sisters
Gilberte and Jacqueline, as well as his father.
When Pascal was eight, the family moved to
Paris, and there he began to excel as a student of Blaise Pascal. (Library of Congress. Reproduced with
permission.)
mathematics and ancient languages. He and his
father also became associated with the discus-
sion group that centered around Marin which proliferated in the era before electronic
Mersenne (1588-1648), and included such lu- devices—were modeled on Pascal’s design.
minaries as René Descartes (1596-1650) and From the age of 23, Pascal became increas-
Fermat. The family moved to Rouen in 1639, ingly involved with the Jansenists, a sect that be-
but Pascal and his father continued to visit Paris, lieved in predestination and divine grace as the
and in the following year the 16-year-old boy sole means of salvation. (Though they called
presented a pamphlet that impressed no less a themselves Catholics, the Jansenists most closely
figure than Descartes. resembled Calvinists, and in fact the sect was
The title was Essai sur les coniques, and Pas- later declared heretical by the Vatican.) Despite
cal’s purpose in writing it was to clarify ideas De- his growing preoccupation with spiritual mat-
sargues had presented, using highly complex ters, Pascal during this period conducted a num-
and confusing terminology, in a 1639 publica- ber of experiments to measure atmospheric and
tion. As he continued work on it, however, the barometric pressure, and used the information
youth went far beyond Desargues’s original he gathered to invent the syringe and the hy-
point, developing a theorem concerning what draulic press.
came to be known as “Pascal’s mystic hexagram.” In 1647, the family returned to Paris, and
According to the theorem, from which he de- the father died three years later. Pascal in 1654
duced some 400 corollary propositions, the had a riding accident that nearly took his life,
three points of intersection of the pairs of oppo- and as a result decided to join his sister Jacque-
site sides of a hexagon inscribed in a conic are line at the Jansenist convent of Port-Royal.
collinear. Along with Desargues’s ideas, these Thereafter his scientific work tapered off, while
helped form the basis for projective geometry. his writings in religious philosophy increased;
Despite health problems in the 1640s, Pas- however, just before this happened, an exchange
cal developed his calculator, which used cogged of letters with Fermat regarding a game of dice
wheels to perform its computations, and in led to the development of probability theory.
1649 received from the French crown a monop- Also during the late 1650s, Pascal resumed
oly for its manufacture. In fact production of the his interest in geometry. Among the figures that
calculator turned out to be prohibitively expen- attracted his attention were the arithmetic trian-
sive in that preindustrial era, but the mechanical gle—his work ultimately influenced the general
calculators that did eventually appear—and binomial theorem later put forward by Sir Isaac

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Newton (1642-1727)—and the cycloid. The lat- Pitiscus remained a staunch defender of
ter is a curve traced by the motion of a fixed Calvinism, and his influence expanded when Mathematics
point on the circumference of a circle rolling Frederick took power after his uncle, John
along a straight line. Though mathematicians Casimir, died in 1592. Frederick ruled until his 1450-1699
had been investigating cycloids for many years, death in 1610, and Pitiscus followed his patron by
Pascal was able to solve most of the remaining three years, dying on July 2, 1613, in Heidelberg.
problems involving them in just eight short days.
JUDSON KNIGHT
As it turned out, time was running short for
Pascal, who had always been sickly. In 1662, he
devoted himself to designing a public trans- Robert Recorde
portation system of carriages for Paris, but be- 1510-1558
fore the system became operational, he died on Welsh-English Mathematician
August 19 of a malignant stomach ulcer at his
sister Gilberte’s home.
JUDSON KNIGHT
R obert Recorde introduced the “equals” sym-
bol (=) to mathematical notation, and greatly
advanced mathematical education in the British
Isles. Not only was he the first to write on arith-
metic, geometry, and astronomy in English
Bartholomeo Pitiscus rather than Latin, he introduced the study of al-
1561-1613 gebra to England. Unfortunately, political in-
German Mathematician trigue cut short his career.
Born in 1510 in Tenby, Wales, Recorde was
B artholomeo Pitiscus is known primarily for
his coining of the term “trigonometry,”
which appeared in the title of his Trigonometria:
the son of Thomas and Rose Johns Recorde. His
paternal great-grandparents had been English,
sive de solutione triangulorum tractatus brevis et and he spent his career in England, beginning
perspicuus (1595). The latter, which used all six with his studies at Oxford. He earned his B.A.
trigonometric functions, became a highly re- from the latter in 1531, and after a stint at All
spected mathematical text, and was translated Soul’s College, moved to Cambridge, where he
into several languages. received his M.D. degree in 1545. Soon after-
ward, he gained a prestigious appointment at the
Pitiscus was born on August 24, 1561, in court of King Edward VI. Recorde later married,
Grünberg, Silesia, which is now the town of fathering nine children.
Zielona Góra, Poland. At Zerbst and later Hei-
Undoubtedly, Recorde’s position at court,
delberg, he studied theology under Calvinist
though it would eventually pose a liability that
teachers, and throughout his life remained a
proved fatal, in the short run provided him with
committed proponent of Calvinism, an early
the means and the freedom to embark on his ca-
Protestant sect that placed an emphasis on pre-
reer as a mathematical writer. The first of his
destination and the work ethic.
known publications was Grounde of Arts (1541),
In 1584, Pitiscus received an appointment which in addition to its scholarly overview of
to tutor 10-year-old Friedrich der Aufichtige, or contemporary mathematics provided practical
Frederick IV, elector Palatine of the Rhine. The knowledge concerning commercial math. The
boy was destined to hold an important position Pathway to Knowledge (1551) was a translation of
within the nobility of the Holy Roman Empire; the first four volumes in Euclid’s (c. 325-c. 250
thus for Pitiscus, who later became his court B.C.) Elements, and is the only one of Recorde’s
chaplain, the position was a secure one. books not written in the form of a dialogue be-
Trigonometria, first published in 1595, con- tween master and student.
sisted of three sections. The first addressed plane In The Whetstone of Witte (1557), Recorde
and spherical geometry, while the second con- presented the equals sign, using what he consid-
tained tables for the six trigonometric functions. ered a hallmark of equality: two parallel lines of
(Pitiscus carried these to five or even six decimal equal length. Other mathematical works includ-
places.) The third section consisted of assorted ed Castle of Knowledge (1556), on the properties
problems in areas ranging from astronomy to ge- of spheres, and The Gate of Knowledge, a text on
odesy. Revised editions followed in 1600, 1609, measurement and the quadrant which has been
and 1612, along with translations into English lost. He also wrote an early urological treatise,
in 1614 and French in 1619. The Urinal of Physick (1547).

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Most of Recorde’s books appeared in verse sufficiently successful in his profession that from
Mathematics form, to make memorization easier, and provid- the late 1670s (when he was in his late twenties)
ed students with detailed knowledge regarding onward, he was able to devote considerable time
1450-1699 how solutions were derived. His writing was to his avocation of mathematics.
highly readable by the standards of his time, and
A prominent self-taught mathematician of
thus made his work popular in England if not
the time—and no doubt something of a model
on the Continent, where there were few readers
for Rolle—was Jacques Ozanam (1640-1717).
of English.
Recreational mathematics, such as puzzles and
In his political career, Recorde did not prove tricks, were popular among educated French-
as successful as he had been in the world of men of that era, and Ozanam was a master,
mathematics. While serving as comptroller of putting forth problems such as the following:
the Bristol Mint in 1549, he came into conflict find four numbers such that the difference be-
with Sir William Herbert, later Earl of Pem- tween any two is a perfect square, and is also the
broke, and this led to his ostracism from court sum of the first three. It was Rolle’s solution to
and his imprisonment for 60 days. Nor did an this problem in 1682 that first brought him to
appointment as surveyor of mines in Ireland the attention of Ozanam and to the larger math-
serve to recover his good standing. He again ematical public. The publication of his solution
found himself at loggerheads with Pembroke, in Journal des scavans, the leading scientific jour-
who he charged with malfeasance, and when the nal, led to his earning an honorary pension, as
mines proved unprofitable, Recorde was re- well as his appointment to tutor the son of an
moved from his position. influential government official.
By then it was 1553, the same year Queen In 1690, Rolle published Traité d’algèbre.
Mary I (Bloody Mary) took the throne follow- The work contained what was then the novel
ing the death of her half-brother Edward. use of notation for the nth root of a number, as
Three years later, when Recorde tried to gain well as Rolle’s method of cascades. The latter
reinstatement at court, Pembroke responded used principles first put forth by Dutch mathe-
to the malfeasance charge by suing him for matician Johann van Waveren Hudde (1628-
libel. Mary and her husband, King Philip of 1704) for finding the highest common factor of
Spain, sided with Pembroke, and Recorde was a polynomial, a method Rolle used to separate
sent to King’s Bench Prison, where he was exe- the roots of an algebraic equation. When other
cuted in 1558. mathematicians complained that the book con-
JUDSON KNIGHT
tained inadequate proofs, Rolle published
Demonstration d’une methode pour resoudre les
egalitez de tous les degrez (1691). This book in-
Michel Rolle cluded Rolle’s Theorem, a special case of the
1652-1719 mean-value theorem in calculus.
French Mathematician Beginning in 1691, Rolle began speaking
out against errors in Cartesian methodology—

T he name of Michel Rolle is primarily associ-

ated with Rolle’s Theorem, which concerns
the position of roots in an equation. He also de-
first with regard to Descartes’s ordering of nega-
tive integers on the same path as positives, such
that -2 was smaller than -5. In 1699, the same
veloped the modern expression for the term nth year he was awarded a geometry pension by the
root of x, and presented what he called his “cas- Académie Royale des Sciences, he published a
cade” method for separating the roots in an alge- significant paper on indeterminate equations. He
braic equation. Rolle, whose most famous work also weighed in against the validity of infinitesi-
was Traité d’algèbre (1690), is also remembered mal analysis, and though he was eventually
for his opposition to techniques pioneered by forced to accept the discipline, his critique
René Descartes (1596-1650). helped its supporters work out difficulties in
The son of a shopkeeper, Rolle was born in their methodology.
the French town of Ambert on April 21, 1652. Rolle suffered a stroke in 1708, and was
His origins prevented him from obtaining a for- never as strong thereafter. A second attack in
mal education, and instead he went to work in 1719 proved too much, and he succumbed on
his teens as a scribe. By the age of 24 he was in November 8 of that year.
Paris, earning his living as a secretary and an ac-
countant. He married and had children, and was JUDSON KNIGHT

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Christoff Rudolff Takakazu Seki Kowa Mathematics

1499?-1545? 1642-1708
Polish-Austrian Mathematician Japanese Mathematician 1450-1699

C hristoff Rudolff wrote Coss (1525), the first

book of algebra to appear in German. This
was significant in that German was the vernacu-
T akakazu Seki Kowa was one of the few no-
table Japanese mathematicians prior to the
late modern era. At a time when his country was
lar in much of northern and central Europe, shut off from most of the world and controlled
and few among the rising bourgeois class could by military dictators called shoguns, Seki
read Latin. As for the title, it referred to the Kowa—himself a samurai under the shogu-
word cosa or “thing,” which was used to refer to nate—sparked Japanese scholars’ interest in
anything unknown or indeterminate; since alge- mathematics. In the course of his career, he de-
bra dealt with such perplexities, it was known veloped his own system of notation, as well as
as the cossic art. an early form of calculus.
Rudolff was born, probably in 1499, in the The son of a samurai named Nagaakira
village of Jauer in Silesia, which is now Jawor, Utiyama, Seki was born in the town of Fujioka
Poland. In fact the area had been culturally Pol- in March 1642. It is not clear whether his father
ish for centuries prior to his birth, but it had died, or if the father himself sent the boy to live
been dominated by Bohemians for some time, with the family of accountant Seki Goroza-
and would fall into Austrian hands in 1526. By yemon; but in any case this occurred when the
that time Rudolff, who was probably brought up boy was very small, and he took on the name of
speaking German, had long since graduated his adoptive father. From an early age, Seki
from the University of Vienna. Kowa showed himself a mathematical prodigy,
earning the nickname “divine child” because of
Following his education at the university his remarkable abilities.
(1517-21), where he studied algebra, Rudolff
continued living in the Austrian capital, where at At some point Seki Kowa married, though
the age of 26 he produced Coss. The book con- he never had any children, and went to work as
sisted of two parts, the first covering a number an examiner of accounts for the Lord of Koshu.
of topics—such as square and cube roots—nec- The latter eventually became shogun, and thus
essary to the study of algebra in the second half. Seki Kowa—a member of the samurai class by
The latter was in turn divided into three sec- birth—was named a shogunate samurai. His
tions, respectively covering first- and second-de- work as an accountant, a trade he must have
gree equations, rules for solving equations, and a learned from his adoptive father, naturally dove-
series of algebraic problems. tailed with his interests as a mathematician, and
during his late twenties, he began to teach and
No doubt in part because of its author’s write on the subject.
youth and his shocking use of German rather
than Latin, the book attracted the opprobrium Seki Kowa’s one notable publication was
of other mathematicians, who claimed that Hatubi sanpo, which appeared in 1674. The
Rudolff had lifted many of his problems and book was written in response to the an-
examples from existing works in the university nouncement of some 15 supposedly unsolv-
library. On the other hand, German mathemati- able problems that had been put forth four
cian Michael Stifel (1487-1567) defended years before; in Hatubi sanpo, Seki Kowa
Rudolff’s work, and even wrote a preface to a solved them all. However, it was not the
second edition. Japanese custom to show how one had arrived
at one’s solutions, and it appears that even
Rudolff published Künstliche Rechnung mit Seki Kowa’s students remained unaware of his
der Ziffer und mit der Zahlpfennigen (1526), methodology.
which addressed questions of computing and of-
fered problems applicable to the rising commer- Much of what the Japanese knew about
cial and industrial culture of Renaissance Eu- mathematics had been derived (as had many
rope. He followed this in 1530 with Exempel- other aspects of their civilization) from older
büchlin, which contained nearly 300 more Chinese models. Chinese math at the time made
problems. Rudolff died in Vienna in 1545. it possible to solve equations with a single vari-
able, but Seki Kowa took this several steps fur-
JUDSON KNIGHT ther. In the course of his work, he implemented

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notation he had created to express these un- Pope Leo X was the Antichrist. Within two
Mathematics known quantities. years, he was forced to leave the monastery.

1450-1699
His work was all the more remarkable in The next 13 years of Stifel’s life were a
light of the fact that Japanese mathematicians hodgepodge, a crazy-quilt pattern in which he
were unaware of algebra. It was Seki Kowa’s traveled to one town, secured a pastorate, got
achievement, however, to provide a number of into trouble (sometimes through his own fault,
advancements without the benefit of input from sometimes not), fled, and repeated the cycle.
other scholars, a situation quite unlike that of his Only through the intervention of influential
counterparts in Europe. Like Sir Isaac Newton friends such as Luther, who he befriended in
(1642-1727), who was born the same year as he, 1523, and the religious reformer Philip
he developed a method for approximating the Melanchthon, was he able to keep obtaining
root of a numerical equation, and he created his new jobs in new towns.
own table of determinants at about the same time Luther helped Stifel become pastor for the
this idea made its debut in Europe. In addition, Count of Mansfield (1523-24), a job he soon
he calculated the value of π to some 20 places. lost due to anti-Lutheran sentiment. Then he
In his latter years, Seki Kowa was granted went to work for a powerful noblewoman,
the title of master of ceremonies for the shogun’s Dorothea Jorger, before leaving again to join
household, an esteemed position. He died on Luther. The latter helped him find both a pas-
October 24, 1708, in the village of Edo, which is torate and a wife in Lochau (now Annaberg) in
now Tokyo. 1528, but by 1533 Stifel had been forced out of
the town for preaching that—according to more
JUDSON KNIGHT
numerological calculations—the world would
end on October 18 of that year.
Michael Stifel Luther and Melanchthon helped him secure
1487-1567 a position at Holzdorf in 1535, and for a time
German Mathematician Stifel’s life became more settled. During the 12
years that followed, he earned his master’s de-

K nown for his advancement of mathematics

in general, and of German mathematical ed-
ucation in particular, Michael Stifel was a fervent
gree from the University of Wittenberg, tutored
a number of students, and wrote all of his
known mathematical works. In 1544, he pub-
Lutheran given to sometimes bizarre numerolog- lished Arithmetica integra, a summation of math-
ical theories. As a mathematician, he was one of ematical knowledge up to that point. He fol-
the first to use plus and minus signs; developed lowed this a year later with Deustche arithmetica,
a system of logarithms independent of John and in 1546 with Welsche Practick. In his works,
Napier (1550-1617); and helped make algebra Stifel broke with the cossists, as algebraists in
more comprehensible to Germans by writing Germany at that time were called, by presenting
about it in their own language. a general method for solving equations to re-
Born in the German town of Esslingen in place the cossists’ 24 rules.
1487, Stifel became a monk in his twenties, and Stifel’s time at Holzdorf was brought to an
in 1511 was ordained to the priesthood. Almost end by the religious Schmalkaldic War of 1547.
immediately, however, he found himself disillu- He fled the town, and by 1551 had secured a
sioned with aspects of Catholicism, in particular parish at Haberstroh in Prussia. Eventually, how-
the church’s habit of paying its officials out of ever, more conflicts forced him to give up the min-
alms collected from the poor. Similar issues had istry altogether, and in 1559 he went to work as a
begun to enrage another Catholic monk, Martin lecturer in arithmetic and geometry at the Univer-
Luther, who in Wittenberg in 1517 would post sity of Jena. There he died on April 19, 1567.
his 95 theses challenging the established teach-
JUDSON KNIGHT
ings of Catholicism.
By 1520, Stifel’s interests in numbers and
his growing antipathy toward Catholicism had Tartaglia
led him to a complicated numerological inter- 1499-1557
pretation of the prophetic biblical books of Italian Mathematician
Daniel and Revelation. The upshot was that by
analyzing figures such as Revelation’s seven-
headed beast with 10 horns, he concluded that T artaglia, whose given name was Nicolò
Fontana, is remembered for a number of

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achievements in applied mathematics, as well as so he did, soundly defeating Fior, who could
for his translations of Euclid (c. 325-c. 250 B.C.) only answer a few of his questions. Mathematics
and Archimedes (c. 287-212 B.C.) His most Later Cardano begged Tartaglia to teach him
memorable achievement, however, was his work 1450-1699
his secret, and Tartaglia agreed on condition that
in algebra leading to a generalized solution of Cardano would not reveal it to anyone else until
cubic equations. The latter placed him at the Tartaglia published it himself. Of course
center of a heated conflict involving fellow Tartaglia had no intention of publishing infor-
mathematicians Girolamo Cardano (1501-1576) mation that gave him an advantage over other
and Cardano’s assistant Ludovico Ferrari (1522- mathematicians, and in time Cardano revealed
1565). what he knew to his assistant Ferrari. As a result,
Born in Brescia, Italy, in 1499, Nicolò the two men developed a method for reducing
Fontana was the son of a humble postal courier any generalized cubic equation to a depressed
who died when he was seven. The family was cubic—and thus they unlocked the secret of
rendered destitute by the father’s death, and as if solving cubic equations.
this were not enough, the French army attacked Later, when they discovered that dal Ferro
the town five years later. A French soldier disfig- had developed the depressed cubic first, Cardano
ured young Nicolò’s face, cutting his mouth so no longer considered himself under obligation to
badly it was difficult for him to talk thereafter. Tartaglia, and published his findings, giving
Therefore he acquired the nickname Tartaglia, credit both to dal Ferro and Tartaglia. Tartaglia
drawn from the Italian word tartagliare, “to was furious, and began conducting a fierce letter-
stammer.” Rather than be ashamed, however, writing campaign against Cardano. Ferrari de-
Fontana took on the epithet as his name. fended his mentor, and the conflict came to a
Tartaglia was almost entirely a self-made head in a public debate in Milan in 1548. It so
man, and by sheer force of will taught himself happened that Ferrari was from Milan, and thus
enough that by about the age of 18 he had ob- possessing the “home-field advantage,” he and
tained a position as a teacher of practical mathe- his supporters forced Tartaglia to back down.
matics in Verona. He remained in Verona for Though he is known primarily for his in-
more than 16 years, during which time he rose volvement in the fascinating cubic-equation im-
to the position of headmaster and may have broglio, Tartaglia also contributed to areas in-
married and had children. In 1534, he moved to cluding ballistics and surveying. His translations
Venice, where he would spend virtually the re- of Euclid and Archimedes into Italian marked
mainder of his life. the first time that many works by these ancients
During the following year, Tartaglia inadver- had appeared in a modern language. Despite his
tently became involved in the cubic-equation many achievements, however, he lived most of
problem. It so happened that Scipione dal Ferro his life in poverty, and died poor in Venice on
(1465-1526) had developed a method for solv- December 13, 1557.
ing a cubic equation lacking a second-power JUDSON KNIGHT
term—a so-called “depressed cubic”—and be-
fore his death had shared it with his assistant,
Antonio Fior. The latter was a man of no great François Viète
genius; moreover, Fior quaked with fright at the 1540-1603
prospect of a public challenge from a competing French Mathematician
mathematician (a not-uncommon occupational
hazard for mathematical scholars of the day),
which would reveal his ignorance for all to see.
Therefore he took what he thought was a pre-
I n his In artem analyticum isagoge (Introduction
to the Analytical Arts,” 1591), François Viète
established the letter notation still used in alge-
emptive strike, and challenged Tartaglia to a bra: vowels for unknown quantities or variables,
contest of wits. consonants for known quantities or parameters.
Whereas Tartaglia presented his opponent He wrote a number of other mathematical texts;
with 30 problems involving a variety of mathe- promoted the use of trigonometry for solving
matical topics, Fior hit Tartaglia with 30 prob- cubic equations; introduced a number of terms,
lems that required the use of the depressed including “coefficient”; and contributed to a va-
cubic for their solution. Thus Tartaglia was riety of other mathematical areas.
forced to figure out the depressed cubic ace pub- The son of Etienne and Marguerite Dupont
lic disgrace and probable loss of his position— Viète was born in the French town of Fontenay-

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la-Comte in 1540. By the age of 16, he was ing second, third, and fourth degree equations,
Mathematics studying law at the University of Poitiers, and and contained the first use of the term coefficient.
following his graduation obtained a position as a
1450-1699 JUDSON KNIGHT
lawyer in Fontenay. His contacts with royalty
and nobility, which would characterize his ca-
reer, began early: even at this point, Viète could John Wallis
count among his clients Queen Eleanor of Aus- 1616-1703
tria and Mary Stuart of Scotland.
English Mathematician
From 1564 to 1570, Viète worked for the
Soubise family in La Rochelle, eventually leaving
his law practice to serve first as private sectary
and later as tutor to one of the aristocratic fami-
J ohn Wallis coined the mathematical use of the
word “interpolation,” and was the first to use
the infinity symbol (∞). He introduced a num-
ly’s daughters. It was probably during this peri- ber of other terms and varieties of notation, and
od that he married his first wife, Barbe Cother- made the first efforts at writing a comprehensive
au. (After her death, he married Juliette Leclerc; history of British mathematics. A founding
he also had one child.) Also while working with member of the Royal Society, Wallis was also in-
the Soubise family, Viète embraced Protes- volved in a number of other scientific endeavors:
tantism as a member of the Huguenot sect—an for instance, he was the first hearing person to
extremely risky step in France at that time. develop a means of teaching deaf-mutes.
Viète served the French court, and worked Wallis was born on November 23, 1616, to
in a variety of official capacities, from 1570 to John, a rector, and Joanna Chapman Wallis in
1584. During this time, he published his first the Kentish town of Ashford. His father died
significant mathematical treatise, Canon mathe- when he was six, and at age nine an outbreak of
maticus seu ad triangula cum appendibus (“Mathe- the plague forced Wallis to leave Ashford. He at-
matical Laws Applied to Triangles,” 1579.) The tended several boarding schools, and while on
text promoted trigonometry, then an underuti- Christmas break one year during the equivalent
lized discipline, and made use of all six trigono- of grammar school, he first displayed his prodi-
metric functions. gious mathematical talents. After asking his
brother to teach him arithmetic, he mastered the
For five years beginning in 1584, Viète subject in two weeks, and soon proved himself
found himself out of favor with King Henry III able to perform extremely difficult computa-
for his Huguenot sympathies. Given the level of tions—for instance, calculating the square root
hatred and tension over this issue at the time, it of a 53-digit number—in his head.
is amazing that he suffered no worse punish-
ment from the Catholic monarchy—and that During his studies in medicine at Emmanuel
Henry IV reinstated him on assuming the throne College, Cambridge, Wallis wrote one of the first
in 1589. Perhaps just to stay on the safe side, papers on the circulatory system. He graduated in
Viète rejoined the Catholic Church in 1594. 1637, and earned a fellowship to Queen’s College.
By 1640 he had been ordained in the Church of
Several important publications occurred England, and five years later married Susanna
during the years following his reinstatement, be- Glyde, with whom he had three children. The
ginning with Isagoge, considered by some schol- English Civil War (1642-60) had broken out in
ars to be the first algebra textbook of the mod- the meantime, and Wallis was recruited to Oliver
ern era. In 1593, Viète published Supplementum Cromwell’s cause, using his intellectual skills as a
geometriae, which addressed topics such as the cryptographer. For his help in deciphering Royal-
trisection of an angle; the doubling of a cube (a ist communiqués, he was granted the Savilian
problem that had bedeviled many ancient Greek professorship in geometry at Oxford, which he
mathematicians); and the first known explicit would hold for the rest of his life.
statement of π as an infinite product.
Arithmetica infinitorum, published in 1655,
With De numerosa in 1600, Viète presented a was Wallis’s first important work, and was des-
method for approximating roots of numerical tined to become a standard information source for
equations. He retired two years later, and died in mathematicians during the coming decades. He
Paris on December 13, 1603. The posthumous followed this with a treatise on conics in 1658,
De aquationem recognitione et emedatione libri duo and produced a number of other writings on a
(“Concerning the Recognition and Emendation of wide variety of mathematical subjects. His Algebra:
Equations,” 1615) offered methodology for solv- History and Practice (1685) not only discussed the

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zoon and his son calculated the number to seven

decimal places, or 3.1415929. Today mathemati- Mathematics
cians know π to be an irrational number, or an infi-
nite decimal, and have corrected Anthoniszoon’s 1450-1699
seventh decimal place. Thus it is more accurately
represented as 3.141592653589793238462644....
Florimond de Beaune
1601-1652
French mathematician and astronomer. Beaune
studied law at Paris, but his status and wealth
enabled him to build an extensive library and
observatory to indulge his scientific interests. He
became friendly with many leading scientific fig-
ures, and is best remembered for writing an im-
portant Latin summary of René Descartes’ geo-
metric ideas. He also published several papers
on algebra and left a number of unpublished
writings in mathematics, mechanics, and optics
that have unfortunately been lost.
Bernard Frenicle de Bessy
1605-1675
John Wallis. (Library of Congress. Reproduced with
permission.)
French mathematician. Bessy held an official po-
sition at the Court of Monnais, and was an ama-
teur mathematician with a particular interest in
whole history of the discipline, but marked the number theory. He corresponded with many
first recorded attempt at graphically displaying the mathematicians, such as René Descartes, Pierre
complex roots of a real quadratic equation. A sec- de Fermat, Christiaan Huygens, and Marin
ond edition contained the first systematic use of Mersenne. He solved many of the problems
algebraic formulae, including numerical ratios. posed by Fermat, and introduced new ideas and
In addition to his many accomplishments— further problems. He also did early work on
including a celebrated public disagreement with magic squares, publishing Des quassez ou tables
noted philosopher Thomas Hobbes (1588- magiques. He was elected to the Académie
1679)—Wallis seems to have been adept at steer- Royale des Sciences in 1666.
ing the ever-changing political tides of seven-
Giovanni Alfonso Borelli
teenth century England. Thus despite his serving
1608-1679
the Puritan cause, he went to work as chaplain for
King Charles II following the restoration of the Italian mathematician and physiologist who de-
monarchy. After the Glorious Revolution of 1688, veloped a three-forces theory to explain the el-
a bloodless change of governments, the newly in- liptical orbits of Jupiter’s satellites (1666), which
stalled William III put Wallis to work at a familiar influenced Isaac Newton’s work on universal
task, deciphering enemy communications. Wallis gravitation. Borelli’s observations of comets
died on October 28, 1703, in Oxford. helped undermine the Aristotelian concept of
the heavens by showing their absolute distance
JUDSON KNIGHT from Earth changed and that they were above
the Moon. He also correctly explained muscular
action and bone movements in terms of levers,
but incorrectly attempted to extend this analysis
Biographical Mentions to the internal organs.

Henry Briggs
1561-1630
Adriaen Anthoniszoon English mathematician best known for his work
c. 1543-1643 in refining and popularizing John Napier’s
Dutch mathematician who made the most accurate (1550-1617) logarithms. Briggs’s wide-ranging
calculation of π up to his time. In 1600, Anthonis- talents led to him teaching medicine and mathe-

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matics. He was a keen astronomer, and became John Dee

Mathematics interested in logarithms as a means of making 1527-1608
astronomical calculations easier. His joint work English alchemist, geographer and mathemati-
1450-1699 with Napier on the development of logarithms cian. Dee was educated at Cambridge, and also
resulted in the form we still use today. He be- studied widely throughout Europe, returning to
came the first professor of geometry at Gresham England with new astronomical instruments.
College, later going on to teach at Oxford. Dee became astrologer to Queen Mary, but was
imprisoned for sorcery. He later found favor
Edward Cocker with Queen Elizabeth, casting horoscopes for
c. 1631-1675 her. He wrote on a variety of topics, such as as-
English mathematician and engraver. A skillful tronomy, astrology, alchemy, navigation, music,
and exuberant calligrapher, Cocker also taught calendar reform, and geography. Many English
writing and arithmetic. He wrote a number of explorers, particularly those in search of the fa-
works that bore his name, such as Cocker’s Ura- bled Northwest Passage, consulted Dee.
nia and Cocker’s Morals. His most famous work Albrecht Dürer
was Cocker’s Arithmetic, which ran to more than 1471-1528
100 editions over a period of 100 years. Howev-
er, some sources suggest that Cocker’s editor and German painter, printmaker, and engraver who
publisher forged the book. The phrase “accord- is considered the foremost artist of the Renais-
ing to Cocker,” meaning absolutely correct, was sance. In attempting to represent nature accu-
common usage for many years. rately in his work, he tried to develop mathe-
matical formulations for ideal beauty, including
the human body. He studied space, perspective,
John Collins and proportion, and used both arithmetic and
1625?-1683 geometric methods in composing his subject
English mathematician who wrote about sundi- matter on the canvas. His work, published in
als, cartography, accounting, navigational 1528, after his death, has had a major influence
trigonometry, and the quadrant. An apprentice on subsequent developments in art.
bookseller in Oxford, Collins became a clerk at
Court and studied mathematics. To avoid the Lodovico Ferrari
English Civil War he went to sea, where he con- 1522-1565
tinued his studies. Collins had a number of jobs, Italian mathematician who came to early promi-
from mathematics teacher to accountant. He nence as assistant to Girolamo Cardano (1501-
corresponded with many mathematicians, in- 1576). Ferrari played a key role in the imbroglio
cluding Isaac Newton and Gottfried Leibniz, and over the solution to cubic equations, which pit-
helped publish important mathematical texts. ted his mentor against Tartaglia (1499-1557).
Collins also became a member and librarian of With Cardano, Ferrari discovered that Scipione
the Royal Society. dal Ferro (1465-1526), and not Tartaglia, had
been the first to find the solution to the de-
Johan de Witt pressed cubic, itself a principal element in solv-
1625-1672 ing cubic equations. Later, Ferrari brought an
end to the heated disputes between the two
Dutch mathematician and statesman who ap- older mathematicians by soundly defeating
plied his mathematical talents to the financial Tartaglia in a 1548 public competition in Milan.
problems of Holland during his career as grand As a result of his victory, Ferrari received a series
pensionary, by arguing probabilistically that life of prominent appointments, but was poisoned
annuities were offered at too high a rate of inter- in 1565, possibly by his own sister.
est in comparison with fixed annuities. De Witt
applied the concept of expectation to form equal Antonio Fior
contracts developed in 1657 by Christiaan Huy- Assistant to Scipione dal Ferro (1465-1526),
gens in his De ratiociniis in aleae ludo (On Calcu- who unwittingly assisted Tartaglia (1499-1557)
lation in Games of Chance), which was impor- in learning his master’s solution to depressed
tant in the development of probability theory. In cubic equations. Before his death, dal Ferro had
his work in pure mathematics de Witt gave one shown Fior his method for solving the depressed
of the first systematic treatments of the analytic cubic, a cubic equation lacking a second-power
geometry of the straight line and conic in the term. Up to that point, dal Ferro alone had
Cartesian algebraic tradition. known the solution, a powerful trump card if he

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were forced into one of the public mathematical later taught at Jesuit Colleges in Rome and Graz.
competitions common at the time. As for Fior, His most important published work was a four- Mathematics
he so feared a public challenge that he preemp- volume treatise on various mathematical topics,
tively approached Tartaglia, giving him 30 prob- including solid geometry, mechanics, and cen- 1450-1699
lems involving the depressed cubic. As a result, ters of gravity, including that of the Earth.
Tartaglia was forced to find the solution, which
he did. Meanwhile Fior, who could only answer Edmund Gunter
a handful of the questions put to him by 1581-1626
Tartaglia, suffered a humiliating defeat. English mathematician and astronomer. Gunter
received a divinity degree from Oxford, and be-
John Graunt came a Rector in Southwark. In addition he be-
1620-1674 came professor of astronomy at Gresham Col-
English statistician generally credited as the lege, London. He published some navigation
founder of scientific demography. A founding works, tables of logarithms, sines, and tangents,
member of the Royal Society, Graunt began and coined the terms cosine and cotangent.
studying London death records dating back to Gunter made a number of measuring instru-
1532. He noticed a number of patterns, which ments that bore his name: Gunter’s scale,
he discussed in Natural and Political Observa- Gunter’s chain, Gunter’s line, and Gunter’s quad-
tions... made upon the Bills of Mortality (1662), rant. He was the first to observe the secular vari-
classifying death rates according to cause, and ation of the magnetic compass.
identifying overpopulated conditions as a mor-
tality-increasing factor. He also developed one of Guillaume-François-Antoine de l’Hospital
the earliest life-expectancy charts, which was 1661-1704
based on his studies of survivorship. Graunt’s French mathematician who was instrumental in
ideas had a profound effect on the demographic introducing calculus into France. His Analyse des
efforts of Sir William Petty (1623-1687), and on infiniment petitis (1696) was the first textbook on
the mathematical studies of Sir Edmund Halley differential calculus and dominated eighteenth-
(1656-1742). century thinking on the subject. Jean Bernoulli
taught him calculus and agreed to turn his
Gregory of St. Vincent mathematical discoveries over to l’Hospital for a
1584-1667 salary. Consequently, Bernoulli’s result on inde-
Italian mathematician who, in his efforts at terminate forms is known as L’Hospital’s rule.
“squaring the circle,” developed the rudiments The pedagogical qualities of l’Hospital’s Traité
of the method now known as integration. A Je- analytique des sections contiques (1707) made it
suit, Gregory taught in Rome, Prague, and the standard eighteenth-century analytic geome-
Spain, where he served as tutor in the court of try text.
King Philip IV. He also helped write the curricu-
lum for a Jesuit mathematical school in Francesco Maurolico
Antwerp, where he taught from 1617 to 1621. 1494-1575
Gregory became intrigued by the idea of con- Italian mathematician also known as Marol
structing a square equal in area to a circle, using Marul. Ordained as a priest, Maurolico served as
as his only tools a straight edge and compass— head of a mint, supervised fortifications at
an operation mathematicians now know to be Messina, was appointed to write a history of
impossible. In the course of his efforts, however, Sicily, and wrote about Sicilian fish. He also
Gregory discovered the expansion for log(1+x) wrote a number of works on Greek mathemat-
for ascending powers of x, and integrated x-1 as a ics, translating many ancient writings, and
geometric form equivalent to the natural loga- restoring some damaged texts. He worked on
rithmic function. geometry, the theory of numbers, optics, conics,
and mechanics. Maurolico published a method
Paul (Habakkuk) Guldin for measuring the Earth, and made detailed
1577-1643 studies of the 1572 supernova.
Swiss/Italian goldsmith and mathematician. Of
Jewish descent, Guldin was trained as a gold- Pietro Mengoli
smith and worked in several German towns 1625?-1686
until his conversion to Catholicism at the age of Italian mathematician. Mengoli studied at
twenty. He joined the Jesuit Order and changed Bologna, receiving doctorates in philosophy and
his name to Paul. He studied mathematics and civil and canon law. He was professor of arith-

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metic, then professor of mechanics, and finally low-status navigators and ship pilots, while also
Mathematics professor of mathematics at Bologna, as well as serving as tutor for the brothers of King John III.
becoming a parish priest. Mengoli studied infi- From his astronomical research, Nunes invented
1450-1699 nite series, especially the harmonic series. He the nonius, enabling mariners to measure frac-
wrote on the theory of limits and infinite series, tions of degrees in finding their latitude. Cosmo-
and found an infinite product expansion for pi graphically, Nunes’ distinction between rhumb
divided by two. He also published works on as- lines and great circles predates Gerardus Merca-
tronomy, refraction in the atmosphere, and tor’s more famous incorporation of this distinc-
music theory. tion into map projections.
Georg Mohr Luca Pacioli
1640-1697 c. 1445-1517
Danish mathematician. Initially taught mathe- Italian mathematician also known as Lucus Paci-
matics by his parents, Mohr later studied in Hol- uolo. A Franciscan friar and something of a trav-
land, France, and England. He fought in the eler, Pacioli became professor of mathematics at
Dutch-French wars, and was briefly a prisoner Perugia, Rome, Naples, Pisa, and Venice. He
of war. Mohr was little known in mathematics produced a number of large volumes of material
until the rediscovery of his lost book Euclides on many topics. While these books contained
danicus (1672) in a bookstore in 1928. The book little original material, they offered masterful
contains the theorem and its proof that all Eu- summaries of the mathematics known at the
clidean constructions can be carried out with time. His work provided a basis for later devel-
compasses alone, a result not found again until opments to build on. He published an important
125 years later. edition of Euclid’s work and co-wrote a book
with Leonardo da Vinci (1452-1519).
William Neile
1637-1670 Francisco Pellos
English mathematician who studied mathemat- fl. 1450-1500
ics at Oxford, and then law at the Middle Tem- Italian mathematician who anticipated the use of
ple in London. He went on to become a member the decimal point. In 1492, Pellos published
of Charles II’s privy council. Neile was the first Compendio de lo abaco, a book on commercial
person to find the arc length of an algebraic arithmetic that used the decimal dot (.) to indi-
curve. He studied the theory of motion, and cate division by 10.
made many astronomical observations from the
roof of his father’s house. Neile was one of the Jean Pena
first members of the British Royal Society. ?-1558
French mathematician who provided a unique
Isaac Newton theory to the celestial rather than conventional
1642-1727 terrestrial origin of comets. In a period of critical
English physicist and mathematician who in- rethinking on the legitimacy of the four elements
vented differential and integral calculus. He used and placement of atmospheric and celestial phe-
this tool in developing the concept of universal nomena, Pena, royal mathematician at Paris, fol-
gravitation and his three laws of motion, which lowed other unconventional thinkers in these
appeared in 1687 in Philosophiae Naturalis Prin- matters, accepting the logic of Copernicanism
cipia Mathematica—considered by many the and the rejection of wholesale Aristotelianism.
greatest work of science ever written. Newton In his treatise on geometrical optics of lens and
also demonstrated that light is composed of col- mirrors (Euclidis Optica et Catoptrica, 1557),
ors and invented a reflecting telescope. He dis- Pena noted that a comet’s tail pointed away from
covered the general binomial theorem in 1665, the Sun, prompting him to theorize that comet’s
as well as working on analysis, algebra, number were made of some celestially transparent sub-
theory, analytic geometry, and probability. stance that refracts light and causes combustion
and thus the tail.
Pedro Nunes
1502-1578 William Petty
Portuguese mathematician, astronomer, and cos- 1623-1687
mographer whose work helped maintain the English demographer and economist who was
Portuguese Empire. As mathematics professor, the first economic theorist to make an enduring
Nunes pioneered mathematical education for attempt to base economic policy upon statistical

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data. He called this line of reasoning “political cus also was first to relate trigonometric func-
arithmetic.” Because this was a time when reli- tions to angles rather than arcs of circles; pre- Mathematics
able census or sampling data were not yet avail- pared the best trigonometric tables of his time,
able, he relied on indirect indices of population, which contained values for sines, tangents, se- 1450-1699
such as the number of chimneys. Petty’s talents cants, and their complementary functions to ten
were wide-ranging. For instance, he designed decimal places; and wrote a biography of Coper-
and built twin-hulled ships, a predecessor of the nicus which has since been lost.
modern catamaran.
Michelangelo Ricci
Georg Peurbach 1619-1682
1423-1461 Italian mathematician whose work represents an
Austrian mathematician and astronomer who early example of induction. A cardinal, Ricci was
studied at the University of Vienna, then trav- known in his lifetime for his many letters on
eled through Europe lecturing on astronomy in mathematical topics, and for his correspondence
Germany, France, and Italy. He became the court with mathematicians and scientists including
astronomer of Hungary in 1454, and professor Evangelista Torricelli (1608-1647). In later
of astronomy at Vienna. He published detailed years, however, his fame rested on a 19-page
observations of the 1456 visit of what was later pamphlet called Exercitatio geometrica, De max-
named Halley’s comet. He also wrote on the imis et minimis (1666), in which he found the
computation of sines and chords, and produced maximum of xm(a-x)n and the tangents to
tables of eclipse calculations. He taught Re- ym=kxn. Among the other objects of Ricci’s study
giomontanus (1436-1476), and they collaborat- were spirals and generalized cycloids.
ed on a number of texts.
Gilles Personne de Roberval
(Johann Müller) Regiomontanus 1602-1675
1436-1476 French mathematician who became a professor
German mathematician and astronomer who in- of mathematics at the Collège Royale in Paris,
troduced Arabic algebraic and trigonometric despite his peasant background. He traveled
methods to Europe, thus providing a systematic widely through France teaching mathematics
basis for their further development. In De trian- and meeting many important mathematicians.
gulis omnimodis (1533) he developed the earliest He developed new methods of integration, and
statement of the cosine law for spherical trian- did foundational work on kinematic geometry. A
gles, and Tabulae directionum (1475) contains a founding member of the Académie Royal des
valuable table of tangents. Regiomontanus also Sciences, he invented the Roberval balance,
played a key role in reforming astronomical which is still used today. He also studied cartog-
studies in fifteenth-century Europe by empha- raphy and did experimental work on vacuums.
sizing and acting on the need for new and im-
proved observations. Wilhelm Schickard
1592-1635
Hudalrichus Regius German astronomer and mathematician. Edu-
fl. 1530s cated at the University of Tübingen, Schickard
Mathematician who showed that not all num- studied theology and oriental languages, and be-
bers of the form 2n-1 for all primes n are them- came a Lutheran minister in 1613. He was ap-
selves prime. Up to Regius’s time, mathemati- pointed professor of Hebrew at the University of
cians had assumed that this was so, since 22- Tübingen, and then in 1631 changed subjects to
1=3, 23-1=7, 25-1=31, and so on. However, become professor of astronomy. He studied as-
Regius showed that the result of 211-1 is not a tronomy, mathematics, and surveying, and in-
prime number: its result, 2047, is equal to 23 vented many calculating machines. He made sig-
multiplied by 89. nificant advances in mapmaking, and corre-
sponded with many European scientists.
Rheticus (Georg Joachim von Lauchen) Schickard was also renowned as an engraver
1514-1574 both in wood and in copperplate.
German mathematician whose Narratio prima
(1540) was the first published account of Nico- Frans van Schooten
laus Copernicus’s work. A disciple of Coperni- 1615-1660
cus, Rheticus was instrumental in convincing Dutch mathematician who translated and pub-
him to publish De revolutionibus (1542). Rheti- lished René Descartes’ Géométrie into Latin and

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trained a large number of students to give an al- Ehrenfried Walther von Tschirnhaus
Mathematics gebraic treatment of geometry in the Cartesian 1651-1708
style, including Jan de Witt and Christiaan Huy- German mathematician, physicist, and philoso-
1450-1699 gens. Van Schooten disseminated the work of pher who traveled extensively between the vari-
these students as appendices to his own publica- ous intellectual centers in his time, and became
tions, most famously Christiaan Huygens’ De ra- a veritable clearinghouse of new ideas in science
tiociniis in aleae ludo (On Calculation in Games and technology. In his book Medicina Mentis
of Chance), which was important in the devel- (“Mental Medicine,” 1687), Tschirnhaus laid out
opment of probability theory. a method of discovering rational truths as a basis
Willebrord Snell of a happy life derived from Cartesianism, Spin-
1580-1626 oza, the English empiricists, and Leibniz, whom
he greatly admired. Only true knowledge can
Dutch mathematician and physicist who discov- tame the emotions, he believed, which are the
ered the law of refraction of light rays, which sources of error and therefore of unhappiness.
states that the ratio sin i : sin r is a constant, de- Later in life he rediscovered how to make hard-
pendent on the medium, where i stands for the paste porcelain.
angle of the incident ray and r for the angle of the
refracted ray. Snell’s most sustained work was his Cuthbert Tunstall
determination of the length of the meridian, for 1474-1559
which he improved the method of triangulation
English mathematician. The Bishop of London,
of Gemma Frisius and measured the distance be-
and later of Durham, Tunstall was a key Catholic
tween Alkmaar and Bergen-op-Zoom (around 80
figure in the troubled years of the English Refor-
miles or 129 km) and later extended the network
mation. An outstanding classical scholar, he
of triangles all the way to Mechelen, Belgium.
studied theology and law at Oxford, Cambridge,
Simon Stevin and Padua. Tunstall wrote De arte supputandi
1549-1620 libri quattuor (1522), one of the first printed
Dutch mathematician and military engineer who works published in England devoted exclusively
founded the science of hydrostatics by showing to mathematics. It contained no original materi-
that the pressure exerted by a liquid upon a al, but was a very practical arithmetic text. He
given surface depends on the height of the liq- also composed many religious works.
uid and the area of the surface. While a quarter-
Johannes Widman
master in the Dutch army, Stevin invented a way
1462-1498
of flooding the polders in the path of an invad-
ing army by opening selected gates in the dike. German mathematician who studied at the Uni-
He advised the Prince Maurice of Nassau on versity of Leipzig, and became a teacher there,
building fortifications for the war against Spain. lecturing on arithmetic and algebra. He was the
Stevin in 1590 showed that Aristotelian physics first to teach the subject of algebra in Germany.
was mistaken by showing that two lead balls of Widman is best remembered for an early German
unequal weight hit the ground simultaneously arithmetic book in 1489 that has the first use of
when dropped from the tower of Delft. For a plus and minus signs. It was very successful,
long time credit for this demonstration was containing a wider range of examples than previ-
given to Galileo. ous texts; and it remained in print until 1526.
Little is known of Widman’s life after 1489.
Evangelista Torricelli
1608-1647 John Wilkins
Italian mathematician and physicist best known 1614-1672
for inventing the mercury barometer (1644). English mathematician and inventor who stud-
Torricelli made significant contributions to the ied at Oxford and became an Anglican clergy-
development of calculus—a subject he possibly man. During the English Civil War he sided with
would have invented if he had lived longer. parliament, which helped him obtain a Warden-
Using infinitesimal methods he produced the ship at Oxford. He married Robina, sister of
first modern rectification of a curve (1645), in- Oliver Cromwell (1599-1658). He promoted
dependently discovered the quadrature and cen- group discussion among scientists, and was a
ter of gravity of the cycloid, and produced what founder and first secretary of the Royal Society.
is perhaps the first graph of a logarithmic func- Wilkins published works on astronomy, me-
tion (1647). chanical devices, linguistics, and codes and ci-

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phers. He developed a new plough, a transpar- Chuquet, Nicolas. Triparty en la science des nombres
ent beehive, an improved carriage, and many (1484). At the time of this work’s publication, arith- Mathematics
meticians lacked even the most basic notational sym-
other machines. bols such as those for addition, subtraction, multipli- 1450-1699
cation, and division. Chuquet became one of the first
to offer symbols—though these bore little resem-
blance to the ones in use today—for what he called,
respectively, plus, moins, multiplier par, and partyr par.
Bibliography of He also provided notation for the previously inex-
Primary Sources pressible concept of square root: rather than
 4, he
would have written R)24.

Desargues, Girard. Traite de la section perspective (Treatise
Barrow, Isaac. Euclidis elementorum libri XV (1654). A on the perspective section, 1636). This work chal-
translation of writings by Euclid, this book became lenged existing ideas of perspective and presented
highly popular and eventually appeared in a pocket- what came to be known as Desargues’s theorem. Ac-
sized edition. cording to the latter, two triangles may be placed
such that the three lines joining corresponding ver-
Bernoulli, Jakob. Ars conjectandi (The art of conjecture, tices meet in a point, if and only if the three lines
1713). Published posthumously, this book is consid- containing the three corresponding sides intersect in
ered one of the foundational texts on probability. three collinear points. This theorem, which holds
Bouelles, Charles de. Geometricae introductionis (1503). true in either two or three dimensions, would provide
Here Bouelles addressed the age-old problem of an early foundation for what came to be known as
squaring the circle, which concerned the attempt to projective geometry.
map the area of a circle onto a square of equal size. Desargues, Girard. Brouillon project d’une atteinte aux even-
Cardano, Girolamo. Practica arithmetice et mensurandi sin- ements des recontres d’une cone avec un plan (Proposed
gularis (1539). In his first mathematical work, Car- draft of an attempt to deal with the events of the meet-
dano proved himself adept at solving cubic equations. ing of a cone with a plane, 1639). As its title suggests,
this essay dealt with conic sections and presented
Cardano, Girolamo. Ars Magna, sive de Regulis Algebraicis what amounted to a unified theory of conics. As with
(The great art, or on the rules of algebra, 1545). A Desargues’s other groundbreaking ideas, however,
book on solving algebraic equations, including cubic those in Brouillon were slow to find acceptance, in part
and quartic equations. The major breakthrough in the because of the highly arcane terminology the author
work is the first publication of the solution of cubic used, substituting tree, stump, and other botanical
and quartic equations by radicals, that is, with a for- terms for various geometrical constructs.
mula similar to the quadratic formula. Cardano also
shows his awareness of imaginary numbers in Ars Descartes, René. La Géométrie (1639). An appendix to his
Magna because they appear in the formula for the so- 1637 work Discours de la méthode pour bien conduire so
lution of the cubic equation. Our modern algebraic raison et chercher la vérité dans les sciences (A Discourse
symbolism is not present in the work, nor is the use on the Method of Rightly Conducting the Reason and
of general coefficients. Seeking Truth in the Sciences), La Géométrie is a
groundbreaking work, one of the greatest scientific
Cataldi, Pietro. Trattato del modo brevissimo di trovar la
works of the Renaissance. Analytic geometry is truly
radice quadra delli numeri (1613). Here Cataldi em-
born in this work, and from there it is a short step to
ployed infinite series and unlimited continued frac-
the invention of the calculus and a whole new era of
tions to find a number’s square root. This was per-
mathematics.
haps the first serious examination of continued frac-
tions on record. Fermat, Pierre de. Method for Determining Maxima and Min-
ima and Tangents to Curve Lines (1636). With this work
Ceva, Giovanni. De lineis rectis (Concerning straight lines,
Fermat laid the groundwork for differential calculus.
1678). This work contained Ceva’s theorem, on the
geometry of triangles, which in turn related to an area Graunt, John. Natural and Political Observations ... Made
of interest throughout much of Ceva’s career: center of upon the Bills of Mortality (1662). A founding member
gravity. His theorem found the center of gravity for an of the Royal Society, Graunt began studying London
equilateral triangle at the place where lines drawn from death records dating back to 1532. He noticed a
the vertices to opposite sides intersected. number of patterns, which he discussed in this book.
Ceva, Giovanni. Opuscula mathematica (A short mathemati- He classifyed death rates according to cause, and
cal work, 1682). Here Ceva again returned to centers of identified overpopulated conditions as a mortality-in-
gravity, this time expanding his studies to other shapes. creasing factor.
The book also contained an infamous error on Ceva’s Gregory, James. Vera circuli et hyperbola quadratura
part, his statement that the periods of oscillation pen- (1667). This work discussed the means of finding the
dulums are on the same ratio as their lengths. area for a circle or a hyperbola.
Ceva, Giovanni. Geometricamotus (The geometry of mo- Gregory, James. Geometriae pars universalis (1668). Exam-
tion, 1692). This work concerned the geometry of ined convergent and divergent series and contained
motion and contained elements that foreshadowed Gregory’s foundational ideas for what became calculus.
the infinitesimal calculus soon to be developed inde-
pendently by Gottfried Wilhelm von Leibniz and Sir L’Hospital, Guillaume-François-Antoine de. Analyse des
Isaac Newton. infiniment petitis (1696). The first textbook on differ-

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ential calculus, and the leading book on the subject Along with Desargues’ ideas, these helped form the
Mathematics during the eighteenth century. basis for projective geometry.
Mersenne, Marin. Cogitata physico-mathematica (1644). Pascal, Blaise. Traité du Triangle Arithimétique (“Treatise on
1450-1699 In this work Mersenne put forth several theorems re- the Triangle,” 1665). One of the key mathematical
garding prime numbers. The theorems turned out to treatises of its time. It focused on the properties of a
be incorrect but inspired later investigations into triangle composed of numbers, but also on other
number theories and large primes—sometimes called mathematical ideas and concepts. Among them was
Mersenne primes. Pascal’s approach to proving propositions for which
Napier, John. Mirifici logarithmorum canonis descriptio there are infinitely many cases. He informed his read-
(1614). Here Napier first presented his system of log- ers that faced with such a proposition they should
arithms. initially prove that the proposition is true for the first
case. Following that, they should prove the proposi-
Napier, John. Rabdologia (1617). Napier invented several tion for a given (or random) case. With those two
rudimentary calculators, the most famous of which proofs, the proposition is solved for the next case,
was “Napier’s bones,” a set of rods marked with num- and for an infinite number of other cases. In other
bers, which he introduced in this work. So named ei- words, he described the principle of induction.
ther because they were often made of bone or ivory,
or because of the bone-like shape of the rods, the Pellos, Francisco. Compendio de lo abaco (1492). A book
bones were but the most famous of many practical on commercial arithmetic that used the decimal dot
(and some impractical) creations from “the Marvelous (.) to indicate division by 10.
Merchiston.” Pitiscus, Bartholomeo. Trigonometria: sive de solutione tri-
Oughtred, William. Clavis mathematicae (1631).This angulorum tractatus brevis et perspicuus (1595). Pitis-
work was probably intended as a textbook for young cus is known primarily for his coining of the term
Lord William, but with its summation of all signifi- “trigonometry,” which appeared in the title of this
cant arithmetic and algebraic knowledge up to that work. The book, which used all six trigonometric
time, it proved to have much wider appeal. The au- functions, became a highly respected mathematical
thor used the book to introduce a number of pro- text and was translated into several languages.
posed mathematical symbols, but most were cumber- Recorde, Robert. Grounde of Arts (1541). In addition to
some and failed to catch on; yet x (for multiplication) its scholarly overview of contemporary mathematics,
and :: (for proportion) became permanent fixtures of this book provided practical knowledge concerning
the landscape. commercial math.
Oughtred, William. The Circles of Proportion and the Hori- Recorde, Robert. The Whetstone of Witte (1557). Here
zontal Instrument (1632). Here Oughtred discussed Recorde presented the equals sign, using what he
the idea of a slide rule as an instrument to aid in navi- considered a hallmark of equality: two parallel lines
gation. Though one of his students later claimed that of equal length.
he had invented it, Oughtred is generally credited Recorde, Robert. Castle of Knowledge (1556). A work on
with both the circular and the linear slide rule, which the properties of spheres.
he may have invented as early as 1621. The slide rule
would remain an important tool of computation for Regiomontanus. Tabulae directionum (1475). Contains a
more than 350 years, until the advent of handheld valuable table of tangents.
calculators. Regiomontanus. De triangulis omnimodis (1533). Contains
Pacioli, Luca. Summa de Arithmetica, geometria, proportioni the earliest statement of the cosine law for spherical
et proportionalita (1494). Regarded as the first printed triangles.
work on algebra, even though it was not an original Ricci, Michelangelo. Exercitatio geometrica, De maximis et
work. Concerned with the lack of teaching materials, minimis (1666). In this 19-page pamphlet, Ricci
Pacioli gathered mathematical materials from various found the maximum of xm(a-x)n and the tangents to
sources and published them in a large comprehensive ym=kxn.
text. Much of the material can be found in the Liber
abbaci of Leonardo of Pisa, a very influential work of Rolle, Michel. Traité d’algebre (1690). The work con-
its time. However, given the scope of Pacioli’s book tained what was then the novel use of notation for the
and the fact that is was one of the first texts printed, it nth root of a number, as well as Rolle’s method of
became widely circulated and hence very influential. “cascades.” The latter used principles first put forth
Its circulation and influence was also extended due to by Dutch mathematician Johann van Waveren Hudde
the fact that the book was printed in the vernacular (1628-1704) for finding the highest common factor
Italian and not Latin. of a polynomial, a method Rolle used to separate the
roots of an algebraic equation.
Pascal, Blaise. Essai sur les coniques (1640). Written when
Pascal was 16, this pamphlet clarified ideas that Gi- Rolle, Michel. Demonstration d’une méthode pour resoudre
rard Desargues had presented, using highly complex les egalitez de tous les degrez (1691). This book includ-
and confusing terminology, in a 1639 publication. As ed Rolle’s theorem, a special case of the mean-value
he continued work on it, however, Pascal went far be- theorem in calculus.
yond Desargues’ original point, developing a theorem Rudolff, Christoff. Coss (1525). The first book of algebra
concerning what came to be known as “Pascal’s mys- to appear in German. This wassignificant in that Ger-
tic hexagram.” According to the theorem, from which man was the vernacular in much of northern and cen-
he deduced some 400 corollary propositions, the tral Europe, and few among the rising bourgeois class
three points of intersection of the pairs of opposite could read Latin. As for the title, it referred to the
sides of a hexagon inscribed in a conic are collinear. word cosa or “thing,” which was used to refer to any-

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thing unknown or indeterminate; since algebra dealt Tunstall, Cuthbert. De arte supputandi libri quattuor
with such perplexities, it was known as the cossic art. (1522). One of the first printed works published in Mathematics
Rudolff, Christoff. Künstliche Rechnungmit der Ziffer und England devoted exclusively to mathematics. It con-
mit der Zahlpfennigen (1526). This book addressed tained no original material, but was a very practical 1450-1699
questions of computing and offered problems applic- arithmetic text.
able to the rising commercial and industrial culture of Viète, François. Canon mathematicus seu ad triangula cum
Renaissance Europe. appendibus (Mathematical laws applied to triangles,
Seki Kowa, Takakazu. Hatubi sanpo (1674). This book 1579). The text promoted trigonometry, then an un-
was written in response to the announcement of derutilized discipline, and made use of all six trigono-
some 15 supposedly unsolvable problems that had metric functions.
been put forth four years before; in Hatubi sanpo, Seki Viète, François. In artem analyticum Isagoge (Introduction
Kowa solved them all. However, it was not the Japan- to the analytical arts, 1591). Here Viète established
ese custom to show how one had arrived at one’s so- the letter notation still used in algebra: vowels for un-
lutions, and it appears that even Seki Kowa’s students known quantities or variables, consonants for known
remained unaware of his methodology. quantities or parameters.
Stevin, Simon. De Beghinselen der Weeghconst (1586). Viète, François. Supplementum geometriae (1593). Ad-
Here Stevin introduced what is perhaps his most fa- dressed topics such as the trisection of an angle; the
mous discovery, the law of the inclined plane. He doubling of a cube (a problem that had bedeviled
showed geometrically that a linked chain of spheres many ancient Greek mathematicians); and the first
must remain motionless when hung-over two in- known explicit statement of π as an infinite product.
clined planes joined to form a triangle, in effect
demonstrating that the gravitational force is inversely Viète, François. De numerosa (1600). With this work
proportional to the length of the inclined plane. His Viète presented a method for approximating roots of
geometric proof is the basis for the parallelogram numerical equations.
method for analyzing forces. Viète, François. Deaquationem recognitione et emedatione
Stifel, Michael. Arithmeticaintegra (1544). A summation libri duo (Concerning the recognition and emendation
of mathematical knowledge up to 1544. of equations, 1615). Posthumously published, this
work offered methodology for solving second, third,
Treviso Arithmetic (1478). The first printed arithmetic
and fourth degree equations, and contained the first
text. This work had no title and was by an unknown
use of the term “coefficient.”
author. It is now commonly referred to as the Treviso
Arithmetic because of its place of publication—Trevi- Wallis, John. Arithmetica infinitorum (1655). This was
so, north of Venice in Italy. The text is meant to be a Wallis’s first important work, and was destined to be-
training manual for young students seeking to enter come a standard information source for mathemati-
the new trading businesses in Italy. In it one finds cians during the coming decades. In it, he became the
how to write and compute with numbers (only the first person to use the term “induction” as a mathe-
four basic operations) and how to apply these tech- matical principle.
niques to questions of partnerships and trading.
Wallis, John. Algebra: History and Practice (1685). This
Tschirnhaus, Ehrenfried. Medicina Mentis (Mental medi- book not only discussed the whole history of the dis-
cine, 1687). Here Tschirnhaus laid out a method of cipline of algebra but marked the first recorded at-
discovering rational truths as a basis of a happy life tempt at graphically displaying the complex roots of a
derived from Cartesianism, Spinoza, the English em- real quadratic equation. A second edition contained
piricists, and Leibniz, whom he greatly admired. the first systematic use of algebraic formulae, includ-
Only true knowledge can tame the emotions, he be- ing numerical ratios.
lieved, which are the sources of error and therefore of
unhappiness. NEIL SCHLAGER

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Physical Sciences

Chronology


1543 Nicolaus Copernicus’s publication their foci; and that a planet will move
of De Revolutionibus Orbium, in which he faster the closer it is to the Sun.
proposes a heliocentric or Sun-centered
1619 De Chymicorum, by German physi-
universe, sparks the beginnings of the Sci-
cian Daniel Sennert—who writes of atoms
entific Revolution.
and “second-level atoms” or molecules—is
1546 German mineralogist Georgius the first application of Greek atomic theo-
Agricola publishes De Natura Fossilium, ry to chemistry.
the first scientific classification of minerals 1660 The Royal Society is founded in
and the first handbook of mineralogy. London to promote scientific inquiry.
1572 Danish astronomer Tycho Brahe ob- 1661 English physicist and chemist
serves a galactic supernova, or exploding Robert Boyle publishes The Sceptical
star, an event that puts to rest the long- Chymist, a work regarded by many as the
held Aristotelian notion that the heavens beginnings of scientific chemistry.
are perfect and unchanging.
1667 Danish anatomist and geologist
1584 Inspired by the ideas of Coperni- Nicolaus Steno first describes rock stratifi-
cus, Italian philosopher Giordano Bruno cation.
begins expounding a new idea of the uni-
verse, including concepts such as the in- 1673 Building on Galileo’s principle of
finity of space and the potential habitabili- isochronicity, Dutch physicist and as-
ty of other worlds; for this act of “heresy” tronomer Christiaan Huygens details his
he is burned at the stake in 1600. invention of the pendulum or “grandfather
clock” in Horologium Oscillatorium, which
1587 Galileo begins experiments that begins the era of accurate timekeeping that
lead to his law of falling bodies, showing is essential to the advancement of physics.
that the rate of fall of a body is indepen-
1687 Isaac Newton publishes Philosophiae
dent of its weight, and that all objects will
Naturalis Principia Mathematica, generally
fall at the same rate in a vacuum.
considered the greatest scientific work
1609 Johannes Kepler’s Astronomia Nova ever written, in which he outlines his
states his two laws of planetary motion: three laws of motion and offers an equa-
that the orbits of the planets can be drawn tion that becomes the law of universal
as ellipses, with the Sun always at one of gravitation.

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Overview: Physical Sciences 1450-1699

Physical
Sciences
1450-1699 The Medieval Foundation es, particularly astrology and alchemy. Interest-
ingly, the Renaissance started roughly with one
Medieval science and intellectual thought were
of the greatest gifts to intellectual stimulus, the
based not on direct observation and experience,
printing press, which provided a dissemination
but were heavily influenced by the Aristotelian
of knowledge of phenomenal breadth via the
view of nature (such as the four elements), and
printed word.
were further formalized by church teachings. Yet
by the mid-thirteenth century Franciscan By the mid-fifteenth century physical sci-
thinkers plied an observational/empirical logic ence was also finding vision for this new Re-
to question wholesale acceptance of ancient sci- naissance. The term “Renaissance Man” was
entific ideas, as in the impressive study of optics first given to Leonardo da Vinci (1452-1519),
and the rainbow by Robert Grosseteste (c. 1175- an artist, inventor, and scientific polymath who
1253) and others, with important contemporary delved at understanding nature with a stub-
efforts by Muslim thinkers. The heart of this crit- born brilliance for the thought process itself,
ical view formalized into the new logic of nomi- rather oblivious of formal learning. Of the
nalism, most familiarly recognized in William of more formal variety of thought, the Renais-
Occam (c. 1285-1349) and overall as a late me- sance spirit was effective in astronomy, initially
dieval disagreement with ancient, particularly through the efforts of Johann Müller (a.k.a. Re-
Aristotelian, rationalization of abstractions and giomontanus, 1436-1476) and select others
universals. More refined methodology resulted emphasizing a base of original ancient astro-
most effectively in the Parisian School of physi- nomical thought along with accurate instru-
cal theorists, headed by Jean Buridan (c. 1297-c. ments and observational technique. By the
1358), who developed early theories of impetus early sixteenth century investigators were por-
as the causal agent of motion. His follower ing over other areas of the physical sciences so
Nicole Oresme (c. 1320-c. 1382) criticized Aris- comprehensively demarcated by Aristotle in
totle’s celestial ideas by hypothesizing the realis- physics, the earth sciences, and chemistry. And
tic logic of Earth rather than the universe rotat- thinkers such as mathematician Girolamo Car-
ing, one of Nicolaus Copernicus’s later heliocen- dano (1501-1576) were challenging such an-
tric theory arguments. These steps led to the cient tenets as the legitimacy of the so-called
physical science of the next 250 years, to the four elemental building blocks of the terrestrial
dawn of the eighteenth century, a time of pro- world; the delineation of terrestrial and celes-
found transition to and foundation of modern tial boundaries and the phenomena of each;
physical science. and the immutability and perfection of celestial
space with its curious essence, the “ether.”
Nicolaus Copernicus (1473-1543) provid-
Renaissance Science ed what has popularly become known as the
By the late fourteenth century European revolutionary heliocentric theory of the uni-
thinkers began a process of turning to original verse, with Earth not only revolving around the
Greek thought as a new foundation of critical Sun but rotating on its axis. The theory’s rele-
reappraisal of the ancient legacy. This was the vance for the time was not so definitive, affect-
so-called Renaissance, roughly continuing in ing only a modest few thinkers and in more
spirit until 1600. The Renaissance was a period practical aspects of observational astronomy.
of European transitions, one much more compli- Still, there were a few scientists who took the
cated than simply the passing of medieval heliocentric theory more profoundly. A school
thought and the beginning of modern thought. of heliocentric thought developed in England
It was a time of economic and social upheaval, under Thomas Digges (c. 1543-1595), who
emphasized by the age of exploration and dis- drew from it a infinite cosmos instead of that
covery. In physical science the transition was fixed by the ancients. In Germany a large com-
outwardly noticeable, for without a new system- munity of astronomers was greatly influenced
atic base to replace that of ancient Greece, con- by its implications in pro and con arguments. In
servative thought mingled with changing views, Italy an unconventional philosopher/priest
all laced with a persistent traditional intuitive named Giordano Bruno (1548-1600) used it as
conception of knowing nature by occult process- part of his personal rebellion to church authori-

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ty and was burned at the stake for it. This theo- The century’s experimental science devel-
ry provided an impressive backdrop to a centu- oped a growing methodology of laboratory inves- Physical
ry of exploratory physical thought, groping to- tigation and instrumentation. At the forefront of Sciences
ward systematic knowledge. this movement was René Descartes (1596-1650),
grounding his mechanistic logic in physical and 1450-1699
A characteristic part of that search was ob-
servational conscientiousness, stressing collect- chemical phenomena. The building and testing of
ing and cataloguing not only physical speci- various thermometers, barometers, and hygrome-
mens in natural history, mineralogy, and geolo- ters focused on the study of air and its properties.
gy but also recording hard data of everything Jan Baptist van Helmont (1577-1644) first de-
from comets and appearance of the Milky Way fined the term “gas.” Galileo devised early forms
(not considered celestial) to rainbows and the of thermometers, while several investigators
odd shapes of hailstones. Among notable ad- worked on measuring scales, thereby setting the
vances in physical science were: Georgius Agri- stage for later studies in heat phenomena.
cola’s (a.k.a. Georg Bauer, 1494-1555) systemat- Galileo’s student Evangelista Torricelli (1608-
ic geological thought, William Gilbert’s (1544- 1647) constructed the first mercury barometer.
1603) landmark magnetic and electrical studies, Robert Boyle (1627-1691) coined the term
and Tycho Brahe’s (1546-1601) accurate astro- “barometer” and constructed many instruments,
nomical measurements and their implications, including hygrometers for studying weather
one of which was application to the new Grego- changes. He rejected the traditional base of alche-
rian Calendar (1582). my and promoted analysis of matter and sub-
stance by its composition. His experiments with
gases culminated in the pressure/volume gas law.
The Seventeenth Century: Fundamental His colleague Robert Hooke (1635-1703), adding
Base of Physical Science to a period of conjecture about the structure of
Though Brahe and some astronomers and other Earth, pondered Earth’s great age, developed at-
thinkers into the seventeenth century were still mospheric instruments, and—in experiments on
tied to astrological sympathies, that century’s as- mechanical elasticity—discovered the law of elas-
tronomers were fully occupied with accurate tic force (1678).
planetary and stellar observations. These obser- The scientific thought of the seventeenth
vations were made possible with new instru- century was an arrangement of stepping stones
ments of unparalleled sophistication. Nonethe- toward a synthesis of ideas, as more outstanding
less, Johann Kepler (1571-1630) conceived his minds provided plausible theories to solve phys-
monumental three laws of planetary movement ical problems. After mid-century that impor-
(1609, 1619) partially out of his belief in a mys- tance was made known in the transition of pri-
tical geometry of a harmonious cosmos. But oc- vate and limited patronage of science to the gov-
cult intuitiveness faded with its failure to com- ernment level. The great scientific societies were
pete with empirical and mathematical innova- beginning to appear: the Academia del Cimento
tion in explaining nature as the seventeenth (Florence, 1657), the English Royal Society
century wound toward its end. (London, 1662), and the French Académie
As in the previous century, the appearance Royal des Sciences (Paris, 1666). Institutional
of comets and a host of variation in the sup- astronomy followed suit with, for example, the
posed fixed star field continued to cast theoreti- Observatoire de Paris (1667) and the Greenwich
cal doubts about traditional ancient beliefs about Royal Observatory (1675). Paralleling these out-
the heavens. The introduction of the refracting ward signs of the credence in science were the
lens telescope early in the century also opened ideas of some of the best thinkers of the latter
up a closer look and new perspective on the part of the century. Christiaan Huygens (1629-
heavens. Galileo Galilei (1564-1642) was the 1695), in addition to telescopic discovery of Sat-
first to turn it toward the planets and discover urn’s rings and moon Titan, made important
the satellites of Jupiter, before he turned to his studies and applications in optics. He invented
landmark studies in the physics of mechanics the pendulum clock and presented the mecha-
and his later crisis in the controversy over helio- nistic theory of light (1690) as an impulse (in-
centricity. Telescopic study of sunspots and cipient wave theory), explaining light’s optical
comets with a clearer vision of the field of stars, properties. Edmond Halley (1656-1742) con-
resulting in significant advances in star cata- cluded that comets moved in closed orbits and
logues and atlases through the century, paral- appeared to be periodic. His theoretical base in
leled advances in telescope technology. this was a mathematical assurance in physical

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motion courtesy of Isaac Newton’s (1643-1727) perimental century, a significant representation

Physical method of calculating a comet’s apparent orbit. being the body of the Royal Society’s work.
Sciences “Newtonian” science was a secularized free-
Newton, who invented the reflecting tele-
dom from centuries of religious stricture on sci-
1450-1699 scope and derived calculus (1671) along with
entific thought, for it meant the discovery of in-
theorizing light behavior based on the corpuscu-
dependent and fundamental laws to the universe
lar (particle) theory, had been developing a unify-
that were mathematically derived, one of its
ing mechanical theory for both celestial and ter-
most essential being his universal law of gravita-
restrial motion based on mathematical princi-
tion between bodies. Newton’s principles of sci-
ples. This theory was a monumental culmination
entific method were the immediate legacy of
of the century’s cumulative scientific experience,
what would become physical science, what
a long-awaited systematic plan for delving into
Newton himself termed natural philosophy “dis-
nature. Newton’s mathematical concept was real-
covering the frame and operations of nature” in
ly a synthesis of the two basic scientific trends of
established rules and laws based on observation
the seventeenth century. The one was a mathe-
and experiment. These rules and laws became
matical rationalism, basically a deductive method
the now-defined classical physics thread that
seen in Descartes or Galileo, while the other was
bound the fabric of physical science for the next
a mathematical empiricism, the inductive
two hundred years.
method of experimentation, declared by Francis
Bacon (1561-1626) and carried out by this ex- WILLIAM MCPEAK

Science and Christianity During the

Sixteenth and Seventeenth Centuries


Overview Early Christian theology adopted a somewhat
equivocal attitude toward science. On the one
In the late 1800s, John W. Draper and Andrew
hand, the Scriptures viewed the universe as an or-
D. White established a widespread belief in an
derly and purposive realm, originally created by
irreconcilable “warfare” of science with “dogmat-
God as “good” and reflecting His nature, above all
ic theology.” Both depicted a historical battle of
in man as a rational being made “in the image and
enlightened, progressive, objective reason (sci-
likeness” of God. The study of nature was thus not
ence) continually advancing against blind igno-
only possible but desirable, offering a means to the
rance, superstition, and prejudice (religion),
greater knowledge and glorification of God. The
with Galileo’s trial and condemnation as the cen-
Genesis creation account of God’s granting stew-
tral illustration. Although historians have long
ardship over Earth to Adam and his descendants
known that this portrait relied on highly biased
likewise encouraged investigation of nature. On
selections and interpretations of the historical
the other hand, the Scriptures also depicted the
evidence, it remains fixed in the popular imagi-
Creation as fallen and distorted by sin, with the
nation. In fact, relations between Christianity
New Testament emphasizing the renunciation of
and science in the sixteenth and seventeenth
worldly concerns for heavenly ones as vital to per-
centuries were extremely complex—by turns
sonal redemption. This implied that curiosity
mutually antagonistic, indifferent, or support-
about nature should be a matter of relative indif-
ive—as both underwent profound changes dur-
ference to the believer, lest it become a snare to sin
ing the parallel courses of the Reformation and
by distracting attention away from spiritual devo-
the Scientific Revolution.
tion to God and the pursuit of salvation.
In adapting ideas about nature from pagan
Background philosophies (Aristotelianism and Platonism) it
Prior to the sixteenth century, relations between found compatible, Christian thought strove for a
natural philosophy (as science was called until the balance between two extremes. The natural order
nineteenth century) and Christianity were general- was neither to be worshipped as divine (Sto-
ly harmonious, if not entirely free from tension. icism), nor rejected as without purpose (Epicure-

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Physical
Sciences
1450-1699

Galileo before the Inquisition. (Bettmann/Corbis. Reproduced with permission.)

anism) or evil (Gnosticism), but contemplated as servience with respect to theology. When Aristo-
an originally good creation, corrupted by sin but tle’s metaphysical notions contradicted basic
destined with man to divine redemption and Christian doctrines, such as in asserting the eter-
restoration. Faith in God and scriptural revela- nity of the universe instead of its creation in
tion was not a restriction on the exercise of time by God, they were modified or rejected.
human thought, but rather the initial foundation The famous condemnation in 1277 by the Bish-
which made right reasoning possible. Philoso- op of Paris of 219 propositions drawn from Aris-
phy, including natural philosophy, assumed its totle may actually have advanced rather than im-
proper role as the “handmaiden of theology”; peded medieval natural philosophy, by opening
along with prayer and the sacraments, it was in- avenues to alternative approaches.
strumental to salvation, providing rational meth-
ods for understanding God’s revelation. As the Impact
primary literate class in medieval Europe, priests
Relations between natural philosophy and Christ-
and monks were the chief practitioners of natural
ian theology became increasingly unsettled begin-
philosophy, focusing upon mathematics, physics,
ning in the sixteenth century. The recovery during
astronomy, zoology, and botany.
the Renaissance of additional ancient Greek texts
The recovery of ancient Greek scientific and gave rise to a Christian humanist movement that
medical texts by Aristotle (384-322 B.C.), Ptole- challenged both Aristotle’s natural philosophy
my (c. 140) and Galen (130-200) during the and existing scholastic methods of textual inter-
thirteenth century dramatically expanded West- pretation, especially as applied to Scripture. Ad-
ern scientific knowledge and altered relations vances in astronomical, mathematical and med-
between natural philosophy and theology. ical techniques generated new observations that
Scholastic theologians distinguished between existing theories could not accommodate. Thou-
the created “book of Nature” and the written sands of novel plants and animals observed in the
“book of Scripture” as two complementary av- newly discovered Americas rendered the ancient
enues of divine revelation. Each book had its zoological and botanical systems of Aristotle and
own integrity and proper principles of interpre- Theophrastus (372-287 B.C.) obsolete. The helio-
tation, and knowledge gained from either one centric theory of Copernicus (1473-1543) con-
could be used to correct understanding of the fronted the geocentric theory of Ptolemy in as-
other. Natural philosophy thus implicitly as- tronomy; Paracelsus (1493-1541) with his system
sumed a position of autonomy rather than sub- of immaterial chemical principles rejected both

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Aristotle’s theory of material elements and Galen’s dogma, however. Attacks on and defenses of
Physical medical theory of bodily humors; and the obser- Copernicanism often reflected not just opposing
Sciences vations of Andreas Vesalius (1514-1564) over- theological views, but also power struggles be-
threw Galen’s authority in anatomy. tween different priestly orders within the Catholic
1450-1699 Church, and the theory was also an issue in Jesuit
At the same time, deepening theological divi-
efforts to reconvert Protestant areas of Germany
sions between Roman Catholicism, Lutheranism,
back to Catholicism. As a recipient of royal pa-
and Calvinism resulted in significantly revised ap-
tronage from the Venetian, Pisan, and Florentine
proaches to biblical interpretation. Patristic and
courts, Galileo was enmeshed in a complex web of
medieval theologians had exercised considerable
political intrigue and envious competition for
latitude in expounding scripture, understanding
prestige between rival Italian city-states. In an age
many passages figuratively or allegorically.
of violent personal invective unrestrained by libel
Against this, however, most Protestant Reformers
laws, Galileo also excelled in penning scorching
stressed a more strictly literal interpretation of
insults of his Jesuit opponents, earning several bit-
biblical texts as the only one assuring fidelity to
ter and influential enemies. With a singular lack of
their true meanings. Similarly the Catholic
humility and tact, he even presumed to instruct
Church, seeking to counteract both Protestantism
cardinals on points of biblical exegesis and doctri-
and extreme heretical sects, narrowed the range
nal interpretation, and offended Urban VIII by in-
of acceptable interpretive approaches, by system-
serting one of his arguments into the mouth of
atizing church doctrine in authoritative pro-
Simplicio, the Aristotelian dupe of the Dialogue.
nouncements such as those of the Council of
Galileo’s support for atomism may have been yet
Trent. One consequence of these trends was that
another complicating factor. Far from being sim-
scientific theories which previously were of little
ply an instance of persecution of enlightened sci-
concern now came under scrutiny for their possi-
ence by religious obscurantism, Galileo’s condem-
ble theological implications.
nation percolated in a seething cauldron of potent
The most famous adversarial encounter be- political and personal rivalries, containing a poiso-
tween science and Christianity arising from these nous stew of hostile theological and philosophical
myriad cross-currents was the case of Galileo agendas, spiced by his own arrogance.
Galilei (1564-1642). For some theologians, the
displacement of Earth by the Sun from the center Unfortunately, the notoriety of the Galileo
of the universe in the Copernican theory also im- affair has obscured its exceptional nature. Histo-
plied a heretical displacement from the focus of rians have discredited apocryphal criticisms of
the Creation of man’s redemption by Christ. In Copernicus attributed to Martin Luther (1483-
1616, the Catholic Church briefly placed Coper- 1546) and John Calvin (1509-1564), and the
nicus’ De Revolutionibus on the Index of Prohibit- Copernican theory faced little formal theological
ed Books until a few objectionable passages opposition in Protestant areas. Even in Roman
could be excised. Galileo, the leading advocate of Catholic dominions, little effort was made out-
the Copernican theory, was summoned to Rome, side of Italy and Spain to hinder its study and
where he accepted a certificate from Cardinal use. Although the French philosopher René
Robert Bellarmine pledging that he would not Descartes (1598-1650) withheld his recently
present the theory as anything other than a hy- completed Le Monde from publication for several
pothesis. Bellarmine died in 1621, and in 1623 years because it endorsed Copernicanism, his
Galileo’s friend Cardinal Maffeo Barberini ascend- colleagues Pierre Gassendi (1592-1655) and
ed to the papal throne as Urban VIII. After six Marin Mersenne (1588-1648), both priests, con-
private audiences with Urban, Galileo rashly be- tinued to discuss the theory in public correspon-
lieved he had permission to publish a defense of dence without interference. By 1700, even Jesuit
Copernicanism, and in 1632 his Dialogue on the astronomers in the many church-based observa-
Two Chief World Systems appeared. Summoned to tories throughout Catholic parts of Europe used
Rome and interrogated by the Inquisition, the the Copernican theory to make astronomic cal-
aged Galileo was compelled in 1633 to renounce culations. The belated removal of Galileo’s Dia-
Copernicanism as a heresy contrary to the logue from the Index in 1832 was merely an ac-
Catholic faith, and his book was placed on the knowledgment of what had been a dead letter
Index. A sentence of life imprisonment was com- for over a century.
muted to house arrest at his estate in Florence.
A second area of tension between scientific
The Galileo affair involved far more than a theories and religious doctrines concerned sev-
supposed conflict between new science and old enteenth century corpuscular matter theories.

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Because ancient atomic theory had posited that genuine piety rather than mere lip service, and
atoms were uncreated, eternal, indivisible, infi- many scientists were deeply involved in church Physical
nite in number, and in unceasing motion ac- matters. Two founders of the Royal Society of Sciences
cording to immutable laws of impersonal fate, London, John Wilkins (1614-1672) and Thomas
with occasional completely random swerves, Sprat (1635-1713), became Anglican bishops; 1450-1699
they were long associated with atheism, as deny- the anatomist and geologist Nicolaus Steno
ing God’s creation of matter and providential [Niels Stensen] (1638-1686) became a Roman
governance of events. Atomism also implicitly Catholic bishop and was canonized as a saint in
contradicted the key Roman Catholic doctrine of 1988; the physicist Blaise Pascal (1623-1662) is
transubstantiation—that the underlying sub- more famous today for his devotional Pensées
stance of consecrated bread and wine in the Eu- than his scientific research; and Sir Isaac Newton
charist changes into the Body and Blood of (1642-1727) left thousands of pages of unpub-
Christ, while the equally real external accidents lished theological notes that far exceeded his
remain the same—by denying the Aristotelian published scientific output.
doctrine of substantial essence and making the Consequently, most historians now ask
qualities merely phenomenal appearances. In re- whether and how Protestant or Catholic theology
sponse, advocates of corpuscularian theories may have actively encouraged the development
such as Gassendi adapted them to conform to of science, and whether and how the religious
Christian doctrine, with God first creating a fi- convictions of individual scientists influenced
nite number of atoms in time out of an infinitely their scientific theories. Much attention has been
divisible matter and then setting and maintain- given to the “Merton thesis,” which argues that
ing them in motion by His power according to English Puritans constituted an usually high per-
His purposes. While this did not allay all suspi- centage of English scientists, due to a strong em-
cions of heresy, corpuscular theories nonetheless phasis in Calvinist theology on the study of na-
were widely accepted by the end of the century. ture as a chief means to the glorification of God,
a sense of divine calling to a specific earthly voca-
A third and very different challenge to Chris-
tion, and the fruitful production of good works
tian orthodoxy came from neo-Platonic advo-
as a sign of predestination to eternal salvation.
cates of “natural magic.” Along with many
While a connection clearly existed in England
Paracelsians, they championed a science based
between Protestant nonconformity and science, it
upon mastery of immaterial cosmic powers, ac-
is debatable whether this was due to a special Pu-
cording to an occult or esoteric knowledge of di-
ritan theological affinity for science, or because
vinely created “signatures” embedded in every
dissenters were legally excluded from preferment
natural object. The close affiliation of such no-
in government, university, and established
tions to Gnosticism and sorcery, and belief by
Church positions, and therefore sought other av-
many of their partisans in anti-Christian heresies
enues for social advancement. The same applies
such as denial of the Trinity and the Incarnation,
to the large number of Protestants among scien-
led both Roman Catholic and Protestant authori-
tists in Catholic France. At present, most scholars
ties to oppose these ideas strenuously, a famous
believe that while Catholicism as such was no
instance being the execution of Giordano Bruno
less favorable to science than Protestantism, the
(1548-1600) by the Inquisition. Also, advocacy
greater institutional centralization and uniformity
of atomism and Copernicanism by some neo-Pla-
of the Catholic Church reinforced a more conser-
tonists imparted a suspicious taint to those theo-
vative outlook among Catholic scientists, making
ries that was not easily removed.
them less receptive to novel theories at variance
Aside from these occasional points of fric- from Aristotelian natural philosophy.
tion, however, most theologians and natural New tensions between science and religion
philosophers alike viewed the study of nature as emerged, however. The development of the sci-
cultivating rather than undermining real faith entific concept of natural law, and its successful
and devotion. The regularities, harmony, and hi- application to the explanation of many hitherto
erarchical structure of the Creation, discovered puzzling phenomena, reduced the scope previ-
by science and embodied in natural laws, re- ously allowed for divine miracles. The tremen-
vealed for many the marvels of God’s creative dous increase in scientific knowledge mitigated
omnipotence and goodness. Both the published the loss of ancient knowledge once thought to
books and private letters of virtually every scien- form part of original sin. The abandonment of
tist of the era are studded with innumerable reli- teleological (purposive) explanations of natural
gious references, expressing unquestionably phenomena for merely descriptive ones—of

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questions asking why for ones merely asking Draper, John W. History of the Conflict Between Religion
Physical how—appeared to neglect or even deny the role and Science. New York: D. Appleton and Co., 1875.
Reprint ed. New York: De Young, 1997.
Sciences of Divine providence. Reliance on reason and
sensory observation eroded trust in divine revela- Harrison, Peter. The Bible, Protestantism, and the Rise of
1450-1699 Natural Science. Cambridge: Cambridge University
tion, as rationally demonstrable “natural religion”
Press, 1998.
and Deism rejected any mystical aspect to faith.
While many scientists successfully resolved these Hooykaas, Reijer. Religion and the Rise of Modern Science.
Edinburgh: Scottish Academic Press, 1972.
tensions, the very fact that some felt it necessary
to marshal science in defense of Christianity Langford, Jerome L. Galileo, Science and the Church. 3rd rev.
ed. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1992.
against scepticism—the chemist Robert Boyle
(1629-1698) endowed a lectureship for this pur- Merton, Robert K. Science, Technology, and Society in Sev-
pose—indicated a widespread uneasiness over an enteenth-Century England. New York: Harper and Row,
1970. Originally published in Osiris 4 (1938): 360-
increasing estrangement of science from religion. 632.
Early modern science and Christianity thus Numbers, Ronald L., and David C. Lindberg, eds. God
were neither necessarily allies nor enemies. In- and Nature: Historical Essays on the Encounter Between
stead, due to profound changes in each, a grow- Christianity and Science. Berkeley: University of Cali-
ing divergence between them gradually surfaced; fornia Press, 1986.
science ceased to be the handmaid of theology Westfall, Richard. Science and Religion in Seventeenth-Cen-
and assumed an independent status. Because of tury England. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press,
1958.
its spectacular and continuing success in adding
to man’s knowledge and control of the natural White, Andrew D. History of the Warfare of Science with
world, science has gained such power and pres- Theology in Christendom. 2 vols. New York: D. Appleton
and Co., 1896. Reprint ed. New York: Dover, 1960.
tige that for many people it has displaced rather
than supported religion as the foundation for
their most fundamental beliefs. As scientific and Articles in Books
Dear, Peter. “The Church and the New Philosophy.” In
religious thought both have continued to deepen Science, Culture and Popular Belief in Renaissance Eu-
and change, their mutual relations have also rope, ed. by Stephen Pumfrey, Paolo L. Rossi and
continued to converge and diverge in complex, Maurice Slawinski. Manchester: Manchester Universi-
unpredictable and fascinating ways. ty Press, 1991: 119-139.
Pedersen, Olaf. “Science and the Reformation.” In Uni-
JAMES A. ALTENA
versity and Reform: Lectures from the University of
Copenhagen Symposium, ed. by Leif Grane. Leiden: E.
J. Brill, 1981: 35-62.
Further Reading
Russo, François. “Catholicism, Protestantism, and the
Books Development of Science in the 16th and 17th Cen-
Brooke, John H. Science and Religion: Some Historical Per- turies.” In The Evolution of Science, ed. by Guy S. Mé-
spectives. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, traux and François Crouzet. New York: New Ameri-
1991. can Library, 1963: 291-320.

Nicolaus Copernicus Begins a Revolution

in Astronomy with His Heliocentric Model
of the Solar System


Overview Copernicus’s abolition of the equant, which re-
The publication of Nicolaus Copernicus’s (1473- stored uniform circular motion as the basic
1543) De Revolutionibus Orbium Celestium in axiom of astronomy. Most early supporters
1543 was attended by no official opposition. The passed over in silence the question of the sys-
heliocentric system Copernicus presented was tem’s physical reality. Theoretical improvements
initially viewed as a hypothetical model devised made possible by Copernican theory and new
merely to facilitate computation. For many, the observations helped undermine Aristotelian
most attractive feature of the new system was physics and with it geocentrism—the idea that

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the Sun and all other planets in the Solar System

revolved around Earth. By the mid-seventeenth Physical
century the heliocentric view reigned supreme, Sciences
though Copernicus’s circular orbits had by then
been replaced by Johannes Kepler’s (1571-1630) 1450-1699
elliptical orbits.

Background
The theoretical framework of pre-Copernican
astronomy was established in the Almagest of
Ptolemy (c. 100-c. 170). Drawing heavily on the
work of previous Greek astronomers, especially
Hipparchus (c. 170-c. 120 B.C.), this work de-
veloped a theory of the universe employing geo-
centric models to predict planetary motions.
Ptolemy appealed to Aristotelian physics to
show Earth was at rest. He then geometrically
demonstrated Earth is the center of the universe
with the fixed stars moving together as a sphere.
He further assumed, in accordance with Aris-
totelian teaching, that all celestial bodies move
about Earth in perfect circles. To obtain agree- Nicolaus Copernicus. (Library of Congress. Reproduced
ment between observations and predictions with permission.)
based on circular motions, Ptolemy used epicy-
cles, deferents, eccentrics, and other noncircular bach attempted to produce a revised and cor-
motions. He also found it necessary to introduce rected version of the Almagest but died before
the equant—an imaginary point around which finishing it. Regiomontanus completed Purbach’s
celestial objects moved—to approximate uni- Epitome of Astronomy. This work contained, in
form motion about an off-center point. addition to the Purbach-Regiomontanus transla-
Aristotle (384-322 B.C.) also regarded the tion of the Almagest, critical commentary and re-
planetary orbs as solid celestial spheres that vised computations. Published in 1496, the
formed a unified mechanism explaining the work was a great success and attracted the atten-
movements of celestial bodies. Though relying tion of Copernicus, who was particularly struck
on Aristotelian physics, the Almagest makes no by the errors inherent in Ptolemaic lunar theory.
attempt to interpret epicycles and deferents as
Copernicus was not so much exercised by
physically real, nested spheres. Regardless of
inaccurate predictions as he was by the lack of
whether or not Ptolemy actually held this view,
“perfection” exhibited by the Ptolemaic system,
it was adopted by Medieval astronomers who
especially with respect to uniform circular mo-
considered it an essential component of the
tion. His solution was to give Earth a simple cir-
Ptolemaic system.
cular orbit about a static, off-center Sun. Fur-
Models resembling those of the Almagest thermore, in this heliocentric model (more accu-
were used in the Middle Ages to calculate tables rately heliostatic, since the Sun is not really the
of planetary motions, an example being the Al- center of the system) the diurnal rotation of the
fonsine Tables (1252). However, most medieval heavens is accounted for by the rotation of
European astronomical work amounted to little Earth. A canonical wobble about Earth’s axis of
more than the collection and reorganization of rotation was also proposed to explain preces-
Arabic and ancient Greek material. No new ob- sion.
servations of importance were undertaken, and
As radical as Copernicus’s system was, his
by the mid-fifteenth century the Alfonsine Tables
firm commitment to maintaining uniform circu-
(1252) were sorely in need of revision.
lar motion precluded any real simplification
Georg von Purbach (1423-1461) pointed over the Ptolemaic system. He continued using
out to Johannes Regiomontanus (1436-1476) epicycles, deferents, and eccentrics. By replacing
the inaccuracies of existing tables as well as the Earth with the Sun, Copernicus immediately
need for better translations of Greek texts. Pur- eliminated five large planetary epicycles. How-

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ever, his rejection of the equant, because it failed 1631) indicated this phenomenon was located
Physical to preserve uniform circular motion, required among the fixed stars. This undermined the
Sciences the introduction of secondary epicycles. The real Aristotelian notion that the heavens were perfect
power of Copernicus’s system was to be found in and unchanging. Brahe and Mästlin’s observa-
1450-1699 the trigonometric methods he used and his im- tions of the comet of 1577 dealt another blow to
proved lunar theory. It should also be mentioned Aristotelian cosmology. Because the erratic be-
that Copernicus believed his heliocentric model havior of comets was incompatible with the im-
was physically true. mutability of the heavens, Aristotle maintained
they were atmospheric exhalations. Brahe and
Copernicus first described his heliocentric
Mästlin’s parallax measurements for the 1577
system in the brief essay “Commentariolus.”
comet indicated it was more distant than the
Composed sometime before 1514, it was private-
Moon. Furthermore, Brahe concluded that its
ly circulated. De Revolutionibus was completed in
orbit was elongated, suggesting it had passed
the early 1530s but Copernicus delayed publica-
through several planetary spheres—impossible if
tion. Hearing of this work, Georg Joachim von
planetary spheres were solid.
Lauchen, self-named Rheticus (1514-1574),
traveled to Frauenburg in 1539 to examine the These celestial events led Mästlin to com-
manuscript. Rheticus realized the full revolution- pletely reject Aristotelian cosmology and adopt
ary impact of the work and urged Copernicus to Copernican heliocentrism. After attending
publish immediately. Copernicus refused but did Mästlin’s lectures on the superiority of Coperni-
allow Rheticus to publish a summary account cus’s cosmology, Kepler embraced Copernican-
that appeared under the title Narratio prima ism as well. Meanwhile, Thomas Digges (c.
(1540). Copernicus finally relented and agreed to 1546-1595) had already taken up the Coperni-
let Rheticus prepare De Revolutionibus for publi- can cause, becoming its foremost exponent in
cation. Andreas Osiander (1498-1552), a Luther- England. Digges translated portions of Coperni-
an minister who saw the book through press, cus’s De Revolutionibus and appended his own
penned an anonymous and unauthorized preface views on an infinite universe with fixed stars at
stating the heliocentric hypothesis was merely a varying distances from Earth (1576).
mathematical model and not intended as a true
description of the universe. Brahe also rejected the Ptolemaic system as
incompatible with his observations, but belief in
the Bible and a lack of stellar parallax prevented
Impact him from accepting Copernican heliocentrism.
As a compromise he advanced his Tychonic the-
De Revolutionibus appeared in March 1543. ory, in which all of the planets but Earth orbit
Though Osiander’s preface may have forestalled the Sun, with the Sun and its train of planets re-
official opposition to the work, many theologians volving about a stationary Earth (1588). This
denounced Copernican heliocentrism because of system avoided many of the pitfalls of the Ptole-
its conflict with the Bible, and Aristotelians maic system while preserving a stationary Earth.
everywhere objected to the very idea that Earth Brahe’s theory gained acceptance in many quar-
could be in motion. Despite such objections, De ters over the next 50 years.
Revolutionibus acquired a small following.
Galileo (1564-1642) announced his sup-
Erasmus Reinhold (1511-1553) was one of
port of Copernicanism with the publication of
the earliest supporters of the Copernican system.
his telescopic discoveries in Sidereus nuncius in
He made extensive corrections to De Revolution-
1610. Galileo’s discovery of four satellites orbit-
ibus and calculated the Tabulae Prutenicae (1551).
ing Jupiter contradicted the widely held belief
This was the first set of practical planetary tables
that Earth was the center of rotation for all celes-
based on Copernicus’s theory. More accurate than
tial bodies, and his observation of mountains
the Alfonsine Tables, Reinhold’s tables were widely
and depressions on the lunar surface refuted the
adopted and provided a strong argument in favor
Aristotelian notion that the Moon was a perfect
of Copernicanism. However, Reinhold’s focus on
sphere. Galileo also discovered sunspots and the
Copernicus’s mathematical modeling and silence
phases of Venus. The latter discovery removed a
regarding the physical reality of heliocentrism
serious objection to Copernican heliocentrism.
encouraged a similar attitude in German as-
The primary effect of Galileo’s findings was to
tronomers that persisted well into the 1570s.
further undermine Aristotelian cosmology,
Observations of the nova of 1572 by Tycho which served as the foundation of the Ptolemaic
Brahe (1546-1601) and Michael Mästlin (1550- system. Galileo furnished further support for

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Copernicanism in his Dialogue Concerning the two orders of magnitude better than anything
Two Chief World Systems (1632). Having intro- previously achieved and did much to recommend Physical
duced the principle of inertia, he demonstrated Kepler’s heliocentric theory to right-thinking Sciences
that objects on a rotating Earth would behave no minds. The success of heliocentrism was sealed
differently than on a stationary Earth. when Pierre Gassendi (1592-1655) in 1631 ob- 1450-1699
served the transit of Mercury across the disk of
Johannes Kepler provided the crucial ad-
the Sun—just as Kepler predicted.
vance in the ascendancy of heliocentrism. He
joined Brahe in Prague in 1600. After Brahe died STEPHEN D. NORTON
the next year, Kepler secured control of his in-
comparable data set and spent the next eight
years devising various geometrical schemes to Further Reading
account for the observations of Mars. Kepler fi- Books
nally determined that the orbit of Mars, as well Cohen, I. Bernard. The Birth of the New Physics. New
as those of the other planets, describes an ellipse York: W. W. Norton and Company, 1985.
with the Sun occupying one foci. This is known Copernicus, Nicolaus. Nicolaus Copernicus On the Revolu-
as Kepler’s first law. At once, the Ptolemaic and tions. London: Macmillan, 1978.
Copernican epicycles and eccentrics were com- Gingerich, Owen. The Eye of Heaven: Ptolemy, Copernicus,
pletely eliminated. Furthermore, since one of the Kepler. New York: American Institute of Physics,
foci of each planetary ellipse was anchored on 1993.
the Sun, the Sun truly occupied a central posi- Grant, Edward. Planets, Stars, and Orbs: The Medieval Cos-
tion within the solar system. Kepler also showed mos, 1200-1687. Cambridge: Cambridge University
that planets sweep out equal areas in equal times Press, 1994.
as they move about in their orbits. Known as Hall, A. Rupert. The Scientific Revolution: 1500-1800. Lon-
Kepler’s second law, this implies that planets don: Longmans, Green and Co., 1954.
move faster when closer to the Sun. Published in Kuhn, Thomas. The Copernican Revolution. Cambridge,
Astronomia nova (1610), Kepler’s first two laws MA: Harvard University Press, 1957.
directly challenged the traditional canon of uni- Articles
form circular motion. Kepler’s third law ap- Jardine, Nicholas. “The Significance of the Copernican
peared in Harmonices mundi (1619). Orbs.” Journal for the History of Astronomy 13 (1982):
168-94.
Kepler completed the Tabulae Rudolphinae
Kraft, F. “The New Celestial Physics of Johannes Kepler.”
(Rudolphine Tables) in 1627, having developed In S. Unguru, ed., Physics, Cosmology, and Astronomy,
their theory in accordance with his new planetary 1300-1700: Tension and Accommodation. Dordrecht:
laws. The predictive accuracy of these tables was Kluwer, (1991): 185-227.

The Gregorian Reform of the Calendar

Overview Background
Few of us have cause to question whether or not Calendars are human constructs that allow us to
calendars are correct. We hang them on the wall track the passing of time. Certain aspects of the
to remind us of what day and month it is, or calendar have an astronomical basis. A day is the
when holidays fall. In the Middle Ages, one of time it takes for the Earth to rotate one time, a
the most important functions of the calendar was month is related to the time it takes for the
to set the dates for important religious festivals, Moon to complete its cycle of phases, and a year
such as Easter. By the thirteenth century, as- is the time is takes for the Earth to revolve one
tronomers began to notice that the calendar cur- time around the Sun. The difficulty with using
rently in use did not correspond to observations; these particular events to mark the passing of
most significantly, the equinoxes did not fall on time is that they are not commensurate; that is,
the days on which they were supposed to fall. In they do not divide evenly one into the other. For
1582, after centuries of calls for calendar reform, example, there are 365.2422 days within a year.
the Gregorian reform was finally established. If we counted only 365 days within a single year,

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we would soon find that the seasons were occur- prevented the papacy from actually accomplish-
Physical ring at the wrong time of the year. ing the reform but in the last quarter of the six-
Sciences The problem of commensurability was rec- teenth century, Pope Gregory XIII brought to-
ognized in antiquity. The Julian calendar, named gether a commission of clergy, mathematicians,
1450-1699 and astronomers to reform the calendar. That re-
for Julius Caesar, was established in the year 46
B.C., and was used subsequently throughout Eu-
form would bear his name: the Gregorian reform.
rope. This calendar corrected the errors that had
The basic scheme of the reform came from
accumulated, used 365 days per year, and added
the work of Luigi Lilio, also commonly referred
one extra day every four years (the leap year).
to by modern authors as Luigi Giglio or Aloisius
Under this scheme, the year was assumed to
Lilius. In 1582, when the reform was to take
have 365.25 days. Although this is very close to
place, the vernal equinox fell on March 11. To
the true number of 365.2422, even this small
bring the equinox back to the traditional date of
difference would amount to an appreciable error
March 21, 10 days would be removed from the
over a few centuries.
calendar; the dates October 5 through October
This error was eventually recognized during 14 were dropped from that year (Friday, October
the Middle Ages. The most recognizable problem 15 came right after Thursday, October 4). In ad-
with the calendar was that the vernal (spring) dition, there would be fewer leap years. Leap
equinox, a phenomenon that could be observed years would still occur every four years, except
by a trained astronomer, was falling a few days that years ending in double zeroes that were not
before the traditional date of March 21. This divisible by 400 (i.e. 1700, 1800, 1900, 2100,
might have been a trivial problem had the peo- etc.) would not be leap years. The more complex
ples of Europe not been Christian. In the fourth part of the Gregorian reform was the calculation
century, a church council had decided that Easter of Easter by using epacts. An epact is the age of
would fall on the first Sunday after the first full the Moon on January 1. Using a table of epacts
moon after the vernal equinox. Because calendars in combination with astronomical tables listing
could not be mass-produced and distributed over the dates for new moons, the date of Easter
all of Christendom every year, church officials could be calculated perpetually.
created tables that allowed local priests to figure
out when Easter should fall on any given year. The reform was set into effect by a papal
The tables, however, assumed that the equinox bull—an official document of the office of the
fell on March 21, and calculated Easter based on Pope—entitled Inter gravissimas. In addition, a
that assumption. Because the equinox was clearly document summarizing the reform, the Com-
falling some days earlier than that, it was feared pendium of the New Plan for Restoring the Calen-
that Easter was being celebrated on the “wrong” dar, had been produced and sent to various uni-
date, and thus calendar reform was needed. versities to inform scholars of the changes that
While a concern for astronomical accuracy might would take place. The reform, however, was not
have been significant to some persons, the over- adopted uniformly throughout Europe. Catholic
whelming concern for those who proposed re- countries such as Italy, Spain, Portugal, and
forming the calendar was a religious one: ensur- Poland adopted the reform immediately in
ing that the most important religious festival of 1582. Catholic regions of France, Germany, Bel-
the year was celebrated at the proper time. gium, Switzerland, and the Netherlands, adopt-
ed the reform within the next two years (drop-
ping a different ten-day period, depending on
Impact when the local authorities decided to change
Despite the importance that celebrating Easter their calendars). Other parts of Europe would
held for European society, and despite recurring not change their calendars until the eighteenth
proposals from astronomers, it was nearly three century, while nations in other parts of the
centuries before the calendar was finally re- world did not adopt the calendar until the twen-
formed. In the thirteenth century, when reform tieth century. One famous result of the delay in
was first seriously pursued, the Pope had been adopting the calendar was that the 1908 Imperi-
the natural authority to take on such a task. Cal- al Russian Olympic team missed the competi-
endar reform was, after all, primarily a religious tion because they did not arrange their travel
concern, and at this time, the Pope was acknowl- plans in accordance with the Gregorian dates.
edged throughout Europe as the head of the Today, the calendar is nearly universal, though
Christian religion. Various problems, including some religious calendars (such as the Jewish and
wars, schisms, and the Protestant Reformation, Islamic) are kept concurrently.

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Why was it that the reform was not univer- denying the authority of the Pope in such mat-
sally embraced when it was originally mandated ters). This brought the calendar into step with Physical
in 1582? Influenced by the Protestant Reforma- countries that had adopted the Gregorian calen- Sciences
tion, which had been underway for a number of dar, with the exception that Easter occasionally
decades, numerous Protestant rulers throughout fell on different dates under the two calendars 1450-1699
Europe did not wish to adopt a reform dictated (this problem was corrected later in the centu-
by the Roman Catholic Church. There was little ry). In England, the change would not come
scientific objection to the reform, as the modifi- until the middle of the eighteenth century, when
cation of leap years accomplished the basic task the British government passed a bill in 1752.
of reconciling the incommensurability of the The days of September 3 to September 13 of
length of the day and year, while the scheme of 1752 were dropped from the calendar in Eng-
epacts was an effective way to establish the date land and its colonies (eleven days had to be
of Easter. Objections were most often framed in dropped because1700 had been a leap year
political terms stating that the Pope had no au- under the Julian calendar in England, but not
thority to enact a reform. This would remain a under the Gregorian calendar).
sticking point for a number of decades.
Though the calendar is in large part based
Some prominent scientists, such as J. on astronomical phenomena, it is ultimately an
Scaliger (1484-1558) and Michael Mästlin artificial construct designed to meet the needs of
(1550-1631), did pose idiosyncratic objections human society. The Gregorian reform of the cal-
to the reform, usually based on simplifications of endar in the sixteenth century was enacted for
astronomical calculations that the reform uti- religious reasons, and, in some places, was reject-
lized. None of these objections was especially ed on religious and political grounds. Where it
significant in the long run. The primary Catholic had been rejected on such grounds, it was even-
defender of the reform was Cristoph Clavius tually adopted for practical purposes, as the reli-
(1537-1612), a Jesuit mathematician and as- gious objections no longer carried the political
tronomer, who had been on the papal commis- import that they had originally.
sion that had approved the reform; he argued
that the simplifications were acceptable and in- MATTHEW F. DOWD

deed necessary for those not trained in astrono-

my to be able to use the calendar effectively. Two
preeminent Protestant astronomers, both imper- Further Reading
ial mathematicians, also endorsed the reform:
Tycho Brahe (1546-1601) immediately began to Books
use the new calendar, while Johannes Kepler Coyne, G. V., M. A. Hoskin and O. Pedersen, eds. Grego-
(1571-1630) argued that the Gregorian reform rian Reform of the Calendar: Proceedings of the Vatican
Conference to Commemorate its 400th Anniversary. Vati-
was the most effective one available.
can City: Specola Vaticana, 1983.
In the end, it was recognized that both Poole, Robert. Time’s Alteration: Calendar Reform in Early
diplomacy and commerce could be more effec- Modern England. London: University College London
tively pursued if all parties operated under the Press, 1998.
same calendar. In Germany, Gottfried W. Leibniz Richards, E. G. Mapping Time: The Calendar and Its Histo-
(1646-1716) advocated a reform based on the ry. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1998.
proposal of the astronomer Erhard Weigel. This
reform, established in 1700, made the same Periodical Articles
changes as the Gregorian reform with regards to Gingerich, Owen. “Notes on the Gregorian Calendar Re-
dropping days from the calendar and adjusting form.” Sky and Telescope 64 (December 1982): 530-33.
the leap years, but used Kepler’s Rudolphine Ta- “Luigi Lilio and the Gregorian Reform of the Calendar.”
bles, rather than the epacts, to calculate Easter Sky and Telescope 64 (November 1982): 418-19.
(thus avoiding using a Roman Catholic method Moyer, Gordon. “The Gregorian Calendar.” Scientific
for determining the date of Easter, and thereby American 246 (May 1982): 144-52.

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Newton’s Law of Universal Gravitation

Physical
Sciences
1450-1699 Overview the missing gravitational constant (G) that al-
lowed a reasonably accurate determination of the
In 1687 English physicist Sir Isaac Newton
actual gravitational force. Regardless, the parsi-
(1642-1727) published a law of universal gravi-
mony of Newton’s law made its quantitative ap-
tation in his important and influential work
plication easy to translate to problems in astrono-
Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica
my and mechanics.
(Mathematical Principles of Natural Philoso-
phy). In its simplest form, Newton’s law of uni- Newton admitted having no fundamental
versal gravitation states that bodies with mass at- explanation for the mechanism of gravity itself.
tract each other with a force that varies directly In Principia Newton stated, “...I have been un-
as the product of their masses and inversely as able to discover the cause of those properties of
the square of the distance between them. This gravity from phenomena, and I feign no hy-
mathematically elegant law, however, offered a potheses (regarding its mechanism).” Moreover,
remarkably reasoned and profound insight into Newton asserted, “To us it is enough that gravity
the mechanics of the natural world because it re- does really exist, and act according to the laws
vealed a cosmos bound together by the mutual which we have explained, and abundantly
gravitational attraction of its constituent parti- serves to account for the motions of the celestial
cles. Moreover, along with Newton’s laws of mo- bodies and our seas.” In his later work, Opticks,
tion, the law of universal gravitation became the Newton raised the possibility that the gravita-
guiding model for the future development of tional force might be conveyed through a medi-
physical law. um or “ether.”
Regardless, that the force of gravity had cal-
Background culable and measurable effect on the universe
Newton’s law of universal gravitation was derived proved vastly important to astronomers and sci-
from German mathematician and astronomer Jo- entists. It was useful enough to explain that
hannes Kepler’s (1571-1630) laws of planetary gravity was the force accelerating planets in their
motion, the concept of “action-at-a-distance,” orbits (i.e. keeping the direction of orbital mo-
and Newton’s own laws of motion. Building on tion forever changing toward the Sun). Paradox-
Galileo’s observations of falling bodies, Newton ically, the widespread acceptance of Newton’s
asserted that gravity is a universal property of all law was enhanced by being detached from an
matter. Although the force of gravity can become underlying mechanism. Accordingly, Newton’s
infinitesimally small at increasing distances be- law became a powerful descriptive and predic-
tween bodies, all bodies of mass exert gravita- tive tool that could be used as a confirmation of
tional force on each other. Newton extrapolated the existence of God or, in the alternative, as
that the force of gravity (later characterized by proof that no divine intervention was needed to
the gravitational field) extended to infinity and, move the heavens.
in so doing, bound the universe together.
The impact of Newton’s law of gravity was Impact
initially more qualitative than quantitative. New-
Newton’s law of gravitation proved to be a pre-
ton’s law of gravitation, mathematically expressed
cise and effective tool wherever applied. A truly
as F = (G)(m1m2) /r2, stated that the gravitational
universal law, it could be verified by the simplest
attraction between two bodies with masses m1
fall of an apple or measured against the most de-
and m2 was directly proportional to the masses of
tailed observations of celestial movements. In
the bodies, and inversely proportional to the
the twentieth century Newtonian mechanics,
square of the distance (r) between the centers of
based in part on Newton’s laws of universal
the masses. Accordingly, a doubling of one mass
gravitation, still proved accurate enough to
resulted in a doubling of the gravitational attrac-
guide the navigation of spacecraft.
tion, while a doubling of the distance between
masses resulted in a reduction of the gravitational Although Newton’s law of gravitation of-
force to a fourth of its former value. Nearly a cen- fered no fundamental explanatory mechanism
tury passed, however, before English physicist for gravity, its usefulness of explanation lay in a
Henry Cavendish (1731-1810) was to determine higher level of cause and effect. Using the law al-

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lowed physicists and astronomers to bridge the

relationship between cause and effect with re- Physical
gard to falling bodies and orbiting planets. Sciences
In addition, Newton’s law found widespread
1450-1699
acceptance and usage because it was a universal
law that related information about bodies far re-
moved from direct experimentation. Observation
and induction based upon Newton’s law yielded
rich insight into the workings of the natural
world, and Newton’s law of universal gravitation
became a powerful impetus to further the gener-
alizations of natural laws gleaned from the rise of
experimentalism during the Scientific Revolu-
tion. Newton’s law became a powerful and
testable verification that the cosmos could yield
to inductive reasoning (i.e. where a more general
case is used to reason to a more specific case).
Providing proof of the universality of New-
ton’s law provided an impetus to eighteenth-
century astronomers, including German-born
English astronomer William Herschel (1738-
1822). Although Herschel is most famous for his
Isaac Newton. (Bettman/Corbis. Reproduced with
discovery of the planet Uranus in 1781, his ce- permission.)
lestial surveys not only provided an extensive
star catalogue, they also provided abundant and
unwavering validation of the universality of fields, all of the mass of a body can be consid-
Newton’s law. ered to lie in a center of mass without physical
space) also proved a brilliant simplification that
As a derivation of Kepler’s second law, New- enabled the mathematical advancement of me-
ton’s law mathematically fulfilled all of the re- chanics and electromagnetism.
quirements of a force propelling planetary mo-
tion. In accord with both Kepler’s laws and New- Newton’s law of universal gravitation also
ton’s laws of motion, the Sun was at the focus of laid the template for the articulation of subse-
the elliptical planetary orbits exerting a gravita- quent physical law. For a century after the publi-
tional pull that, in specific accord with Kepler’s cation of Principia, scientists tried to seize on
third law, resulted in the proper relation of the Newton’s law of universal gravitation to explain
planets’ sidereal period to their mean distance other at-a-distance phenomena (e.g. magnet-
from the Sun. Because the force of gravity direct- ism). Many failed in their attempts to character-
ly depended upon the masses of the bodies, ize electrical and magnetic phenomena as forces
Newton’s law of universal gravitation was also in analogous to gravitational force because they
accord with Newton’s own third law of motion. failed to properly integrate the effects of infini-
More importantly, Newton used the law of uni- tesimal forces. By the start of the nineteenth cen-
versal gravitation to actually correct a defect in tury, however, it was discovered that electrostatic
Kepler’s third law. Kepler had failed to consider forces, the force between two charged particles,
the gravitational influence of the smaller plane- indeed was mathematically similar to Newton’s
tary body on the greatly more massive Sun. law of universal gravitation.
Newton’s refinement and advancement of a mu- The magnitude of the electrostatic force was
tual gravitational force proved important to the found to be directly proportional to the product
determination of subtleties in orbital mechanics of the magnitudes of the charges and inversely
that ultimately allowed the prediction of masses proportional to the square of the distance be-
for the planets and other celestial objects. Ulti- tween the charges. Accordingly, both the electro-
mately, Newton’s law of universal gravitation static force and the gravitational force obey
would, in the twentieth century, provide evi- Newton’s third law, are characterized by magni-
dence of the existence of black holes. tude and direction (i.e. forces can be added as
The Newtonian methodology of simplifying vectors), act at a distance through seemingly
mass to a point (i.e. with regard to gravitational empty space, and are inverse square law forces.

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Although there were important differences (e.g. the universe was governed by regular laws that
Physical although gravitational force is always attractive, provided glimpses of divine revelation. For oth-
Sciences electrostatic forces can be both attractive and re- ers, the mechanistic, mathematical, and prede-
pulsive), the formulation of the electrostatics termined influence of gravity left no need for a
1450-1699 force—a force much stronger than gravity, as ar- God to guide the heavens, and they too relied on
ticulated in Coulomb’s law—was built on the the predictability of Newton’s law to advance
Newtonian formulation of gravitational force. their arguments. For both camps, Newton’s law
was simply sufficient to explain a clockwork
The lack of a fundamental explanation for
universe.
the actual mechanism of gravity, and Newton’s
own speculations, led to the assumption that After Newton, the appearance of comets
there must be some universal or cosmic ether was not to be interpreted as a direct sign from
through which gravity acted. Although the need God, but rather, in accord with Newton’s law of
for such an ether was dispelled by Scottish physi- universal gravity, a natural consequence of the
cist James Clerk Maxwell’s (1831-1879) develop- attraction of the Sun for a body traveling
ment of a set of equations that accurately de- through the solar system on a highly elliptical
scribed electromagnetic phenomena and subse- orbit. In essence, Newton’s law of universal grav-
quently by the late-nineteenth-century ingenious itation, a marvel of scientific reasoning, swept
experiments of Albert Michelson (1852-1931) away the supernatural and made the expanse of
and Edward Morley (1838-1923), the quest for the universe knowable and predictable.
the discovery of a such an ether was to consume
K. LEE LERNER
physicists until early in the twentieth century,
when the need for its existence was rendered
moot by the advancement of relativity theory.
Further Reading
Because Newton’s law of universal gravita-
Bronowski, J. The Ascent of Man. Boston: Little, Brown,
tion was so mathematically simple and precise, 1973.
it strengthened the idea that all the laws describ-
Cragg, G.R. Reason and Authority in the Eighteenth
ing the universe should be mathematical. Corre-
Century. London: Cambridge University Press, 1964.
spondingly, Newton’s law also fostered belief
that the universe was governed in accord with Deason, G.B. “Reformation Theology and the Mechanis-
tic Conception of Nature.” In God and Nature, ed. by
mathematical laws. In turn this led to the re- Lindberg, D.C. and Numbers, R.L. Berkeley: Univer-
assertion of a Pythagorean concept of God as the sity of California Press, 1986.
ultimate mathematician. Hawking, S. A Brief History of Time. New York: Bantam
For theologians the predictability of the law Books, 1988.
of gravity provided comforting reassurance that Hoyle, F. Astronomy. New York: Crescent Books, 1962.

Isaac Newton’s Principia Mathematica

Greatly Influences the Scientific World and
the Society Beyond It


Overview Background
Isaac Newton’s (1642-1725) most influential writ- Throughout the medieval period European
ing was his Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathe- scholars had relied heavily on the teachings of
matica (The Mathematical Principles of Natural Aristotle (384-322 B.C.) and the works of a few
Philosophy), published in sections between the Christian philosophers. Then, in the late fif-
years 1667-86. It united two competing strands teenth century, there was a rediscovery and pop-
of natural philosophy—experimental induction ularization of other ancient writers, such as Plato
and mathematical deduction—into the scientific (427-347 B.C.), who opposed many of Aristotle’s
method of the modern era. His emphasis on ex- ideas. The intellectual community began to de-
perimental observation and mathematical analysis bate the works of these and other ancient writ-
changed the scope and possibilities of science. ers, often challenging firmly held academic and

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religious beliefs. However, these debates were mentation. He preferred induction, which is the
framed by the question of which of the ancient process of reasoning from particular events to Physical
writers was correct. Some thinkers began to general rules. For example, when numerous ob- Sciences
question the basis of such debate, arguing that servations of swans also gave the result that all
new forms of thinking could go beyond the observed swans are white, then it was induced 1450-1699
works of the ancients. that all swans were white. As we have seen, this
René Descartes (1596-1650) found the is not correct.
Aristotelian methods he was taught to be entire- Bacon did not think that scientists should
ly unsatisfactory. He considered them to be seek to prove particular theories as Galileo had
based on false assumptions. The only knowl- done. He proposed that scientists should unse-
edge he found certain was mathematics, and so lectively and objectively collect facts from exper-
he used mathematical deduction as the basis of iment and observation and then organize and
his entire scientific method and philosophy. classify them. When enough facts had been col-
Descartes’ most comprehensive work was his lected, then they would be generalized to create
Principia Philosophiae (1644), which attempted a universal theory.
to put the whole universe on a mathematical
Another inductive thinker was Robert Boyle
foundation, reducing the study of everything to
(1627-1691). His 1661 work The Sceptical
that of mechanics. For Descartes, knowledge
Chemist argued against Aristotle’s views on the
could only be gained from deduction from fun-
composition of matter. His experimental work
damental principles.
was wide and varied, and only when he had per-
Deduction is the method by which conse- formed numerous variations of an experiment
quences are derived from established premises. would he then induce general rules to explain
From the observed or established facts predic- the results.
tions of future events or possible consequences
Like these other scientists, Newton also found
can be deduced. In a sense it is an educated
the stale debates over ancient writings to be frus-
guess. For example, from the premise that all
trating. Initially he turned to the mathematical de-
swans are white, if the bird you observe is a swan,
duction of Descartes as an escape from Aristotle.
then deductively the bird must also be white. As
However, the more he considered Descartes’s ideas
long as the premise and observation are correct
the more he disagreed. He was also influenced by
then the conclusion must be true. However, de-
the works of Nicolaus Copernicus (1473-1543),
duction can never prove the premise, no matter
Johannes Kepler (1571-1630), and Galileo, and
how much supporting evidence is gathered, as a
began to combine them all together. The work
single contradictory result will overturn the rule.
that resulted was his Principia Mathematica.
Black swans were discovered in Australia, and so
the deduction was incorrect. Newton’s Principia was mainly a description
of the laws of planetary motion. However, it also
Galileo Galilei (1564-1642) also champi-
contained more universal material that was to
oned the notion of deduction, although in his
influence the way all science developed. In effect
case from experimental observations. He found
it combined the methods of induction and de-
the academic focus on ancient knowledge to be
duction. Newton agreed with the inductionists
suffocating and limiting. He used experimental
that first a scientist should establish the facts by
deduction to show that the universe was not as
careful observation and experiment. However,
he had been taught. He observed the mountains
he then proposed using deduction from already
and craters of the Moon, which tradition held
known principles to formulate new hypothetical
was a perfect sphere. He saw moons orbiting
principles. Then laws of nature could then be in-
Jupiter, and observed that the Milky Way was
duced. These new laws could be tested by fur-
made up of tiny stars. From these observations
ther experiment and observation, and so on.
he deduced that Earth was not the center of the
universe, that the planets were not perfect and
unchanging, and that the Copernican theory Impact
(that Earth revolved around the Sun, not vice The Principia received good reviews, perhaps be-
versa) was correct. cause some were written by close friends of
An alternative to both the reliance on an- Newton. The book was an all-encompassing ex-
cient writings and the deductive method was planation of physics, starting with definitions of
proposed by Francis Bacon (1561-1626). Bacon mass, force, and motion, providing mathemati-
dismissed deduction as merely the logic of argu- cal explanations of these principles, and going

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on to explain planetary motion, lunar motion, and emphasized Newton’s mechanics. In a sense
Physical the ocean tides, and many other things besides. the mechanical views of Descartes were eventu-
Sciences Descartes had stressed the importance of
ally triumphant, but only within the setting of
Newton’s theories.
1450-1699
mathematics, and on this point Newton agreed.
The Principia established mathematics as the lan- Newton’s success enabled him to wield great
guage of science. Mathematics became a means influence in British scientific affairs. He was care-
of knowing about the universe. However, the ful to promote the careers of those who support-
Principia was directly, and deliberately, opposed ed his ideas, and obstruct those who opposed
to Descartes’ philosophy. Newton fundamentally him. A culture of Newtonianism grew, helping to
disagreed with the separation of spirit from mat- spread the ideas and changing the way science
ter that existed in Descartes’ mechanical view of was performed. Britain developed a more practi-
the world. In part Newton’s work was an attempt cal and hands-on scientific approach than the
to restore the place of God in science. Newton rest of Europe. The emphasis on experiments
used his mathematical method to show that was different from the contemplative, hands-off
Descartes’ system of mechanics was impossible. philosophy that remained popular elsewhere.
However, despite the problems with Des- Newton’s methods lent themselves easily to
cartes’ theories they remained popular on the everyday applications in mining, agriculture,
European continent, particularly in France, for and industry. Newtonian mechanics could be
nearly one hundred years. There were, however, applied to drain swamps, construct bridges, and
a number of non-British scientists who followed pump air into deep mines. Newton’s writings
Newton’s ideas. The prominent French intellec- helped change the perspective of his followers,
tual Voltaire (1694-1778) was in England at the and they saw the world with practical, and me-
time of Newton’s funeral, and was impressed chanical, eyes.
with the scientific culture he found there. He
The ideas of the Principia were used outside
wrote a glowing description of the British intel-
of science as well. Indeed, Newtonian mechanics
lectual climate, but these writings were immedi-
was applied to almost anything, including soci-
ately banned in France.
ety itself. John Locke’s (1632-1704) democratic
The Principia provided a standard for doing philosophy, one of the sparks of the revolution-
scientific investigations, and with his other pub- ary period, used Newtonian concepts. Newton
lished works, such as Opticks (1704), formed the even revolutionized the Freemasons (a fraternal
cornerstone for the modern scientific method. It order who adopted the rites of ancient religious
offered a coherent method that seemed free of orders), who introduced new rituals modeled on
the occult and reliance on the ancients. Howev- his philosophy.
er, Newton’s influences included alchemy, un-
Newton’s writings took on the form of doc-
orthodox religious ideas, and a belief that God
trine to many later scientists, particularly in
had given the ancients the true secrets of science
England. His findings were often held to be un-
and religion.
shakable, even when experiments and analysis
The Principia’s focus on experiment and ob- using his own method showed them to be
servation seems to owe much to the ideas of wrong. In the eighteenth century many physi-
Bacon. Yet Newton had been more strongly af- cists insisted that there were only seven colors,
fected by alchemical philosophy, partly because the ones Newton had shown with his prisms.
of its mystical and religious elements. He found Work that contradicted the old master was dis-
alchemy’s reliance on experiment to be more couraged or denied. In nineteenth-century Eng-
solid than many other forms of study. He also land there was fierce resistance to the wave-the-
preferred its description of the universe as a liv- ory of light, as it opposed Newton’s corpuscular
ing force over the mechanical philosophy of model. While the culture of Newtonianism
Descartes. Newton wrote over a million words on helped spark the Industrial Revolution, it later
his alchemical studies, but published nothing. held back research into new areas.
Newton had been careful to include God in Newton’s ideas were practical, and his
his overall plan of the universe. Against New- method allowed predictions and discoveries to be
ton’s wishes later followers of his ideas tended to made. Perhaps the most spectacular use of New-
reduce, or eliminate completely, the religious as- ton’s laws of planetary motion were the calcula-
pect of his theories. Later editions of the Princip- tions made by U. J. J. Le Verrier (1811-1877). On
ia often edited out the philosophical sections, the basis of slight variations from Newtonian cal-

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culations of the orbit of Uranus he predicted the Further Reading

existence of a new planet, Neptune. However, a Dobbs, Betty Jo Teeter, and C. Margaret Jacob. Newton Physical
similar wobble in the orbit of Mercury was shown and the Culture of Newtonianism. Atlantic Highlands, Sciences
by Albert Einstein (1879-1955) not to be caused NJ: Humanities Press, 1995.
by another planet, but rather due to effects of rel- Gjertsen, Derek. The Newton Handbook. London: Rout- 1450-1699
ativity, which was to supersede Newtonian me- ledge & Keegan Paul, 1986.
chanics in the twentieth century. Hall, A. Rupert. Isaac Newton—Adventurer in Thought.
Oxford: Blackwell, 1992.
DAVID TULLOCH
Koyré, Alexandre. Newtonian Studies. London: Chapman
& Hall, 1965.
Westfall, Richard S. Never at Rest—A Biography of Isaac
Newton. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1980.

From Alchemy to Chemistry

Overview
At the beginning of the seventeenth century,
chemistry remained in its infancy. Scientists still
had not agreed upon language to describe chem-
icals and had no ways of classifying them. In ad-
dition, chemistry played a role in many different
fields that did not necessarily share knowledge
with one another: medicine, metallurgy (the sci-
ence of metals and their uses), pottery making,
glass manufacturing, and alchemy. The field that
had the most direct impact on the birth of mod-
ern chemistry was alchemy. Alchemy was a com-
bination of philosophy, religion, and primitive
science whose chief goal was the perfection of
matter. This goal included the conversion of
metals into gold and the discovery of a potion
that would cure all disease. Many scientists of
the time viewed chemistry as a pseudo-science
much like astrology and palm reading are
viewed today. The work of Robert Boyle (1627-
1691) helped to change this impression and led
to the establishment of chemistry as an indepen-
dent, modern science. Robert Boyle. (Library of Congress. Reproduced with
permission.)

Background
secrets they uncovered might lead to great evil if
Throughout the Middle Ages, alchemists tended
they fell into the wrong hands. As a result, al-
to cloak their written work in symbolism and se-
chemists used symbols and coded language that
crecy. This was partly due to the religious cir-
made it nearly impossible for an outsider to un-
cumstances of the times. Many faced the threat of
derstand them. For example, mercury is referred
the Inquisition if their experiments were looked
to in their writings as green lion, venomous drag-
on unfavorably. The Inquisition was established
on, mother egg, or doorkeeper.
in the thirteenth century by the Catholic Church
to try people who rebelled against religious au- Alchemists believed that all matter was
thority. The punishments of the Inquisition could made of the same four elements (earth, air, fire,
be severe and even deadly. Another reason for al- and water) in different arrangements and pro-
chemists’ secrecy was their fear that any powerful portions. In other words, silver was thought to

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consist of earth, air, fire, and water as were frogs, four elements. A central argument that the al-
Physical bricks, and everything else in the universe. chemists presented for this theory was the case
Sciences Alchemy consisted of trying to alter the propor- of burning wood. The wood gave off fire as it
tions of these elements to make desired sub- burned. The smoke represented air, and liquid
1450-1699 stances. According to this idea of matter, every that boiled off the ends of the wood represented
chemical reaction was a kind of transmutation. water. The ashes left behind were considered
Transmutation is a change in which one type of earth. In other words, the wood broke down
matter becomes another. For instance, al- into the four elements of fire, air, water, and
chemists believed that lead could be transmuted earth. Boyle, however, argued that some sub-
into gold. (It is now known that transmutation stances, such as gold and silver, could not be re-
can occur only in special circumstances, such as duced to these elements by burning. He also ob-
during some types of radioactive decay.) served that some substances seemed to break
down into more than four elements.
Alchemists saw the four elements as mystical
substances whose existence could be reasoned by
logic alone. Boyle, on the other hand, believed
THE GOLDEN TOUCH that elements were concrete substances whose

existence could be only verified by experiment.
He did not necessarily reject the four elements,
and he did not offer a list of replacements for

A
lthough the central beliefs of alchemy were discredited
them; however, he wanted chemists to establish
centuries ago, people have never lost their fascination with
the elements based on scientific observations.
the idea of creating gold from other substances. In fact, with
the introduction of modern nuclear chemistry in the twentieth Like Libavius, Boyle opposed the mysteri-
ous language of the alchemists. He wrote, “And
century, it seemed that such a goal might be possible. When atoms of
indeed I fear that the chief reason, why chymists
an element are bombarded by high-speed particles, the atoms will have written so obscurely of their three princi-
sometimes break apart into a lighter atom and one or more particles ples, may be, that not having clear and distinct
or into two lighter atoms. As a result, the original atoms are notions of them themselves, they cannot write
transmuted from one element to another. In 1980, scientists at the otherwise than confusedly of what they but con-
University of California at Berkeley fired charged atoms of carbon and fusedly apprehend.” He felt that the alchemists’
secrecy kept true scientific advances from being
neon at the metal bismuth. This experiment transmuted part of the
made.
bismuth into gold. However, the sample of gold the scientists
produced was so small that it was worth only one-billionth of one
cent, or $0.00000000001. The experiment itself cost about $10,000. Impact
So, it appears that although it may be possible to change base metals With his book, Boyle helped to transform alche-
into gold, transmutation is probably not the most practical way to my into chemistry. He introduced the experi-
make a fortune. mental method into chemistry that was being
used in physics. Boyle helped to draw parallels
STACEY R. MURRAY
between these two sciences, showing that chem-
istry was just as worthy of study as physics. This
raised the social and intellectual status of
chemists above that of second-rate magicians
One of the first alchemists to break with and reduced their tendency for secrecy.
centuries of secrecy was the German alchemist
The new science of chemistry attempted to
Andreas Libavius (1540?-1616). In 1597, he
investigate only that part of the universe that is ob-
published what is considered by some to be the
servable. Unlike the alchemists, the new chemists
first chemistry textbook. This book summarized
did not attempt to involve religion and philosophy
the knowledge of the alchemists in clear lan-
as a central part of their work. Chemists began to
guage that anyone could understand.
focus on chemical substances and their changes
Another book, however, was to have an rather than the perfection of matter and humanity.
even greater impact on the traditions of alchemy. Instead of taking ancient beliefs and trying to put
In 1661, the Irish chemist Robert Boyle (1627- them into practice, chemists attempted to form
1691) published The Sceptical Chymist. In this general rules about the natural world based on
book, he opposed the alchemists’ theory of the their own observations.

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Prior to Boyle’s work, the main method al- Chemistry), the French chemist Antoine Lavoisi-
chemists had used to analyze chemicals was er (1743-1794) was able to complete a fairly ac- Physical
with fire. Boyle believed that fire, although use- curate list of the more common elements. Sciences
ful, was not a sufficient way to analyze the
Gradually, the new science of chemistry
chemical composition of substances. Therefore, 1450-1699
began making its way into universities. Guerner
he searched for and described other methods of
Rolfinck (1599-1673) began the first university
analysis, many of which are still used today.
chemistry laboratory in Germany in 1641 at the
These included color tests, flame tests, and ex-
University of Jena. Throughout most of the
amination of crystal shape.
1600s, however, chemistry was not officially rec-
Color tests, naturally, involve color changes. ognized at most colleges, except for those in
One type of color test is the use of acid-base in- Germany. However, by 1672 Nicolas Lemery
dicators. These chemicals change color when (1645-1715) was giving public chemistry lec-
added to a solution based on the solution’s acidi- tures in Paris that drew enormous crowds.
ty. For example, an indicator might turn an acid Chemistry departments began appearing in
red and a base blue. This type of test could major European universities in Montpellier
therefore be used to distinguish acids from (France) in 1673, Oxford (England) in 1683,
bases. Flame tests involve wetting a chemical Utrecht (The Netherlands) in 1694, Leyden (The
with hydrochloric acid and then putting a small Netherlands) in 1702, and Cambridge (England)
sample in a flame. The color of the flame often in 1703. Most chemistry programs were initially
indicates the composition of the chemical. For associated with medical schools, and many of
instance, copper burns with a bright green the chemicals produced from university labora-
flame. Although many of these tests had been tories were tested as medicines.
developed years earlier by other scientists, they
A scientific revolution had taken place in
became well known because of Boyle’s writing.
the 1600s. Astronomers and physicists, such as
Only gradually, however, did chemists begin to
Galileo (1564-1642) and Isaac Newton (1642-1
accept other methods of analysis as being equal-
727), rebelled against the ancient ideas of Greek
ly important as fire.
scientists that had been accepted for centuries.
During the 1600s, scientists began to see However, a similar revolution did not really take
language as a tool to express knowledge clearly place in the field of chemistry until the next cen-
and exactly, and in The Sceptical Chymist, Boyle tury. During the 1700s, many chemists aban-
helped to clarify chemical classification and doned the mysticism of the alchemists and
naming conventions. The alchemists sometimes began to rely on precise measurements in the
had dozens of names for the same chemical. laboratory. Eventually, chemical theories based
This practice led to great confusion and difficul- on speculation were replaced by theories based
ty of communication. Boyle believed that every on experiment, and by the mid-eighteenth cen-
chemical should have a single name upon which tury, nearly all chemists and physicists had re-
all scientists would agree. He attempted to con- jected alchemy and transmutation. The spark for
nect the names of chemicals with their composi- the revolution, however, had been set by Boyle
tion. He had only limited success because the during the 1660s.
composition of many chemicals was not known
STACEY R. MURRAY
at that time. However, the modern naming sys-
tem used in chemistry is based on composition.
Although Boyle had rejected the four ele- Further Reading
ments of the alchemists, he did not offer an al- Cobb, Cathy and Harold Goldwhite. Creations of Fire:
ternative system. Chemists, however, still need- Chemistry’s Lively History from Alchemy to the Atomic
ed the concept of an element and as a result, Age. New York: Plenum Press, 1995.
they returned to the four elements for lack of an Hudson, John. The History of Chemistry. New York: Chap-
alternative. However, Boyle’s work made it pos- man & Hall, 1992.
sible for chemists in the 1700s to slowly increase Multhauf, Robert P. The Origins of Chemistry. New York:
the number of accepted elements. An element Franklin Watts, Inc., 1966.
was eventually defined as any substance that Stillman, John Maxson. The Story of Alchemy and Early
could not be broken down into simpler sub- Chemistry. New York: Dover Publications, Inc., 1960.
stances by ordinary chemical means. By 1789, in Taylor, F. Sherwood. The Alchemists. New York: Arno
his Traité Élementaire de Chimie (Elements of Press, 1974.

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Advances in Geological Science, 1450-1699

Physical
Sciences
1450-1699 Overview Agricola (the latinized name of Georg
Bauer) was a German mining engineer and
During this period, the study of the Earth began to
scholar who wrote one of the first treatises on
change dramatically from a nearly complete re-
techniques of mining. He also wrote about the
liance on religion for an explanation of the Earth’s
origins of metal ore deposits, something of great
features to the beginnings of a more scientific ap-
interest to his contemporaries who spent a great
proach. Major steps in explaining the origins of
deal of time and effort trying to find gold, silver,
the Earth, its age, the origins of the oceans, and
mercury, lead, tin, iron, and other valuable met-
the Earth’s geologic features were taken by Agrico-
als. Although Agricola’s theories were not
la (1494-1555), Leonardo da Vinci (1452-1519),
tremendously accurate from a theoretical stand-
Thomas Burnet (1635?-1715), Nicolas Steno
point, they were a good compilation of empirical
(1638-1686), Robert Hooke (1635-1703), and
evidence he noted in a number of European
others. Although geology could not yet be consid-
mines. They also marked one of the first efforts
ered a science, by the end of the seventeenth cen-
to arrive at a systematic explanation for econom-
tury, it was nearly at that point.
ically important geological phenomena.
One of the first phenomena to receive more
Background critical inquiry was fossils. Long thought to be
Through most of recorded human history at- either rock formations or relatively recent animal
tempts have been made to explain how the Earth remains, they were looked at in a different light
was formed and why it looks as it does. Every by Leonardo da Vinci. Da Vinci speculated that
culture, it seems, has developed a creation myth, they were, indeed, the remains of actual animals
and many cultures invoked supernatural powers long dead. Da Vinci’s work was followed by that
that formed the seas, pushed up mountains, and of Nicolas Steno, who wrote a long paper on the
made the other features we see on Earth. origins of fossils, pointing out that fossils tended
to be similar in rocks occupying similar posi-
In the Western world, the best-known cre-
tions. Although he did not explicitly suggest
ation story is found in Genesis, the first book of
using fossils to organize the rock record, this ob-
the Old Testament. This book is common to the
servation was later confirmed as one of the prin-
Jewish, Muslim, and Christian religions and it
ciples upon which modern stratigraphy is based.
holds that a single deity created the Earth, heav-
ens, and ocean. It goes on to explain that a great More significant than his observations of fos-
flood (Noah’s flood) at one point covered the en- sils were Steno’s thoughts regarding the original
tire Earth with water and, when it receded, the an- horizontality of sedimentary rocks, their original
imals carried in Noah’s ark repopulated the Earth. deposition in parallel beds, and the relative ages
The stories of Genesis and Noah had a profound of adjacent rock beds. These observations all
impact on early speculations regarding the forma- continue to be taught to geology students today
tion of the Earth and the nature of its visible fea- and are, in general, still considered accurate.
tures, an impact that lasted for hundreds of years. With these observations, Steno helped set geolo-
gy on a path towards becoming a science.
Because of the widespread acceptance of the
Bible as an infallible history of the Earth, virtual- At the same time, Steno, Englishman Robert
ly all early theories of the Earth were based on Hooke, and some others were beginning to grap-
trying to fit observations into a biblical frame- ple with the origins of the Earth. No longer con-
work. So, for example, the presence of clam fos- tent to simply note that the Earth was created in
sils far inland was assumed to mean that water strict accordance with the biblical story just a few
had once covered that part of the land, deposit- thousand years earlier, many were beginning to
ing clams that were stranded and fossilized realize that it might be more realistic to assume a
when the waters receded. An alternate theory greater age for the Earth. They simply thought
was that marine fossils found far inland were that 4,000 or 5,000 years was simply too little
simply the remains of traveler’s lunches that time to have formed mountains and oceans,
somehow became fossilized in only a century or sculpted the land, or to have accomplished all
so. These views of the Earth began to slowly the other factors that must have gone into shap-
change during the Renaissance. ing the Earth they saw. Some, such as Burnet,

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saw the history of the Earth as an endless cycle of an infallible God. From that standpoint, the first
ocean, mountain building, and erosion; while men (and they were, at that time, invariably men) Physical
others saw, instead, a finite Earth that had simply to suggest the Bible might not be literally true were Sciences
developed at a somewhat slower rate than stated taking a huge chance. They must also have been
in the Bible. Both of these were a step away from extraordinarily confident in their abilities and in 1450-1699
biblical literalism and towards a more scientific what their eyes and reason told them, for they had
approach to the question of origins. to break their own conditioning, as well as that of
their contemporaries.
Impact In any event, what they accomplished was to
develop the first plausible (given the knowledge
All of these men, and others like them, are im-
of the day) secular explanations of many phe-
portant because they mark humanity’s first at-
nomena in the world. Their step was tiny in
tempts to explain the world around them in
terms of advancing scientific knowledge, for they
other than biblical or mythological terms. To be
made many more mistakes than accurate guess-
sure, it was not until the nineteenth century that
es. However, this step was intellectually huge,
the Earth’s antiquity was well accepted by the
because it marked such a radical departure from
scientific community. Indeed, even today there
the beliefs of the day. As we now know, this first
are those who believe in the literal truth of the
step was followed by many more, leading to the
Bible. However, it was during the Renaissance
Enlightenment and to the society we have today
that humanity took its first steps away from reli-
in which the scientific method and scientific
gion and towards science to explain the physical
techniques are the accepted way to investigate
phenomena around them. This, in turn, had
questions of biology, geology, medicine, astrono-
several impacts that would reverberate for cen-
my, and other parts of the natural world.
turies, and, in some cases, until the present:
During this time, too, a debate began that
1. The beginning of the ascendancy of
continues to this day over the respective roles of
science to explain physical phenomena.
science and religion in education, theorizing
2. The debate between the respective about the world, and everyday life. At the end of
place of science and religion. the Dark Ages, the Catholic Church was the most
3. The beginning of public interest in powerful political organization in Europe, and
nonreligious explanations of natural one of the most powerful in the world. The
events. Church had a near-monopoly on all facets of
daily life in Europe, and was beginning to spread
As noted above, this period of time saw the to other parts of the world, carried by missionar-
first attempts to develop explanations for natural ies and the Spanish conquistadors. The rise of
phenomena that departed from strictly religious in- nonreligious explanations for the world was seen
terpretations. In our century, with the benefit of as a direct challenge to the Church, and it reacted
centuries of hindsight, it sometimes seems difficult protectively by attacking those it perceived as
to believe that intelligent, even brilliant men and threats to its power. As a result, many thinkers,
women could seriously believe in a literal interpre- Galileo (1564-1642) and Nicolaus Copernicus
tation of the Bible over the evidence before their (1473-1543) being the most famous, faced ex-
eyes. However, we must remember that the world treme opposition from the Church.
was, at that time, emerging from the Dark Ages,
and little thought had gone into many of these top- Over the next few centuries, these turf bat-
ics for over a thousand years. The only references tles eventually came to resolution until, at pre-
that were available were the writings of Aristotle sent, most major religions see no inherent con-
(384-322 BC) and the ancient Greeks or the Bible. flict between science and religion. Instead, both
Consider, too, that in a deeply religious age sides agree that science addresses those things
wracked by religious wars, literal belief in the Bible that can be quantified, examined, and predicted,
was the norm. Add to that the belief that the Bible while religion addresses other areas that are less
was the literal word of God, dictated to Man—not amenable to the scientific method. So, science
many had the courage, let alone the inclination, to tries to tell us how the big bang started and what
second-guess an infallible source. Finally, even happened afterwards, while religion takes up the
those who dared speculate against biblical facts issue of why the universe exists.
had difficulty in gaining an audience because it just Finally, these early musings over the origins
did not make sense to believe the word of a fallible of the Earth, fossils, and landforms caught the
human being when that word contradicted that of attention of some of the public. While the aver-

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age man on the street was likely unaffected by Further Reading

Physical these debates, those who were more educated Gohau, Gabriel. A History of Geology. Translated by Albert
Sciences were often intrigued by the findings of the and Marguerite Carozzi. New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers
nascent scientists. Science was still some time University Press, 1990.
1450-1699 away from general popularity, but this populari- Gould, Stephen Jay. Rocks of Ages: Science and Religion in
ty and acceptance began to stir in the days of the the Fullness of Life. New York: Ballantine, 1999.
Renaissance. Oldroyd, David. Thinking about the Earth: A History of
Ideas in Geology. Cambridge: Harvard University
P. ANDREW KARAM Press, 1996.

Christiaan Huygens Makes Fundamental

Contributions to Mechanics, Astronomy,
Horology, and Optics


Overview construction from first principles was meant to
undermine the metaphysical speculations of
In the period between the death of Galileo
scholasticism and replace the architectonic of
(1564-1642) and the rise to fame of Isaac New-
Aristotelian physics with a completely new
ton (1642-1727), Christiaan Huygens (1629-
Cartesian physics and cosmology.
1695) stood alone as the world’s greatest scien-
tific intellect. His treatment of impact, cen- A central feature of Cartesian scientific
tripetal force, and the pendulum helped clarify methodology was its reliance on mechanistic ex-
the ideas of mass, weight, momentum, and planation. Accordingly, Descartes maintained
force, thus making it possible for dynamics and that the analysis of any natural phenomenon
astronomy to advance beyond mere geometrical must proceed by considering the motions and
description, while his wave theory of light direct-contact interactions of matter’s various
helped initiate modern physical optics. Beyond particles. Descartes believed he had metaphysi-
such specifics, Huygens exercised a profound in- cally demonstrated the truth of this principle
fluence on the progress of science through his and the other structural elements of his system,
use of quantitative methods. but he conceded that the details of his explana-
tions might be modified by future mathematical
Background and experimental advances.
The scientific achievements of Huygens were re- Huygens accepted the need for mechanis-
alized under the aegis of a methodology that tic explanations but was dissatisfied with
successfully combined empiricism and rational- Descartes’ limited application of mathematics
ism. The empiricist tradition, which found its to physical phenomena. Though the Cartesian
canonical formulation in Francis Bacon’s (1561- program embodied the ideal of mathematiza-
1626) Novum Organum, was primarily con- tion in its general structure, Descartes pro-
cerned with building knowledge of the world duced little in the way of detailed mathematical
through direct observation and experimentation. analysis of physical phenomena. This was dis-
The rationalist tradition, whose foremost expo- concerting to Huygens, who felt the subtleties
nent was René Descartes (1596-1650), es- of physical phenomena could only be captured
chewed perceptual knowledge as fallible, prefer- by combining mathematical laws with mecha-
ring instead to focus on the certainty attainable nistic explanation. He also challenged the
through a priori reasoning. Cartesian devaluation of experimental knowl-
Descartes sought to place knowledge of the edge. Though aware of the inadequacies of
world on a secure foundation by organizing it naive empiricism, Huygens realized, as Galileo
into an axiomatic structure similar to Euclid’s had before him, that the mathematical analysis
geometry. A few self-evident truths were pro- of natural phenomena depends critically on the
posed as axioms and used to deduce the body of careful definition and quantification of relevant
existing empirical knowledge. This rational re- physical conditions. In this regard, experimen-

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tal work plays an essential regulative role in the that reduced spherical aberration. They incorpo-
process of scientific discovery. rated these lenses and other improvements into Physical
Critical of the inadequacies inherent to em- their telescopes. With their first instrument, Sciences
piricism and rationalism, Huygens combined the Huygens discovered Saturn’s satellite Titan and
fixed the planet’s period of revolution at 16 days 1450-1699
best features of each to craft his own research
methodology. His strong penchant for mathema- (1655). The following year he provided a correct
tization and mechanistic explanation, tempered description of Saturn’s ring. He later made the
by a deep understanding of the importance of first observation of Martian surface markings
experimental data, produced stunning scientific and determined that planet’s rotational period
successes. (1659). Huygens also invented a two-lens eye-
piece and an improved micrometer.
Huygens rendered astronomy a greater ser-
Impact
vice in 1657 with his invention of the pendulum
One of the first problems Huygens addressed clock. There had been many attempts to produce
was Cartesian impact theory. Descartes believed accurate pendulum clocks, and Huygens’s first
that once the clockwork mechanism of the uni- device was a combination of existing elements.
verse was set in motion the universe would run This explains why his priority over the invention
indefinitely, requiring no divine intervention; to was challenged by other scientists. Nevertheless,
suppose otherwise implied God was imperfect. Huygens’s design was original in its application
Consequently, Descartes maintained that the of a freely suspended pendulum whose motion
amount of motion initially imparted to the dif- was transmitted to the clockwork by means of a
ferent parts of the universe must be conserved. fork and handle. He also introduced an endless
He defined a body’s motion as the product of its chain that allowed the clock to be wound with-
mass and speed. Though motion can be trans- out disturbing its progress. More importantly, he
ferred between bodies through collisions, he realized the pendulum is not quite tautochro-
claimed the total quantity of motion must re- nous—that its period depends on the amplitude
main constant. Unfortunately for Descartes, his of swing. Huygens solved this problem by devis-
conservation law disagreed with experiments. ing, through trial and error, fulcrum attachments
In 1652 Huygens applied himself to the that altered the arc of the pendulum bob so the
problem and showed that Descartes’s principle period was independent of amplitude. He de-
holds only if speed is taken as a directed quanti- scribed his device in Horologium (1658).
ty—velocity. Huygens collected his results in The appearance of Huygens’s clock inaugu-
1656 in De motu corporum ex percussione. When rated the era of accurate time keeping and revo-
the Royal Society began focusing on the same lutionized the art of exact astronomical measure-
problem in 1666, John Wallis (1616-1703) and ments. Many towns in Holland quickly built
Christopher Wren (1632-1723) were asked to tower clocks, and Jean Piccard (1620-1682)
examine the problem anew, and Huygens was later instituted a program of regular horological
solicited for a report of his discovery. The results measurements at the Paris Observatory.
of all three scientists, obtained independently
and published together in the Philosophical Dissatisfied with the qualitative nature of
Transactions (1669), established the law of con- this work, Huygens undertook a systematic
servation of momentum. mathematical analysis of the simple pendulum
(1659). He quickly derived the relationship be-
Additionally, Huygens showed that for elas- tween pendulum length and period of oscilla-
tic collisions the product of the mass times the tion for small amplitudes. In considering the
square of the velocity—called vis viva (living general case, he discovered that the period of a
force) during the seventeenth century—is con- pendulum will not be completely tautochronous
served. The debate over the nature of vis viva unless the arc of swing is a cycloid. Huygens de-
was one of the main threads leading to the de- veloped the theory of evolutes to mathematically
velopment of the concept of energy and the con- demonstrate the correspondence between his
servation principle thereof. empirically constructed fulcrum plates and
Huygens’s mathematical analysis of physical those necessary to force the pendulum bob to
problems had immediate application in observa- describe a cycloidal path. By 1669 his study of
tional astronomy. Aided by his theoretical re- the center of oscillation had yielded a general
searches in optics, Huygens and his brother rule for determining the length of a simple pen-
Constantijn developed lens-polishing techniques dulum equivalent to a compound pendulum. All

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of these results were published in Horologium nificance of his work lies in its systematic treat-
Physical Oscillatorium (1673), which Florian Cajori ment that allowed the theory to be fruitfully ap-
Sciences (1859-1930) ranked as the greatest work of sci- plied and developed. He mathematically demon-
ence next to Newton’s Principia. strated the rectilinear propagation of light, de-
1450-1699 duced the laws of reflection and refraction, and
Huygens’s mechanistic tendencies are most
evident in his studies of gravity and light. His accounted for double refraction in the mineral
1659 gravitational researches presupposed and known as Iceland Spar. However, he was not
built upon Descartes’s vortex theory—gravity is able to explain polarization.
caused by particles of subtle matter swirling Newton’s corpuscular theory of light domi-
with great speed around Earth. Huygens main- nated eighteenth-century optical thinking, but it
tained that vortex particles have a tendency was eclipsed by Huygens’ wave theory in the
(conatus) to move away from Earth’s center. In early nineteenth century. Though the two views
realizing their conatus, vortex particles exert a were later synthesized in the quantum theory of
force on ordinary particles of matter through di- light during the early years of the twentieth cen-
rect contact, which brings about in the latter a tury, Huygens’ principle remains the basis of
conatus to move toward Earth’s center. Thus, the modern physical optics.
centrifugal force of vortex particles produces a
Huygens’s work fell into relative oblivion
centripetal force in ordinary matter. Fleeing vor-
shortly after his death. Nevertheless, his achieve-
tex particles are continually replaced, thus main-
ments remain an enduring testament to the ex-
taining a constant gravitational force.
planatory power of quantitative methods in the
Next, Huygens established the law of cen- analysis of physical phenomena.
trifugal force for uniform circular motion as well
STEPHEN D. NORTON
as the similarity of the centrifugal and the gravi-
tational conatus. He also distinguished between
quantitas materiae and weight, the former being
Further Reading
proportional to the space occupied by ordinary
matter, while the latter was treated as a gravita- Books
tional effect proportional to quantitas materiae. Bell, Arthur E. Christiaan Huygens. London: Edward
This is likely the earliest insight into the distinc- Arnold & Co., 1947.
tion between mass and weight. Though Huygens Burch, Christopher B. Christiaan Huygens: The Develop-
rejected Newton’s theory of universal gravitation ment of a Scientific Research Program in the Foundations
because it required action-at-a-distance, his own of Mechanics. Pittsburgh, PA: University of Pittsburgh
mechanistic account failed to explain satisfacto- Press, 1981.
rily how subtle vortical-matter transferred cen- Elzinga, Aant. On a Research Program in Early Modern
tripetal conatus to ordinary matter. Physics. New York: Humanities Press, 1972.
Struik, Dirk J. The Land of Stevin and Huygens. Dordrecht,
Huygens’s application of mechanistic princi-
Holland: D. Reidel Publishing, 1981.
ples to optical phenomena culminated in his
Yoder, Joella G. Unrolling Time: Huygens and the Mathema-
wave theory of light, published in 1690 under
tization of Nature. Cambridge: Cambridge University
the title Traité de la lumière. He conceived of light Press, 1988.
as a disturbance propagated by mechanical
means at a finite speed through a subtle medium Periodical Articles
of closely packed elastic particles. According to Cohen, H. F. “How Christiaan Huygens Mathematized
Huygens’s principle, a vibrating particle transfers Nature.”British Journal for the History of Science 24
its motion to those touching it in the direction of (1991): 79-84.
motion. Each particle so disturbed becomes the Erlichson, Herman. “The Young Huygens Solves the
source of a hemispherical wave-front. Where Problem of Elastic Collisions.”American Journal of
Physics 65 (1997): 149.
many such fronts overlap there is light.
Kubbinga, H. H. “Christiaan Huygens and the Founda-
Considerable research on the wave nature of tions of Optics.”Pure and Applied Optics 4 (1993): 37-
light had been done before Huygens, but the sig- 42.

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The Emergence of Scientific Societies

Physical
Sciences

Overview understanding of the universe it is the “Acade- 1450-1699

mician” who speaks for Galileo and for science.
Despite the persistent stereotype of the scientist
as a solitary genius, science has always been a The Accademia dei Lincei had a direct heir
communal endeavor. Investigators have sought in another short-lived scientific society. The Ac-
inspiration from the exchange of ideas, from col- cademia del Cimento was formed by two broth-
laborative experiments, and from personal rival- ers in the powerful Medici family, Grand Duke
ries within the context of a community of others Ferdinand II and Prince Leopold. Both men, as
who share their interests in science. The seven- well as some of the other members, had been
teenth century saw the emergence of one of the pupils or acquaintances of Galileo and his disci-
most important institutions in the history of sci- ple Evangelista Torricelli (1608-1647). From
ence, the scientific society. For more than two these men the Medicis had learned a keen re-
centuries, scientific societies and the publica- spect and enthusiasm for systematic observation
tions they supported were the primary commu- and experiment. They sought to apply these em-
nication networks for scientists and their work. pirical methods to a wide range of natural phe-
nomena. The meetings of the Cimento, which
began formally in 1657 following several years
Background of less-organized gatherings, took place at
As the pace of scientific activity increased during Leopold’s home. He provided instruments and
the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, individuals other services as well as participating in the ex-
pursued scientific discoveries within a variety of periments. The society had just nine working
institutions. Some were employed by rulers or members, which made simpler their goal to
noblemen, others worked within monasteries or work as a team in their investigations. Many of
at universities, still others were independently their experiments were tests of Galileo’s theories,
wealthy and powerful citizens themselves. Sci- perfecting methods and techniques for the use
entific books were published in Latin—univer- of thermometers, pendulums, barometers, and
sally known to learned Europeans of the time— vacuum pumps; others investigated elementary
and sold to the relatively small number of en- problems in electricity. They published an ac-
thusiasts who shared the authors’ interests. count of their experiments in 1667, which was
subsequently translated into other languages
In 1603 the first group organized explicitly and served as a guide to investigators and other
for the purpose of advancing science was nascent societies throughout Europe. The Ci-
formed. That year, the Accademia dei Lincei was mento dissolved in 1667, when Leopold was
established in Rome by Duke Federigo Cesi and named cardinal.
included some of the most prominent scientists
of the day, such as Galileo Galilei (1564-1642), These small, private societies set an exam-
Gimbattista Della Porta (1535?-1615), and ple for future scientific groups, and they helped
Francesco Stelluti. They championed the role of to advance scientific knowledge and practice
experiments in advancing knowledge and the through their publications. Perhaps the most
role of a group of experts such as themselves to important paradigm for the development of sci-
sanction and support scientific investigation. entific societies came not from an actual group,
The Lincei had as many as 32 members during but from an imaginary one. Francis Bacon
its rather short existence (it was disbanded by (1561-1626), an English philosopher, was a
1630 after the death of Cesi and due to increas- widely influential spokesman for systematic sci-
ingly hostile pressure from the Catholic entific inquiry. In several important books pub-
Church). The Lincei published a number of im- lished during the early seventeenth century,
portant books, including those of Galileo, each Bacon argued against scholasticism and the re-
inscribed with the Academy’s shield on which a liance on classical texts and for experiment and
lynx symbolized scientific truth in its struggle what came to be called inductive science. He
with ignorance. Galileo identified particularly believed that by an iterative process of hypothe-
strongly with the Lincei and its goals. He used sis and experimental testing, science could dis-
the title “Lynceus” throughout his career, and in cover Nature’s secrets and lead society toward
his famous dialogue presenting his revolutionary perfection. In his book The New Atlantis (1626),

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Bacon described a community of scientific munication network among scientists throughout

Physical workers who would divide the labor of science Europe and the European colonies. Investigators
Sciences among themselves and work together to ad- around the world would send the results of their
vance knowledge. The “Salomon’s House” of work or even their chance observations to the
1450-1699 this fable was an idealized scientific utopia, con- learned group in London. The members would
jured to inspire actual scientists to work togeth- then discuss the ideas and—most importantly—
er in an organized manner. publish the accounts in their Proceedings. In its
early decades, the Proceedings featured an eclectic
assortment of reports and results; the scientific
Impact
discoveries of Isaac Newton (1642-1727) and
From these early, largely inspirational, develop- Benjamin Franklin (1706-1790) appear side by
ments followed the establishment of the two side with reports from country farmers about
most influential scientific societies, the Academie calves born with two heads. Gradually, the judg-
des Sciences in Paris and the Royal Society of ment of the Society became more discriminating,
London. These two organizations were institu- and publication of work in the Proceedings or a
tionally very different. The Paris Academy was discussion of one’s results at the Society was an
founded in 1660 by Louis XIV. It began as a important validation of scientific merit.
small group of mathematicians and physicists,
The Royal Society and the Academy of Sci-
supported by government stipends, who worked
ences inspired many imitators. During the eigh-
in teams on experiments and theoretical investi-
teenth century scientific societies were formed in
gations aimed at extending and propagating the
most of the capitals of Europe and in many of the
work of the French physicist René Descartes
smaller provinces as well. Societies became a part
(1596-1650). By century’s end the Academy had
of the fabric of science, providing a place for like-
increased its size and extended its activities to in-
minded individuals to share ideas and experi-
clude all areas of scientific investigation. Election
mental techniques. The belief that science would
to the Academy was a great achievement for a
be advanced by the collaborative work of men
scientist, and assured financial support as well as
and the direct encounter between man and nature
scholarly prestige. The Academy of Sciences be-
was made tangible in scientific societies. The
came the center of scientific activity in France—
practical benefits of the existence of societies and
perhaps in the world—for most of the eighteenth
their publications were enormous. While the pri-
century. It published its proceedings, which fore-
mary benefit of the spread of scientific societies
shadowed in importance the scientific journals of
would seem to be to the smaller cities where sci-
later centuries, as well as historical accounts of
entists had new opportunities to congregate, in
the scientific achievements of deceased members
fact the spread of these societies helped to make
that helped to establish the idea of what a scien-
an international community of science. With their
tific career should be, and summaries of scientific
publications and by welcoming traveling investi-
work done by investigators in other countries.
gators to meetings, scientific societies gave those
The Royal Society of London was estab- working on the increasingly esoteric and difficult
lished in 1662 with a charter from King Charles study of nature a reliable means of connecting to
II, but without any financial support. The Royal anyone else in the world who might share their
Society grew out of many years of informal interests. In addition, many societies sponsored
meetings among scholars in London and Ox- prizes to identify and honor scientific accom-
ford. They treated their independence from the plishment, and competitions to focus attention on
government as a point of pride, although the particularly pressing scientific problems.
need for the members to support not only them- By the middle of the nineteenth century gen-
selves but also the activities of the Society made eral scientific societies and their publications
money troubles a recurring problem throughout began to be less important to the practice of sci-
the Society’s first century of existence. The Royal ence than new, smaller, more-specialized groups
Society was strongly criticized by the Church in and journals devoted to particular studies such
its early years, and defenses of the Society writ- as physics or botany. Scientists continued to form
ten by members Thomas Sprat and Joseph groups and to network internationally, but as sci-
Glanvill provide interesting views into its early ence itself became increasingly complex the mul-
accomplishments and ideology. tidisciplinary institutions such as the Royal Soci-
Like the Academy of Sciences, the Royal Soci- ety and the American Association for the Ad-
ety became a clearinghouse for scientific ideas and vancement of Science took on more honorific
reports, and a central node in the developing com- roles. As scientific training became formalized

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and absorbed within university curricula, univer- Heilbron, John L. Early Modern Physics. Berkeley and Los
sities became increasingly important to maintain- Angeles: University of California Press, 1982. Physical
ing networks of scientific communication and in- Lyons, Henry. The Royal Society, 1660-1940. Cambridge, Sciences
teraction. Scientific societies, mostly organized England: University Press, 1944.
according to discipline rather than regionally, 1450-1699
McClellan, James. Science Reorganized: Scientific Societies
have remained important to science throughout
in the Eighteenth Century. New York: Columbia Uni-
the twentieth century and beyond. They are the versity Press, 1985.
backbone of the international network of com-
munication and cooperation among scientists. Ornstein, Martha. The Role of Scientific Societies in the Sev-
enteenth Century. Chicago: University of Chicago
LOREN BUTLER FEFFER Press, 1938.

Purver, Margery. The Royal Society: Concept and Creation.

Further Reading London: Routledge, 1967.

Hahn, Roger. The Anatomy of a Scientific Institution: The Pyenson, Lewis and Susan Sheets-Pyenson. Servants of
Paris Academy of Sciences 1666-1803. Berkeley and Los Nature: A History of Scientific Institutions, Enterprises,
Angeles: University of California Press, 1971. and Sensibilities. New York: Norton, 1999.

Development of Stellar Astronomy

Overview such as mythical characters was common to
many ancient cultures. Plotting the accurate po-
The advance in astronomy as primarily a progres-
sitions of the stars in the effort to interpret astro-
sive improvement in accurate plotting of the stars
logical effects on humanity became the basis of
was reasserted about the middle of the fifteenth
astronomy, the study of stars and the heavens as
century, but within the next 150 years, the dis-
science. Ancient Greek thought passed down
coveries of physical aspects of stars would lead
earlier conception that the stars were considered
traditional astronomy toward the foundations of
a fixed backdrop of the celestial vault that did
astrophysics. The rediscovery of ancient knowl-
not change. Aristotle popularized the concept of
edge, called the Renaissance, had advanced in as-
rigid and individual crystalline spheres holding
tronomy with improved applications of geometry
the sun, planets, and the fixed stars. There was
and trigonometry. Traditional naked-eye sighting
an early tradition in Greek thought that the stars
instruments progressed in accuracy from the mid-
were clouds of fire, fires in general, and even
fifteenth century. Astronomers expanded their in-
some celestial light shining through pinprick
terest in accurate positional cataloguing by reeval-
holes in the black cover of the night.
uating ancient appraisal of the stars in terms of
relative size and brightness. This led to discover-
Important aspects of Greek astronomy would
ies of unusual traits in stars; some stars varied in
have been lost or longer in coming to Europe if
brightness and appeared to pulsate. On rare occa-
not for the various medieval Muslim cultures,
sions stars seemed to appear where none had
which preserved and translated Greek science. Yet
been before. Studying and cataloguing stars by
improving on this secondhand presentation by
these new features expanded with the introduc-
translating Greek astronomy from the original
tion and improvement of the telescope through
Greek was taken up by several Europeans in the
the seventeenth century.
fifteenth century, among them the German as-
tronomer Georg Peurbach (1423-1461). By the
Background mid-fifteenth century the important mathematical
Primitive awe of the celestial pinpoints of aspect of Greek astronomy, using geometric and
sparkling light, the stars, had first prompted trigonometric methods (use of parallax, defined
study of the heavens as partitioner of time, a nat- as the apparent change in position of an object
ural calendar, and as religion which resolved when viewed from different points on earth due
into ancient astrology, the study of the superior to orbit and rotation of the earth) to determine
influences of the celestial on every aspect of ter- star positions, was revitalized in Europe by as-
restrial life. Grouping stars into familiar objects tronomers, particularly Johannes Regiomontanus

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(1436-1476), a student and heir to Peurbach’s ef- ments, who kept a detailed observational log of
Physical forts, who developed applications of solving the new star using his own large sextant (gradu-
Sciences problems by triangulation. Accurate charting of ated to one minute of angular arc). He measured
the stars would benefit from both mathematical the angular distances from neighboring stars in
1450-1699 method and improved sighting instruments (sex- the constellation to form the sides of spherical
tants, quadrants, and compass-like tools) and triangles by which he plotted the angular lati-
their use. Regiomontanus established a workshop tude and longitude of the so-called New Star
for the construction of astronomical instruments (which was a supernova or exploding star). Sig-
and wrote detailed descriptions of these. nificantly, he noted that its position relative to
Making a catalogue of the positions of all the neighboring stars did not show any measur-
stars visible to the naked eye was important to able parallax, which confirmed that this object
the mathematical applications of this data in as- was celestial. Thus the celestial sphere was not
tronomical almanacs and tables (called unchangeable as thought since ancient times
ephemerides), calendar making, referencing and needed to be reappraised. Thinking the star
lunar and planetary motions, astrology, etc. The remnant material of the Milky Way, Brahe was
only comprehensive early star catalogue was that about to launch his own campaign of accurate
of Greek astronomer Hipparchus (fl. second cen- star plotting with a progression of unusually
tury B.C.) with about 850 stars, which included precisely graduated, large instruments using ad-
spherical coordinates for each. He was the first to justable slits as eyepiece sights to explore that
designate visual star relative brightness or dim- need for celestial reappraisal.
ness by magnitude (in his day, first magnitude A graphical means of indicating star posi-
being the brightest, the sixth being the faintest). tions for science and navigation was yet another
This catalogue was preserved and revised signifi- ancient accomplishment poised for improve-
cantly by the late Greek astronomer Claudius ment. It was an efficient observational aid, but
Ptolemy (fl. 150, d. 180) with additions bringing unless the star positions were actually given co-
the total to 1,022 stars in 48 constellations. Star ordinates in a useful cartographic projection,
catalogues were also the basis for a Renaissance they could not be used to locate stars precisely
period of innovation to astronomy, the star atlas, or figure the positions of other stars discovered
and plot maps of constellations. near them. Ancient peoples including Greek as-
tronomers had made globes and maps of con-
stellations but no Greek examples survived.
Impact There had been inaccurate medieval representa-
Into the sixteenth century, several astronomers tive depictions, sometimes without showing per-
followed Regiomontanus’ impetus toward accu- tinent stars. The best depiction by the early six-
racy. Nicolaus Copernicus (1473-1543) himself teenth century was the first printed star chart
built his own graduated torquetum (a sort of (1515) by German artist Albrecht Durer which
large three-arm compass), though he was not a depicted two planispheres (for the northern and
regular observer. Gemma Frisius (1508-1555), southern hemispheres) laid on an hourly-gradu-
mathematician of the Netherlands, applied his ated zodiac circle (the twelve classical constella-
theory of land triangulation in surveying to as- tions on the ecliptic plane of the earth) with the
tronomy and cartography and made several as- stars depicted in numerical sequence for each
tronomical sighting instruments, including a constellation. A stereographic projection of
long cross-staff with movable sights. Then, in Ptolemy’s constellations with their principle stars
1572, the stimulus of Mother Nature proved the was done as a single sheet in 1535 by Peter
most efficient of all. What appeared to be a new Apian (1495-1552). But the first true atlas in
star in the constellation of Cassiopea shone in book form was that of Alessandro Piccolomini
early November and had everyone with any in- (1508-1578) in 1540. While he did not use a
strument attempting to measure the parallax. practical coordinate scale, he depicted the stars
Among them was Englishman Thomas Digges as seen from earth in sizes relative to their mag-
(1546-1595) who observed the star accurately nitudes and was the first to use letters to label
and wrote trigonometric theorems to find its the prominent stars in constellations, a tech-
parallax, which being negligible pointed to a ce- nique adopted thereafter.
lestial origin. Still standing after 1400 years, the Hip-
But the best known observer was the Dan- parchus/Ptolemy catalogue was inaccurate and
ish noble Tycho Brahe (1546-1601), beginning incomplete. With his collection of mammoth
to build large and accurate astronomical instru- sighting instruments for better accuracy and

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fully aware of how much an accurate star cata- added impetus of the revolutionary refracting
logue was needed, Brahe worked from a base of telescope (using lenses for magnification) and its Physical
known angular distance coordinates of 22 stars power to see more stars. Observational as- Sciences
to calculate that of all other naked-eye stars be- tronomer Giambattista Riccioli (1598-1671) used
tween 1578 and 1591. The coordinates of the the telescope to good advantage in studying the 1450-1699
resulting 777 stars of this new catalogue (pub- solar system and turned it on the stars to discover
lished in 1602) were never in positional error by the first observed double star, Mizar in Ursa
more than four minutes of arc (amazing eye Major (1643). Dutch astronomer Johann Phocy-
plotting accuracy). Johannes Kepler (1571- clides Holwarda (1618-1651) studied Fabricius’s
1630), who inherited Brahe’s data, was able to Omicron Ceti in late 1638-39 and realized it var-
bring the later total star count to a less accurate ied in luminosity as periodic fluctuations, mean-
1,004 (published in the later Rudolfine Tables, ing stars must rotate. French astronomer Ismael
1627). The first star atlas provided with useful Boulliau (1605-1694) would discover this star’s
spherical coordinates, using Ptolemy’s catalogue, actual period in 1667. Holwarda’s famous compa-
was that of Giovanni Paolo Gallucci (1588). triot Christiaan Huygens (1629-1695) telescopi-
Brahe’s full catalogue was used in the most com- cally found a grouping of three stars instead of the
plete atlas to the time, the Uranometria (1603), one star tagged as Theta in Orion. To be called the
compiled by lawyer turned astronomer Johann Trapezium, its fourth star was found by Jean Pi-
Bayer (1572-1625). It also contained the accu- card (1620-1682) in 1673. English scientist
mulated southern hemisphere stars plotted by Robert Hooke (1635-1703) discovered the
Dutch explorer Pieter Keyser as well, for a total grouping Gamma Arietis in 1665. Observation in
of over 2,000 stars, all designated with Greek the southern hemisphere revealed the double star
letters for the first time. systems of Alpha Crucis (1685) and Alpha Cen-
tauri (1689). Italian physician Geminiano Monta-
Meanwhile, the supernova of 1572 had gen- nari (1633-1687) discovered the variable charac-
erated a keen interest in what seemed to be an ter of Algol (Beta Persei) in 1670, though its bril-
inconstant field of fixed stars. Copernicus’ helio- liant flickering had long determined its name of
centric theory (1543), taking the earth away the Demon or Satan’s Head. Famous English as-
from the center of the universe, had already gen- tronomer Edmund Halley (1656-1742) discov-
erated additional theorizing that the stars could ered the variable Eta Cariae in 1677, and German
not be fixed. Digges, for instance, the leader of astronomer Gottfried Kirch (1639-1710) did the
the so-called English Copernicans, believed the same for Chi Cygni in 1687.
stars varied in distance in an infinite space. On
August 13, 1596, German clergyman/astronomer One of the most influential observational as-
David Fabricius (1564-1617) noted a bright star tronomers of the time was Pole Johannes
in the constellation of Cetus. Its brightness faded Hevelius (Jan Heweliusz, or Hewelcke, 1611-
into the next year, so it was thought to be anoth- 1687), who brought innovation to the star cata-
er new star phenomenon. But it was a variable logue and atlas. A committed observer, he stud-
star, the first observed pulsating star (fluctuating ied Omicron Ceti from 1648 to 1662 and re-
in brightness). Bayer observed it in 1603 and named it Mira (the Wonderful). Although
designated it by the Greek letter omicron (Omi- Hevelius made and used telescopes, he seemed
cron Ceti) in his star atlas. There was talk of an- to take a step back by imitating Brahe’s naked-
other new star (P Cygni) in Cygnus in 1600 (ob- eye sighting instruments, rather than contempo-
served by one W.J. Blaeu), but this would later be rary sighting instruments applying telescopic
identified as yet another irregular type of star. But lenses for sights. But he claimed this preference
in 1604, another new star or supernova did ap- for measuring stellar positions as just as accurate.
pear in the constellation Ophiuchus (the Serpent With a sophisticated rooftop observatory at his
Bearer), sighted on October 10-11. Kepler, who home in Gdansk (Danzig), Hevelius compiled a
had not believed before, saw for himself, believ- comprehensive catalogue of 1,564 stars, which
ing it celestial but of the same Milky Way materi- included the 341 southern hemisphere stars
al Brahe had labeled the 1572 star. He observed plotted by Edmund Halley (published with an
it until it faded in 1606. atlas in 1679). Hevelius’ catalogue and accompa-
nying atlas (Uranographia, 1690) provided a
Mid-seventeenth century astronomers spent wider recognition of Halley’s catalogue and its ac-
time on observations of the stars, detecting not curacy over Bayer’s southern plots compiled
only more variables but also binary or double crudely by explorers. Hevelius used a graphical
stars and multiple star groups. There was the projection of the stars as on a celestial globe

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(rather than from earth as contemporaries did) and able to systematically dissolve the geocentric
Physical and added eleven new constellations (seven of cosmos in favor of Newton’s mathematico-me-
Sciences which remain in use). chanical one by the late century. This was par-
tially through physical discoveries of the stars.
English astronomer John Flamsteed (1647-
1450-1699 Improving the refracting telescope, joined by the
1719), friend and contributor to Isaac Newton
reflecting telescope, pointed to deeper stellar
(1642-1727), rounded out the seventeenth cen-
discoveries in a seeming infinite universe but
tury’s array of stellar astronomers. Flamsteed, an
also elevation as a true tool with measuring
amateur observational astronomer, was appoint-
adaptability. The stars would prove to be tools as
ed the first astronomer royal at the founding of
well, for those interesting variables were little
Greenwich Observatory (1675). Using measur-
more than two centuries away from being used
ing instruments with telescopic sights, which,
as yardsticks to measure the extension of the
contrary to Hevelius’s claims, provided the read-
cosmos itself.
ing of finer measurements, Flamsteed concen-
trated on observing the moon and the stars with WILLIAM J. MCPEAK
twenty thousand observations between 1676 and
1689, especially using a large sextant accurate to
10 arc seconds. His systematic observations were Further Reading
completed in 1705. Books
The growing importance of positional as- Bennett, James A., ed. Astronomical Instruments, History of
Astronomy An Encyclopedia. John Lankford. New York:
tronomy’s accuracy to the needs of astronomy Garland, 1997.
and navigation was exemplified in the British
Christianson, John R. Tycho’s Island: Tycho Brahe and his
furor over the high caliber of Flamsteed’s work, Assistants: 1570-1601. New York: Cambridge Univer-
which would entail the first Greenwich, star cat- sity Press, 2000.
alogue (nearly 3,000 stars). There was great Gingerich, Owen. The Eye of Heaven: Ptolemy, Copernicus,
pressure to publish his catalogue because of its Kepler. New York: American Institute of Physics,
accurate usefulness before it was completed into 1993.
the early eighteenth century, which did happen Moore, Patrick. Watchers of the Stars. New York: G.P. Put-
against Flamsteed’s wishes. His efforts had cul- nam’s Sons, 1974.
minated a 150-year progression of instrumental North, John. The Fontana History of Astronomy and Cos-
improvements. But more important was the di- mology. London: Fontana Press, 1994.
mension of new astronomical theory enabled Wightman, W. P. D. Science in the Renaissance. 2 vols. Ed-
during this time span, lured by heliocentrism inburgh: Oliver & Boyd, 1962, vol. 1, ch. 7.

Observing and Defining Comets

Overview comet records and comparisons which along
with the inspiration of the elliptical orbital na-
By the middle of the fifteenth century, improve-
ture of the solar system and new mechanical
ments in the accuracy of astronomical observing
theory brought the recognition that comets were
instruments and the use of geometrical mathe-
celestial, had orbits, and were periodic.
matics presaged a closer look at the strange fiery
visitors known as comets and a new era in as-
tronomy beyond dependence on a mix of Greek Background
traditions and instrumental inaccuracy. The six- Comets, the transient astronomical phenomena
teenth century marked a landmark period of for- that remain long enough to inspire awe, curiosi-
tuitous comet appearances, affording a level of ty, and even fear had remained a puzzle for cen-
observation that pushed professional opinion to- turies. Although prior to the fifteenth century
ward the celestial origin of comets, rather than there had been diverse opinion on the phenom-
an ancient terrestrial one. Into the seventeenth enon and the state of physical nature, the com-
century, the appearance of comets and accurate prehensiveness of Aristotle’s (384-322 B.C.) in-
observational data prompted research into past terpretation dominated the late Middle Ages,

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particularly in his interpretation of the celestial

and terrestrial realms based on a logic of obser- Physical
vation and the Greek tradition that all terrestrial Sciences
matter was composed of four basic elements.
These were fire, air, water, and earth, in order of 1450-1699
density, light to heavy. Celestial space was
formed of a perfect, incorruptible substance
called aether. The elemental order fit the logic
that the heavy Earth was at rest at the center of
the universe with relative circumjacent regions
or spheres of the other elements, represented by
the oceans, the atmosphere, and a region of fire
below the Moon. Beyond that lay the celestial
spheres: the Moon, Sun, and planets each within
a solid crystalline orb propounded by Aristotle
to affirm the unchanging nature of the celestial
which spun around the terrestrial realm in con-
centric circular orbits (defined as a perfect, un-
ending motion) enveloped by a vast firmament
of fixed stars. So in what realm did comets fit?
The heavens were considered superior to
and the ultimate influence on the terrestrial
sphere. This was the basis of astrology from Tycho Brahe. (Library of Congress. Reproduced with
which astronomy developed. The influence also permission.)
came into play with phenomena within the
earthly sphere. Any hot, dry, or fiery byproducts
on Earth rose as “exhalations” to the sphere of observation of cometary paths was by the Flo-
fire and kindled into meteors, aurora, the Milky rentine mathematician/astronomer Paolo Tos-
Way, and comets, essentially all meteorological canelli dal Pozzo (1397-1482). He has left de-
phenomena, and all moved by the friction of tailed manuscript observations of the comets of
and influences of celestial motion. Because these 1433, 1449-1450, 1456 (this was Halley’s
were changeable phenomena (even the Milky Comet), the two comets of 1457 (May and June
Way seemed to change through the course of the thru August), and 1472.
year) and seemed close to Earth, they were taken
as terrestrial in origin. Although there was me- By this period, efforts at making more accu-
dieval debate about the possibility of the Milky rate instruments reflected the growing desire for
Way being celestial, comets were accepted as more accurate astronomical measurement, using
terrestrial phenomena. And since they were en- revitalized geometric and trigonometric tech-
gineered from heat and dryness, they were taken niques of the ancient Greeks. Among early pro-
as portents of adverse weather conditions and ponents of the effort was German astronomer Jo-
impending bad fortune. hann Regiomontanus (1436-1476). He suggest-
Yet as the century progressed toward the ed that as with celestial objects, measurement by
sixteenth century, some thinkers increased the parallactic geometry be used to determine a
height of the spheres of air and fire, even quali- comet’s distance from Earth. Parallax is defined
fying a less perfect celestial space, where the as the apparent change in position of an object
four elements might invade to account for grow- when viewed from different points on Earth due
ing suspicions that so called fiery impressions, to orbit and rotation of Earth. Celestial objects
like comets, were celestial. Comets had been ob- were so far away that there was little or no paral-
served for centuries but not systematically with lax. The Moon’s parallax is about 1°, so a comet’s
naked-eye instruments as with the stars. These should be more if it were below the Moon or less
instruments were angle-measuring instruments above it. Regiomontanus, who developed more
(quadrants, sextants, etc.) meant to plot the lo- accurate instruments for his observatory at
cations of the stars and strange patches of dim Nuremberg, began careful astronomical observa-
light seen from Earth before the optical telescope tions which included plotting the path of the
at the end of the sixteenth century. Evidently, the comet of January 1472. Though his parallax
first concerted effort at accurate instrumental measurements were inaccurate and thus incon-

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clusive, he had pointed the way to determining reer for Danish noble named Tycho Brahe
Physical the origin of comets. (1546-1601), who had begun building large, ac-
Sciences curately graduated astronomical instruments.
Because this new star slowly faded, many
1450-1699
Impact
thinkers convinced themselves that it was only
In the first half of the sixteenth century, comets an unusual comet. Yet, accurate measurements,
appeared to the naked eye in 1500, 1517, 1531- particularly Brahe’s, showed the object to be ce-
1532, 1533, 1538, 1539, 1547, 1556, and lestial. With royal Danish patronage Brahe was
1558, all believed to be terrestrial until revised able to build and perfect several large, precision
opinions brought the question of terrestrial or instruments set up on the island of Hven off
celestial origin to focus. Surprisingly, it was from Denmark at his extensive observatory.
astrology that published doubts first appeared,
namely that the predicted droughts and other When a brilliant comet appeared in 1577, it
natural disasters of several of these comets did was keenly observed by many astronomers,
not occur which made their terrestrial origins none more than Brahe, who recorded it as being
and effects suspect. Netherlander mathematician far in celestial space and heading for the Sun
Gemma Frisius (1508-1555) applied applica- from a detailed tracking of its total visible path.
tions of trigonometry to astronomy, noting that Other astronomers’ detailed observations, par-
comets had a proper motion against the back- ticularly those of German Michael Maestlin
ground stars in his observations of those of (1550-1631), prompted the same conclusion.
1533, 1538, and 1539. He along with Italian Brahe also decided from his data that comets
physician Girolamo Fracastoro (1483-1553) and moved in circular orbits and bolstered this with
German astronomer and cartographer Peter his observations of comets in 1580 and 1585,
Apian (Bienewitz, 1495-1552) were the first to and others in 1590, 1593, and 1596. Maestlin’s
note upon observing the comet of 1531-1532 friend Helisaeus Roeslin (fl. c. 1578), offering a
(again, Halley’s) that its tail pointed away from more extensive sphere of fire as explaining the
the Sun. Apian wrote a tract and illustrated this. comet’s celestial aspect, anticipated that comets
They saw this influence of the Sun as contrary to moved in regular orbits with poles and axes
a strictly sublunar object, as Aristotle had de- (1578). Brahe’s findings, literally, shattered the
fined the comet. theory of solid crystal celestial spheres, since the
comet intersected some of these supposed
Several thinkers tentatively suggested
spheres. Still there were attempts at qualifica-
comets were perhaps some sort of celestial reflec-
tion, suggesting comets were: below the Moon
tion. One of the most stimulating reappraisals of
but in a lesser celestial region; celestial but
the makeup and origins of comets came from the
falling into the upper atmosphere; both celestial
royal professor of mathematics at Paris, Jean Pena
and terrestrial (with the elements also found in
(d. 1558), who became intrigued by the fact that
space); and unexplained miracles.
a comet’s tail pointed away from the Sun. Per-
haps recalling the celestial crystalline sphere The strong evidence leaning toward the ce-
idea, in his work on geometrical optics (1557) he lestial origin of comets prompted all the more
suggested comets were made of a transparent careful observation by astronomers into the sev-
crystal-like material through which the Sun’s rays enteenth century. Brahe’s assistant and heir to his
could be “refracted” causing an internal fire and observational data Johannes Kepler (1571-1630)
the tail. He went on to say that optical measure- observed a comet in 1607 (Halley once more),
ments proved some comets were above the three in 1618, and several others. Though not an
sphere of the Moon (in celestial space), and he exacting observer, he wrote a book on his comet
joined a growing number of thinkers, among observations (1619), noting that the lack of par-
others Girolamo Cardano (1501-1576), who allax shift indicated they were celestial. Yet, since
were denying the existence of a sphere of fire to he preferred the continued conception of solid
spawn terrestrial comets. orbital spheres separating celestial bodies, he the-
The 1570s brought momentous celestial orized comets moved in straight lines. Some the-
events and a crises to the supposed perfection of orized movement in parabolic arcs. Interestingly,
the celestial sphere. Seemingly, a new star (this the great Italian physicist Galilei Galileo (1564-
was a super nova, an exploding star) appeared in 1642) still agreed that comets were atmospheric
1572 where no star had been recorded before— in origin but optical phenomenon, not real, so
impossible in the defined unchanging celestial could not be measured legitimately by parallax.
space. The sight prompted an astronomical ca- René Descartes (1596-1650) argued philosophi-

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cally that comets were celestial bodies traveling mathematical technique. He collected the obser-
among many solar systems! vational records of 24 comets between 1337 and Physical
The three comets that appeared in 1618 1698 and used the parabolic formula of comet Sciences
were all the more significant for the new tool orbit to find three with similar trajectories (that
of 1531-1532, 1607, and the recent comet of 1450-1699
used to observe them—the telescope. Though
the early century Dutch invention is usually as- 1682 which he had carefully observed). He also
tronomically associated with Galileo, it was not noted the comet of 1456 but that there was a
he but a Swiss mathematician/astronomer Johann lack of accurate observations on it—not aware of
Baptist Cysat (1586-1657) who first turned the Toscanelli’s data. The trajectories were very simi-
instrument toward the comets of 1618, describ- lar, and since they all were between 75 to 76
ing the head and tail—cometary substance still a years apart, he theorized that this was the same
mystery—with a published work (1619). The comet and that its periodic character indicated a
path of these comets, as that before in 1607 and return in 1758. The comet did return, and be-
those to follow to just after mid century (1652, came known as Halley’s Comet.
1664, 1665), remained a point of contention, be- The sixteenth century debate over the ori-
cause each path was only partially observed and gins of comets as terrestrial or celestial had
recorded. Through the period, the path of a helped to redefine the makeup and extension of
comet’s travel became a matter of defining the Earth’s atmosphere and provided a first resolu-
comet by two interpretations, as either of perma- tion of the boundaries between atmosphere and
nent or of transitory character. The former de- celestial space. Aristotelian chemical conceptions
fined a celestial object moving in some closed or of elemental constituents of terrestrial and celes-
circular orbit, close to Brahe’s assessment. This tial regions had been significantly challenged and
stance was taken by Adrien Auzout (1622-1691, ultimately dismissed within the context of the
who built very long telescopes), Giovanni Alfon- cometary question. So to, the progressive oppor-
so Borelli (1608-1679), Giovanni Domenico tunities to apply and record accurate measure-
Cassini (1625-1712), and Pierre Petit (before ment of cometary trajectories, bolstered proof of
1623-c.1677). The second interpretation defined set laws of celestial motion, first set down by Ke-
the comet as a transitory object, perhaps of some pler, departing from the complexities and frustra-
sub-celestial material, moving in a uniform recti- tions of the stubbornly upheld Ptolemaic system.
linear path, the view of Gaileo, Kepler, Polish as- Thus by the beginning of the eighteenth century,
tronomer Johannes Helvelius (1611-87) who ob- comets were commonly accepted to be celestial
served four comets, and seminal Dutch scientist bodies, moving in defined orbits which could be
Christiaan Huygens (1629-1695). periodic like the planets, and obeying the mathe-
But in 1680 a comet appeared with a trajec- matics of the newly defined physical laws of
tory which allowed its path of travel to be ob- Newton and his contemporaries.
served before and after perihelion (closest ap- WILLIAM J. MCPEAK
proach as it orbits around the Sun), and the out-
come did not fit the theory of rectilinear motion.
The celestial origin of comets was now becoming
widely accepted. One of the most comprehensive
Further Reading
collections of data on this comet was that of Eng- Drake, Stillman, C.D. O’Malley. The Controversy of the
Comets of 1618. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylva-
lish astronomer John Flamsteed (1646-1719). nia Press, 1960.
His famed compatriot physicist/mathematician
Hellman, C. Doris. The Comet of 1577: Its Place in the His-
Isaac Newton (1642-1727) took that data and
tory of Astronomy. New York: ANS Press, 1971.
applied his evolving mechanical principles of
motion and deduced that comets were matter Heninger, S.K. A Handbook of Renaissance Meteorology.
First reprint edition. New York: Greenwood Press,
and would be attracted to the Sun as the planets. 1968.
As also with the planets, the comet’s rectilinear
Jervis, Jane L. Cometary Theory in Fifteenth-Century Eu-
inertia would be drawn to the central pull of the
rope. Dordrecht: D. Reidel, 1985.
Sun, so that the comet’s path would be a conic
section, a parabolic orbit which he calculated Thorndike, Lynn. History of Magic and Experimental Sci-
ence. 8 vols. New York: Columbia University Press,
from three position observations. 1964-66, vols. 3-8.
It was left to astronomer Edmond Halley Wightman, W.P.D. Science in the Renaissance. 2 vols. Edin-
(1656-1742) to most effectively apply Newton’s burgh: Oliver & Boyd, 1962, vol. 1, ch. 7.

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The Rise of the Phlogiston Theory of Fire

Physical
Sciences
1450-1699
Overview tales of handling a stone that made him invisi-
ble, and claimed to have seen Scottish geese that
The late seventeenth century saw the rise of the
lived in trees and hatched eggs with their feet. In
phlogiston (pronounced FLO-jis-ton) theory of
his science Becher followed alchemical ideas,
fire, which sought to explain the burning of ob-
but these were a confused body of work and he
jects. First proposed by Johann Joachim Becher
attempted to order and simplify some of the
(1635-1682) and Georg Ernst Stahl (1660-
common notions of his time. First, he proposed
1734), the phlogiston theory evolved into an
an “oily spirit” as an essential principle of matter,
complete theory of the chemical sciences. It was
but he also used the alchemical principles of
modified by later followers, giving it coherence,
mercury, sulfur, and salt. Later he altered Aristo-
but also exposing its weaknesses. Phlogiston de-
tle’s four elements, keeping only water, and di-
termined the direction that chemistry was to
viding earth into three separate substances. One
take for the next one hundred years, suggesting
of these, “oily earth” (terra pinguis), would form
not only what experiments to perform, but how
the basis of the phlogiston theory. Becher stated
to interpret the results. The theory was eventual-
that in order for a substance to burn it must
ly overturned by the concept of the combustion
contain oily earth.
of oxygen, but only after a protracted series of
debates and experiments. Becher’s ideas were not clearly explained in
his writings, and it is thanks to his disciple,
Georg Stahl, that the theory was popularized.
Background Stahl’s writings were still heavy reading, but he
The nature of fire has long been a source of published widely. Stahl’s phlogiston was a materi-
wonder and mystery. Aristotle (384-322 B.C.) al principle that escaped from objects when they
combined fire with air, water, and earth to ex- burned. In the act of escaping the phlogiston
plain the composition of all things. For Aristotle, caused violent motion, the flames, sparks and ex-
when wood burnt the flame was the element of plosions of various combustions. So burning
fire escaping, any vapor was air, moisture was wood was explained as the substance phlogiston
water, and the ash that remained was the ele- escaping from within the wood, causing the mo-
ment of earth. Aristotle’s system dominated me- tion of flames and sparks as it left, and leaving
dieval European thought, partly due to the behind an ash with little or no phlogiston.
Church’s adoption and modification of his philo-
sophical ideas. Impact
The European Renaissance helped revive The phlogiston theory became popular in the
the works of other Greek philosophers, such as German states and then spread quickly across
Plato (427-347 B.C.), who had been Aristotle’s Europe. Its acceptance was wide and lasting,
teacher. Plato had proposed a “burnable princi- dominating the chemical sciences for a hundred
ple” that existed within inflammable objects. years. The theory was successful for a number of
This fitted well with the alchemical notions of reasons. It was a development of known theories
the Renaissance, and the burnable principle be- of combustion. It appealed to those familiar with
came associated with sulfur, or “some vague the alchemical notions by retaining the impor-
spirit of sulfur.” A new system of elements tance of sulfur, but also explained the combus-
evolved, with substances explained by a combi- tion of substances that appeared to contain no
nation of sulfur, mercury, and salt. So wood sulfur. It was based on Aristotle’s four elements,
burned because it contained sulfur, gave off and used Plato’s idea of a burnable principle. In
flame because it contained mercury, and left ash a sense phlogiston united all these competing
because it contained salt. However, Aristotle’s ideas, allowing supporters of each to easily
four elements were still used, sometimes in con- adopt the new theory. Even the name phlogiston
junction with the new system, creating a con- was not new; it was derived from the Greek
fused mix of explanations for the nature of fire. word phlogistos (to burn), and had been coined
Johann Becher was an alchemist and adven- early in the seventeenth century.
turer. He sold a process for turning silver and The phlogiston theory was passed on to en-
sand into gold to the Dutch government, told tire generations of academics by Stahl’s teaching.

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Stahl believed that his theory was divinely in-

spired, and that the common herd (which in- Physical
cluded his students) would not understand it. Sciences
His intentionally uninteresting lecturing style
made the details of phlogiston unclear, but his 1450-1699
students dutifully copied and repeated his
words. Stahl was also a very successful physi-
cian—he became the King of Prussia’s personal
doctor. The popularity of his medical text, The
True Theory of Medicine (1708), also helped to
spread the phlogiston theory.
Other theories of the nature of fire, some of
them far closer to modern theories, lost out to
phlogiston’s popularity. There had been a strong
British trend of thought that had suggested air as
the supporter of combustion and life. However,
the ideas of Robert Hooke (1635-1703), John
Mayow (1643-1679), Stephen Hales (1677-
1761), and others were not popular on the Euro-
pean continent. Opponents of phlogiston were
smothered by the sheer weight of numbers of
phlogistonists that trumpeted the new theory.
Johann Becher. (Library of Congress. Reproduced with
Phlogiston, although originally introduced
to explain combustion, became the center of a
whole system of chemistry. The wide scope of
phlogiston’s supposed attributes led to the theo- thunder was the result of the collapsing dis-
ry becoming the first unifying principle of the persed air as the phlogiston escaped.
chemical sciences. Breathing was explained as While the phlogiston theory had come from
part of the process by which food was burnt in Becher’s mind as conjecture based on older
the body. Phlogiston would escape from the philosophical ideas, it helped inspire practical
burning food and was expulsed by the lungs. experimentation. Stahl performed a number of
The theory also explained the process of key experiments that were published widely.
metal calcination (rusting). When a metal rusted The results were easily explained by the internal
phlogiston escaped, leaving behind a lighter, logic of the phlogiston theory. Across Europe
more fragile, substance. Experiments were made chemists dutifully repeated Stahl’s work, and
to add phlogiston back to rusts, and were often guided by his writings they also came to the
successful. By adding a substance rich in phlo- same “obvious” conclusions. This new trend to
giston (charcoal) to certain rusts and heating finding practical support for a theory, no matter
them the metal was restored. Even more con- how misguided, is one of phlogiston’s most im-
vincing was the fact that this process gave off a portant legacies.
gas that was not capable of supporting fire or Although phlogiston was considered a real
breathing. This was seen as proof that all the substance, it was not originally conceived as
phlogiston had been taken out of the surround- having any weight. To Becher and Stahl it was a
ing air and returned to the metal. Indeed, it is a substance as insubstantial as sunlight, but like
simple and coherent explanation. sunlight it could still have dramatic effects even
Phlogiston was also said to be the founda- if it could not be contained or measured.
tion of color. Many substances when burnt or Later supporters of phlogiston began to
rusted changed color. The change in color was alter the theory from the original concepts of
explained by the phlogiston leaving during the Becher and Stahl. Often this was because the
process. Phlogiston was also said to be com- complex, vague, and sometime contradictory
pletely indestructible, nonelastic, dry, and im- writings of the founders were misunderstood. By
perceptible to all the human senses. Even thun- the 1730s most phlogistonists regarded their
der and lightning could be explained by phlogis- imagined substance as having an actual weight.
ton. Lightning flashes were the combustion of This had dramatic consequences for the theory.
concentrations of phlogiston in the air, and If phlogiston had weight then when it left a sub-

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stance during combustion or rusting the remain- convinced more and more scientists to abandon
Physical ing material should weigh less. However, a num- the phlogiston theory and adopt Lavoisier’s new
Sciences ber of experiments gave results that conflicted explanation of oxygen combustion.
with this. For example, when a metal rusted
The phlogiston theory died a lingering
1450-1699 (gave off phlogiston) the material left behind
death, with some supporters like Joseph Priest-
often weighed considerably more than the origi-
ley (1733-1804) maintaining its truth against all
nal metal.
opposition. The theory also went through occa-
Some scientists suggested that phlogiston sional revivals as late as the nineteenth century,
had a negative weight, and so its absence made often for metaphysical reasons as opposed to
materials heavier. However, this did not seem to chemical ones. While it was a mistaken path,
apply to all situations—for example, when ani- phlogiston is often seen as a halfway stage be-
mals breathed (expelled phlogiston) they did not tween alchemy and modern chemistry. For while
appear to gain weight. The negative weight was the theory limited the analysis of results it also
not accepted by all supporters, and alternative encouraged experimentation, and was eventual-
versions of the phlogiston theory began to appear. ly overturned by the weight of printed evidence.
DAVID TULLOCH
The discovery of new gases, later identified
as hydrogen and oxygen, which burned brighter
and more fiercely that normal air, also caused Further Reading
problems for the phlogiston theory. More and
Conant, James Bryant. The Overthrow of the Phlogiston
more alterations were made by supporters to an- Theory: The Chemical Revolution of 1775-1789. Cam-
swer the critics. Fierce debates raged between bridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1956.
the two sides. This had the effect of making the Partington, J. R. A History of Chemistry. 4 vols. London:
anti-phlogistonists more rigorous in their re- Macmillan, 1961-70.
search and experimentation. In order to gain Partington, J. R. Historical Studies on the Phlogiston Theory.
support for his alternative theory of combustion, New York: Arno Press, 1981.
Antoine Lavoisier (1743-1794) produced many White, John Henry. The History of the Phlogiston Theory.
papers carefully describing his methods and London: E. Arnold, 1932, reprinted by AMS Press,
analysis. Over time the weight of this evidence 1973.

Seventeenth-century Experimental
and Theoretical Advances Regarding
the Nature of Light Lay the Foundations
of Modern Optics


Overview while Isaac Newton (1642-1727) developed a
corpuscular theory. The two latter views were
Johannes Kepler’s (1571-1630) early seven-
eventually synthesized in quantum theory dur-
teenth-century researches on the nature of light
ing the early years of the twentieth century.
were the culmination of medieval developments
in the science of perspectiva and inaugurated a
century of research that laid the foundations of
modern optics. Willebrord Snell (1580-1626) Background
shortly thereafter discovered the law of refrac- Theories about the nature and propagation of
tion, which allowed mathematical-physical theo- light in antiquity were intimately connected with
ries of light to be developed in earnest, while theories of vision, and implicit in all theories of
René Descartes (1596-1650) developed a mech- vision was the requirement that there be direct
anistic wave-theory of light that did much to de- contact between the visual organ and objects of
fine the boundaries for future optical studies. vision. Different accounts of how this contact
Christiaan Huygens (1629-1695) was the first to occurred were promulgated and developed into
successfully mathematize the wave picture, opposing schools of thought in Ancient Greece.

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The atomists adopted the position of Leucip- Bacon (c. 1214-c. 1294) attempted to display
pus (c. 500-c. 450 B.C.), according to whom ob- the underlying unity of the major traditions by Physical
jects were thought to emit thin films or images of reconciling them. Most notably, he mathema- Sciences
themselves through the intervening space to the tized Robert Grosseteste’s (c.1168-1253) Neo-
eye. This “intromission” theory of vision was an platonic views on species transference through 1450-1699
alternative to the “extromission” theory champi- the medium and posited it as an explication of
oned by the Pythagoreans. Exponents of the ex- Aristotle’s qualitative transformation of the
tromission theory believed the eye emitted an in- medium. This produced the doctrine of multi-
visible fire that “touched” objects of vision to re- plication of species.
veal their colors and shape. Aristotle (384-322 Bacon argued that what was transferred was
B.C.) proposed a “mediumistic” theory whereby
a series of simulacra called forth successively from
objects transmit their visible qualities through the medium. He believed these likenesses were
the intervening air to the eye. corporeal. Bacon’s views circulated widely and
Euclid (c. 330-c. 260 B.C.) developed the helped establish the tradition of perspectiva in the
extromission theory in Optica (c. 300 B.C.), offer- West. They were developed in John Pecham’s (c.
ing a geometrical theory of perspective in which 1230-1292) Perspectiva communis and Witelo’s (c.
the apparent size and shape of objects was deter- 1230-c. 1277) Perspectiva. Nevertheless, Aris-
mined by their distance and orientation with re- totelians were still in the majority by far.
spect to an observer’s line of sight. Ptolemy (c.
A.D. 100-170) continued in this tradition, teach-
Impact
ing the equality of the angles of incidence and
reflection. He further maintained that the angles New life was breathed into the perspectivist tra-
of the incident and refracted light rays had a dition during the Renaissance partly due to a
constant relationship. Also during the second growing interest in realistic painting. Kepler
century, Galen (c. 130-c. 200) produced an al- seized upon these ideas, summarizing and ex-
ternate mediumistic theory. The purpose of Aris- tending them in his own optical researches. In
totle’s mediumistic theory was to provide a Ad Vitellionem paralipomena (1604) he developed
physical explanation of how light was transmit- a more satisfactory theory of vision—arguing the
ted from visual objects to an observer, while only way to establish a one-to-one correspon-
Galen’s was primarily designed to satisfy physio- dence between points in the visual field and
logical criteria derived from the eye’s anatomy. points in the eye was if light rays were refracted
through the eye’s humors to focus on the retina
When Greek optical works were translated as an inverted image. He also produced the first
into Arabic during the ninth century A.D., tradi- analysis of the telescope in Dioptrice (1611).
tional distinctions were adopted and old argu-
ments rehearsed. Only the work of Alhazen (c. After Kepler it became generally accepted
965-1038) decisively broke with the past. Al- that light was not a modification of the transpar-
hazen proposed a new intromission theory that, ent medium, rather that it existed as an indepen-
for the first time, sought to simultaneously satis- dent thing whose properties could be inquired
fy mathematical, physical, and physiological cri- into. It was likewise accepted that light was emit-
teria. Exploiting the geometrical optics of Euclid ted by luminous bodies and that it was rectilin-
and Ptolemy in conjunction with his knowledge early propagated in rays. Furthermore, Kepler’s
of ocular anatomy, Alhazen explained the physi- methodological emphasis on the mathematical
cal contact between an object and observer properties of reflection and refraction was widely
through intromitted rays. Though difficulties re- adopted. In fact, it remains the basis of modern
mained, the intromissionist character of vision physical optics. Unfortunately, Kepler was unable
was never again seriously challenged. to derive a mathematical law of refraction.

As Greek and Arabic texts became available In 1621 Snell discovered the law of refrac-
in the Latin West during the twelfth and thir- tion. He demonstrated that the ratio of the sines
teenth centuries, the conflicting views of Aristo- of the angles of the incident and refracted rays to
tle and Alhazen held sway. Albertus Magnus (c. the normal remains constant. However, priority
1200-1280), the first great expositor of the Aris- of publication goes to Descartes, who presented
totelian corpus, defended the Aristotelian medi- the law without proof in Dioptrique (1637) along
umistic theory, according to which light is a state with his wave theory of light.
of the medium that makes objects on the other Descartes’s wave theory, despite its short-
side of it visible. Following Alhazen’s lead, Roger comings, introduced a fruitful new area of study

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that many subsequent researchers took as the two rays. He further noticed that the resulting
Physical starting point for their own investigations. He beams could be split again but only for certain ori-
Sciences asserted that light was a mechanical disturbance entations. Huygens developed a wave theory of
transmitted with infinite speed through the sub- light that, in opposition to Newton, explained the
1450-1699 tle matter filling the universe. However, in at- initial double refraction. Though the latter effect—
tempting to explain reflection and refraction, he polarization—could not be explained by existing
posited a mechanical model that treated light as wave theories, it was eventually accounted for by
particles. When light particles strike a surface nineteenth-century wave theories.
they are reflected elastically so that, in agree-
Huygens, influenced by Fermat’s work,
ment with observation, the angle of incidence
adopted the finite velocity of light as a hypothesis
equals the angle of reflection. Descartes’s corpus-
of his theory several years before Ole Römer pro-
cular model also accounted for the quantitative
vided a demonstration of this fact. In 1676 Römer
law of refraction. However, it implied that light
noticed the intervals between successive eclipses
travels faster in denser media.
of Jupiter’s satellites varied depending on Earth’s
Pierre de Fermat (1601-1665) later showed positions—diminishing as Earth approached and
that Snell’s law of refraction could be deduced increasing as it receded. He correctly attributed
from the least-time principle, which implied that this to the time required by light to travel the
light travels slower in denser media. As striking Jupiter-Earth distance. Based on his own estimate
as this result was, it was still generally believed of Earth’s orbital diameter, Huygens exploited
that light was propagated instantaneously. In Römer’s finding to calculate light’s velocity.
fact, Descartes stated that if light were not prop- Though his value of 140,000 miles (225,000
agated instantaneously then he would be ready kilometers) per second is about 25% too small, it
to confess that he knew “absolutely nothing.” He represented a considerable achievement.
avoided dealing with the problems raised by his Huygens presented his completed wave the-
corpuscular analysis by treating the model as a ory before the Académie des Sciences in 1679
merely theoretical-educational device. but waited until 1690 to publish his Traité de la
Newton took Descartes’s model more seri- lumière. He conceived of light as a disturbance
ously and developed a comprehensive corpuscu- propagated by mechanical means at a finite
lar theory. By treating optical phenomena as a speed through a subtle medium of closely
species of particle dynamics, Newton provided a packed elastic particles. According to Huygens’s
plausible physical mechanism for light propaga- principle, a vibrating particle transfers its mo-
tion. His was also the only seventeenth-century tion to those touching it in the direction of mo-
proposal to provide an adequate theory of col- tion. Each particle so disturbed becomes the
ors. When his prism experiments of 1666 re- source of a hemispherical wave-front. Where
vealed white light was composed of different many such fronts overlap, light is visible. Huy-
colors refracted through characteristic angles, gens’s systematic treatment allowed his wave
Newton interpreted this to mean that white light theory to be fruitfully applied and developed.
was composed of streams of particles that were With it he mathematically demonstrated the rec-
sorted and differently diverted to produce the tilinear propagation of light and deduced the
spectrum of colors. After Newton published his laws of reflection and refraction.
theory in 1672, a multiyear controversy with Newton’s corpuscular theory dominated
Robert Hooke (1635-1703) ensued. In Micro- eighteenth-century optical thinking. It was
graphia (1665) Hooke had advocated a wavelike eclipsed by Huygens’s wave theory in the early
theory of light and spoke in general terms of the nineteenth century. The two views were later
finite speed of light. However, he provided noth- synthesized in the quantum theory of light dur-
ing comparable to Newton’s theory of colors. It ing the early years of the twentieth century.
also seemed to Newton that wave theories were
incapable of explaining the sharpness of shad- STEPHEN D. NORTON
ows or the optical phenomena newly discovered
by Erasmus Bartholin (1625-1698).
Further Reading
In 1669 Bartholin noticed that the mineral
known as Iceland spar (calcite) produces double
Books
images of objects viewed through it. He assumed Lindberg, David C. and Geoffrey Cantor. The Discourse of
that light transmitted through the crystal was being Light from the Middle Ages to the Enlightenment. Berke-
refracted through different angles so as to produce ley: University of California Press, 1985.

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Ronchi, Vasco. The Nature of Light. V. Barocas, trans. Cohen, I. B. “Roemer and the First Determination of the
Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1970. Velocity of Light.”Isis 31 (1940): 327-379. Physical
Sabra, A. I. Theories of Light from Descartes to Newton. Sciences
London: Oldbourne Book Company, 1967. Lindberg, David C. “The Science of Optics.” in D. Lind-
berg, ed., Science in the Middle Ages. Chicago: Univer-
1450-1699
Articles sity of Chicago Press, 1978.
Burke, J. G. “Descartes on the Refraction and the Velocity
of Light.”American Journal of Physics 34 (1966): 390- Sparberg, E. “Misinterpretation of Theories of Light.”
400. American Journal of Physics 34 (1966): 377-89.

The Founding of England’s

Royal Observatory


Overview land. To address this problem, King Charles II of
England established the Royal Observatory. Ad-
European exploration of the New World ushered
vised by the predominant scientists of the time,
in the transformation of the political, economic,
the king believed that the answer to the problem
academic, and social systems that had predomi-
lay in finding a method by which to calculate
nated in late medieval Europe. Mercantilism, an
longitude using charts of celestial observations.
economic philosophy that emphasized the need
The problem of determining longitude at sea was
for massive gold reserves and promoted trade,
eventually settled in a much more practical man-
became the dominant economic theory of many
ner, by the invention of a portable timepiece re-
Western European nations. The increased per-
sistant to the constant motion of a ship, but the
ception of a need for gold bullion forced Eng-
Royal Observatory remained dedicated to ad-
land, France, Spain, Holland, Portugal, and other
vancing the science of astronomy.
nations into intense rivalries for dominion over
the seas and land in the New World. Also, these
nations all sought ways in which to expedite and
gain monopolies over trade with the nations of Background
the Far East. The competition for wealth to stock The Royal Observatory was founded at Green-
national coffers—both in terms of plunder and wich, England, on June 22, 1675. The complex
trade goods—revolutionized European business. of buildings itself is an architectural masterpiece.
Corporations were founded to subsidize colonial Designed by renowned English architect Sir
and trade ventures, banks were established to Christopher Wren (1632-1723), the Observato-
handle personal reserves, and credit was levied to ry featured high vaulted ceilings that could ac-
help provide capital for such ventures. commodate great instruments. Its earliest contri-
butions were in the fields of observational and
This increased interest and economic re-
practical astronomy, most especially in the deter-
liance on trade and colonization was not without
mination of star positions, the transit of certain
risk. In the seventeenth century the marine en-
planets, and the compilation and publication of
deavors themselves were a great risk, both in
astronomical charts and almanacs that were used
terms of money and human life. Innovations in
as navigational tools. Accurate timekeeping was
shipbuilding, weaponry, and navigational instru-
also a major endeavor of the Royal Observatory
ments abounded, but ships continued to be
at Greenwich. For this purpose, The Nautical Al-
stranded or lost with alarming frequency. Not
manac was published in 1767. The publication
only was this phenomenon a problem for the
established the line of longitude (or meridian)
merchant fleets, but it also plagued the burgeon-
that passed through Greenwich as a baseline for
ing fleets of military ships needed to defend the
the calculation of time.
competing national shipping interests. Perhaps
the greatest question surrounding safe passage on The matter of governing the Royal Observa-
the seas was finding a way for sailors to deter- tory came into question in 1675. Charles II ap-
mine their longitude—one’s precise position east pointed John Flamsteed (1646-1719) the first
and west—while at sea and out of the sight of Astronomer Royal, and charged the then-28-

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Physical
Sciences
1450-1699

An early-eighteenth-century engraving depicting the interior of the Royal Greenwich Observatory. (Bettmann/Corbis.
Reproduced with permission.)

year-old clergyman “to apply himself with the his salary. This practice was eventually helpful in
most exact care and diligence to the rectifying maintaining the caliber of scientific inquiry at
the tables of the motions of the heavens, and the the Observatory and ensuring its continuance
places of the fixed stars, so as to find out the so beyond Flamsteed’s tenure.
much-desired longitude of places for the perfect-
ing the art of navigation.” Flamsteed endeavored
to find a method of calculating longitude using Impact
celestial observations and carefully calculated as- The accomplishments of the Royal Observatory
tronomical charts, an effort that took several and the several noteworthy astronomers who
voyages to the New World for which to collect graced its halls are numerous. The Royal Obser-
data. However, he himself did not put forth any vatory is perhaps the only institution of the
ultimate mathematical solution to the longitude Royal Society that from its inception promoted
problem. active research, scholarship, and publication of
Upon being granted the stewardship of the modern science. The Society, which held stead-
Royal Observatory, Flamsteed undertook the fast to an exclusion of matters political and reli-
project of acquiring the necessary tools to collect gious, was a torch-bearer of the Enlightenment-
the most accurate and scientific data then possi- era philosophy that made secular institutions of
ble. The financial burden of equipping the Ob- scientific inquiry more politically, socially, and
servatory fell almost solely upon Flamsteed him- academically palatable. However, even the Royal
self. With the help of a small family inheritance Observatory was not completely free from its
and a few generous gifts from outside benefac- own internal politics and academic prejudices.
tors, he constructed a mural arc, a large instru- One of Flamsteed’s several regular duties in-
ment used for measuring the altitudes of stars as cluded serving on the panel, composed of schol-
they passed over the meridian. He also pur- ars from the Royal Society, appointed to evaluate
chased several practical tools used aboard ships the claims of those who asserted different meth-
for navigation in hopes of making technical ad- ods and theories of solving the longitude prob-
vances on the instruments themselves, or incor- lem. However, he was rumored to have demon-
porating their basic elements into equipment strated a bias in favor of astronomical methods of
that would aid astronomical observations. The solving the longitude problem. Recent historians
limited funding for the Observatory forced have levied the criticism that one of Flamsteed’s
Flamsteed to take on students in order to earn successors, Nevil Maskelyne (1732-1811), who

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was appointed Astronomer Royal in 1765 and distance on Earth. The reliance of international
who expanded upon Flamsteed’s stellar catalog mariners on charts and catalogs from the Royal Physical
by adding lunar observations, and his colleagues Observatory strengthened the case for the longi- Sciences
may have, through deft bureaucratic maneuver- tude of Greenwich itself to be designated the
ings, hindered the development and final accep- Prime Meridian, the imaginary line that marks 1450-1699
tance of a mechanical timepiece, now called the 0° 0’ 0’’, the longitude from which all east-west
Harrison Timepiece after its creator, as a means directional coordinates are measured. An inter-
of readily ascertaining longitude at sea. national convention approved the designation of
Greenwich as the Prime Meridian in 1884. The
Flamsteed’s position as director of the Royal exact location of the meridian is marked by the
Observatory put him in contact with several of the sighting crosshairs inside of the eyepiece of a
foremost astronomers and scientists of the age, in- telescope inside the Observatory. The distinction
cluding Sir Edmond Halley (1656-1742) and Sir of the Prime Meridian meant that not only east-
Isaac Newton (1642-1727). Indeed, it was Flam- west bearings, but also international time zones
steed’s equipment at the Royal Observatory that were measured from Greenwich—hence the ad-
Halley used to sight and track the comet that is his vent of the designation of Greenwich Mean Time
namesake. However, relations between the other (or Universal Standard Time.)
scientists and Flamsteed were not always cordial.
Recurring illness plagued Flamsteed and reported- Fleeing light pollution from nearby London,
ly he was often ill tempered. Flamsteed spent the Royal Observatory left its historic grounds at
decades compiling a remarkable atlas of stellar ob- Greenwich in 1948. The institution carried on
servations. Though he had already amassed a sub- its research at Hertmonceux in Sussex until
stantial volume, Flamsteed wished to delay publi- 1990, when it moved again to the grounds of
cation on any part of the work until it was com- Cambridge University. With university re-
pleted in entirety. Both Halley and Newton led the sources, Observatory research once again pio-
charge for the immediate publication of the atlas neered new fields in astronomy and particle
and gained the sponsorship of the Prince of Den- physics—especially in efforts to further deter-
mark to pay for the printing costs. The Prince died mine the dynamics of the Milky Way and the
a few years later, but Halley continued to edit the composition of stellar objects. After 300 years of
volume and push for its publication. Despite pioneering research in astronomy, the Royal Ob-
Flamsteed’s objections, 400 copies of the volume servatory was disbanded. Research in progress
were published in 1712. Flamsteed managed to and equipment was moved to the UK Astrono-
secure 300 copies of the newly printed atlas and my Technology Center at the Royal Observatory
burned them. The completed catalog of his obser- Edinburgh; historic instruments, charts, cata-
vations was published in 1725 under the title His- logs, and other devices were returned to the old
toria Coelestis Britannica. The compilation listed complex at Greenwich, now a museum. At its
the names and positions of over 3,000 stars. close in 1998, the Royal Observatory was the
oldest scientific institution in the British Isles.
Discoveries and innovations in the field of
ADRIENNE WILMOTH LERNER
astronomy continued throughout the entire life
of the Royal Observatory. However, with the
problem of longitude solved, the research of the Further Reading
eighteenth and nineteenth centuries at the Ob- Sobel, Dava. Longitude: The True Story of the Lone Genius
servatory were primarily focused on using prac- Who Solved the Greatest Scientific Problem of His Time.
tical astronomy to accurately measure time and New York: Penguin, 1996.

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Revival of Corpuscular Theories

Physical
Sciences During the Seventeenth Century
1450-1699


Overview hot + wet, water = cold + wet, earth = cold + dry.
All four elements are in turn combined in various
During the seventeenth century Scientific Revo-
proportions to form the homoiomere, or materially
lution, the Aristotelian theory of substance
uniform, tangible substances (e.g., granite, iron,
which had dominated European thought for
blood, bone) that are the basic physical con-
2,000 years was progressively abandoned in
stituents of the world. These homoiomere in turn
favor of various “corpuscular” or particulate
combine to constitute anhomoiomere, or complex,
matter theories. While foreshadowing the classi-
higher-order parts and organisms (e.g., petals,
cal and modern atomic theories of the nine-
hands, plants, human beings), which are also
teenth and twentieth centuries, not all corpuscu-
substances. (Whether Aristotle himself believed
lar theories were atomic in nature, and various
in prime matter, and also considered the four ele-
ones differed on key points. Whereas some were
ments to be substances, or only was interpreted
inspired by ideas drawn from the ancient Greek
as doing so by later commentators, is now a
atomists, others developed out of Western and
much-debated topic.)
Islamic medieval matter theories. All of them,
however, fundamentally challenged previously For Aristotle, a substance is a unitary entity
accepted notions of matter, motion, space, and having an essence, or unique and irreducible set
substance in physics and chemistry, and generat- of defining activities and properties, and a nature,
ed intense philosophical and religious contro- or innate principle that determines and directs
versies as well. these. Each physical substance is a complex unity
of a single form and its matter, which respectively
manifest its actuality, or characteristic pattern of
Background activity, and potentiality, or latent capacities for al-
Western culture inherited two major philosophi- ternative actualities. All real changes involve sub-
cal theories about matter and motion from an- stances, and consist of two types—essential (sub-
cient Greece. Leucippus (fl. fifth century B.C.) and stantial) change, in which one substance becomes
Democritus (c. 460-370 B.C.) argued that the another substance (e.g., a caterpillar becomes a
world consists of minute, indivisible bits of mat- butterfly), and accidental change, in which a sub-
ter (atomos means indivisible). Atoms are eternal, stance alters in size, place, or quality, while its
uncreated, and indestructible, infinite in number, essence remains the same (e.g., John Smith grows
and in constant motion through void space; their taller, sits down, or his hair changes from black to
only properties are size, shape, and solidity. All gray, but he still remains John Smith). Aristotle
objects and their qualities—color, taste, texture, also rejected the existence of void space in favor
etc.—and changes in these result from the mo- of a concept of place as positional relations be-
tion, collision, combination, and separation of tween physical objects. Finally, he distinguished
atoms. Combinations of atoms can vary in quan- four principles or causes of change—formal, ma-
tity, shape (H or V), order (HV or VH), or position terial, efficient, and final—which explain not just
(V). All atomic motions occur due to strict neces- how a substance changes but also why, offering
sity or fate, rather than chance or free will. Later, not just a mechanism for change but a purpose
Epicurus (c. 341-270 B.C.) and his disciple the and goal for it as well.
Roman poet Lucretius (c. 99-55 B.C.) modified
The theories of the atomists and of Aristotle
these views by introducing the concepts of rela-
were thus profoundly opposed in several ways.
tive weight for different types of atoms and of an
The atomist universe was constructed from the
indeterminate swerve in atomic motions.
bottom up, out of atoms as the basic real units of
Against atomism, Aristotle (384-322 B.C.) the physical world. All tangible objects and their
pitted his hierarchical theory of qualities, ele- qualities are merely accidental, phenomenal ag-
ments, and substances. In the sublunary realm, gregates of atoms, governed by necessity or
four primary qualities—hot, cold, wet, dry— chance, without an essential unity of structure,
combine in complementary pairs to “inform” or function, or purpose to guide and perpetuate
determine a completely qualityless, indeterminate their existence. Aristotle’s cosmos was organized
substrate of “prime matter”—fire = hot + dry, air = from the top down, with substances and quali-

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ties as the fundamental real entities of the physi- Aristotle’s Physics was interpreted to suggest that,
cal world. The elements are conceptual constitu- while matter as such is infinitely divisible, specif- Physical
tive principles which do not exist separately, but ic substances consist of minima naturalia, or par- Sciences
only in combination with one another. As essen- ticles of a minimum natural size, whose physical
tial unities, substances are structured, organized division entails destruction of their substantial 1450-1699
objects, whose inherent natures perpetuate their natures. The great Arabic commentators, Avicen-
existence and direct their activities toward the na [Ibn Sina] (980-1037) and Averroës [Ibn
realization of specific goals, thereby allowing for Rushd] (1126-1198), developed this concept
the existence of reason and free will in man. and modified Aristotle’s theory of substance to
Aristotle’s system quickly triumphed over suggest that in chemical reactions, a substantial
the atomists’ ideas for several reasons. First, it form of the product “supervenes” upon the forms
more convincingly explained many natural of the constituents, but the latter persist as “vir-
properties and activities, especially biological tual” forms that reappear when the product de-
ones. Second, its emphasis on essential structure composes. This theory was transmitted to Eu-
and function, instead of merely accidental phe- rope during the thirteenth century, attracting the
nomena, attributed a sense of order to the uni- interest of the medieval scholastics. By the six-
verse that made it more explicable. Third, its teenth century, commentators such as Augustine
provisions for purpose and free will, instead of Nifo (1473-1546?), Julius Caesar Scaliger (1484-
chance or determinism, were more compatible 1558), and Jacopo Zabarella (1532-1589) in-
with belief in God and personal moral responsi- creasingly stressed the concept of minima natu-
bility, whereas Epicureanism gained a reputation ralia and de-emphasized that of substance.
for atheism and immorality (hedonism). With
The revival of Epicurean atomism was due
the subsequent rise of Christianity in Western
primarily to the French priest and philosopher
culture and the adaptation of Aristotelian philos-
Pierre Gassendi (1592-1655), who overcame
ophy in support of Christian theology, atomism
most theological objections to atomism by re-
remained out of favor for over 1,500 years. Lu-
casting it to conform to Christian doctrines. In-
cretius’s poem De Rerum Natura, the only atom-
stead of being infinite in number, eternal, inde-
ist text from antiquity to survive intact, would
structible, and in perpetual motion, atoms are fi-
not be recovered by Western Europe until 1417.
nite in number, being originally created and set
into motion by God, who directs their move-
Impact ments according to regular laws to accomplish
specific ends. Atomic matter is passive and inert;
By the late sixteenth century, severe difficulties
the fundamental properties of atoms are size,
with Aristotle’s theories had become apparent.
shape, weight, and solidity (impenetrability),
His generally qualitative approach proved un-
with all other qualities resulting from their com-
suitable to newly developed quantitative and
binations by means of interlocking sets of hooks,
mathematical methods in physics. The doctrine
points, and pores. Space exists apart from mat-
of substance did not explain adequately how ex-
ter, as a real geometric framework that contains
isting chemical substances combine to form new
both material bodies and vacuums that separate
substances, or why the original substances reap-
them. By contrast, God made angels and human
pear upon decomposition. The Paracelsian
souls out of an incorporeal matter that does not
chemical doctrine of three immaterial principles
constitute physical bodies or occupy space. Mat-
of matter challenged Aristotle’s four-element the-
ter, its phenomenal modes of appearance, and
ory; new astronomical discoveries undermined
space thus replaced the Aristotelian categories of
his distinctions in material composition and mo-
substance, real qualities, and place; corporeal
tion between the superlunary and sublunary
matter became equated with physical body and
cosmic spheres; and barometric experiments by
void space with the absence of body; and mo-
Evangelista Torricelli (1608-1647) proved the
tion (as efficient cause alone) became the only
existence of the vacuum. Particulate matter the-
category of real change.
ories, however, could explain physical phenom-
ena in quantitative rather than qualitative terms, While Gassendi’s system was the most influ-
and avoid many problematic aspects of Aris- ential, propagated in England by Walter
totelian substance. Charleton (1620-1707) and in continental Eu-
Ironically, the first early modern particulate rope through the correspondence network of
matter theories developed out of Aristotle’s phi- Marin Mersenne (1588-1648), it competed for
losophy, not atomism. A passage in Book I.4 of decades with several rivals. Some philosophers

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endorsed indivisible atoms, other minima natu- plained by analogies to living organisms. Corpus-
Physical ralia; some accepted and others rejected the exis- cular theories reversed this pattern, so that bio-
Sciences tence of void space apart from matter; some be- logical and even mental processes were explained
lieved motion was inherent in atoms, others that by analogies to inanimate machines. Instead of
1450-1699 atoms were inert and moved by external forces. being conceived in holistic terms as complex, ir-
Generally, physicists favored atoms, while reducible unities, entities were now viewed in re-
chemists preferred minima naturalia. Galileo ductionist terms as merely sums of their simpler
Galilei (1564-1642), in formulating the laws of parts. Scientific explanations became descriptive
physical motion, treated atoms as mathematical rather than purposive, asking and answering
points instead of hard bodies occupying space. questions of “how” rather than “why” objects act
René Descartes (1598-1650) equated matter with as they do. A corresponding shift from qualitative
three-dimensional spatial extension, denied the to quantitative descriptive methods encouraged
existence of the void, and posited a material use of standard schemes of classification, and the
plenum filled by particles of three different sizes formulation of universal natural laws in mathe-
but indeterminate shapes that formed swirling matical terms. This promoted higher standards of
vortices in constant motion. The German physi- accuracy and precision, indispensable to the
cian Daniel Sennert (1572-1637) proposed a technological advances of the Industrial Revolu-
compromise system, wherein atoms constituted tion that have radically transformed everyday life
the four Aristotelian elements, which in turn con- since 1750. The “mechanization of the world
stituted the three Paracelsian principles, whose picture,” as one historian has termed it, reigned
various combinations then constituted the cor- for two centuries, until the twentieth century
puscular minima naturalia of tangible substances. revolutions in subatomic physics, astronomy,
The British chemist Robert Boyle (1629-1698), biochemistry, and ecology began to swing the
influenced by Charleton, adopted the term cor- pendulum back, with theories of fields, net-
puscles to avoid a commitment to either atoms or works, and systems all being opposed to mecha-
minima, since neither the divisibility or indivisi- nistic reductionism and emphasizing organic and
bility of matter could be proved by experiment. holistic concepts instead.
JAMES A. ALTENA
Though conclusive proofs for corpuscular
theories were lacking, advocates appealed to
several types of phenomena to support their po- Further Reading
sition. Processes of growth, condensation, evap-
oration, and abrasion were explained by accre- Books
tion and dispersion of microscopic particles. So Crosland, Maurice P., ed. Science of Matter: A Historical
Survey; Selected Readings. Harmondsworth, U.K.: Pen-
too was the composition and motion of nonma- guin, 1971.
terial species such as light, heat, sound, magnet-
Emerton, Norma E. The Scientific Reinterpretation of Form.
ism, and (later) electricity. Observations made Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1984.
after the invention of the microscope in 1661
Kargon, Robert H. Atomism in England from Hariot to
suggested that many macroscopic objects have a Newton. Oxford, U.K.: Clarendon Press, 1966.
particulate microscopic constitution. Ultimately,
Melsen, Andreas G. M. van. From Atomos to Atom. Pitts-
the authority of Boyle’s friend, Sir Isaac Newton burgh, PA: Duquesne University Press, 1952.
(1642-1727), who employed atoms in his theo-
Osler, Margaret J. Divine Will and the Mechanical Philoso-
ries of gravitation and optics, established a dual- phy: Gassendi and Descartes on Contingency and Neces-
istic theory of atomic matter and immaterial sity in the Created World. Cambridge: Cambridge Uni-
forces. By separating inert atomic matter from versity Press, 1994.
active forces as the manifest power of God in na- Toulmin, Stephen, and Goodfield, Jane. The Architecture
ture, Newton (like Gassendi) sought to preserve of Matter. New York: Harper and Row, 1962.
atomism from any taint of atheism or denial of
human free will, against philosophical sceptics Articles
Boas, Marie. “The Establishment of the Mechanical Phi-
such as Thomas Hobbes (1588-1679). losophy.” Osiris 10 (1952): 412-541.

The shift from substantial to corpuscular Clericuzio, Antonio. “A Redefinition of Boyle’s Chemistry
and Corpuscular Philosophy.” Annals of Science 47
matter theories was vital to a broader conceptual (1990): 561-89.
change from organic to mechanical modes of ex-
Leclerc, Ivor. “Atomism, Substance, and the Concept of
planation. In Aristotelian philosophy the activi- Body in Seventeenth-Century Thought.” Filosofia della
ties of inanimate objects and systems, from Scienza 18 (1967): 761-76. Revised version reprinted
metallic ores to planetary motions, were ex- as ch. 5 in Ivor Leclerc, The Philosophy of Nature.

356 S C I E N C E A N D I T S T I M E S
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Washington DC: Catholic University of America an and Stoic Themes in European Thought, ed. by Mar-
Press, 1986. garet J. Osler. Cambridge: Cambridge University Physical
Press, 1991: 197-219.
LeGrand, Homer E. “Galileo’s Matter Theory.” In New Sciences
Perspectives on Galileo, ed. by Robert E. Butts and Meinel, Christoph. “Early Seventeenth-Century Atom-
Joseph C. Pitt. Dordrecht/Boston: D. Reidel, 1978: ism: Theory, Epistemology, and the Insufficiency of 1450-1699
197-208. Experiment.” Isis 79 (1988): 68-103.
Macintosh, J. J. “Robert Boyle on Epicurean Atheism and
Atomism.” In Atoms, Pneuma and Tranquillity: Epicure-

Advances in Electricity and Magnetism

Overview magnets. Perigrinus considered the possibility
that a compass might be attracted to a point on
Beginning in the late sixteenth century with the
Earth, but he rejected this idea. Instead, he con-
work of William Gilbert on magnets, an increas-
cluded that the reason a magnetized needle sus-
ing number of individuals began to sort out the
pended by a thread aligns in a north-south di-
difference between electric and magnetic phe-
rection is that its poles are attracted by the
nomena and to develop an understanding of
North and South celestial poles, the points
Earth’s magnetism. Gilbert, an eminent English
around which the stars in the sky appear to
physician, was among the first to carefully dis-
move. The contents of Peregrinus’s letter were
tinguish between magnetic phenomena and
popularized by Roger Bacon (1220-c.1292), a
those associated with static electricity. He stud-
Franciscan friar who taught at the universities of
ied the properties of a magnetized solid iron
Paris and Oxford.
sphere and showed that they matched those of
Earth as a whole. Other researchers mapped By the Elizabethan Age, named after Queen
Earth’s magnetic field more precisely and Elizabeth I of England (1533-1603), the compass
showed that it varied in time. had become an established tool for navigation.
Christopher Columbus (1451-1506) had em-
Background ployed one in his voyage to the New World. Be-
liefs about magnetism still included much pure
The basic phenomena of magnetism and static
speculation; it was believed to have a wide range
electricity were known to the ancient Greeks.
of curative powers, for instance. Understanding
The philosopher Thales (624-546 B.C.) was fa-
of magnetic phenomena advanced, however,
miliar with lodestone, a naturally occurring mag-
with the 1600 publication of De Magnete, a trea-
netic rock, and felt it necessary to attribute to it a
tise on magnetic phenomena in six short vol-
soul because it was able to cause motion. The
umes by William Gilbert (1544-1603), an Eng-
legend that Thales also knew about the electrifi-
lish physician and philosopher. Following an ini-
cation of amber by rubbing has been called into
tial volume devoted to the history of magnetism,
question, but there is no doubt that it was accu-
Gilbert devoted one volume each to five distinct
rately described by the philosopher Plato (427-
motions or tendencies of magnets: magnetic at-
347 B.C.). The Greek medical writer Galen (A.D.
traction (which Gilbert called “coition), direc-
130-200) recommended the use of magnets for
tion, variation, declination, and rotation.
“expelling gross humors.” The first practical use
of electricity or magnetism outside of the medical In the second volume, dealing with the abil-
area was the magnetic compass, which appeared ity of magnets to attract iron and other magnets,
in Europe in the twelfth century. Gilbert was careful to distinguish this property
The first experimental study of magnetism from the ability of amber charged by rubbing to
is to be found in a letter of the French engineer attract small bits of other materials. He further
Petrus de Marincourt, usually known as Petrus argued that while magnetism was a property of
Peregrinus (1240-?), who described a number of lodestone only, electrification by rubbing could
experiments with lodestones. It was Perigrinus be induced in a wide range of materials that
who first described a magnet as having two Gilbert termed “electrics.” Gilbert declared that
poles and studied the interaction of floating Earth is a magnet, and that the attractive power

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of the magnet arises from its “form,” which re- from a perfect spherical shape. By moving a
Physical sembles that of Earth. The attraction exerted by compass around the globe he was able to show
Sciences electrics, however, was described as resulting that the declination—the angle above or below
from a “material cause”—the materials resulting the horizontal assumed by the needle—duplicat-
1450-1699 from the incomplete drying of humid matter in ed that taken by a compass needle at the corre-
the earth from which the materials had formed, sponding points on Earth’s surface.
and their attractive capabilities due to “emana- In the last volume of De Magnete, Gilbert
tions” of fluid after rubbing. endorsed the idea of Peregrinus that a uniformly
magnetized sphere with its poles aligned with
the celestial poles would rotate; he attributed the
daily motion of Earth to this effect. In doing so
Gilbert challenged the notion of solid celestial
EARLY DISCOVERIES ABOUT spheres, a fundamental part of the Earth-cen-
EARTH’S MAGNETIC FIELD tered cosmology challenged by the new Sun-
centered Copernican system.

Gilbert’s confirmation of the magnetic na-
ture of Earth and the value of the compass to

S
ailing across the Atlantic, Christopher Columbus noticed
navigation motivated more detailed studies of
something odd—his compass didn’t always point north. In fact,
Earth’s magnetic field. Gilbert had expressed
the further he traveled, the more it deviated from pointing to true the hope that knowledge of the magnetic varia-
north. Today, we know that this is because the magnetic North Pole tion at different points on Earth might allow
(in northern Canada) is some distance away from the physical North sailors to determine their longitude at sea. In
Pole, which marks the rotational axis of Earth. But in the late fifteenth 1635 an English clergyman and professor of as-
century nobody knew what magnetism was, let alone did they tronomy, Henry Gellibrand (1597-1636), pub-
lished a book on the magnetic variation in
understand how compasses worked. Put quite simply, this
which he documented that the variation
phenomenon puzzled a lot of people, but scientists eventually changed with time. Gellibrand also tried to
worked out tables of magnetic declination, showing what the solve the problem of determining longitudes
deviation was at various points on Earth, and sailors stopped worrying but without practical success.
about it. Some time later, in 1544, Georg Hartmann noticed that a In 1629 Italian Jesuit priest and philosopher
freely floating magnetized needle didn’t always stay perfectly Nicholas Cabeo (1586-1650) published the re-
horizontal and, in fact, dipped more and more strongly as he traveled sults of his own investigations of electric phe-
north while becoming more closely horizontal when he moved to the nomena. Cabeo had noted that when sawdust or
other bits of matter made contact with a charged
south. This magnetic dip also proved troubling from the standpoint of
“electric,” they would fly away as if pushed. He
physics, although it interfered little with navigation. Eventually, is thus the discoverer of the electrical repulsion
researchers in the area of magnetism found out that Earth’s magnetic between like charges. Such behavior could not
field had much in common with common bar magnets. By analogy, be explained through Gilbert’s emanation theory,
they discovered that Hartmann’s dip was simply due to the changing and so Cabeo proposed a modified version of
direction of Earth’s magnetic field lines as they dipped to re-enter the theory in which the effluvium interacts with
the air, creating a sort of wind that does the
Earth at the magnetic North Pole. This discovery, though, was still a
pushing away.
few centuries in the future.
P. ANDREW KARAM
The German Otto von Guericke (1602-
1686) was educated as a lawyer and an engineer
and served as mayor of Magdeburg for 35 years.
In 1672 von Guericke, who also had dabbled in
alchemy, described how to produce a solid sulfur
Much of Gilbert’s work deals with his exper- ball, which could be rotated on an axis and
iments with a magnetized iron sphere, which he charged mechanically by rubbing. He might have
called a terrella, or little Earth. Direction, or the chosen sulfur because of its role in alchemical
tendency of a suspended lodestone to point theory or because its yellow color suggested a
north, he explained as attraction to the pole of similarity with amber. Von Guericke’s device was
the terrella. The variation in the direction taken the first to produce electrical charges large
by a compass needle at different points on Earth enough to generate the sparks that are now con-
was explained in terms of the deviation of Earth sidered emblematic of electrical phenomena.

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Impact Charles DuFay (1698-1739) and the one-fluid

Gilbert was a contemporary of Galileo (1564-
theory of Bejamin Franklin. Both preserve some- Physical
1642) and like him interested in challenging the
thing of the electric emanations of Gilbert. Sciences
unquestioning acceptance of Aristotle’s physics With the invention of the Voltaic pile or bat-
1450-1699
and cosmology that had taken hold in the tery in 1800 by the Italian Count Alessandro
Church and the universities of Europe. While Volta (1745-1827), a source of steady electrical
scholars disagree about the extent to which current became available and the pace of electri-
Gilbert accepted the Sun-centered Copernican cal experimentation advanced. Motivated by a
cosmology, it is clear that in proposing a rotating philosophical commitment to the unity of all
Earth and the idea that the stars are at different forces, it was the Danish physicist Hans Christian
distances from Earth, Gilbert was coming into Oersted (1777-1851) who demonstrated in 1820
conflict with the Aristotelian view. Nonetheless, that a current flowing in a wire would generate a
Gilbert had little choice but to express his ideas magnetic field. The further discovery of magnetic
about attraction and rotation in terms borrowed forces on electric currents by the French physicist
from Aristotle’s metaphysics. It is perhaps for André Marie Ampère (1775-1836) and electro-
this reason that Gilbert failed to note the repul- magnetic induction by the English physicist
sion of like charges that is one of the simplest Michael Faraday (1791-1867) made possible the
electrical phenomena. technology of motors and generators and the
grand synthesis of Maxwell.
A modern-day physicist would say that the
common characteristics of electric and magnetic The importance of the compass as an aid to
phenomena reflect a subtle relationship between navigation is obvious. The fact that the magnetic
them, but that this relationship could not be variation changed in time as shown by Gelli-
fully understood before the development of the brand was one of the first indications that the
theory of electric and magnetic fields of the history of Earth was accessible to study by ob-
Scottish physicist James Clerk Maxwell (1831- servational means. Determining that Earth was
1879) in the latter nineteenth century. This syn- much older than the 6,000 years suggested by
thesis follows a tradition of experimentation the Biblical book of Genesis set the stage for the
with electromagnetic phenomena that has con- theory of evolution proposed by Charles Darwin
tinued from the time of Gilbert. (1809-1882) and the later theory of plate tec-
tonics in geology.
Gilbert’s electrics, now called dielectrics, and
the phenomenon of charging by friction gave rise DONALD R. FRANCESCHETTI

in the eighteenth century to a fascination with

static electricity. In part, this was an entertain- Further Reading
ment for the aristocracy. Demonstrations in
Benjamin, Park. A History of Electricity. New York: Arno
which a Leyden jar, which could store a substan- Press, 1975.
tial electric charge, was discharged through a line
Kelly, Suzanne. “Gilbert, William.” In Charles C.
of monks or soldiers were conducted on several Gillispie, ed. Dictionary of Scientific Biography. New
occasions before the French Royal Court. Devel- York: Scribner’s, 1972: vol. 5, 396-401.
opments were sufficiently interesting that one Magie, William F., ed. A Sourcebook in Physics. Cam-
American, Benjamin Franklin (1706-1790), sold bridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1963.
his printing business to devote his time to electri- Verschuur, Gerrit L. Hidden Attraction: The Mystery and
cal experimentation. Dating from this period are History of Magnetism. New York: Oxford University
the two-fluid theory of the French scientist Press, 1993.

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Biographical Sketches


Physical
Sciences
1450-1699
Georgius Agricola Joachimsthal was an important mining cen-
ter in the Tyrol, and Agricola was called upon to
1494-1555 treat smelters and miners suffering from various
German Mineralogist, Metallurgist and Physician occupational illnesses. He undertook a systemat-
ic study not only of their ailments but also of

G eorgius Agricola is often referred to as the

father of mineralogy. His series of treatises
on the principles of geology and mineralogy
their lifestyles, working conditions, equipment,
and methods. The results of his researches ap-
peared in Bermannus sive de re metallica dialogus
were instrumental during the formative period (1530). Books on politics and economics fol-
in the development of these fields. As influential lowed, and as his reputation grew so did the de-
as these works were, he is best remembered for mands on his time. In 1534 he moved to the
his magisterial De re metallica, which faithfully smaller, though still important, mining town of
recorded sixteenth-century mining practices. Chemnitz to continue his research.

Agricola had developed an interest in min-

erals, possibly because of the widely held belief
in their supernatural and curative properties.
AGRICOLA REDISCOVERED His two most important works on mineralogy
BY HERBERT HOOVER were both published in 1546. In De ortu et causis

subterraneorum he developed the idea of a succus
lapidescens (lapidifying juice). His succi can
anachronistically be viewed as mineral-bearing

A
gricola’s De Re Metallica remained widely read and used by solutions, though they are more akin to the hu-
European miners and metallurgists, appearing in many mours of Galen (c. 130-c. 200). As he conceived
editions until the late eighteenth century, when the them, stony matter could be condensed out of
development of a more quantitative and accurate chemistry made its succi when heated, cooled, on becoming cool, or
description of smelting processes outmoded. The book then slipped by exposure to air. Agricola was also one of the
first to attempt a systematic classification of min-
into obscurity until 1912, when a young American mining engineer
erals. His scheme, presented in De Natura Fos-
and his wife translated its Renaissance Latin into English for the first silum, was based on the physical properties of
time, publishing it in The Mining Magazine of London, England. Her minerals including weight, color, opacity, taste,
name was Lou Henry Hoover. His was Herbert Clark Hoover; he went texture, solubility, etc.
on to be the thirty-first President of the United States (1929-33).
After serving as mayor of Chemnitz (1545)
GLYN PARRY
and then councilor to the court of Saxony, Agri-
cola returned to his scientific work in 1548. New
books appeared shortly thereafter, including De
animantibus subterraneis (1549); and in 1550 he
Agricola, whose real name was Georg Bauer, completed his master work De re metallica libri
was born on March 24, 1494, in Glauchau, Sax- XII. This was the culmination of his researches
ony. After attending various schools in begun over 15 years before in Joachimsthal. The
Glauchau, Zwickau, and Magdeburg, he matric- work was published posthumously in 1556.
ulated at the University of Leipzig in 1514 and
received his B.A. the next year. He remained at De re metallica presents a detailed and accu-
the university as a lecturer in elementary Greek rate account of sixteenth-century Saxon mining
until 1517, when he accepted a position at the practices and is lavishly illustrated with 292
Municipal School in Zwickau. He became rector beautiful woodcuts. Drawing intelligently on
extraordinarius in 1519 but eventually returned Vannocio Biringuccio’s (1480-c. 1539) De la
to Leipzig, where he studied medicine under Pirotechnia (1540), the first 11 sections deal ex-
Heinrich Stromer von Auerbach. He continued clusively with the extraction of metals, smelting,
these studies in Italy and later established a and assaying techniques of the day. The final
medical practice in the Bohemian city of St. section deals with the chemical technologies as-
Joachimsthal (1527). sociated with metallurgical processes. De re

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metallica remained the standard text on mining Queen, Bacon had no qualms in helping to pros-
and metallurgy for over four centuries. ecute his former patron. Physical
As the black plague spread through Saxony In 1603 James I succeeded to the English Sciences
(1552-53) Agricola’s medical skills were in high throne and Bacon’s career then advanced apace.
1450-1699
demand. His ceaseless efforts to alleviate the suf- In 1617 he became the Lord Keeper of the Great
fering of some of the worst victims caused him Seal, the same office his father had held. He was
great concern as it placed his own family at great made Lord Chancellor and created Baron in
risk. (Indeed, he was to lose a daughter to the 1618, and finally given the title Viscount St. Al-
plague.) His researches during this period are bans in 1621. However, that year he was ac-
recorded in De peste libri III (1554). Agricola cused and found guilty of bribery. His public ca-
died in Chemnitz on November 21, 1555. reer ruined, he retired to his estate to devote his
STEPHEN D. NORTON
remaining years to his writings.
Bacon had already developed a literary rep-
Francis Bacon utation. He had penned a number of masques
for Royal entertainment. In 1597 he had pub-
1561-1626
lished a collection of essays on various topics,
British Philosopher and Lawyer from gardening to the nature of good and evil.
In 1605 he published The Advancement of Learn-
F rancis Bacon’s position in the history of sci-
ence is still debated. To some he was the first
spokesman for the new science of the modern
ing, a new categorization of the whole of the nat-
ural sciences. He continued this theme with the
Novum Organum (1620), which outlined a new
era. Yet to others Bacon was an unoriginal method of natural philosophy to replace Aristo-
philosopher who stated a false formula for sci- tle (384-322 B.C.).
ence. He urged the rejection of ancient knowl-
edge in favor of observation and experiment. His Bacon proposed that, through his method of
proposed method of induction stressed the role induction, the secrets of the universe could be
of impartial observation of the particular in unlocked and used to benefit society. His
order to make general rules of nature. Bacon also method involved the unbiased, almost random,
had a troubled political career, which was collection of data, which would later be general-
shaped by the whims of royal favor, noble pa- ized into rules of nature. Bacon’s method never
tronage, and the complex politics of his era. became popular, but many of his other ideas
proved influential. In the New Atlantis (1626),
Francis was the fifth son of Sir Nicholas
he described an imaginary society of scientists,
Bacon, Queen Elizabeth I’s Lord Keeper of the
which had a profound effect on many of those
Great Seal (a high governmental post). At the age
who founded the British Royal Society.
of 12 Bacon studied at Trinity College, Cambridge,
and developed his dislike of the standard academ- His death resulted from a misadventure
ic philosophy of his day. He described his teachers many see as typical of Bacon’s concept of sci-
as “men of sharp wits, shut up in their cells of a ence. Bacon had a sudden impulse to see
few authors, chiefly Aristotle, their Dictator.” whether snow would help preserve meat, and so
In 1575 he moved to Gray’s Inn, a law he stopped his carriage, acquired a hen, and
school that catered to the extravagant and wild buried it in the snow. However, he caught a sud-
lifestyles of the young nobility as well as the aca- den chill, from which he died shortly after.
demic interests of the studious. Bacon was 18 DAVID TULLOCH
when his father died, leaving him with little
money. He then began to seriously study law in
order to make his living, and through his talent Johann Bayer
and family connections began a career in politics, 1572-1625
gaining a seat in parliament when he was 23.
German Astronomer and Lawyer
His career suffered from competition with
his relatives, especially the powerful Cecil family.
The elder Cecil, Lord Burghley, quite naturally
preferred to advance his son’s career over
J ohann Bayer produced the most comprehen-
sive pre-telescopic star catalog and introduced
the nomenclature still in use for designating stars
Bacon’s. Bacon turned to the Cecils’ rival, the visible to the naked eye. His was also the first ce-
Earl of Essex, to promote his career. However, lestial atlas to represent the stars around the
when Essex was involved in a plot to kidnap the South Pole and to cover the entire sky.

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Bayer was born in Rhain, Bavaria, in 1572. Despite the terminological convenience of
Physical In 1592 he matriculated at Ingolstadt University his system, certain aspects of Bayer’s celestial
Sciences as a philosophy student and later obtained a law atlas created problems. First, Bayer’s left-right la-
degree. Though a lawyer by profession, he main- beling of constellations was the reverse of that
1450-1699 tained a keen interest in astronomy and after used by all previous atlases. Second, he bracket-
moving to Augsburg, published his comprehen- ed stars of the same magnitude in each constel-
sive celestial atlas Uranometria on September 1, lation but failed to include the method whereby
1603. He dedicated the volume to two of Augs- he assigned the letters within each bracket. It
burg’s leading citizens. The city council respond- was initially assumed that he ordered them ac-
ed with an honorarium of 150 gulden. Bayer was cording to descending magnitude, but this creat-
later appointed legal advisor to the city counsel ed considerable confusion in later work on vari-
of Augsburg with an annual salary of 500 gulden. able stars. An alternate hypothesis was that he
employed spatial criteria. However, this inter-
The significance of Bayer’s work lies in his pretation has faced serious objections as well.
innovative method for naming stars within each
constellation. Though traditional constellations A devout Protestant and amateur theolo-
continued to provide a convenient means of di- gian, Bayer was never comfortable with the tra-
viding the heavens, the profusion of names for ditional heathen names assigned to the constel-
individual stars that resulted from the transla- lation. In the Uranometria he therefore proposed
tion of Greek into various languages proved alternate names from the Bible. Constellations in
most cumbersome and confusing. Bayer sought the Northern Hemisphere were named for fig-
to reform this situation by systematically identi- ures from the New Testament while those in the
fying each star precisely and succinctly. He as- Southern Hemisphere were given names from
signed to each star in a constellation one of the the Old Testament. Needless to say, this sugges-
24 letters of the Greek alphabet. If a constella- tion failed to gain wide acceptance.
tion had more than 24 stars then additional STEPHEN D. NORTON
characters were provided by the Latin alphabet.
Thus, Castor and Pollux, the two brightest stars
in the constellation Gemini, became Alpha Gem- Robert Boyle
ini and Beta Gemini respectively. Many stars in 1627-1691
the southern skies were only carefully observed Irish Chemist and Physicist
in Bayer’s day and are today known by his desig-
nation, as for example with Alpha Centauri.
Bayer’s system is still in use, and as more and
fainter stars have been identified, Roman nu-
R obert Boyle never earned a college degree. As
a physicist, however, he performed some of
the earliest experiments with gases. As a chemist,
merals, both alone and in combination with al- he helped to separate the science of chemistry
phabetic characters, have been resorted to. from its roots in alchemy and, for this reason, is
sometimes known as the father of chemistry.
The Uranometria contains over 2,000 stars,
of which around 1,200 were taken from Tycho Boyle was born in Ireland in 1627. He was
Brahe’s (1546-1601) catalog. These were sorted the fourteenth child of a wealthy and aristocratic
into 49 constellation maps and two hemispheric family. By the time he was eight years old, he
charts that were beautifully engraved by Alexan- was already studying Latin and Greek. From
der Mair. Bayer retained the traditional 48 con- 1639 to 1644, beginning when he was eleven,
stellations of Ptolemy’s (fl. second century A.D.) he traveled throughout Europe while being
Syntaxis. He was also at great pains to cross- taught by a tutor. The following decade, Boyle
index the names of his stars with those in the lived partly in England and partly on his estates
catalogs of Ptolemy and others so as to facilitate in Ireland. His father had died by this time, and
their identification. In addition, the Uranome- Boyle’s inherited wealth gave him the money and
tria’s forty-ninth constellation map contained the the freedom to pursue scientific experiments.
12 new southern constellations that had recently From 1656 to 1668, he resided at the Uni-
been defined by the Dutch navigator Pierter versity of Oxford. (He was neither a student nor
Dirckszoon Keyser, also known as Petrus a professor, however.) There, Boyle participated
Theodori (d. 1596). These are the constellations in meetings of scientists who favored experi-
Apus, Chamaeleon, Dorado, Grus, Hydrus, mentation over logic alone. This group was
Indus, Musca, Pavo, Phoenix, Triangulum Aus- called the Invisible College. In 1663, the group
trale, Tucana, and Volans. was officially recognized by King Charles II and

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was renamed the Royal Society—the first scien- that could not be broken down into simpler sub-
tific society of England. Like other members of stances was an element. He did not necessarily re- Physical
this group, Boyle believed that all experimental ject the alchemists’ elements, but he wanted them Sciences
results should be clearly and quickly reported so to be established by experiment. He did believe,
that other scientists could profit from them. however, that the number of elements might be 1450-1699

At Oxford, Boyle performed some of the much larger than three or four. (Today, more than
first experiments on gases. One of his assistants 100 elements have been identified.)
was Robert Hooke (1635-1703), who would Boyle also suggested a method of distin-
eventually be the first scientist to describe cells. guishing between acids and bases that eventual-
Together, Boyle and Hooke constructed an air ly led to the use of indicators. An indicator is a
pump. With this pump, Boyle could produce a chemical that changes color as the acidity of a
vacuum in a sealed container. Boyle used his solution changes. For example, Boyle described
vacuum chamber to discover several processes how blue solutions obtained from plants, such
that require the presence of air. By placing a as syrup of violets, are turned red by acids and
ticking clock in the chamber, for example, Boyle green by bases. He also noticed that some solu-
showed that sound does not travel through a tions did not cause syrup of violets to change
vacuum. Instead, the sound of the clock faded color. He called these solutions neutral. (It had
away as air was withdrawn by the pump. In ad- earlier been thought that all solutions are either
dition, Boyle demonstrated that a bird can live acids or bases.) In 1664, Boyle published Experi-
for only a short time in a vacuum, showing that mental History of Colors in which he described
air is necessary for respiration. He also showed his work with acid-base indicators.
that air is required for combustion. In this ex- In 1680, Boyle was elected president of the
periment, he placed a red-hot iron plate in a Royal Society although he turned down the posi-
vacuum and dropped a piece of sulfur on it. The tion. He became quite well known as a scientist
sulfur did not burst into flames until air was al- during his lifetime and is considered by some to
lowed into the chamber. He described his find- have established the science of chemistry.
ings in a book published in 1660, titled New Ex-
periments Physio-Mechanicall, Touching the Spring STACEY R. MURRAY

of the Air and its Effects.

During his experiments, Boyle found that Tycho Brahe
air is compressible. In 1661, he reported what is 1546-1601
now known as Boyle’s law, which states that at a Danish Astronomer
constant temperature, the volume of a gas is in-
versely proportional to its pressure. In other
words, as the volume of a gas decreases, its pres-
sure increases. Because of air’s compressibility,
T ycho Brahe is considered the greatest obser-
vational astronomer of the pre-telescopic
era. His observations of the 1572 nova and 1577
Boyle came to the conclusion that air is not a comet helped undermine Aristotelian cosmolo-
continuous substance, but consists of individual gy, while his observations of Mars proved critical
particles separated by empty space. to Johannes Kepler’s (1571-1630) discovery of
Boyle’s interests included not only physics, the laws of planetary motion.
but also chemistry. In 1661, he published The Brahe was born to aristocratic parents on De-
Sceptical Chymist. This book helped to transform cember 14, 1646, at Skåne in southern Sweden
alchemy into chemistry. Alchemy was a combi- (then under Danish rule). While attending the
nation of science, religion, and philosophy University of Copenhagen, Brahe developed an in-
whose chief goals included the creation of gold terest in astronomy after observing a partial eclipse
from other metals. of the Sun (1560). His newfound interest was dis-
Most alchemists accepted a theory of matter couraged by his paternal uncle, who sent him to
that was based on four elements (earth, air, fire, study law at the University of Leipzig (1562).
and water) or three principles (salt, sulfur, and Brahe secretly continued his astronomical
mercury). Boyle, however, proposed a theory of researches, and in August 1563 he observed the
matter that eventually evolved into the modern conjunction of Saturn and Jupiter, noting it oc-
theory of chemical elements. The alchemists saw curred about a month later than the Alphonsine
elements as mystical substances. Boyle, on the Tables and a few days later than the Prutenic Ta-
other hand, believed that elements could only be bles predicted. He resolved to prepare more ac-
identified by experiment. To Boyle, any substance curate tables and worked at producing improved

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instruments to make the necessary observations. his years at Uraniborg. Unfortunately, difficulties
Physical After his uncle’s death in 1565 he continued his with Frederick II’s successor forced him to leave
Sciences astronomical and mathematical studies at the Hven in 1597. At the invitation of Emperor
universities in Wittenberg, Rostock (where he Rudolph II he moved to Prague in 1599. He was
1450-1699 lost the greater part of his nose in a dual), Basel, joined there by Johannes Kepler in 1600, but
and Augsburg before returning to Copenhagen their collaboration was cut short by Brahe’s
in 1570. death on October 24, 1601. Kepler eventually
completed the Rudolphine Tables (1627) begun
Brahe’s reputation was established with the
by Brahe, developing their theory not in accor-
publication of De nova stella (1573), which de-
dance with Tychonism but with heliocentrism.
tails his observations of the nova of 1572. His
In the process he used Brahe’s data to discover
measurements indicated the phenomenon was
the law of planetary motion.
not part of the atmosphere nor was it attached to
the sphere of a planet, but that it was located STEPHEN D. NORTON
among the fixed stars. This undermined the pre-
vailing Aristotelian notion that the heavens were
perfect and unchanging.
Giovanni Domenico Cassini
1625-1712
In 1576 King Frederick II of Denmark
Italian-French Astronomer
granted Brahe the island of Hven and funds to
construct and maintain an observatory. Brahe ac-
cepted and spared no expense in building the
magnificent research facility Uraniborg (Castle
G iovanni Domenico Cassini made the first
accurate determination of the dimensions of
the solar system. A gifted observationalist, he
in the Sky). In accordance with his desire to re- was an extremely conservative theorist, refusing
form positional astronomy he equipped Urani- to accept Nicolaus Copernicus’s (1473-1543)
borg with instruments of unsurpassed accuracy. heliocentric view and opposing Isaac Newton’s
He invented new viewing sights, better instru- (1642-1727) gravitational theory.
ment mounts, and improved methods for in-
scribing scales by transversals. Cassini was born June 8, 1625, in Perinal-
do, near Nice (then in Italy). His early education
Brahe dealt another blow to Aristotelian was completed at Genoa. He later became Pro-
cosmology with his observations of the comet of fessor of Astronomy at the University of Bologna
1577. Because the erratic behavior of comets (1650), where his scientific reputation was es-
was incompatible with the immutability of the tablished through a series of solar and planetary
heavens, Aristotle (384-322 B.C.) maintained observations. This prompted an invitation to
they were atmospheric exhalations. Brahe’s par- France, where he became director of the Royal
allax measurements indicated the comet of 1577 Observatory (1671). He observational work and
was more distant than the Moon. Furthermore, duties as director ceased after he went blind in
he concluded that its orbit was elongated, sug- 1710. He died September 11, 1712, in Paris.
gesting that it had passed through several plane-
tary spheres. At Bologna, Cassini produced new tables of
the Sun’s motion (1662). In 1664 he determined
Brahe rejected the Ptolemaic system as in- Jupiter’s rotational period to within a few min-
compatible with his observations, but scripture utes and detected bands and a red spot on the
and a lack of stellar parallax prevented him from Jovian surface. After detecting markings on the
accepting Copernican heliocentrism—the idea surface of Mars, he determined that planet’s rota-
that Earth revolves around the Sun. As a com- tional period to within three minutes of its
promise he advanced his Tychonic theory in presently accepted value (1666). In 1668 Cassi-
which all of the planets but Earth orbit the Sun, ni produced accurate tables of the motions of
with the Sun and its train of planets revolving Jupiter’s satellites, which were widely used for
about a stationary Earth. This system had the determining terrestrial longitude.
advantage over the Ptolemaic system of being
His growing reputation brought him to the
able to account for the phases of Venus and
attention of the French finance minister Jean Bap-
gained acceptance in many quarters. Brahe’s
tiste Colbert, who was working to attract promi-
ability as a theorist was also revealed by his bril-
nent scientists to France. Colbert nominated
liant lunar theory.
Cassini for membership in the newly established
Almost every astronomical measurement of Académie des Sciences and invited him to Paris to
importance was improved upon by Brahe during oversee the establishment of the Royal Observato-

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termine the astronomical unit. His value of 87

million miles was the first fairly accurate esti- Physical
mate of the Earth-Sun distance. Sciences
Richer also observed that pendulums beat
1450-1699
slower in Cayenne than in France. Newton ar-
gued this was due to a decreased gravitational at-
traction at the equator. This suggested, in confor-
mity with his gravitational theory, that Earth was
an oblate spheroid—bulging equator and flat-
tened poles. Supporting the Cartesian view
(named after French philosopher René Descartes)
that Earth was a prolate spheroid—elongated
along the polar axis—Cassini maintained that
temperature differences explained the effect. In
1683 Cassini undertook to measure an arc of the
meridian between the northern and southern
French borders to settle the issue. Completed in
1700 and published by his son Jacques (1677-
1756) in 1718, the measurements seemingly sup-
ported Descartes. However, expeditions to Peru
(1734-1744) and Lapland (1736) later settled the
issue decisively in Newton’s favor.
Giovanni Domenico Cassini. (Bettmann/Corbis.
Reproduced with permission.) STEPHEN D. NORTON

ry. Cassini accepted, arriving in 1669 for what Nicolaus Copernicus

was to be but a temporary stay. When the Obser- 1473-1543
vatory opened in 1671 he accepted the director- Polish Astronomer, Priest, and Mathemetician
ship and in 1673 became a French citizen, chang-
ing his name to Jean Dominique Cassini.
In 1671 Cassini discovered a second satel- N icolaus Copernicus founded modern as-
tronomy by breaking with classical and
theological tradition and proposing a mathemat-
lite of Saturn, Iapetus, and correctly attributed
variations in its brightness to always having the ically supported heliocentric theory of planetary
same face turned towards Saturn. He later dis- motion. His work also initiated the process that
covered three more Saturnian satellites, Rhea led to the Scientific Revolution.
(1672), Tethys (1684), and Dione (1684). In Copernicus was born and spent his early
1675 he drew attention to the dark gap—today life in Poland. After beginning his education at
referred to as the Cassini Divide—splitting Sat- the University of Cracow, he studied mathemat-
urn’s ring in two and postulated each part was ics, astrology, astronomy, canon and civil law,
composed of minute particles behaving like and medicine in Italy at Bolgna, Rome, and
small satellites. This hypothesis has since been Padua. He received a doctorate in canon law
corroborated. Cassini also made extensive obser- from the University of Ferrara. Returning to
vations of the Moon’s surface (1671-79), which Poland, he devoted his life to church administra-
culminated in his magnificent lunar map pre- tion as canon of Frombork Cathedral.
sented to the Academy in 1679. In addition, he
Copernicus became interested in problems
carried out the earliest continuous observations
in astronomy and mathematics when he served
of the zodiacal light and produced improved ta-
as an assistant to Domenico Maria de Novara
bles of atmospheric refraction.
during his studies in Italy. He became aware that
Cassini’s most significant work is associated a sun-centered rather than an Earth-centered
with the Académie-sponsored astronomical ex- universe had long been supported by some as-
pedition to Cayenne off the coast of French tronomers. This idea was initially proposed by
Guiana (1672-73). Measurements of Mars’s op- Greek astronomer Aristarchus (310-230 B.C.)
position by Cassini and others in France in con- and had been supported more recently by
junction with those made by expedition leader Nicholas de Cusa (1401-1464) as fitting observ-
Jean Richer (1630-1696) allowed Cassini to de- able data better.

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The earth-centered (geocentric) model, in though it was substantiated by the work of Isaac
Physical which the planets and the Sun moved around Newton (1642-1727) on mechanics and univer-
Sciences Earth as the stationary center of the universe, sal gravitation, it took another one hundred
was proposed by Greek astronomer Ptolemy years for the theory to gain acceptance.
1450-1699 (90-168) and was supported by the Church and
J. WILLIAM MONCRIEF
by scholars of the day. It was thought that a Sun-
centered (heliocentric) model, in which the
planets, including Earth, moved around the Sun, John Flamsteed
was not in agreement with the Bible. More im- 1646-1719
portantly, such a model would seem to remove
English Astronomer
Earth and humans from their unique position as
God’s chosen ones for whom all else was created.
Copernicus worked on his astronomical
ideas in his spare time. He became convinced
J ohn Flamsteed is remembered for his accurate
and extensive work in positional astronomy.
As the first British Astronomer Royal, he pio-
that the heliocentric model correctly describes neered the systematic use of telescopic sights
the relative motion of Earth, the other planets, and produced the first great star catalog based
and the Sun. He used the principle of relativity on telescopic observations.
of motion to explain why the motion of Earth is Flamsteed was born on August 19, 1646, at
not detectable by observers who are moving Denby, England. He attended the Derby Free
with Earth and proposed that Earth rotates daily School but was forced to leave when stricken by
about its axis and revolves annually around the a severe rheumatic condition. So serious was the
Sun. He proposed that other planets behave in illness that his health was compromised for the
the same manner, pointing out that the further a rest of his life. During his extended period of
planet is located from the Sun, the longer its pe- convalescence Flamsteed developed an interest
riod of motion around the Sun will be. in astronomy, which he perused through self-
Aware of the possible repercussions of study (1662-69).
proposing such a theory in direct opposition to In 1670 he entered his name at Jesus Col-
the Church, he first wrote a short version of his lege, Cambridge, to pursue an M.A. degree. That
ideas, entitled Commentariolus, in 1513 and dis- same year he submitted a small ephemeris of
tributed it for comment to friends and colleagues. lunar occultations to the Royal Society that was
The full work, entitled The Revolutions of the Heav- published in the Philosophical Transactions. This
enly Spheres (De Revolutionibus Orbium Coelestium gained him some recognition and led to his ac-
or simply De Revolutionibus) was completed by quaintance with Jonas Moore, who presented
1530 but was not published until 1543. De Revo- him with a micrometer and high quality tele-
lutionibus was not received well by the Church scopic lens. These instruments enabled Flam-
and scholars, even though a churchman, without steed to begin serious observational work that
Copernicus’s permission, had added a preface firmly established his reputation before his grad-
which stated that the theory was not being pro- uation from Cambridge (1674).
posed as representing the actual motion and posi-
One of the major problems of this time was
tion of the Earth and Sun, but merely as a mathe-
the accurate determination of longitude at sea.
matical model to make calculations easier. Coper-
This was of particular interest to England, whose
nicus died soon after De Revolutionibus appeared,
merchant fleet was quickly becoming the world’s
thereby, escaping inevitable punishment.
largest. Calculating longitude required compar-
Although the Copernican model successful- ing local time with a standard reference time. It
ly explained such phenomena as the retrograde had been suggested that the Moon’s motion
motion of the planets, it was significantly under- against the stellar background could be used to
mined by his insistence, primarily for aesthetic determine this standard. Flamsteed was asked by
reasons, on circular orbits for the planets. The Moore to comment on a proposed method for
Copernican Revolution was completed after his exploiting this suggestion. Flamsteed’s judgment
death by Galileo Galilei (1564-1642) and Jo- was that no method would work until stellar and
hannes Kepler (1571-1630), who correctly ad- lunar positions were more accurately known.
justed the theory by making the orbits elliptical. Moore used this assessment to successfully peti-
Galileo was forced by the Inquisition to recant tion King Charles II to establish a national obser-
his support for the Copernican theory in 1633, vatory at Greenwich and appoint Flamsteed the
and it was subsequently suppressed. Even first Astronomer Royal on March 4, 1675.

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ductions were incomplete. He was eventually

obliged to deposit his observations with the Physical
Royal Society, after which Halley unlawfully Sciences
published a muddled and incomplete version
(1712). Flamsteed publicly burned 300 of the 1450-1699
400 copies printed, then commenced work on
his own edition. Before his death on December
31, 1719, he had completed enough work on
the three-volume Historia Coelestis Britannica
that his assistants were able to see it to comple-
tion in 1725. It contained the positions of nearly
3,000 stars and established Greenwich as one of
the world’s leading observatories. A set of star
maps—Atlas Coelestis (1729)—based on the cat-
alog also appeared posthumously.
STEPHEN D. NORTON

Galileo Galilei
1564-1642
Italian Astronomer,
Mathematician, and Physicist
John Flamsteed. (Library of Congress. Reproduced with
permission.)

Greenwich Observatory was completed in

G alileo Galilei, best known simply as Galileo,
made fundamental discoveries in mechanics
and observational astronomy as well as invent-
1676, but Flamsteed was given only a meager ing the thermometer and improving the tele-
salary and no provisions for assistants or instru- scope. More significant, his emphasis on direct
ments. Moore eased the situation somewhat by observation and mathematization of natural
donating 2 clocks and a 7-foot (2.1-meter) sex- phenomena in conjunction with a refusal to
tant. Nevertheless, Flamsteed worked alone for allow science to be guided by metaphysical
the first 13 years, recording over 20,000 observa- speculation had a transforming impact on scien-
tions. His observations were six times more accu- tific methodology.
rate than Tycho Brahe’s (1546-1601), and he was Galileo was born on February 15, 1564, in
the first astronomer to make systematic use of Pisa, Italy. He enrolled at the University of Pisa
clocks for taking measurements. An inheritance to study medicine (1581), but his interests soon
from his father’s estate solved his financial prob- turned to mathematics. His first scientific dis-
lems and allowed him to commission a 140-de- covery was made in 1582, when he realized a
gree mural arc with which he precisely deter- pendulum’s period remains approximately the
mined Greenwich’s latitude, the ecliptic’s obliqui- same regardless of the amplitude of oscillation.
ty, and the position of the equinox. He then Galileo left Pisa in 1585 without finishing his
devised a method for observing absolute right as- degree. He continued his studies in Florence,
censions—the celestial equivalent of terrestrial where he completed his first scientific treatise,
longitude—that removed all stellar positional er- La bilancetta (1586), which describes his im-
rors from parallax, refraction, and latitude. Flam- proved hydrostatic balance. As Professor of
steed also deduced a 25.25-day solar rotational Mathematics at the University of Pisa (1589-92)
period from sunspot observations as well as pro- he conducted experiments on falling bodies,
ducing tables of atmospheric refraction, tides, which he published in De motu (1590). In 1592
and the Moon’s elliptic inequality according to Galileo assumed the chair of mathematics at the
Kepler’s second law. University of Padua.
The unsurpassed accuracy of Flamsteed’s In early 1609 Galileo heard reports of a de-
data placed them in high demand. Isaac Newton vice, invented in Holland the year before, con-
(1642-1727) and Edmond Halley (1656-1742) sisting of two glass lenses that made objects at a
pressed for publication so they could test their distance appear closer. Based on this alone
theories, but Flamsteed resisted because his re- Galileo constructed his own telescope. His im-

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church. An edict was issued in 1616 declaring

Physical Copernicanism heretical, and Galileo was ad-
Sciences monished not to defend Copernicanism in pub-
lic. When Urban VIII became Pope in 1624,
1450-1699 Galileo obtained permission to present an impar-
tial discussion of the Copernican and Ptolemaic
systems. The discussion, which appeared in Dia-
logue Concerning Two Chief World Systems (1632),
was anything but impartial, marshaling as it did
overwhelming empirical evidence in support of
heliocentrism. Galileo was tried as a heretic, con-
victed, and sentenced to permanent house arrest.
Galileo’s remaining years were spent prepar-
ing Two New Sciences (1638), which deals with
the engineering science of strength of materials
and kinematics. In the first the law of the lever is
used to establish the breaking strength of mate-
rials. The second provides a mathematical treat-
ment of motion in which Galileo introduces the
idea of uniformly accelerated motion. He also
established the law of free fall in a vacuum, de-
duced the terminal velocity for any body falling
Galileo. (Archive Photos. Reproduced with permission.) through air, and derived the parabolic trajectory
of projectiles from uniform horizontal and accel-
erated vertical motions. Shortly after its publica-
provements allowed him to produce a 30X in- tion Galileo went blind. He died four years later
strument by year’s end, and in early January on January 8, 1642, at Arcetri, near Florence.
1610 he became one of the first, if not the first,
STEPHEN D. NORTON
to use the telescope to observe the heavens.
Galileo announced his controversial discoveries
in Sidereus nuncius (1610).
Pierre Gassendi
Galileo’s discovery of four satellites orbiting
1592-1655
Jupiter contradicted the widely held belief that
Earth was the center of rotation for all celestial French Natural Philosopher,
bodies, and his observation of mountains and Mathematician, and Priest
depressions on the lunar surface refuted the
Aristotelian notion that the Moon was a perfect
sphere. Galileo also resolved the Milky Way into
P ierre Gassendi is best known as the seven-
teenth-century rehabilitator of the atomism
of the ancient Greek moralist and natural
a multitude of fixed stars. The existence of so
philosopher, Epicurus (341-270 B.C.). Gassendi
many celestial objects invisible to the naked eye
found in atomism a way both to combat the ex-
was difficult to understand if the universe had
treme skepticism that had pervaded French in-
been created solely for man’s benefit. Galileo
tellectual life since the late sixteenth century and
later discovered the phases of Venus, which re-
to overturn Aristoteleanism, which was the
moved a serious objection to Nicolaus Coperni-
dominant philosophy and “science” of both the
cus’s (1473-1543) heliocentrism—the idea that
church and learned culture. Gassendi thus strad-
Earth revolves around the Sun—and indepen-
dled a thin line between orthodox and hetero-
dently discovered sunspots, which he realized
dox ideas: on the one hand an ordained priest in
provided evidence of solar axial rotation.
search of certainty amid the skepticism brought
Rejecting a lifetime appointment at the Uni- about by a revival of ancient Greek Pyrrhonism
versity of Padua, Galileo returned to Florence in and the disillusioning experience of the French
1610 as mathematician and philosopher to the Wars of Religion (1559-1598); on the other
Grand Duke of Tuscany. Shortly thereafter a se- hand something of an iconoclast, whose stated
ries of disputes with Dominican and Jesuit the- goal was to overturn the metaphysical assump-
ologians over his support of Copernican helio- tions that had underpinned the church and in-
centrism brought him into conflict with the tellectual authority since the Middle Ages.

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Gassendi was born on January 22, 1592 in

Champtercier, in the south of France. He became Physical
a doctor of theology in 1614 and was ordained a Sciences
priest two years later. He mastered ancient Greek
and Latin, mathematics, theology, and philoso- 1450-1699
phy at an early age and began teaching philoso-
phy at the University of Aix in Provence in 1617.
Gassendi left Aix in 1622, as the Jesuits took over
the school, and traveled throughout Europe for a
number a years. Always compelled intellectually
to dislodge the authority of Aristotle (384-322
B.C.), he began avidly reading Epicurus for that
purpose in 1628. Gassendi worked on his Epi-
curean project throughout the 1630s; however it
was not until 1647 that the first of his works on
Epicurus was published. A more important
work, the Animadversions on Book X of Diogenes
Laertius, was brought out two years later; but not
until three years after his death in October of
1655 was Gassendi’s Opera Omnia, which con-
tained his extensive commentaries on Epicurus,
finally brought to light.
The atheist Epicurus had long been on the Pierre Gassendi. (Bettmann/Corbis. Reproduced with
permission.)
Church’s most wanted list, so it is surprising on
the surface that Gassendi was compelled to
spend a lifetime resurrecting the works and the- Yet this might lead one to wonder why the
ories of a heretic. Part of the explanation for this empirical Gassendi embraced atomism—after
apparent contradiction is that Epicurus was an all, no one had ever actually seen an atom.
effective weapon against Aristoteleanism, which Gassendi’s answer was that even though one
from an early age Gassendi found empty and cannot see atoms, one can induce their existence
useless. During his tenure at Aix, Gassendi through the senses. For instance, one can wit-
taught his students that just as important as ness the effects of an invisible and seemingly
learning Aristotle was acquiring the tools needed matterless wind on the branches of a tree, or one
to attack the ancient philosopher’s philosophical can smell an unseen fragrance before one sees
system. Of course, one might also wonder about the source from which it is emanating. Such
the piety of someone who attacked Aristotle in phenomena suggested to Gassendi that the
the early seventeenth century, but Gassendi de- world is composed of smaller particles, which he
fended himself writing that he found offensive further hypothesized were solid and indivisible,
both the blind veneration of Aristotle by learned varied in shape, magnitude, and weight, and,
authority and the way in which Aristotelean ar- variously configured, the building blocks of all
gumentation, dialectic, and rhetoric kept one the matter in the universe. Echoing Epicurus,
from understanding the true reality of nature. Gassendi thus thought the universe was in
Aristoteleans could deduce truths from their essence atoms and the void in which they were
universal definitions of things in nature; for in- contained. Unlike Epicurus, however, Gassendi
stance, from the premises that all stars are bright also made room in the cosmos for God and
and the sun is a star. Aristoteleans could logical- human souls, those things which Epicurus had
ly conclude that the sun was bright. But Gassen- adopted atomism specifically to reject.
di thought such types of statements only told
one about definitions; they did not necessarily Gassendi’s lifelong balancing act between
reveal a truth about nature. Nature, instead, had heterodox and orthodox ideas made him one of
to be understood using the senses alongside rea- the most interesting intellectual figures in the
soning; experience, which the moderately skep- seventeenth century. He rejected Cartesian de-
tical Gassendi always recognized could deceive duction in favor of induction but was as much a
the sentient being, was the key to providing an mathematician as René Descartes (1596-1650)
instrument of proof about the real world and an and thus also recognized the importance of de-
antidote to radical skepticism. duction used in union with sense experience; he

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sought to explain the universe in mechanistic

Physical terms, but, always a moralist, he saw proof of
Sciences God in nature everywhere he looked. In this first
sense, Gassendi is a forebear of John Locke
1450-1699 (1632-1704); in the second, he resembles Isaac
Newton (1642-1727). Neither comparison is ac-
cidental. Gassendi’s once formidable reputation
may not have survived the early modern period
intact—in his day he stood on even ground with
Thomas Hobbes (1588-1679) and Descartes—
but he nonetheless had a deep impact on the
generation of philosophers and scientists who
followed in his wake.
MATT KADANE

William Gilbert
1544-1603
English Geophysicist and Physician

W illiam Gilbert earned his place in annals

of science with the publication of De mag-
nete. A landmark in the history of experimental William Gilbert. (Library of Congress. Reproduced with
science and widely influential, it records his pio- permission.)
neering researches on magnetism and electricity.
Nothing is known of Gilbert’s early life nature and curative properties of magnets such
other than that he was born on May 24, 1544, at as garlic’s ability to nullify magnetism. He also
Colchester in Essex, England. In 1558 he ma- demonstrated how the magnetic effects of lode-
triculated at St. John’s College, Cambridge. After stone could be increased by arming them with
earning his A.B. in 1561, M.A. in 1564, and soft-iron pole-pieces and that steel rods could be
M.D. in 1569, he was elected a fellow of St. magnetized by stroking them with lodestones.
John’s College. He established a successful med- He further showed that iron magnets lose their
ical practice in London in 1673 and became a magnetism when heated to red-hot and cannot
Fellow of the Royal College of Physicians. He be remagnetized while remaining so. Gilbert in-
served as censor of that body (1582, 1584-87, troduced the idea of Earth as a giant spherical
1589-99), treasurer (1587-94, 1597-99), consil- lodestone with magnetic poles (a term he intro-
iarium (1597-99), and elect (1596-97) before duced), an equator, and the ability to attract ob-
being elected president in 1600. That same year jects to itself. He also noted that compass needles
he was appointed physician to Queen Elizabeth align themselves along a north-south axis and ar-
I, serving in that same capacity for James I. He gued they point toward Earth’s magnetic poles.
died in London on December 10, 1603.
Gilbert established the discipline of electro-
Gilbert began studying magnetic phenome- statics by carefully distinguishing the amber ef-
na sometime after leaving Cambridge. He pub- fect from effects due to magnetism. It had been
lished his findings in 1600 under the title De known since antiquity that amber, when
magnete, magneticisque Corporibus, et de magno rubbed, acquired the ability to attract light ob-
magnete tellure (Concerning Magnetism, Magnet- jects. Gilbert extended knowledge in this area
ic Bodies, and the Great Magnet Earth). The with experiments that revealed substances other
work’s emphasis on direct observation and rigor- than amber exhibiting this same attractive force
ous experimentation earned Gilbert praise from when rubbed. He referred to all such substances
Galileo (1564-1642), who considered him the as “electrics” (from the Greek elektron, meaning
founder of the experimental method. amber) and believed they attracted objects
De magnete begins by reviewing the history through the emission of an effluvium that seized
of magnetism and discussing the properties and and pulled inward the particles of other bodies.
behavior of lodestones. Gilbert experimentally This eventually led to the idea of electric charge.
refuted many superstitious beliefs concerning the Gilbert’s versorium—a light metallic needle

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turning about a vertical axis—was specifically which helped him construct an extremely de-
designed to test for such effects. tailed Moon map or selenograph. Actually, the Physical
Gilbert extended his magnetic theories to selenograph consisted of hundreds of drawings Sciences
the cosmos, though most of his conclusions pieced together by Grimaldi and Riccioli.
1450-1699
were not well supported by experimental re- Soon after earning his doctorate, Grimaldi
sults. He believed the “fixed” stars were in the gained an appointment as professor in the philos-
same category as the Sun and, following ophy department of the College of Santa Lucia.
Nicholas of Cusa (1401-1464), believed they Health problems forced him to give up this posi-
were not all equally distant from Earth. He ac- tion, however, shortly afterward he was appoint-
cepted the diurnal rotation of Earth but incor- ed to a mathematics professorship. At the age of
rectly attributed this motion to magnetic effects. 33 in 1651, he was ordained as a priest.
He rejected the reality of solid celestial spheres
Around this time, Grimaldi began conduct-
and speculated that magnetic attraction main-
ing his famous experiments with optics, allow-
tained the planets in their orbits. Johannes Ke-
ing light to pass through a series of two aper-
pler (1571-1630) sought to apply Gilbert’s ideas
tures, or slits, and onto a blank screen. He noted
in a similar fashion, but his use of magnetic at-
that the area covered by the light on the screen
traction as the motive force of his astronomical
was much wider than the last aperture, which
theory failed. Though Gilbert never championed
indicated that the light had bent outward from
Nicolaus Copernicus’s (1473-1543) system in
the second opening.
writing, his ideas were effectively exploited by
others in arguing for Copernican heliocentrism. Up until that time, scientists accepted the
view that light traveled in the form of particles,
STEPHEN D. NORTON
whereas Grimaldi’s research indicated that it ac-
tually came in waves, since only a wave could
Francesco Maria Grimaldi bend around objects. Some three centuries later,
scientists would be confronted with the perplex-
1618-1663
ing realization that light can travel either in
Italian Physicist waves or in particles, and though Grimaldi was
incorrect in his conclusion that it only came in
F rancesco Maria Grimaldi was the first scien-
tist to recognize the tendency of light to
bend around objects, a phenomenon he named
waves, his work was important for introducing
the wave theory.
diffraction. He also constructed one of the most In choosing the word “diffraction,” Grimaldi
detailed maps of the Moon up to his time, and was referring to the manner in which water flowed
may have initiated the practice of naming lunar around stones, branches, or other obstacles in its
features after scientists. Today there is a crater path. As he continued to study diffracted beams,
on the Moon named after Grimaldi. he began to notice colors at the edges of the light
beam, but could not figure out how they were cre-
Born in Bologna, Italy, in 1618, Grimaldi
ated. The latter discovery would have to wait for
came from a wealthy background. His father
Joseph von Fraunhofer (1787-1826).
died when he was young, and at 14 he and his
brother entered the Society of Jesus, or the Jesuit As for Grimaldi, he continued to teach at
order. He studied theology and philosophy until Santa Lucia, the Jesuit College, for the rest of his
he was 27, and also taught at the College of life. He died in 1663, at a mere 45 years of age.
Santa Lucia, a school operated by the Jesuits, in
JUDSON KNIGHT
Bologna. In 1645 he received his bachelor’s de-
gree, and an additional two years of study yield-
ed his doctorate. Otto von Guericke
During his student years in the 1640s, 1602-1686
Grimaldi had an opportunity to work as assistant German Physicist
to astronomer Giovanni Riccioli (1598-1671),
who was also a Jesuit professor. Their early work
together followed up on experiments made by
Galileo (1564-1642) concerning falling weights,
O tto von Guericke, a German aristocrat and
politician, made important contributions to
two of the liveliest areas of physical investigation
the speed of which they timed using a pendu- in the seventeenth century. He is credited with
lum. For their astronomical work, Grimaldi de- the invention of the air pump, a device that fa-
veloped a new and highly precise telescope, cilitated the study of the phenomena of vacu-

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ums. Von Guericke also constructed one of the

Physical earliest machines to produce static electricity.
Sciences Von Guericke was born in Magdeburg, a
prosperous city in central Germany, into a
1450-1699
wealthy and politically influential family. He
studied law, science, and engineering at the uni-
versities of Leipzig, Helmstedt, Jena, and Leiden.
Upon the completion of his studies in 1625, Gu-
ericke returned to Magdeburg where he was
made an alderman, the start of a long period of
public service to his native city.
Catholic troops in the service of the Haps-
burg emperor set siege to Lutheran Magdeburg
in 1631. Magdeburg was decimated by the at-
tack, and Guericke left there to work for the
governments of Sweden and Saxony as an engi-
neer. He worked on behalf of Magdeburg as he
traveled, serving as a foreign envoy and repre-
sentative for his city. Guericke became the
mayor of Magdeburg in 1646.
Settled once again in his hometown, Guericke
used his leisure time to perform some remarkable Otto von Guericke. (Library of Congress. Reproduced
scientific investigations. Like many others in the with permission.)
mid-seventeenth century, Guericke was interested
in the philosophical problem—posed by Aristotle his fellow delegates helped circulate word of Gu-
(384-322 B.C.) but made newly fascinating by the ericke’s invention throughout Europe.
work of René Descartes (1596-1650) and Evange-
lista Torricelli (1608-1647)—of whether a vacu- Guericke also investigated other areas of sci-
um could exist in nature. While Torricelli had in- ence. Related to his work on the vacuum were a
vestigated the behavior of mercury in glass to de- series of experiments with barometers to study
termine if a vacuum might exist there, Guericke atmospheric pressure and meteorological condi-
sought to construct a device that could remove the tions performed in 1660. A project that sought
air from a hollow vessel to test Descartes’ idea that to simulate the magnetic properties of Earth by
a container from which all the air was removed constructing a model of it out of sulphur led to
would collapse. another important, if unexpected, discovery. Gu-
Guericke’s first pump did eventually succeed ericke noticed that his model globe produced
in imploding a copper vessel made of two hemi- static electricity when rubbed, and he went on
spheres (known later as Magdeburg hemi- to make a primitive machine for the production
spheres), but problems he encountered left him of static electricity. This device fascinated on-
even more curious about the phenomena of pres- lookers as it attracted and repulsed feathers and
sure. He continued to design better equipment other light objects. Christiaan Huygens (1629-
for more and more dramatic experiments. Guer- 1695), among others, was very interested in Gu-
icke’s most famous demonstration used a well- ericke’s sulphur globe, but they all had difficulty
sealed pair of copper hemispheres that, when reproducing the effects Guericke had reported.
evacuated, could not be pulled apart even by Because of these difficulties—the sulfur globe re-
powerful workhorses. Once air was admitted to quires very particular humidity conditions to
the spheres, however, they immediately came perform—Guericke’s discoveries had to be re-
apart—a memorable illustration of the power of peated in new contexts before their results were
the vacuum. Guericke eventually showed that accepted as reliable electrical phenomena.
sound could not travel in a vacuum (although Von Guericke was made a nobleman in
light could) and that neither combustion nor res- 1666. He retained his post as mayor of Magde-
piration could take place. Guericke took advan- burg until 1676. He retired to Hamburg in
tage of his political position to gain attention for 1681, and died there in 1686.
his scientific work. He announced his invention
of the air pump at the Imperial Diet in 1654, and LOREN BUTLER FEFFER

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Johannes Hevelius siderable body of literature on comets observed in

Physical
previous centuries. He considered comets plane-
1611-1687 tary exhalations and believed them responsible Sciences
German Astronomer for sunspots. Like Giovanni Borelli (1608-1679)
he suggested their orbits might be parabolic. 1450-1699

J ohannes Hevelius was the last astronomer of

repute to carry out major observational work
without a telescope. Though he rejected the use
Interested in positional astronomy, Hevelius
decided to compile a new star catalog for the
of telescopic sights for stellar observations and Northern Hemisphere, which was to be more ex-
positional measurements, he did use telescopes tensive and accurate than Tycho Brahe’s (1546-
to produce accurate maps of the Moon and is 1601). In taking positional measurements he pre-
considered the father of lunar topography. ferred naked-eye observations. Some of these
measurements appeared in Cometographia, which
Hevelius was born in Danzig (now Gdansk, he sent to certain fellows of the Royal Society, in-
Poland) on January 28, 1611. He studied ju- cluding Robert Hooke (1635-1703). Hooke
risprudence at the University of Leiden before replied by recommending the use of telescopic
touring Europe. Upon his return he worked in sights. Their correspondence continued but
his father’s brewery while preparing to enter Hevelius refused to yield. When the first volume
public service. His occasional interest in astron- of Machina Coelestis appeared in 1673—it con-
omy developed into a serious occupation in tained much new observational data and a de-
1639 when he began making systematic obser- tailed description of Hevelius’s observatory and
vations. For the rest of his life his time was split instruments—Hooke publicly criticized him. In
between managing the family brewery, civic ser- 1679 Hooke and John Flamsteed (1646-1719)
vice, and astronomical research. persuaded Edmond Halley (1656-1742) to pay
Hevelius’s first observatory was a small Hevelius a visit during his tour of Europe and try
room atop his father’s house. In 1644 he added a to convince him of the advantages of the tele-
small roofed tower and later erected a terrace scope. To Halley’s surprise, he found Hevelius
with two observation enclosures to accommo- could make consistently accurate measurements
date his large quadrants, sextants, and masts for on par with the best telescopic work.
supporting extremely long telescopes. Hevelius In September 1679 Hevelius’s observatory
built and used these “aerial” telescopes because burned to the ground with most of his instru-
his experience and the optical theories of Jo- ments and many notes. Though he diligently re-
hannes Kepler (1571-1630) and René Descartes built his observatory and constructed new in-
(1596-1650) had shown that strongly curved struments, the loss greatly affected his health.
lenses produced badly distorted images. Weak He died on January 28, 1687. His second wife
objective lenses—convex lenses with small cur- and collaborator, formerly Catherina Elisabeth
vatures—produced better images but required Koopman, published the Uranographia posthu-
extremely long telescopes to accommodate the mously in 1690. It is his best known work, cata-
long focal lengths. loging over 1,500 stars and introducing several
Using telescopes of 8.2 to 11.5 feet (2.5 to new constellations, including Lacerta, Leo
3.5 meters) Hevelius observed the phases of Minor, Lynx, Scutum, Sextans, and Vulpecula.
Mercury in 1644 that previously had been pre- STEPHEN D. NORTON
dicted by Kepler and then observed by Ionnes
Zupo in 1639. Hevelius also used these instru-
ments to observe the Moon. These observations Robert Hooke
provided the material for his Selenographia 1635-1703
(1647). The 133 color plates of this work repre- English Physicist
sent the first detailed, accurate maps of the
Moon’s surface. Many of his names for the
Moon’s features were taken from Earth’s geogra-
phy and are still used, such as Mare Serenitatis
R obert Hooke was a scientist with broad inter-
ests and accomplishments. He is best known
for his research on elastic solids and for the dis-
(Pacific Ocean). However, his names for individ- covery of the law that governs their behavior.
ual craters were not adopted.
Hooke was educated at Westminster and at
Hevelius’s next great work was his two-vol- Christ Church of Oxford University. While at
ume Cometographia (1668), in which he dis- Oxford, he met chemist Robert Boyle who hired
cussed the nature of comets and collected a con- Hooke to assist him in his research on the be-

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moved. Hooke’s experiments with elastic sub-

Physical stances led to the discovery of a fundamental re-
Sciences lationship known, in his honor, as Hooke’s Law.
This principle states that the amount that an
1450-1699 elastic material will stretch when an external
stress is placed upon it is proportional to the
stress. He made a number of applications of this
principle, including the improvement of the ac-
curacy of watches using balance springs.
In 1865, he gained wide recognition as a re-
sult of the publication of his book Micrographia,
an illustrated discussion of observations he
made with a reflecting microscope he built him-
self. His commentary included biological speci-
mens, and he coined the word cell to explain the
microscopic structures he observed. Micro-
graphia also presented the results of his micro-
scopic studies of crystalline solids, including
snowflakes. Based on his observations, he pro-
posed that solids form different structures as a
result of different packing arrangements of mi-
croscopic spherical particles. This led to more
extensive studies of crystal structure, and conse-
quently, he is regarded as the founder of the sci-
ence of crystallography. He became one of the
Title page from Robert Hooke’s book Micrographia.
(Bettmann/Corbis. Reproduced with permission.) earliest supporters of the concept of extinction
of species and of biological evolution as a result
of his microscopic study of fossils.
havior of gases. In 1622, Hooke was made cura- Results of his eclectic interests included the
tor of experiments for the Royal Society of Lon- invention of a telegraph system, the discovery of
don and was elected a fellow of the Society the the diffraction of light, a proposal of a wave theory
following year. In 1665, he was chosen to be of light, and a theory of earthquakes. He was first
professor of geometry at Gresham College in to assert that matter expands when heated and
London, a position he held for thirty years. He first to propose that air is made up of microscopic
also served as City Surveyor of London and was particles located at relatively large distances from
Christopher Wren’s chief assistant in the effort to each other. He stated the inverse square law of
rebuild London after the Great Fire of 1666. planetary motion in 1678, without mathematical
The expression Renaissance man is applied to proof, and informed Isaac Newton (1642-1727).
a person who is able to gain more than a superfi- Newton was able to support the postulate mathe-
cial knowledge of a wide range of intellectual matically and later used it as a fundamental princi-
areas. Robert Hooke could be used as the proto- ple in his theory of gravitational attraction, with-
type of such a person. A man of great intellect and out giving any credit to Hooke. This led to a pro-
ability, he developed a curiosity regarding virtually longed acrimonious controversy between the two
all scientific fields and devoted his life to pursuing over credit for the discovery.
these interests. Among his early endeavors was the J. WILLIAM MONCRIEF
construction of a telescope, the first of its type,
with which he made significant astronomical ob-
servations, especially concerning Jupiter and Christiaan Huygens
Mars, obtaining results that were useful later in es- 1629-1695
tablishing the properties of these planets. He also
proposed that a numerical value for gravity could Dutch Physicist
be ascertained by using a pendulum.
Elastic materials are defined as solids that
will return to their original condition when an
C hristiaan Huygens is famous for establish-
ing the wave theory of light. He formulated
the conservation law for elastic collisions, pro-
external force that has stretched them is re- duced the first theorems of centripetal force, and

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developed the dynamical theory of oscillating When the Académie des Sciences was estab-
systems. He also made improvements to the tele- lished in 1666, Huygens became its most promi- Physical
scope, discovered Saturn’s moon Titan, and in- nent member and continued his research on os- Sciences
vented the pendulum clock. cillatory systems in Paris. These culminated in
the publication of Horologium Oscillatorium 1450-1699
Huygens was born on April 14, 1629, in
(1673), which includes a mathematical analysis
The Hague, Netherlands. His father Constantijn
of the compound pendulum and derivation of
(1596-1687) was a diplomat and well-known
the relationship between pendulum length and
Renaissance poet. The Huygens household re-
period of oscillation. He also included the laws
ceived frequent visits from French intellectuals
of centrifugal force for uniform circular motion
including René Descartes (1596-1650), who
and an early formulation of Isaac Newton’s
greatly influenced young Christiaan. Huygens
(1642-1727) first law of motion.
was educated at home before entering the Uni-
versity of Leiden to study law and mathematics In 1678 Huygens completed work on Traité
(1645-47). From 1647 to 1649 he studied law at de la lumière, which was his response to New-
the Collegium Arausiacum in Breda. Rejecting ton’s corpuscular theory of light. Publication was
the idea of a diplomatic career, he returned delayed until 1690. Huygens presented a wave
home in 1650 to devote himself to science. construction capable of explaining light’s recti-
linear propagation, reflection, refraction, and
Although an outstanding mathematician, certain properties of double refraction in Iceland
Huygens’s only original mathematical contribu- spar. He also predicted, in opposition to New-
tions were his theory of evolutes, developed in ton, that light travels slower in denser media.
connection with his work on the pendulum clock, Newton’s theory dominated eighteenth-century
and his probability theory, in which he introduced optical thinking but was eclipsed by Huygens’s
the concept of the expectation of a stochastic vari- theory in the early nineteenth century. The two
able. His importance as a mathematician lies in his views were later synthesized in quantum theory
improvement and application of existing tech- during the early years of the twentieth century.
niques to the analysis of physical problems.
Huygens’s fifteen-year residence in Paris was
In 1652 Huygens began his study of collid- interrupted by two extended periods of conva-
ing bodies and by 1656 arrived at a correct solu- lescence at The Hague. When illness brought
tion for the case of elastic collisions. The Royal him home once again in 1681, he decided not to
Society asked John Wallis (1616-1703) and return to France due to the climate of growing
Christopher Wren (1632-1723) to examine the intolerance towards Protestants. Huygens died
theoretical aspects of this problem in 1666, and in The Hague on July 8, 1695.
Huygens was solicited for a report of his discov-
ery. The results of all three, obtained indepen- STEPHEN D. NORTON

dently and published together in the Philosophi-

cal Transactions (1669), established the law of Johannes Kepler
conservation of momentum.
1571-1630
With his brother Constantijn, Huygens de- German Astronomer and Mathematician
veloped lens-grinding techniques that reduced
spherical aberration. After incorporating these
lenses into their telescopes, Huygens discovered
Saturn’s satellite Titan (1655), correctly de-
J ohannes Kepler was a mathematician and as-
tronomer. He used observations of heavenly
bodies to destroy the ancient idea that planets
scribed Saturn’s ring (1656), and first observed move in perfect circles. He also mathematically
Martian surface markings (1659). Huygens also described the relationship of Sun and planets in
invented a two-lens eyepiece—the Huygens oc- our solar system. His three laws of planetary
ular—and an improved micrometer. motion, along with the work of Nicolaus Coper-
Huygens rendered astronomy a greater ser- nicus (1473-1543) and Galileo (1564-1642),
vice in 1657 with his invention of the pendulum helped Isaac Newton (1642-1727) devise his
clock, which made possible accurate time mea- law of universal gravitation.
surements. Huygens demonstrated that the peri- Kepler was born in 1571 in Weil, Germany,
od of pendulum swings will not be equal unless a sickly, myopic child with a brilliant mind and
the arc of the swing is a cycloid. He devised ful- intermittent double vision. He became interest-
crum attachments to produce the appropriate ed in astronomy after seeing the 1577 comet
arc and patented his device. when he was six years old and an eclipse of the

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Moon when he was nine. He attended a semi-

Physical nary and the University of Tubingen intending
Sciences to enter the church. His abilities as a mathemati-
cian led him instead to teach math in Graz, Aus-
1450-1699 tria, where he was also district mathematician.
He cast official horoscopes and was court as-
trologer. While in Graz he cast many horoscopes
for local citizens and published a calendar of as-
trological forecasts to augment his income. At
this time he already believed that Earth moves
around the Sun, not vice versa. Kepler was an
original thinker and could grasp and manipulate

KEPLER’S MOTHER’S WITCH TRIAL

J
ohannes Kepler’s mother, Katharina, was known in her hometown
as a cantankerous old woman. During the upheavals of the Thirty
Years’ War she became a victim of witch-hunting. A dutiful son,
Johannes Kepler. (Library of Congress. Reproduced with
Kepler helped in her defense, which was both long and costly. permission.)
Katharina’s accusers pointed to dozens of occasions where various
aliments or actions had occurred due to her magical potions or spells.
Brahe’s observations. Brahe’s family insisted that
Kepler’s successful defense strategy was to show how all these
he had usurped the data, but Kepler was able to
occurrences could be explained by natural causes. For instance, a keep and use the material.
young girl claimed Katharina had made her arm temporarily
It is said that Kepler “discovered” his three
paralyzed. Kepler pointed out that she had been carrying many
laws, but it is more accurate to say he construct-
bricks, and the heavy load had caused her problem. A woman’s ed them to fit the observations. Kepler explained
sickness was revealed to be from an abortion. The schoolmaster had celestial phenomena to fit these observations and
been injured while jumping a ditch. The butcher had lumbago. And believed that a mathematical relationship existed
so on. Kepler was careful never to dismiss witchcraft out of hand, as between celestial bodies. In 1602 he discarded
many officials believed deeply in such magic. However, he showed perfect circles, which had been the model of the
heavens since the Greeks. Using Brahe’s data, he
that for each specific event attributed to witchcraft there was a more
postulated that a planet’s distance from the Sun
likely natural cause that explained the result at least as well. Yet, while determined its speed and calculated the exact re-
Katharina was acquitted, she died shortly after, a broken woman. lationship with precise accuracy. This became his
DAVID TULLOCH
second law. In 1605 he came to the conclusion
that planets move in elliptical orbits, his first law.
These were the first instances of discoveries
made to fit observed data. In 1618 he formulated
the third of his three laws, which states that the
new ideas. He was exceedingly patient and made square of the time a planet takes to revolve
calculations with scrupulous care. around the Sun is proportional to the cube of its
In 1596 he published his first book corrob- distance from the Sun.
orating Copernicus and looking for a relation He occasionally corresponded with Galileo,
between planetary bodies. In 1600 he moved to but they worked on different aspects of astrono-
Prague, where he became an assistant to Tycho my. After he and his family moved to Linz, Aus-
Brahe (1546-1601), Imperial Mathematician. tria, Kepler published several books on astrono-
This was a fateful association because Brahe, a my and the harmony of the spheres. They were
Dane, was a tireless recorder of movements of unique but read by few because they were com-
heavenly bodies. When Brahe died, Kepler be- plex and hard to understand. He continued to
came Imperial Mathematician and possessor of look for relations between planets and the Sun.

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Some of his published ideas failed or were achievable, alchemy would eventually evolve
deemed absurd. His reputation was not helped into modern chemistry. Physical
by the fact that his mother was put on trial for
Libavius believed that alchemy would prove
Sciences
witchcraft in 1615 and imprisoned for a time.
to have benefits to physicians, and most of his 1450-1699
When he died in November 1630 in Re- chemical work was concerned with its reference
gensburg, Germany, he was famous for his writ- to medicine. He wrote books on numerous sci-
ings and revered as a careful mathematician entific topics, but his most important was titled
whose work had aided the advancement of of as- Alchemia (Alchemy), which was published in
tronomy. Kepler’s work assisted Newton in for- 1597. This book summarized the discoveries
mulating his 1687 theory of universal gravita- that alchemists had made up to that date. Later
tion that led to modern ideas about physics and editions of the book were more than 2,000
astronomy. pages long and contained 200 illustrations.
LYNDALL B. LANDAUER Many alchemists wished to cloak their find-
ings in mystery and secrecy. They felt their work
Andreas Libavius had religious power and therefore should not
fall into the wrong hands. Libavius’s writing,
1540?-1616
however, was clear and meant to be easily un-
German Alchemist derstood. In his book, he describes alchemy as
being “valuable in medicine, in metallurgy [the
T he alchemist Andreas Libavius is often con-
sidered the author of the first chemistry text-
book. Contrary to the beliefs of many al-
science of metals] and in daily life.” In other
words, he saw alchemy (and chemistry) as hav-
ing a practical value beyond its lofty goals.
chemists, he promoted the idea that the scientif-
ic discoveries should be shared openly, rather Libavius also organized his book in a system-
than kept secret. atic manner. Alchemia is divided into four parts.
Libavius was born in about 1540 in Halle, The first part describes the equipment needed for
Germany, where his father was a linen weaver. a chemistry laboratory, such as furnaces, vials,
At this time, children of working class parents and mortars. It also includes descriptions of
were rarely allowed to attend universities. Usual- chemical procedures, such as distillation—a
ly, the only people to receive an advanced educa- method of separating liquids based on their boil-
tion were those who had been born into wealthy ing points. The second part of Alchemia gives in-
families. Despite his family’s background, Libav- structions, or recipes, for preparing certain chem-
ius began attending the University of Wittenberg icals. The third describes several early methods of
at the age of eighteen. This fact suggests to histo- chemical analysis—ways of determining the com-
rians that he must have shown signs of great in- position of chemicals. For example, Libavius ex-
telligence and been very determined to receive plained that some copper-containing chemicals
an education. would turn blue when placed in a solution of am-
monia. Therefore, this test could often be used to
Libavius later attended the University of detect the presence of copper.
Jena, where he studied history, philosophy, and
medicine. He completed his medical degree The first three parts of the book contain in-
there in 1581. For several years, he taught histo- formation that clearly belongs to the science of
ry and poetry at the University of Jena, and chemistry. The final part of the book, however,
then, from 1591 to 1596, he worked as a town belongs strictly to alchemy. It discusses the theo-
physician. In 1605, he helped to found a school ry of transmutation, a change of one type of
in the city of Coburg, where he remained until matter directly into another. For example, it was
his death his death in 1616. thought that the philosopher’s stone would
transmute so-called base metals such as lead and
Libavius is best known, however, not as a
tin into gold. Libavius (incorrectly) considered
physician or as a professor, but as an alchemist.
many types of chemical reactions to be a form of
Alchemy was a primitive science whose main
transmutation. Today, however, scientists know
goals were the discovery of the philosopher’s stone
that transmutation can occur only in very special
and the elixir of life. The philosopher’s stone
circumstances, such as those involving some
would supposedly allow alchemists to create
types of radioactivity.
gold from other metals, and the elixir of life was
thought to be a potion that would cure all dis- In addition to his writing on alchemy,
eases. Although these goals proved to be un- Libavius performed chemical experiments of his

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own. He discovered methods of preparing sever- acteristic angles. Also in 1666 Newton first con-
Physical al important chemicals, including hydrochloric sidered extending gravity to celestial bodies. He
Sciences acid, ammonium sulfate (now used as fertilizer), correctly theorized that the rate of fall was pro-
and tin tetrachloride. Because tin tetrachloride portional to the gravitational force with the force
1450-1699 gives off fumes when it is exposed to the water falling off according to the square of the distance
vapor in air, alchemists named it “fuming liquor from Earth’s center. However, disagreements be-
of Libavius.” tween his calculations and observations led
During Libavius’s life, chemistry experi- Newton to shelve this work for almost 15 years.
ments were usually conducted by private indi- Newton returned to Cambridge in 1666 and
viduals using their own equipment (and often received his M.A. in 1668. That same year he
their own homes). To solve this problem, Libav- built the first reflecting telescope, important be-
ius drew up plans for a building containing a se- cause it eliminated chromatic aberration inherent
ries of laboratories where chemical experiments to refractors. In 1669 he became Lucasian Profes-
could be carried out. This “chemical house” sor of Mathematics. (It is generally thought the
could be considered a forerunner of the modern incumbent Isaac Barrow [1630-1677] resigned
chemical laboratory. The plans included a store- so Newton might have it.) After exhibiting his
room, a room where chemicals would be pre- telescope before the Royal Society, he was elected
pared, an assistant’s room, a crystallization and a fellow in 1672 and shortly thereafter presented
freezing room, a fuel room, and a wine cellar his optical experiments underlying the invention.
(wine was used as a source of alcohol in experi- A multiyear controversy with Robert Hooke
ments). Libavius, however, did not live to see his (1635-1703) ensued whereby Newton refined
chemical house, or others like it, constructed. his corpuscular theory of light. These ideas were
eventually presented in the Optiks (1703), which
STACEY R. MURRAY
dominated optical research for the next century.
A letter from Hooke in 1679 stimulated
Sir Isaac Newton Newton to renew his work on gravitation. New-
1642-1727 ton quickly achieved a mature understanding of
English Physicist, Mathematician, the dynamical principles involved and deduced
and Astronomer that a central gravitational force implied Kepler’s
equal area law. He further showed that elliptical

I saac Newton’s combination of abilities as an ex-

perimentalist, theorist, and pure mathematician
have never been surpassed, and his Philosophiae
orbits, with the center of force at a focus, im-
plied an inverse-square law of force.
In 1684 Hooke boasted to Christopher
Naturalis Principia Mathematica (1687) stands as Wren (1632-1723) and Edmond Halley (1656-
one of the greatest, if not the greatest, scientific 1742) that he had worked out the laws govern-
work ever written. ing planetary motion. Wren was unimpressed
Newton was born on December 25, 1642, and offered a prize for the correct solution. Hal-
in Woolsthorpe, England. A premature and sick- ley took the problem to Newton, who informed
ly baby born after his father’s death, Newton him he had already solved it. Halley encouraged
spent his youth building mechanical con- Newton to renew his work on gravitation and
trivances including water-clocks, a mouse-pow- prepare it for publication through the auspices
ered mill, and kites bearing fiery lanterns. He of the Royal Society. Newton complied, but the
entered Trinity College, Cambridge, in 1661 and Society’s financial difficulties forced Halley to as-
earned his bachelors degree in 1665, having ear- sume full financial responsibility for the Princip-
lier that year discovered the binomial theorem. ia, which finally appeared in 1687.
Soon thereafter the university closed because of The Principia represents the culmination of
the plague, and Newton retired to Woolsthorpe the Scientific Revolution. Newton synthesized
for the next 18 months. Kepler’s laws of planetary motion and Galileo’s
This period of seclusion was among the experimental results on falling bodies by codify-
most productive of his life. By November 1665 ing the principles of mechanics and extending
he had discovered differential calculus and by their application to celestial phenomena. His
May of the following year integral calculus. Dur- three laws of motion clarified the distinction be-
ing the intervening months his experiments with tween mass and weight and how they are related
prisms had revealed that white light was com- under a variety of circumstances, while the law
posed of different colors refracted through char- of universal gravitation explained Earth’s equato-

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rial bulge, orbital inequalities, the parabolic or- fense in Milford Haven and trained country mili-
bits of comets, and more. tia. He was the sheriff of Pembrokeshire in 1587 Physical
Newton also conducted comprehensive al- and 1602. He married twice, first in 1573 to Sciences
chemical experiments and studied the Bible Elizabeth, and he had ten children from this
marriage. His second marriage was to Ann. 1450-1699
throughout his life, leaving extensive manu-
scripts on Church history and ancient chronolo- After 1592, when Owen was commissioned
gy. His academic output diminished in later by the crown to survey the property of Sir John
years as he accepted various civic positions. He Perrott, the Earl of Pembroke, he created a map
died in London on March 20, 1727. of Milford Haven, which began his work in the
field of geology and geography. Producing the
STEPHEN D. NORTON
map of Milford Haven under the direction of the
Earl of Pembroke, Owen used his own survey
George Owen and completed a genealogical catalogue of the
1552-1613 Earl of Pembrokeshire for him as well. He pro-
duced the Description of Milford Haven in 1595,
Welsh Geographer, Geologist,
and the Description of Wales in 1602. Later in
and Cartographer
1603 he wrote Description of Pembrokeshire, not
published until 1892. It is considered a land-
G eorge Owen of Henllys, lord of Cemais, is
best known for his work Description of Pem-
brokeshire, written in 1603 but not published
mark in Welsh geography; the original manu-
script can be found in the British Museum. It
until 1892. The map he made of Pembrokeshire has since been reproduced by a descendant,
was considered a landmark, and Owen has been Henry Owen, under the title Owen’s Pem-
referred to as the patriarch of English geologists. brokeshire. George Owen also wrote A Cataloge
Interested in the lineages of local families, he and Genelogie of the Lord of Kemes, and Baronia de
also documented family histories. Kemes, published in 1861 and 1862, and A Trea-
tise on the Government of Wales and Pembrock and
Owen was born in Henllys, Pembrokeshire, Kemes. Owen’s interest in heraldy led him to
Wales, in 1552. His father was a lawyer who be- write a collection of pedigrees, and he also wrote
longed to an old Welsh family, who did much a story called the “Taylor’s Cushion.” Another
himself to improve the social standing of his notable achievement of Owen’s was a detailed
family. Collecting information on genealogy, her- map of Pembrokeshire, later included in Owen’s
aldry, and historic structures of Wales, Owen Pembrokeshire.
was also interested in the topography and geog-
raphy of Wales and in geological structures of While Owen did not receive a formal educa-
the area, including strata of limestone and coal. tion in geography or cartography, his detailed
Owen did not attend university, but did study writings and maps were groundbreaking. De-
law at the Inns of Court in London. scription of Pembrokeshire contained detailed writ-
ings about the area and its landscape, including
When George Owen came of age he inherit- geological structures. His were the first for Pem-
ed the lordship of Cemais under the Earl of brokeshire, and served as a suitable basis for fur-
Pembroke, and the Newport Castle from his fa- ther studies in the area. George Owen died in
ther. There was some conflict from the local Haverford West, Pembrokeshire, in 1613.
council as to his possession of these lands, and
he was even placed under arrest in his own cas- KYLA MASLANIEC
tle. These disputes were later settled. As land-
lord of Cemais, he wanted to improve agricul-
tural practices, and a paper on the use of marl as Jean Picard
a fertilizer was written by Owen, but it was 1620-1682
never published. He also invented a new tool for French Astronomer
cutting marl that he considered more efficient.
He became the vice admiral of the maritime
counties of Pembroke and Cardigan in 1573.
Owen held many positions important to his
J ean Picard was a French astronomer who was
the first to accurately measure the length of
the arc of the meridian, the imaginary line run-
community including the Commission of the ning across the Equator between the North and
peace in Pembrokeshire, and Deputy Lieutenant South Pole. Picard’s historic measurement al-
of Pembrokeshire from 1587-90 and 1595- lowed him to do something magnificent—com-
1601. In that position he was responsible for de- pute the size of Earth. His observations helped

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English physicist and mathematician Sir Isaac later became the single most important concept
Physical Newton (1642-1727) to verify his theory of behind neon signs. The French astronomer dis-
Sciences gravitation. covered that a faint glow appeared in the mer-
cury-filled tube (barometer) he used to measure
1450-1699
Early in his career Picard observed stars on
atmospheric pressure. When he shook the tube,
the meridian during the day and measured their
the glow intensified. The effect, called baromet-
position using cross-wires at the focus of his
ric light, caused quite a stir in the scientific com-
telescope. Since many of his colleagues had lost
munity, although the actual cause of the light
their standard default measurements, Picard de-
was not well understood.
vised a method of comparing his with the length
of a simple pendulum beating seconds at Paris. In 1679 Picard began publication of the first
His ingenuity allowed him to reproduce the national almanac, the Connaissance des temps
standard at any time. (Knowledge of Time or the Celestial Motions).
He authored the first five volumes, which con-
Shortly after, the French astronomer applied tained tables for the crude determination of lon-
telescopes and micrometers to graduated astro- gitude for the position of celestial bodies. Since
nomical and measuring instruments. In 1669-70 then it has been published continuously.
he made his historic observations using a special-
ly designed telescope and Willebrord Snell’s Picard is also credited with the introduction
(1591-1626) theory of triangulation. By measur- of telescopic sights and the introduction of the
ing the angles of a series of triangles extending pendulum clock.
from Paris northward, he determined latitude, a KELLI A. MILLER
term used in mapping to locate a place north or
south of the Equator. Latitude is expressed by an-
gular measurements ranging from 0° at the equa-
Johannes Regiomontanus
tor and 90° at the poles. Picard was among the 1436-1476
first to apply scientific methods during mapmak- German Astronomer and Mathematician
ing. He produced a map of the Paris region, then
went on to join a project to map France.
Picard is regarded as the founder of modern
J ohannes Regiomontanus played a key role in
reforming astronomical studies in fifteenth-
century Europe by emphasizing and acting on
astronomy in France. He studied for the priest- the need for new and improved observations
hood at the Jesuit college at Le Flèche and later over those of the ancients. He also introduced
received a masters in astronomy from the Uni- Arabic algebraic and trigonometric methods to
versity of Paris. Ten years after observing the Europe, thus providing a systematic basis for
solar eclipse of August 1645 he became profes- their further development.
sor of astronomy at the Collège de France, Paris.
In 1666 he became one of the first members of Regiomontanus, whose real name was Jo-
the Academy of Royal Sciences. hann Müller, was born on June 6, 1436, in
Königsberg, Franconia. The name of his birth-
Shortly after joining the Academy, Picard place means “King’s Mountain,” and in accor-
visited the observatory of noted astronomer dance with the practice of the day his parents
Tycho Brahe (1546-1601) on Hven Island in adopted the Latinized version of this name—
Sweden. His goal was to precisely determine the Joannes de Regio monte—from whence Re-
observatory’s location so Brahe’s astronomical ob- giomontanus was derived. He studied dialectics
servations of could be directly compared with at Leipzig sometime around 1448. He was then
others. Picard later visited the Paris Observatory, drawn to the University of Vienna by the reputa-
where he collaborated with rival Italian as- tion of the astronomer Georg von Purbach
tronomer Jean-Dominique Cassini (1625-1712), (1423-1461). Regiomontanus matriculated there
Ole Römer (1644-1710), and, slightly later, in 1450 and after receiving his bachelor’s (1452)
mathematician Philippe de la Hire (1640-1718). and master’s degrees (1457) joined the Vienna
Putting aside his own ambitions, Picard recom- faculty.
mended Cassini to King Louis XIV for the direc-
European astronomical work of the Middle
tion of the new observatory at Paris.
Ages, with the exception the efforts of Alfonso X
One of Picard’s less publicized discoveries (1223-1284) and his assistants, amounted to lit-
occurred during his study at Tycho Brahe’s ob- tle more than the collection and reorganization
servatory. While taking measurements on the of Arabic and ancient Greek material. No new
observatory mountaintop, Picard observed what observations of importance were undertaken,

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gether with his Tabulae directionum it was the

primary means whereby Arabic algebraic and Physical
trigonometric methods were reintroduced to Eu- Sciences
rope. In De triangulis, Regiomontanus developed
the earliest statement of the cosine law for 1450-1699
spherical triangles; the Tabulae directionum,
which was primarily an astronomical work, con-
tained a valuable table of tangents.
By 1468 Regiomontanus had returned to
Vienna. He then moved to Nuremberg in 1471.
There he attracted the wealthy, amateur as-
tronomer Bernard Walther (1430-1504), who
provided him with an observatory and work
shop. Of the many observations Regiomontanus
made while in Nuremberg his most important
were of the comet of 1472—later to be known
as Halley’s comet. This work appears to have
been the first attempt to study comets scientifi-
cally instead of viewing them merely as objects
of superstition. Regiomontanus also established
the first press devoted to astronomical and
mathematical literature, intending to advance
Johannes Müller, Regiomontanus. (Bettmann/Corbis. the work of science by providing quality texts
Reproduced with permission.) free of scribal and printing errors.
In 1475 Regiomontanus traveled to Rome.
and by the mid-fifteenth century the Alfonsine According to some reports he was summoned by
Tables (1252) were sorely in need of revision. Pope Sixtus IV to assist with the reform of the
Purbach pointed out to Regiomontanus the inac- Julian calendar. Whether or not this is true,
curacies of the Tables as well as the need for bet- nothing substantive along these lines emerged
ter translations of Greek texts. Though his from his trip, for he died on July 8, 1476, quite
knowledge of ancient Greek left much to be de- probably due to the plague that spread after the
sired, Puerbach attempted to produce a revised Tiber overflowed earlier that year.
and corrected Latin verion of Ptolemy’s (fl. sec-
ond century A.D.) Almagest. Though he did not STEPHEN D. NORTON

live to finish the project, he pledged Regiomon-

tanus to see it to completion. Jean Richer
In 1461 Regiomontanus traveled to Italy in 1630-1696
search of early Greek scientific manuscripts. French Physicist
While there he finished the Epitome of Astronomy.
The work contained, in addition to the Purbach-
Regiomontanus translation of Ptolemy’s work,
critical commentary, revised computations, and
J ean Richer is remembered for having deter-
mined that pendulums beat more slowly at
the equator than at higher latitudes, a discovery
additional observations. Though not printed that initiated the famous controversy between
until 1496, 20 years after Regiomontanus’s death, Newtonians and Cartesians over Earth’s shape.
the work was a great success and attracted the at- Also, his observations of Mars were used by Gio-
tention of a young Nicolaus Copernicus (1473- vanni Domenico Cassini (1625-1712) to make
1543). Struck by the errors in Ptolemaic lunar the first accurate estimate of the size of the solar
theory revealed by Regiomontanus, Copernicus system.
went on to develop his heliocentric view of a
The details of Richer’s early life have been
Sun-centered Solar System.
lost, but when the Académie des Sciences was
While in Italy, Regiomontanus completed organized in 1666, he was admitted as an élève
much of De triangulis omnimodis, which ap- astronome (assistant astronomer). In March of
peared posthumously in 1533. This work repre- 1670 he was selected to carry out astronomical
sents the first systematic treatment of trigonome- measurements in the East Indies in conjunction
try presented independently of astronomy. To- with measurements to be made simultaneously

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in Paris. During this trip he was also responsible Richer also observed that pendulums beat
Physical for testing Christiaan Huygens’s (1629-1695) slower in Cayenne than in France. This was in-
Sciences marine clocks constructed for the purpose of de- terpreted as a decrease in the gravitational at-
termining longitude at sea. traction at the equator, suggesting that points
1450-1699 along the equator were further from Earth’s cen-
Last minute changes resulted in the expedi-
tion being diverted to New England. Bad weath- ter than at higher latitudes. Isaac Newton (1642-
er early on stopped Huygens’s clocks, thus pre- 1727) argued that his gravitational theory ade-
venting the collection of any useful horological quately accounted for Richer’s results because it
data. In New England Richer took tidal measure- predicted Earth was an oblate spheroid—
ments at different sites and accurately deter- bulging equator and flattened poles. This con-
mined the latitude of the French fort at Penob- tradicted the Cartesian view that Earth is a pro-
scot Bay. This was the most precise astronomical late spheroid—elongated along the polar axis.
measurement made in the Western Hemisphere Expeditions to Peru (1734-44) and Lapland
to that time. The expedition was back in France (1736) later settled the issue decisively in New-
by September, and Richer reported his results to ton’s favor.
the Académie in January 1671. Richer was elected to full membership in
the Académie in 1679. He died in Paris in 1696.
Notwithstanding Huygens’s unjustified im-
putation of Richer’s abilities in the failure of his STEPHEN D. NORTON
marine clocks, the Académie was suitably im-
pressed with Richer’s performance to select him Ole Christensen Römer
for their next project, an expedition to Cayenne
off the coast of French Guiana. The primary 1644-1710
goals of this expedition were to accurately deter- Danish Astronomer and Physicist
mine the motions of the plants and Sun, assess
existing tables of refraction, and determine the
parallax of Mars. Additionally, it was hoped that O le Römer is famous for demonstrating the
finite velocity of light. He produced various
scientific instruments including an improved
the uniformity in length of the seconds pendu-
lum at all latitudes could be established, thus micrometer, planetaria, the first transit circle,
making it possible to determine a universal stan- and an alcohol thermometer.
dard of linear measurement. The expedition de- Römer was born on September 25, 1644, in
parted in February 1672 and arrived at Cayenne Aarhus, Denmark. In 1662 he matriculated at the
in April. Due to an illness Richer left the expedi- University of Copenhagen, where he studied as-
tion early, departing in May 1673. tronomy and mathematics with Thomas (1616-
His lunar and planetary observations corrob- 1680) and Erasmus Bartholin (1625-1698). He
orated the accuracy of existing astronomical ta- lived at the home of Erasmus while a student,
bles. He also carried out extensive solar observa- eventually becoming his personal assistant and
tions and accurately determined the obliquity of marrying his daughter.
the ecliptic and time of the solstices and In 1671 Römer met Jean Picard (1620-1682)
equinoxes. All of these measurements helped es- and accompanied him to the island of Hven to as-
tablish the accuracy of Cassini’s tables of refrac- sist in redetermining the position of Tycho Brahe’s
tion. Richer also made observations of Jupiter (1546-1601) observatory Uraniborg. To this end
and its satellites that allowed him to fix the longi- they made measurements, in conjunction with
tude of Cayenne—a result of vital importance for those by Giovanni Domenico Cassini (1625-
the proper reduction of the his measurements. 1725) in Paris, of a series of eclipses of Jupiter’s
Richer took careful observations of the moon Io. Römer returned to Paris with Picard
meridian altitude and meridian transit times of and was elected to Académie membership in
Mars and certain nearby fixed stars. Cassini and 1672. He was appointed tutor to the Crown
others made corresponding measurements in Prince, responsible for making various astronomi-
France. By reducing Richer’s observations to the cal observations, and constructed many precision
Paris meridian and comparing several sets of instruments including an improved micrometer
corresponding measurements, Cassini deter- that was quickly adopted into wide use.
mined the horizontal parallax of Mars and then Römer’s most important result was an out-
the astronomical unit. His value of 87 million growth of his further work on occultations of
miles (140 million km) was the first fairly accu- Jupiter’s satellite Io. Cassini had already pub-
rate estimate of the mean Earth-Sun distance. lished ephemerides for the motions of Jupiter’s

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light’s velocity. Though his value of 140,000

miles per second (225,000 kilometers per sec- Physical
ond) is about 25% too small, it represented a Sciences
considerable achievement. Full acceptance of
Römer’s conclusion came only after James 1450-1699
Bradley (1693-1762) announced his discovery
of stellar aberration in 1729.
Römer returned to Denmark in 1681 to be-
come professor of mathematics at the University
of Copenhagen, Astronomer Royal to King
Christian V, and Director of the Royal Observa-
tory. In 1704 he built his own observatory, the
Tusculaneum, which he equipped with quality
instruments of his own design, including the
first transit circle. Römer also invented a ther-
mometer with a scale based on two fixed points
that influenced Daniel Fahrenheit’s (1686-1736)
thermometric researches.
Römer held many civic and advisory posi-
tions including master of the mint, harbor sur-
veyor, and inspector of naval architecture. He
was Copenhagen’s first judiciary magistrate
Ole Christensen Römer. (Library of Congress. Reproduced
(1693), chief tax assessor (1694), and then
with permission.)
mayor (1705). He was also appointed senator
and then named head of the state council of the
satellites (1668) and in 1675 discovered an in- realm (1707). He died in Copenhagen on Sep-
equality responsible for periodic fluctuations in tember 19, 1710.
the timing of Jovian satellite eclipses. The effect
STEPHEN D. NORTON
seemingly depended on the position of Earth
relative to Jupiter. Cassini entertained and then
rejected the idea that these fluctuations were due Willebrord Snell
to the finite velocity of light. 1580-1626
Römer pursued the issue more carefully and Dutch Physicist and Mathematician
in September 1676 announced to the Académie
that the eclipse of Io expected on November 9
would occur exactly ten minutes late. Skeptical,
Académie members made careful observations.
W illebrord Snell is remembered for discov-
ering the law of refraction that bears his
name. He has also been called the father of mod-
They reported the eclipse took place at 45 sec- ern geodesy for perfecting the method of deter-
onds after 5:35 A.M.—exactly 10 minutes late as mining distances by trigonometric triangulation.
predicted. Two weeks later before a baffled as- Snell was born in 1580 in Leiden, Nether-
sembly of the Académie, Römer explained the lands. He was the son of Rudolph Snell van
delay was due to the finite velocity of light. Royen (Latinized as Snellius), professor of math-
Scrutiny of his observations and those of Cassini ematics at the University of Leiden. Willebrord
had revealed that the interval between successive studied law and taught mathematics at Leiden.
occultations of Io diminished as Earth ap- After touring Europe (1600-04) he returned
proached Jupiter and increased as Earth receded. home, where he prepared a Latin translation of
Römer correctly surmised that this was because it Simon Stevin’s (c. 1548-1620) Wisconstighe
took a shorter or longer time respectively for Ghedachtenissen and worked on restoring the
light to reach Earth. By comparing the predicted two existing books of Apollonius’s (c. 262-c. 290
eclipse times of Io with those observed at various B.C.) work on plane loci. In 1608 he received his
points in Earth’s orbit, Römer estimated it took M.A. and married. After the death of Rudolph in
22 minutes for light to cross Earth’s orbit. 1613, Willebrord assumed his father’s teaching
Using this estimate and his own estimate of duties, officially succeeding him in 1615.
Earth’s orbital diameter, Christiaan Huygens It was also during 1615 that Snell set him-
(1629-1695) made the first determination of self the task of determining the length of a de-

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while Kepler had produced nothing more than

Physical approximate empirical relations. Snell’s years of
Sciences research revealed that it was the ratio of the sines
of the angles of the incident and refracted rays to
1450-1699 the normal that remains constant.
Though Snell never published his findings,
the manuscript containing the discovery was ex-
amined by Isaacus Vossius (1618-1669) and
Christiaan Huygens (1629-1695), who com-
mented upon it in their own works. However,
priority of publication goes to René Descartes
(1596-1650), who presented the law without
proof in his Dioptrique (1637). Huygens and
others accused Descartes of plagiarism. Though
Descartes’s many visits to Leiden during Snell’s
life make the charge plausible, there seems to be
no evidence to support it.
Snell’s astronomical work includes observa-
tions of the comet of 1618. His parallax mea-
surements clearly indicated the comet was above
the sphere of the Moon. Nevertheless, his sup-
port for the Ptolemaic system remained unshak-
Willebrord Snell. (Photo Researchers, Inc. Reproduced en. In Cyclometricus (1621) he used Van Ceulen’s
with permission.)
methods to determine the value of π to 34 deci-
mal places. His work on navigational methods
gree of the meridian. For this purpose he chose focused on the study and tabulation of Pedro
the method of triangulation originally suggested Nuñez’s rhumb lines (1537), which Snell re-
by Gemma Frisius (1533). Starting with his ferred to as loxodromes. This material appeared
house and taking the spires of nearby churches in Tiphys batavus (1624). Canon triangulorum
as reference points, he measured a net of trian- (1626) and Doctrina triangulorum (1627) contain
gles from Alkmaar to Bergen-op-Zoom using a the fruits of his research on plane and spherical
huge 130-inch (210-centimeter) quadrant. This trigonometry. The latter unfinished work was
allowed him to accurately compute the distance completed and published posthumously by his
between these towns and also calculate the student Martinus Hortensius. Snell died in Lei-
length of a degree of the meridian. His results den on October 30, 1626.
were published in Eratosthenes batavus (1617).
Seeking to improve his work he extended the STEPHEN D. NORTON

net of triangles from Bergen-op-Zoom to Meche-

len. Reduction of this data occupied him Nicolaus Steno
throughout the rest of his life, and his findings
1631-1687
were published posthumously by one of his stu-
dents. His corrected value of 69 miles (111 kilo- Danish Anatomist, Naturalist, and Physician
meters) for the length of a degree of the meridi-
an is within a few hundred meters of the
presently accepted value. N icolaus Steno was one of the great scientists
of the seventeenth century. Best known
today for his views on fossils and as the founder
In 1621, or shortly thereafter, Snell discov- of stratigraphy, he was trained as a physician and
ered the law of refraction that today bears his did important work in anatomy, crystallography,
name. When light rays pass obliquely from a geology, and paleontology.
rarer to denser medium (e.g. air to water) they Steno, whose real name was Niels Steensen
are bent toward the vertical. Scientists from (sometimes spelled Stensen), was born on Janu-
Ptolemy (fl. second century A.D.) to Johannes ary 1, 1631, in Copenhagen, Denmark. Raised a
Kepler (1572-1630) had searched in vain for a devout Lutheran, he entered the University of
law to explain this phenomenon. Ptolemy Copenhagen in 1656 to study medicine. He con-
thought the angles of the incident and refracted tinued his studies at the University of Leiden
light rays maintained a constant relationship, (1660-1663), receiving his M.D. in absentia

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while in Paris (1664). After making important tento dissertionis Prodromus (1669), maintaining
anatomical discoveries he traveled to Italy, where the organic origins of fossils. Physical
in 1666 he was appointed court physician to Sciences
Ferdinand II, Grand Duke of Tuscany (1610- Prodromus contains the outlines of modern
1670). His most significant geological and pale- geology. Steno argued that fossils are animal re- 1450-1699
ontological results were developed during his mains that had become embedded in sea-floor
stay in Florence. He converted to Catholicism in strata and then petrified by the concreting action
1667 and returned to Copenhagen in 1668 to of chemical forces, heat, and compression over
accept the position of royal anatomist. After be- time. He suggested that strata are deposited hori-
coming a priest in 1675 he abandoned science zontally in layers from aqueous fluids with occa-
completely and devoted his remaining years to sional crustal collapses accounting for diversities
the Catholic Church. He died in acute pain from of topography. In explaining this stratification he
gallstones at Schwerin, Germany, on November established the principle of superposition—un-
25, 1686. derlying sedimentary layers are older than those
overlaying them—upon which modern geoc-
In 1660 Steno discovered the parotid gland hronology is based. To accompany his explana-
(Steno/Stensen’s duct)—the oral cavity’s princi- tions, Steno produced what are considered the
pal source of saliva. His further investigations earliest geological cross sections. In this same
led to a basic understanding of the lymphatic treatise, attempting to account for crystallization,
system as a whole. In Observationes anatomicae he propounded Steno’s law—angles formed by
(1662) and De musculis et glandulis (1664) Steno corresponding faces of quartz crystals remain
presented his new discoveries, describing the constant for a given mineral.
structure and function of other glands including
the lachrymal apparatus, which facilitates the STEPHEN D. NORTON

movement and cleansing of the eye, the nasal

duct, the earwax duct, ducts of the cheek
glands, smaller ducts under the tongue, and the Simon Stevin
glandular ducts of the epiglottis and palate. 1548-1620
Beginning in 1662 Steno conducted re- Flemish Mathematician and Engineer
search on muscles from which he developed a
comprehensive view of their structure. He
showed that muscle tissue contains arteries,
veins, and nerves, and is composed of closely
S imon Stevin was the first to systematically
develop the ideas of Archimedes on the equi-
librium of solid bodies and liquids. He estab-
woven fibers. Steno described the function of lished the law of equilibrium for bodies on an
the diaphragm during respiration, classified the inclined plane, explained Archimedes’ law for
tongue as a muscle, and advanced the then- submerged bodies, and propounded the hydro-
novel idea that the heart is nothing more than a static paradox. He also greatly influenced the use
muscle with contractions controlled by muscle of decimal fractions.
fiber. From 1665 to 1667 he worked on brain
Stevin, known also as Stevinus, was born in
anatomy, embryology, and comparative anatomy.
1548 at Bruges in present-day Belgium. He
During this period he demonstrated that animals
earned his living as a bookkeeper before leaving
possess a gland resembling the pineal gland of
the southern Netherlands in 1581 for Holland.
humans. This undermined René Descartes’
Settling in Leiden, he established himself as an
(1596-1650) claim that the pineal gland was the
engineer. As an advisor for the construction of
seat of the uniquely human soul.
mills, locks, and harbors he received several
The catalyst for Steno’s paleontological, geo- patents and attracted the attention of Maurice of
logical, and mineralogical discoveries was his Nassau, stadholder of Holland and commander-
dissection of a huge shark caught near Leghorn, in-chief of the States Army. Maurice held him in
Italy (1666). His examination of the shark’s teeth high regard and regularly sought out his advice
revealed their similarity to glossopetrae (tongue- in matters of defense and navigation. Stevin was
stones, so called because of their resemblance to entrusted with the organization of a school for
petrified serpent or bird tongues) found on military engineers at Leiden (1600) and appoint-
Malta and elsewhere. These and other fossils ed quartermaster in the army (1604). A bachelor
were widely believed to be either direct produc- most of his life, he married Cartherina Cray in
tions of nature or God. Steno challenged these 1616; they had four children. He died in 1620,
views in De Solido intra Solidum naturalites con- most likely at his home in The Hague.

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Stevin wrote on a variety of subjects ranging time, Stevin chose to write in the vernacular.
Physical from commerce and navigation to hydrostatics This required his introducing new scientific
Sciences and music theory. His first book, Tafelen van In- terms, many of which remain part of the Dutch
terest (1582), presents rules for calculating single scientific vocabulary.
1450-1699 and compound interest as well as tables for
STEPHEN D. NORTON
computing discounts and annuities. Such infor-
mation was well known in the banking estab-
lishment but considered a trade secret. Stevin’s Evangelista Torricelli
tables quickly gained wide usage in the Nether- 1608-1647
lands. He also published a slim pamphlet per- Italian Mathematician and Physicist
suasively arguing for the systematic use of the
decimal fraction. Though the notation of De
Thiende (1585) was awkward, Steven found a
sympathetic audience. His ideas gained wider
E vangelista Torricelli is best known for in-
venting the mercury barometer (1644) and
for his fundamental results in hydrodynamics.
currency when John Napier (1550-1617), in- He also made important contributions to many
ventor of logarithms, championed and then areas of mathematics.
greatly facilitated their use with the introduction
Torricelli was born on October 15, 1608, in
of the decimal point.
Faenza, Italy. After Torricelli demonstrated his tal-
In De Beghinselen der Weeghconst (1586) ents at an early age, his father, a textile artisan in
Stevin introduced what is perhaps his most fa- modest circumstances, sent him to his uncle who
mous discovery, the law of the inclined plane. supervised his education. He studied mathematics
He showed geometrically that a linked chain of and philosophy at the Jesuit school in Faenza be-
spheres must remain motionless when hung fore going to Rome in 1627 to attended Sapienza
over two inclined planes joined to form a trian- College, run by Benedetto Castelli (1577-1644), a
gle, in effect demonstrating that the gravitational former student of Galileo (1564-1642).
force is inversely proportional to the length of the In 1641 Torricelli completed De motu gravi-
inclined plane. His geometric proof is the basis for um, in which he developed some of Galileo’s
the parallelogram method for analyzing forces. In ideas on projectile motion. He experimentally
De Beghinselen des Waterwichts (1586) he provided verified many new conclusions and stated what
the first systematic development of Archimedes’ is today known as Torricelli’s law—a rigid sys-
hydrostatics. He explained Archimedes’ displace- tem of bodies can move spontaneously on
ment principle for submerged bodies and showed Earth’s surface only if its center of gravity de-
that the pressure exerted by a liquid on a surface scends. Useful theorems of external ballistics fol-
depends on the height of the liquid above that lowed, as well as artillery firing tables. He also
surface and is independent of the shape of the ves- propounded a fundamental hydrodynamic theo-
sel containing it. Also in 1586, he experimentally rem that bears his name—the efflux velocity of a
refuted Aristotle’s (384-322 B.C.) claim that heavier jet of liquid exiting a small orifice equals the ve-
bodies fall faster than lighter ones. locity of a single drop of liquid falling freely in a
In 1608 he revealed himself as one of the vacuum from the same height as the liquid level
earliest converts to Copernicanism with the at the orifice.
publication of De Hemelloop. Additionally, he de- Castelli showed this work to Galileo. Suit-
veloped a theory of the tides and tried his hand ably impressed, he engaged Torricelli as his per-
at solving the problem of determining longitude sonal assistant in 1641. They developed a close
at sea, proposing a method based on deviations friendship, and Torricelli remained with Galileo
of compass needles from the astronomical until his death early the next year. Shortly there-
meridian. Stevin’s corpus also includes works on after Ferdinand II, Grand Duke of Tuscany, ap-
military fortification, music theory, civic life, and pointed him to Galileo’s post of court mathe-
various treatises on engineering, including two matician.
books devoted to sluices and locks that he had
After his death Galileo’s followers in Rome
helped design.
and Florence continued a long-standing debate
Stevin lived during a period of general sci- over why water in suction pumps would not rise
entific resurgence attendant upon the commer- more than 29.5 feet (9 meters). Galileo had ar-
cial and industrial prosperity of the Netherlands gued that pumps created a vacuum, which in
and northern Italy during the sixteenth century. turn exerted a force on the water, thus prevent-
Reflecting the new spirit of confidence of the ing it from rising. Giovanni Battista Baliani

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perhaps the first graph of a logarithmic function

(1647). His independent discovery of the quad- Physical
rature and center of gravity of the cycloid em- Sciences
broiled him in a bitter priority dispute with
Gilles Persone de Roberval (1602-1675), who 1450-1699
most certainly arrived at these results first.
While in the process of assembling his corre-
spondence and notes to defend his claims, Torri-
celli fell violently ill. He died, possibly of ty-
phoid fever, in Florence on October 25, 1647.
STEPHEN D. NORTON

Biographical Mentions


Henricus Cornelius Agrippa
1486-1535
German lawyer and physician, also known as
Agrippa of Nettesheim, who in the sixteenth
Evangelista Torricelli. (Corbis Corporation. Reproduced
with permission.)
century was a leading early proponent of the se-
rious inspection of occult philosophies as a
means of understanding nature beyond conven-
(1582-1666) as early a 1630 maintained that it tional science. Along with talents as diplomat
was the weight of air that was responsible. Torri- and historiographer, he successfully defended a
celli undertook a series of experiments in 1643 woman accused of witchcraft. His The Occult
to settle the issue. Philosophy (c. 1510) became a major influence in
The clearest evidence was provided by what central European intellectual circles and along
now is readily recognized as the barometer. Tor- with The Uncertainty and Vanity of Science (1527)
ricelli filled a long glass tube with mercury. Plac- focused on the logic of the occult alternative.
ing his finger over the open end, he inverted the Ulisse Aldrovani
tube and inserted it in a large dish of mercury. 1522-1605
As expected, the mercury began to drain out of
the tube—all but 3 inches (76 millimeters) that Italian naturalist who advanced work in the nat-
is. Torricelli interpreted the result in accordance ural sciences through emphasis on direct study
with Baliani’s hypothesis, arguing that the weight and observation of the world. Appointed profes-
of air pressing on the mercury in the dish bal- sor at the University of Bologna (1560), Al-
anced that of the mercury column. The discov- drovani established Bologna’s botanical garden,
ery was announced in a 1644 letter to Michelan- created collections of minerals and fossils, and
gelo Ricci (1619-1692). (In fact, the letter sug- aroused interest in the systematic study of na-
gests Torricelli, based on observations of various ture through his lively lectures. His collections
hydrostatic devices, was aware of variations in provided the material for a 14-volume encyclo-
atmospheric pressure before the experiment and pedia of living things, which remained authori-
was more concerned with producing “an instru- tative until superseded by Georges Buffon’s His-
ment that would show changes of air, now heav- toire Naturelle in the eighteenth century.
ier and denser, now lighter and thinner.”) Guillaume Amontons
Torricelli also made significant contribu- 1663-1705
tions to the development of the calculus—a sub- French physicist who conducted the first serious
ject he possibly would have invented if he had research on air thermometers, showing experi-
lived long enough. He developed important re- mentally that the pressure of a constant mass of
sults on maxima and minima, used infinitesimal air is directly proportional to temperature in-
methods to complete the first modern rectifica- creases, and deducing from Mariotte’s law that
tion of a curve (1645), and produced what is any volume of air expands by the same fraction

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for given temperature changes (1699). Deaf from kinds of earth—terra vitrescible, terra fluida, and
Physical an early age, Amontons established that friction terra pinguis. Becher treated the latter substance,
Sciences is proportional to load, designed many instru- known as “fatty earth,” as the principle of in-
ments including a hygrometer (1687) and coni- flammability similar to the alchemical sulfur.
1450-1699 cal barometer (1695), and proposed water’s boil- Stahl later developed the terra pinguis concept
ing point as a thermometric fixed-point (1702). into the phlogiston theory.
Peter Apian Isaac Beeckman
1495-1552 1588-1637
German astronomer and geographer best known Dutch physicist who first formulated the princi-
for noting comet tails point away from the Sun ple of inertia—bodies in motion continue in mo-
(1531). Apian’s first major work, Cosmographia tion unless impeded—though applying it to cir-
seu descripto totius orbis (1524), describes the use cular motions as well as rectilinear (1613) ones.
of maps and surveying techniques, defines He also discovered the law of uniformly acceler-
weather and climate, and suggests lunar dis- ated motion for bodies falling in vacuo (1618),
tances be used for calculating longitude. In In- determined that the velocity of water out-flowing
strumentum sinuum sive primi mobilis (1534) he from a container bottom varies as the square root
published the first table of sines calculated for of water-column height (1615), and derived the
every minute. Apian also produced the first relationship between pressure and volume for
large-scale map of Europe (1534). measured quantities of air (1626).
Adrian Auzout Jean Beguin
1622-1691 c. 1550-c. 1620
French astronomer and physicist who, with Jean French chemist credited with first mentioning
Picard, fashioned and made systematic observa- acetone and producing ammonium sulfide. Be-
tions with an improved micrometer (1666). Con- guin revealed many mysteries of iatrochemistry
sisting of two parallel hairs whose separation through public lectures on the preparation of
could be varied by a precision screw, their instru- chemical remedies, and his Tyrocinium chymicum
ment allowed measurements of image sizes at a (1610) focused on chemical operations for pro-
telescope’s focal point. They also contributed to ducing safe medicines. Originally published to
the systematic use of telescopic sights (1667-71). obviate the need for dictating lectures to his stu-
By forming one vacuum inside another, Auzout dents, the Tyrocinium was very popular and is-
also demonstrated air pressure is responsible for sued in many editions, remaining the authorita-
the rise of mercury in barometers (1647). tive chemical text until 1695, when Nicolas
Lémery’s Cours de chymie appeared.
Erasmus Bartholin
1625-1698 Filippo Beroaldo, the Elder
Danish physician and mathematician remem- 1453-1505
bered for discovering double refraction (1669). Italian humanist remembered as one of great
Bartholin noticed that the transparent crystal philologists and classical scholars of the Renais-
Iceland spar (calcite) produced double images of sance. His translations and detailed commen-
objects viewed through it. He assumed light taries of ancient Greek authors did much to
transmitted through the crystal was being re- stimulate scientific work in the early Renais-
fracted through different angles so as to produce sance. He works include a commentary on Pliny
two light rays. Christiaan Huygens explained (1476) in which he deals with earthquakes, a
certain aspects of double refraction with his corrected edition of Ptolemy’s Cosmographia
wave theory of light but full understanding (1477), and annotations on Galen (1505).
awaited the work of Etienne Malus, on polariza- Beroaldo also estimated the time from creation
tion (1809), and Augustin Fresnel (1817). to Christ’s birth at 3,929 years.
Johann Joachim Becher Vannoccio Biringuccio
1635-1682 1480-c. 1539
German chemist remembered primarily for his Italian engineer and metallurgist who produced
influence on Georg Stahl. Becher’s Physicae sub- De la Pirotechnia (1540)—the first comprehen-
terraneae (1669) attempted to adapt traditional sive account of mining practices. Pirotechnia de-
alchemical ideas to the growing body of chemi- scribes mining of metallic ores and semimetals.
cal knowledge. He divided solids into three Also described are furnaces and methods for

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smelting and alloying, various casting tech- discovered that it burst into flame when exposed
niques, and the manufacture of canons and gun- to air. Robert Boyle independently discovered Physical
powder. Biringuccio’s descriptions are based on phosphorus in 1680, and a priority dispute en- Sciences
his experiences running an iron mine and forge sued since Brand had not published his results.
for the tyrant of Siene, casting canons for Venice, 1450-1699
and heading the papal foundry and arsenal. Giordano Bruno
1548-1600
Anselmus Boetius de Boodt Italian philosopher and scientist who wrote on a
c. 1550-1632 number of topics, including memory and the ef-
Flemish mineralogist who produced the first sys- fect of language on human behavior. Initially a
tematic treatise on minerals. In Gemmarum et Dominican friar, Bruno’s unorthodox views
lapidum historia (1609) Boodt describes and clas- caused him trouble, so he left Italy and traveled
sifies over 600 minerals based on his own obser- throughout Europe. He mistrusted mathematics,
vations and lists over 200 more mentioned by preferring symbols and images, which gave his
others. He used various categories to classify works a mystical tone. He enthusiastically sup-
minerals, dividing them into great and small, rare ported the ideas of Nicolaus Copernicus, despite
and common, transparent and opaque, com- Church opposition. When he returned to Italy
bustible and incombustible, as well as employing in 1592 he was arrested for heresy and, eventu-
a three-degree scale of hardness. Boodt also ally, burnt at the stake.
noted the crystalline forms of some minerals.
Niccolo Cabeo
Ismael Boulliau 1586-1650
1605-1694 Italian physicist who discovered electrostatic re-
French astronomer who established the period pulsion (c. 1620). He is also remembered for mis-
of the variable star Mira Ceti (1667). In Astrono- interpreting Giovanni Battista Baliani’s experi-
mia philolaica (1645) he suggests that if a plane- ments on falling weights. Baliani observed that
tary motive force exists it should vary inversely different weights take approximately the same
as the square of the distance. Though he rejected time to fall equal distances. Cabeo concluded that
this dynamical explanation of planetary motion, any two weights will fall equal distances in the
preferring instead a purely kinematical account, same length of time regardless of the medium.
Boulliau’s inverse-square hypothesis was praised Vincenzo Renieri conducted experiments that re-
by Isaac Newton. A Copernican and supporter futed Cabeo’s claim. Cabeo’s major works are
of Galileo, Boulliau was one of the first to accept Philosophia magnetica (1629) and In quatuor libros
Johannes Kepler’s elliptical orbits. meteorologicorum Aristotelis commentaria (1646).
Sophie Brahe Girolamo Cardano
1556-1643 1501-1576
Danish horticulturist and astronomer who occa- Italian mathematician and physicist whose work
sionally assisted her brother Tycho Brahe (1546- Ars magna (1545) contained Cardano’s rule for
1601). She frequently visited Tycho at his obser- solving reduced cubic equations and Tartaglia’s
vatory Uraniborg on the island Hven and assist- method, obtained under oath not to reveal it, for
ed him with observations he used to compute solving general cubics. Cardano’s publication
the December 8, 1573, lunar eclipse. Sophie was initiated debates on the ethics of scientific secre-
schooled in classical literature, astrology, and cy that eventually crystallized into the belief that
alchemy. She married Otto Thoft when nineteen secrecy is of great harm to science. Cardano was
or twenty and later became a horticulturist after a physician whose repute was second only to
his death (1588) left her to manage their proper- Vesalius, did important research in mechanics,
ty at Ericksholm, Scania. and outlined the hydrologic cycle of rivers.
Hennig Brand Vincenzo Cascariolo
fl. 1670 fl. early 1600s
German alchemist who discovered phosphorus Italian alchemist who created the first syntheti-
(c. 1669). Believing he could produce gold, cally luminiscent material (c. 1603). A cobbler
Brand heated concentrated urine with sand and by profession in Bologna, Cascariolo heated a
collected the products under water. He named mixture of barium sulfide with coal and found
the white waxy substance “phosphorus” (light that the powder thereby obtained exhibited a
bearer) because it glowed in the dark. Brand also temporary bluish glow at night that could be re-

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stored by exposure to sunlight. The material was prefaced the volume by explaining that despite
Physical called lapis solaris or sunstone because it was being the work of a woman, the Urania was nev-
Sciences hoped it could be used for transforming base ertheless accurate. Her tables proved of great
metals into gold (the symbol for gold being the utility and went through many editions. This led
1450-1699 Sun). many to suspect her husband had computed
them. Cunitz’s husband wrote a preface for later
Guillaume Cassegrain editions to dispel such rumors.
fl. 1672
French physicist who invented the reflecting Johann Baptist Cysat
telescope that bears his name. Cassegrain reflec- 1586-1657
tors employ a concave primary mirror to focus Swiss astronomer credited with the first tele-
and reflect light onto a convex secondary mirror. scopic observations of a comet (1618). Cysat ob-
The light is then reflected back through a hole in served the comet of 1618-19 almost continuous-
the primary mirror to a lens. Cassegrain’s design ly for two months, attempting to show the ob-
increased angular magnification over other types ject was supralunary. He proposed two models
of reflectors. A more advantageous feature, not to explain its motion, both of which assumed a
recognized for another century, is the elimina- stationary Earth. Cysat also observed the lunar
tion of spherical aberration inherent in other eclipse of 1620, the transit of mercury in 1631,
two-mirror reflectors. and the Orion Nebula in 1619—which had pre-
viously been observed by Peiresc in 1610.
Benedetto Castelli
1578-1643 René Descartes
Italian astronomer and hydrologist whose pio- 1596-1650
neering work Della misura dell’acque correnti French mathematician and philosopher whose
(1628) marks the beginning of modern hy- most significant contribution was analytic geom-
draulics. Castelli related river cross-sectional etry. His coordinate system—subsequently
areas to the water volume passing through those called Cartesian in his honor—allowed geomet-
areas and discussed the relation of velocity to ric problems to be solved algebraically and thus
head in flow through an orifice. In a celebrated paved the way for Isaac Newton’s development
series of letters to Galileo (1637-1638), he dis- of the calculus. With his new tools Descartes
cussed absorption of radiant heat by black and made the first systematic classification of curves.
white objects. A loyal supporter of Galileo, His vortex theory—according to which Earth is
Castelli played an important role in extending carried around the Sun in a vortex—held sway
and transmitting his work. for over a hundred years on the European Conti-
nent and delayed acceptance of Newton’s work
Christoph Clavius in France.
1537-1612
German astronomer and mathematician who Thomas Digges
supported Ptolemaic geocentricism over Coper- c. 1546-1595
nican heliocentrisim, arguing the latter was English astronomer and mathematician who was
physically impossible and contradicted scripture the leading proponent of Copernicanism in Eng-
(1581). As Papal Astronomer, Clavius’s recom- land. He translated portions of Copernicus’s De
mended improvements to the Julian calendar revolutionibus and appended his own views on
(1582) and confirmed Galileo’s telescopic dis- an infinite universe with fixed stars at varying
coveries but rejected his interpretation (1611). distances from Earth (1576). Digges had earlier
Known as the Euclid of the sixteenth century, he published Alae seu scalae mathematicae (1573),
attempted to prove the parallel postulate; containing his observations of the 1572 super-
worked on fractions, algebra, and trigonometry; nova. The appendices to Stratioticos (1579,
and was one of the first to use parentheses for 1590) and his father Leonard’s posthumously
aggregating mathematical terms. published Pantometria (1571, 1591) constitute
the first serious English research on ballistics.
Maria Cunitz
1610-1664 Marco Antonio de Dominis
German astronomer remembered for revising Jo- 1566-1624
hannes Kepler’s Rudolphine Tables. Her Urania Yugoslavian (Dalmatian) scientist and mathe-
propitia siva tabulae astronomicae mire faciles matician who wrote about lenses, telescopes,
(1650) greatly simplified Kepler’s work. Cunitz and tides, and developed a theory of rainbows.

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He studied law at the University of Padua, be- He assumed it was a nova since it later disap-
came a Jesuit, and taught mathematics, logic, peared. Johann Bayer observed the star again Physical
and rhetoric at Verona, Padua, and Brescia. He (1603) and named it Omicron. Johannes Holw- Sciences
left the Jesuits in 1596 and became a Bishop in erda discovered Omicron Ceti’s variability in
Dalmatia. In 1616 he fled to England to escape 1638 and named it Mira (miraculous) Ceti. Fab- 1450-1699
the Inquisition. When he returned home in ricus’s observations of Mars, together with Tycho
1622, he was arrested by the Inquisition and Brahe’s, were used by Johannes Kepler to derive
died in confinement. the laws of planetary motion.
Cornelius Drebbel Ferdinand II, Grand Duke of Tuscany
1572-1633 1610-1670
Dutch instrument maker best known as one of Italian prince who invented the liquid-in-glass
the possible inventors of the thermometer. His fa- thermomenter (1641). When the variability of
mous perpetual-motion clock—actually an astro- air pressure was discovered, it was realized ther-
nomical clock—operated on the same principles mometers responded to such changes as well as
as the air thermometer, which Drebbel certainly temperatures changes. Ferdinand’s sealed instru-
could have constructed first. An expert lens ments were designed so as not to be affected by
grinder, he produced compound microscopes as atmospheric pressure changes. He also founded
early as 1619. Drebbel also invented thermostats the Accademia del Cimento (Academy of Experi-
for regulating oven and furnace temperatures, a ments) in 1657, which greatly influenced the
diving-bell-like submarine, and discovered a tin development of experimental physics with the
mordant for dying scarlet with cochineal. publication Saggi di Naturali experenze fatte nell’
Accademia del Cimento (1668).
Lazarus Ercker
c. 1530-1594 Girolamo Fracastoro
Bohemian metallurgist whose Beschreibung aller- c. 1478-1553
fürnemisten mineralischen Ertzt und Berckwerk- Italian physician and astronomer remembered
sarten (1574) was the first systematic treatment for his pioneering work in epidemiology.
of analytical and metallurgical chemistry. In it he Syphilis, then rampant in Europe, derives its
reviews methods for obtaining, refining, and names from his poem Syphilis sive morbus Galli-
testing alloys and minerals of silver, gold, cop- cus (1530). His work De contagione (1546) lists
per, antimony, bismuth, lead, and mercury as the three modes by which contagion spread—
well as acids, salts, and other compounds in- simple contact, carriers (such as cloths, bedding,
cluding methods for purifying saltpeter. He also etc.), and from a distance (in which some have
discusses the design and construction of appa- seen his unlikely anticipation of microbes). Fra-
rati for assaying such as the cupel, furnaces, and castoro was also the last to defend a theory of
assaying balance. solid celestial spheres.
Mikkel Pedersön Escholt William Gascoigne
c. 1610-1669 c. 1612-1644
Norwegian theologian remembered for author- English astronomer who introduced telescopic
ing Geologia norvegica (1657)—the first scientific sights and invented the first micrometer for
treatise printed in Norway and one of the first measuring small angular distances at a tele-
books published in Norwegian. In the work scope’s focal point. Gascoigne produced a work-
Escholt describes the April 24, 1657, Norwegian ing model by 1641 but had little time to pro-
earthquake. He held that earthquakes were por- mulgate his ideas due to his untimely death in
tents of divine intervention in the world, though the royalist disaster at Marston Moor during the
their production by God was occasioned by English Civil War. The micrometer and telescop-
physical causes—principally escaping air from ic sight only saw widespread application after
Earth’s interior. He also was the first to use “geol- Adrian Auzout and Jean Picard duplicated Gas-
ogy” in its modern sense of Earth science. coigne’s work in the late 1660s.
David Fabricus Henry Gellibrand
1564-1617 1597-1636
German astronomer who was the first to discov- English astronomer who discovered secular vari-
er a variable star. In 1596 Fabricus observed a ations in magnetic declination—changes over
third magnitude star in the constellation Cetus. time in the acute angle between magnetic and

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true north. Edmund Gunter’s declination mea- Edmund Gunter

Physical surements at Limehouse in 1622 were about 5° 1581-1626
Sciences less than William Borough’s 1580 results. Gunter English mathematician and instrument maker
attributed the discrepancy to errors by Borough. who designed many instruments to simplify as-
1450-1699 Gellibrand and John Marr’s 1633 measurements tronomical, nautical, and surveying calculations.
showed a further decrease, which Gellibrand an- These include a portable quadrant and forerun-
nounced in 1635. Gellibrand also made mathe- ner of the modern slide rule known as “Gunter’s
matical contributions to navigation including a Line.” He also introduced the terms “cosine” and
method for determining longitude at sea. “cotangent.” Variations in magnetic declina-
Konrad von Gesner tion—the acute angle between magnetic and
1516-1565 true north—were first observed by Gunter in
1622, but he attributed the effect to errors.
Swiss naturalist who is considered one of the pi- Henry Gellibrand later realized the effect was
oneers of modern animal description. Gesner’s real (1633).
Historiae Animalium (Animal History) of 1551-
54 is commonly regarded as the basis of modern Edmond Halley
zoology. Unlike many of his contemporaries, 1656-1742
von Gesner supplemented knowledge of the nat-
English astronomer and physicist famous for
ural world taken from antiquity with his own bi-
predicting the 1758 return of Halley’s comet and
ological research. Furthermore, his texts are
for the instrumental role he played in the publi-
characterized by a reliance on illustrations in
cation of Isaac Newton’s Principia. Halley estab-
order to aid students: his Opera Botanica (Botani-
lished the Southern Hemisphere’s first observa-
cal Works) featured close to 1,500 plates of his
tory and published the first telescopically based
own composition.
star catalog of the southern skies. He conducted
Johann Rudolph Glauber research on tidal phenomena (1684-1701), pro-
1604-1670 posed a core-fluid-crust model to explain the
German chemist who founded industrial chem- westward drift of Earth’s magnetic field (1692),
istry. His Furni novi philosophici (1649) offered and was the first to detect the proper motions of
detailed descriptions of new furnaces, laboratory stars (1718).
equipment, and experimental techniques. Glau-
Thomas Harriot
ber pioneered the synthesis of mineral acids and
c. 1560-1621
salts (Glauber’s “salt” is sodium sulfate); pro-
duced benzene and phenol by coal distillation; English mathematician and astronomer who was
and derived acetone and acetates from wood dis- among the first to view celestial objects telescop-
tillation. Dass Teutschlands-Wohlfahrt (1661) pro- ically. He anticipated Galileo’s use of the tele-
moted the economic advancement of Germany scope for viewing the Moon’s surface (1609) and
with recipes for beer and wine concentrates, use observing Jupiter’s moons (1610), independent-
of chemical fertilizers, and suggestions for ly discovered sunspots (1611), and made de-
chemical weaponry. The Pharmacopoea spagyrica tailed studies of comets. Harriot also made many
(1668) advocated chemical medicines as substi- contributions to algebra including a comprehen-
tutes for herbal treatments. sive theory of equations and improved notation
that includes the signs < for less than and > for
James Gregory greater than.
1638-1675
Scottish mathematician and astronomer who de- Johannes Hartmann
signed the first plausible reflecting telescope 1568-1631
(1663), though he was unable to obtain mirrors German chemist and physician important for
of sufficient quality to produce a working having introduced medical and pharmaceutical
model. Gregory also made significant contribu- chemistry into the university curriculum. In 1609
tions to the discovery of calculus. He indepen- at the University of Marburg Hartmann initiated
dently discovered the general binomial expan- lectures and laboratory instruction on the chemi-
sion (1670) and introduced the terms “conver- cal preparation of medicines. Later that year he
gent” and “divergent.” Proposition 6 of his was appointed professor of iatrochemistry at Mar-
Geometricae pars Universalis (1667) has often in- burg, the first chemistry professorship in Europe.
correctly been viewed as the first proof of the Though he was not very successful as a physician,
fundamental theorem of calculus. Hartmann’s textbook on pharmaceutical chem-

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istry, Praxis chymiatrica, went through many edi- for the years 1681-1702. He also designed a new
tions and was widely respected. circular micrometer and was appointed the first Physical
director of the Berlin Observatory (1700), which Sciences
Johannes Baptista van Helmont was not completed until after his death.
1579-1644 1450-1699
Flemish physician, physiologist, and chemist who Johannes Marcus Marci von Kronland
first recognized the existence of more than one 1595-1667
air-like substance. He introduced the term “gas” Bohemian physicist who anticipated by two
to refer to the various substances he isolated, decades many of the observations on optics
which include carbon dioxide and chlorine. Hel- made by Sir Isaac Newton (1642-1727). Some-
mont conducted some of the earliest quantitative times called simply Marcus Marci, Johannes
chemical experiments. In his most famous experi- served as professor and rector of Prague’s Charles
ment he grew a willow tree in a measured quanti- University, where in 1648 he published Thau-
ty of soil, adding only water. After five years the mantias liber de arcu coelesti.... In it, he discussed
tree had gained 164 pounds while the soil weight the colors of the rainbow, the dispersion of light
had decreased negligibly. Helmont also correctly beams directed through a prism, and the diffrac-
noted the role of stomach acid in digestion. tion of light around a wire. He also observed that
repeated refraction does not cause monochro-
Johannes Holwerda matic rays to change color. In addition to his
1618-1651 work in optics, Johannes performed a number of
Dutch astronomer who discovered Mira Ceti’s experiments in mechanics using a pendulum.
variability (1638), thus helping undermine the
Aristotelian concept of the heavens’ immutabili- Johann Kunckel
ty. In 1596 David Fabricus noticed a third-mag- 1630?-1702?
nitude star that faded and disappeared. Holwer- German chemist who in about 1675, along with
da later observed a star—now called Mira Ceti— Hennig Brand and Robert Boyle, isolated and
in the same place and watched as its magnitude identified phosphorus, the first new element to be
fluctuated over 11 months. A professor of logic discovered since antiquity. He was also noted for
and astronomy at Franeker’s Frisian University, his writings on glassmaking and the chemistry of
Holwerda later, in Philosophia naturalis seu physi- salts, and for his detailed descriptions of laborato-
ca vetus-nova (1651), defended an Aristotelian ry equipment and experimental techniques.
atomism derived from Pierre Gassendi.
Nicolas Lemery
Jeremiah Horrocks 1645-1715
c. 1619-1641 French chemist, physician, and pharmacist,
English astronomer among the first to accept Jo- whose Cours de chymie (Course on Chemistry) of
hannes Kepler’s theory of elliptical orbits. Hav- 1675 was Europe’s most influential chemical
ing corrected Kepler’s Rudolphine tables, Hor- textbook for over fifty years, with eleven edi-
rocks predicted and became the first to observe tions in his own lifetime and over thirty editions
a transit of Venus (1639). He calculated an im- by 1756. Influenced by René Descartes’s theories
proved solar parallax value that challenged then- of corpuscular matter and mechanical motion,
current estimates of the solar system’s size, un- Lemery explained chemical properties and reac-
dertook the first continuous series of tidal obser- tions in terms of minute particles, which joined
vations, demonstrated the Moon’s orbit is together by means of hooks, points, and pores of
elliptical, and made tentative steps towards uni- complementary shapes. He also advocated use of
versal gravitation by recognizing the Sun’s per- “wet” (solution) over “dry” (combustion) meth-
turbing influence on the Moon’s orbit. ods of chemical analysis.
Gottfried Kirch Camillus Leonardus
1639-1710 fl. 1480s
German astronomer among the first to systemati- Italian astronomer, mineralogist, and physician
cally search the heavens telescopically. He ob- whose Speculum lapidum (1502) treats over 200
served sunspots, eclipses, the 1701 Mercury minerals. This compilation proceeds according
transit, and discovered several comets as well as to traditional knowledge and concepts, relying
the variable star chi Cygni (1685). Kirch com- little on independent observation, although the
puted calendars and a well-known set of invention of gunpowder is alluded to. His focus
ephemerides, based on Kepler’s Rudolpine tables, is primarily the occult powers of gems and im-

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ages carved upon them. Leonardus also worked two reprintings despite the appearance of Jo-
Physical on astronomical tables, verified the positions of hannes Kepler’s Tabulae Rudolphinae in 1627.
Sciences particular stars, and published astrological rules
for bleeding and administering drugs. Edmé Mariotte
1450-1699 ?-1684
Edward Lhwyd French physicist celebrated as one of the
1660-1709 founders of French experimental physics. Mari-
English paleontologist and botanist whose illus- otte produced the first comprehensive work on
trated catalog of fossils from Oxford’s Ashmolean elastic and inelastic collisions (1673), relying
Museum (1699) contains letters to John Ray on heavily on the work of Christiaan Huygens, John
fossil origins. Lhwyd incorrectly maintained that Wallis, and Christopher Wren. In 1676 he made
mists transported animal spawn and minute an important qualification to Boyle’s law by not-
seeds great distances, after which they penetrat- ing that the inverse relationship between volume
ed deep into the ground where they germinated and pressure only holds if temperature remains
and grew to complete or partial replicas in stone. constant. He attempted to calculate the atmos-
Lhwyd’s Archaeologia Britannica (1707) con- phere’s height from this law. Mariotte also dis-
tained the first comparative study of Celtic lan- covered the eye’s blind spot (1668).
guages as well as the first Gaelic dictionary.
Simon Marius
Hans Lippershay 1573-1624
c. 1570-1619 German astronomer among the first to use the
Dutch optician who possibly invented the tele- telescope for viewing celestial objects. He dis-
scope. He is one of three spectacle-makers who covered Jupiter’s satellites, if not before then
claimed priority for the invention. It may be that shortly after Galileo, but waited until 1614 to
the other two—Sacharias Jansen and Jacob Adri- publish his observations. Marius computed ta-
aenszoon (a.k.a. Jacob Metius)—realized they bles of the mean periodic motions of the Jovian
were in possession of the same device, though em- satellites, directed attention to variations in their
ploying it for different purposes, when they brightness, and assigned the names by which
learned of his claim. What is certain, though, is they are known today. He was the first to view
that the earliest mention of a telescope is in con- the Andromeda nebula through a telescope
nection with Lippershay’s 1608 patent application. (1612).
Martin Lister Michael Mästlin
1638-1712 1550-1631
English zoologist who is best known for his German astronomer whose observations of the
Tractatus de Araneis, the world’s first scientific nova of 1572 demonstrated it was a new star, in-
work on spiders, published in English as Martin dicating the heavens were changeable, not fixed
Lister’s English Spiders (1678). Modern entomol- as many had previously thought. Mästlin also
ogists study Lister’s book and value both his as- failed to detect parallax for the comets of 1577
tute observations about spiders and the precise and 1580, suggesting they were supralunar bod-
drawings by Michael Roberts. Lister was a med- ies. These celestial events led him to reject Aris-
ical doctor, zoologist, and a Fellow of the Royal totelian cosmology. After attending Mästlin’s lec-
Society. He was appointed Queen Anne’s physi- tures on the superiority of Nicolaus Copernicus’s
cian in 1709. cosmology, Johannes Kepler embraced Coperni-
canism. Mästlin published the first correct ex-
Longomontanus planation of earthshine—pale illumination next
1562-1647 to the lunar disk crescent due to reflection from
Danish astronomer, also known as Christian Sev- the sunlit Earth.
erin, who was Tycho Brahe’s only disciple. Upon
his master’s death Longomontanus assumed re- John Mayow
sponsibility for selecting and integrating Tycho’s 1641-1679
data into a coherent account of planetary mo- British chemist and physiologist and early advo-
tions and presenting this work in a systematic cate of seventeenth century corpuscular theories
treatise. His task was brought to fruition in As- of matter. His theory of a “nitro-aerial spirit” as a
tronomia danica (1622), which was enthusiasti- distinct reactive component of atmospheric air
cally received by the astronomical community. offered an early explanation for chemical and bi-
The prestige attached to his work saw it through ological processes of combustion, fermentation,

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and respiration. Mayow’s possible anticipation of ry and combinatorial analysis. Pascal also in-
aspects of combustion theories proposed a cen- vented a calculating machine that by means of Physical
tury later by Cavendish, Priestley, and Lavoisier cogged wheels could add and subtract. Some of Sciences
remains a subject of scholarly controversy. the principles involved are still used in mechani-
cal calculators. 1450-1699
Geminiano Montanari
1663-1687 Nicolas Claude Fabri de Peiresc
Italian astronomer, physicist, and engineer who 1580-1637
discovered the star Algol’s variability (1667). French astronomer who discovered the Orion
Though failing eyesight prevented him from dis- nebula (1610). Primarily interested in positional
cerning the regularity or period of variation, astronomy, Peiresc calculated terrestrial longi-
Montanari’s report to the Royal Society (1671) tude and determined the length of the Mediter-
nevertheless helped undermine the Aristotelian ranean Sea (1635). However, Peiresc’s impor-
concept of the heavens’ immutability. He later dis- tance to science is more appropriately gauged by
covered another variable star in the constellation his patronage. He provided for the publication
Hydra (1672). Montanari also artificially incubat- of various scholarly works and sponsored much
ed chicks (1657), produced what at the time was research, including work on the human circula-
the largest moon-map (1662), and successfully tory system and supporting Pierre Gassendi,
transfused blood between animals (1668). who lived at his estate for a few years while
working on his philosophical writings.
Jean-Baptiste Morin
1583-1656 Pierre Perrault
French astronomer who proposed a method for 1611-1680
determining terrestrial longitude at sea based on French hydrologist whose De l’origine des
observations of the Moon’s motion relative to the fontaines (1674) is one of the foundational works
stars. Morin’s method required nautical instru- in experimental hydrology. Perrault demonstrat-
ments of much greater precision than existed, ed rainfall is sufficient to maintain the flow of
better mathematical solutions for spherical trian- rivers. He determined the drainage area for a
gles, and refined lunar tables. Though unable to portion of the Seine River and calculated the
provide a practical proposal for implementation total precipitation. After adjusting for losses, he
of his method, Morin did make important con- compared the total volume of water with the
tributions to instrumental technique by intro- river’s annual flow and showed that only one-
ducing the telescopic sights and Vernier mi- sixth of the annual rainfall was necessary to sus-
crometers for angle measurements. tain it.
Robert Norman Alessandro Piccolomini
fl. late 1500s 1508-1578
English instrument maker whose treatise The Italian astronomer and littérateur remembered
Newe Attractive (1581), which was one of the first for publishing the first printed book of star
systematic treatises in experimental physics, an- charts. De le stelle fisse libro uno (1540) consisted
nounced his discovery of the dip of compass nee- of 47 maps—one for each Ptolemaic constella-
dles. Norman measured the deviation from the tion except Equuleus. Piccolomini introduced a
horizontal of compass needles at London and lettering system for stars, and his maps indicated
speculated on whether or not the effect varied magnitudes, the direction of the equatorial pole,
over Earth’s surface. He also suggested compass and direction of the celestial sphere’s daily rota-
needle orientation was due to turning toward, tion. His failure to provide coordinates, though,
rather than attraction to, a particular point. made it impossible to accurately determine stel-
lar positions.
Blaise Pascal
1623-1662 Giambattista della Porta
French mathematician and physicist who proved 1535-1615
that the mercury-column height in barometers Italian philosopher and scientist who, while em-
depends on air pressure. In hydrostatics Pascal’s ployed as a writer of dramas, also did scientific
principle (1654) provides the connection be- work making optical instruments. He wrote on a
tween the mechanics of fluids and mechanics of variety of topics: optics, cryptography, mechanics,
rigid bodies. His correspondence with Pierre de squaring the circle, steam engines, military engi-
Fermat laid the foundations for probability theo- neering, the camera obscura, agriculture, chem-

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istry, hydraulic machines, medical cures, de- Giovanni Battista Riccioli

Physical monology, and magnetism. He formed a short- 1598-1671
Sciences lived scientific society, which was closed by the Italian astronomer who discovered the first dou-
Inquisition, and built a personal museum. Al- ble star (1643) and proved instrumental in un-
1450-1699 though della Porta joined the Jesuits, the Inquisi- dermining Aristotelian cosmology. In Almages-
tion banned publication of many of his writings. tum novum (1651) he maintained the identity of
celestial and terrestrial matter and thus the cor-
ruptibility of the heavens. Riccioli also departed
Petrus Ramus from traditional cosmology in two important
1515-1572 ways: viewing the world’s center as the cosmos’s
French philosopher and mathematician, born noblest place and making Earth more noble and
Pierre de la Ramee, who led the movement to re- perfect than any celestial body. Riccioli deployed
form the dogmatic adherence to Aristotelian phi- these ideas in challenging Nicolaus Copernicus’s
losophy by the intellectuals of his day (Scholas- claim that the Sun occupied the cosmos’s geo-
tics). He laid the groundwork for the development metric center.
of a philosophical system more conducive to sci-
entific thought. A ban on his works in 1544 was Julius Caesar Scaliger
removed in 1547. He converted to Protestantism 1484-1558
in 1561, suffered persecution, and was assassinat- Italian physician and humanist who established
ed by his intellectual and religious enemies in the his intellectual reputation with an attack on
St. Bartholomew’s Day Massacre in 1572. Erasmus’s criticism of Cicero. After a minor mili-
tary career, Scaliger studied at the University of
Padua. He traveled to France and adopted the
Henricus Regius name Jules Cesar de l’Escale de Bordonis. He
1598-1679 translated a number of ancient texts into Latin,
Dutch physician who introduced Cartesian including Aristotle’s Natural History. He pub-
views into Dutch universities. Appointed lished works on grammar, poetry, literary criti-
Utrecht’s professor of medicine (1638), Regius cism, zoology, and botany, and proposed a new
attacked Aristotelian natural philosophy, pub- system of botanical classification based on dis-
lishing numerous disputations with clear Carte- tinctive characteristics.
sian biases. Subsequently, Cartesianism was offi-
cially condemned (1642). Dutch Cartesians af- Christoph Scheiner
terward adopted René Descartes’s views on 1573-1650
natural phenomena while distancing themselves German astronomer among the first to detect
from their metaphysical foundations, which sunspots telescopically (1611) and the first to
smacked of atheism. Descartes originally defend- publish such observations (1612). Hoping to
ed Regius; but when Regius published Fun- preserve the incorruptibility of the Aristotelian
dameta physices (1646), Descartes publicly dis- heavens, Scheiner interpreted the spots as small
tanced himself to avoid any suspicion of impiety. stars orbiting the Sun. Galileo disagreed, believ-
ing them contiguous with the Sun and thus pro-
viding evidence of solar axial-rotation. Scheiner
Erasmus Reinhold correctly attributed the Sun’s elliptical appear-
1511-1553 ance near the horizon to refraction (1617) and
German astronomer and mathematician who cal- localized the retina as the seat of vision (1619).
culated the Tabulae Prutenicae (1551)—the first
practical set of planetary tables based on Nico- Wilhelm Schickard
laus Copernicus’s theory. More accurate than the 1592-1635
Alfonsine Tables, Reinhold’s tables were widely German polymath who designed and built the
adopted and provided a strong argument in favor first modern mechanical computer (1623).
of Copernicanism. Reinhold’s focus on Coperni- Schickard’s calculating clock performed the op-
cus’s mathematical modeling and silence regard- erations of addition and subtraction automati-
ing the physical reality of heliocentrism—the no- cally and multiplication and division partially
tion that Earth revolved around the Sun, not vice so. He was a skilled cartographer, engraver, and
versa—encouraged a similar attitude in German astronomer. Schickard and his family died dur-
astronomers that persisted, long after his death ing the plagues brought about by the Thirty
from the plague, into the late sixteenth century. Years’ War. His work lay forgotten until 1957,

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when some of his letters to Johannes Kepler light, including the assertion that light is not a
were discovered, which allowed his device to be corporeal body, as well as commentary on Wille- Physical
reconstructed. brord Snell’s unpublished law of light refraction. Sciences
Vossius also claimed comets were real bodies,
Daniel Sennert not specters or illusions; that a vacuum existed 1450-1699
1572-1637 above Earth’s atmosphere; and that sea water
German physician notable for his chemical theo- could not rise through subterranean channels to
ry that sought to reconcile the rival systems of form mountain rivers, maintaining instead that
the traditional four Aristotelian elements, three all rivers come from rain-water (1666).
Paracelsian chemical principles, and newly re-
vived corpuscularian theories. The elements
constituted the principles, which in turn com- John Wallis
bined to constitute all chemical substances. The 1616-1703
matter of these compounds consisted of minima English mathematician who, with Christiaan
naturalia, or microscopic particles which, while Huygens and Christopher Wren, established
infinitely divisible in theory, in actuality had a conservation of momentum (1668). In Arith-
minimum natural threshold of indivisibility, be- metica Infinitorum (1656) he presented a method
yond which they underwent destruction and for calculating areas under curves using infinite
lost their distinctive properties. sums, which greatly influenced Isaac Newton’s
development of calculus. Wallis extended expo-
Georg Ernst Stahl nents to negative numbers and fractions, first
1659?-1734 used ∞ to symbolize infinity, represented imagi-
German chemist and physician who is best re- nary numbers geometrically, and produced an
membered as one of the main developers of the infinite product for π. He also wrote on gram-
phlogiston theory of combustion, which domi- mar, logic, and theology; was an expert on deci-
nated the chemical sciences for a hundred years. pherment; and taught deaf-mutes to speak.
Stahl studied medicine at the University of Jena,
and later lectured there. He became the court
physician at Weimar, then professor of medicine Gottfried Wendelin
at the University of Halle, and eventually served 1580-1667
as personal physician to the King of Prussia. Flemish astronomer who staunchly supported
Stahl also produced influential medical writings Copernicanism. Wendelin appears to have been
and founded a short-lived chemical journal. the first to propose the law of the variation of
the obliquity of the ecliptic. He also studied the
Leonhard Thurneysser pendulum, noting the effect of temperature on
1531-1596 the period of oscillation as well as showing that
Swiss/German physician, alchemist, mining and increases in amplitude increase the period of os-
metallurgical technologist who, though steeped cillation. Known as the Ptolemy of his age, Wen-
in occult philosophical sympathies of nature as delin was highly respected and his views were
in his alchemical pursuits, was also a practical solicited by, among others, René Descartes,
scientist who made contributions to mining, Christiaan Huygens, and Pierre Gassendi.
metallurgy, and hydrology. Thurneysser repre-
sented the transitional state of later sixteenth
century central European thinkers, holding to William Whiston
traditional pseudo-science concepts but pursu- 1667-1752
ing application as well. He was a disciple of English mathematician whose New Theory of the
Georg Agricola’s (1494-1555) practical mineral- Earth (1696) sought rapprochement between
ogy, mining, and metallurgical techniques. He Newtonian science and the Biblical account of
also made contributions to river hydrology Creation. According to Whiston, Earth was orig-
among other ideas in Ten Books on Mineral and inally a comet whose eccentric orbit was made
Metalic Waters (published in 1612). circular by God; until the Flood, Earth pos-
sessed no diurnal rotation and its poles were
Isaacus Vossius perpendicular to the ecliptic. Finally, a comet
1618-1669 guide by God penetrated Earth’s surface, causing
Dutch physicist whose De lucis natura proprietate the waters of the abyss to overflow, shifting the
(1662) contains many bold conjectures about poles, and imparting axial rotation.

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Bibliography of based on his own observations and listed over 200

Physical more mentioned by others. He used various cate-
Sciences Primary Sources gories to classify minerals, dividing them into great

and small, rare and common, transparent and
opaque, combustible and incombustible, as well as
1450-1699 employing a three-degree scale of hardness. Boodt
Agrippa, Henricus. The Occult Philosophy (c. 1510). This also noted the crystalline forms of some minerals.
work became a major influence in central European
intellectual circles and along with The Uncertainty and Boulliau, Ismael. Astronomia philolaica (1645). Here Boul-
Vanity of Science (1527) focused on the logic of the oc- liau suggested that if a planetary motive force exists it
cult alternative. should vary inversely as the square of the distance.
Though he rejected this dynamical explanation of
Apian, Peter. Cosmographia seu descripto totius orbis planetary motion, preferring instead a purely kine-
(1524). Described the use of maps and surveying matical account, Boulliau’s inverse-square hypothesis
techniques, defined weather and climate, and suggest- was praised by Isaac Newton.
ed lunar distances be used for calculating longitude.
Boyle, Robert. New Experiments Physio-Mechanicall,
Bacon, Francis. The Advancement of Learning (1605). A Touching the Spring of the Air and its Effects (1660).
new categorization of the whole of the natural sciences. This work described the air pump constructed by
Boyle and Robert Hooke.
Bacon, Francis. Novum Organum (1620). Outlined a new
method of natural philosophy to replace Aristotle. Boyle, Robert. The Sceptical Chymist (1661). This book
Bacon proposed that, through his method of induc- helped to transform alchemy into chemistry.
tion, the secrets of the universe could be unlocked Boyle, Robert. Experimental History of Colors (1664). In
and used to benefit society. His method involved the this work Boyle described his work with acid-base in-
unbiased, almost random, collection of data, which dicators.
would later be generalized into rules of nature.
Bacon’s method never became popular, but many of Brahe, Tycho. De nova stella (1573). Detailed Brahe’s ob-
his other ideas proved influential. servations of the nova of 1572. His measurements in-
dicated the phenomenon was not part of the atmos-
Bacon, Francis. The New Atlantis (1626). Here Bacon de- phere nor was it attached to the sphere of a planet,
scribed a community of scientific workers who would but that it was located among the fixed stars. This un-
divide the labor of science among themselves and dermined the prevailing Aristotelian notion that the
work together to advance knowledge. The “Salomon’s heavens were perfect and unchanging.
House” of this fable was an idealized scientific utopia,
conjured to inspire actual scientists to work together Castelli, Benedetto. Della misura dell’acque correnti
in an organized manner. (1628). A pioneering work that marks the beginning
of modern hydraulics. Castelli related river cross-sec-
Bayer, Johann. Uranometria (1603). A comprehensive ce- tional areas to the water volume passing through
lestial atlas. The significance of Bayer’s work lies in his those areas and discussed the relation of velocity to
innovative method for naming stars within each con- head in flow through an orifice.
stellation. Though traditional constellations contin-
ued to provide a convenient means of dividing the Copernicus, Nicolaus. De Revolutionibus Orbium
heavens, the profusion of names for individual stars Coelestium (The Revolutions of the Heavenly Spheres,
that resulted from the translation of Greek into vari- 1543). Landmark book in which Copernicus dis-
ous languages proved most cumbersome and confus- cussed his heliocentric view of the heavens. Aware of
ing. Bayer sought to reform this situation by system- the possible repercussions of proposing such a theory
atically identifying each star precisely and succinctly. in direct opposition to the Church, he first wrote a
He assigned to each star in a constellation one of the short version of his ideas, entitled Commentariolus, in
24 letters of the Greek alphabet. If a constellation had 1513 and distributed it for comment to friends and
more than 24 stars then additional characters were colleagues. The full work, De Revolutionibus, was not
provided by the Latin alphabet. received well by the Church and scholars, even
though a churchman, without Copernicus’s permis-
Becher, Johann. Physicae subterraneae (1669). This work sion, had added a preface that stated that the theory
attempted to adapt traditional alchemical ideas to the was not being proposed as representing the actual
growing body of chemical knowledge. Becher divided motion and position of the Earth and Sun, but merely
solids into three kinds of earth—terra vitrescible, terra as a mathematical model to make calculations easier.
fluida, and terra pinguis. Becher treated the latter sub- Copernicus died soon after De Revolutionibus ap-
stance, known as “fatty earth,” as the principle of in- peared, thereby, escaping inevitable punishment.
flammability similar to the alchemical sulfur.
Cunitz, Maria. Urania propitia siva tabulae astronomicae
Beguin, Jean. Tyrocinium chymicum (1610). Focused on mire faciles (1650). This work greatly simplified Jo-
chemical operations for producing safe medicines. hannes Kepler’s Alfonsine Tables. Cunitz prefaced the
Originally published to obviate the need for dictating volume by explaining that despite being the work of a
lectures to his students, the Tyrocinium was very pop- woman, the Urania was nevertheless accurate. Her ta-
ular and issued in many editions, remaining the au- bles proved of great utility and went through many
thoritative chemical text until 1695, when Nicolas editions. This led many to suspect her husband had
Lémery’s Cours de chymie appeared. computed them. Cunitz’s husband wrote a preface for
later editions to dispel such rumors.
Boodt, Anselmus de. Gemmarum et lapidum historia
(1609). The first systematic treatise on minerals. Descartes, René. Principia Philosophiae (1644). Here
Boodt described and classified over 600 minerals Descartes attempted to put the whole universe on a

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mathematical foundation, reducing the study of This work’s emphasis on direct observation and rigor-
everything to that of mechanics. For Descartes ous experimentation earned Gilbert praise from Physical
knowledge could only be gained from deduction Galileo, who considered him the founder of the ex-
from fundamental principles. perimental method. Sciences
Digges, Thomas. Alae seu scalae mathematicae (1573). Hevelius, Johannes. Selenographia (1647). The 133 color 1450-1699
Contained the author’s observations of the 1572 su- plates of this work represent the first detailed, accu-
pernova. rate maps of the Moon’s surface. Many of Hevelius’s
names for the Moon’s features were taken from Earth’s
Ercker, Lazarus. Beschreibung der allerfürnemisten miner-
geography and are still used, such as Mare Serenitatis
alischen Ertzt und Berckwerksarten (1574). The first
(Pacific Ocean). However, his names for individual
systematic treatment of analytical and metallurgical
craters were not adopted.
chemistry. In it Ercker reviewed methods for obtain-
ing, refining, and testing alloys and minerals of silver, Hevelius, Johannes. Cometographia (2 vols., 1668). Here
gold, copper, antimony, bismuth, lead, and mercury Hevelius discussed the nature of comets and collected
as well as acids, salts, and other compounds includ- a considerable body of literature on comets observed
ing methods for purifying saltpeter. He also discussed in previous centuries. He considered comets plane-
the design and construction of apparati for assaying tary exhalations and believed them responsible for
such as the cupel, furnaces, and assaying balance. sunspots. Like Giovanni Borelli he suggested their or-
bits might be parabolic.
Escholt, Mikkel. Geologia norvegica (1657). The first sci-
entific treatise printed in Norway and one of the first Hevelius, Johannes. Uranographia (1690). Hevelius’s best
books published in Norwegian. In the work Escholt known work, cataloging over 1,500 stars and intro-
described the April 24, 1657, Norwegian earthquake. ducing several new constellations, including Lacerta,
He held that earthquakes were portents of divine in- Leo Minor, Lynx, Scutum, Sextans, and Vulpecula.
tervention in the world, though their production by Hooke, Robert. Micrographia (1685). An illustrated dis-
God was occasioned by physical causes—principally cussion of observations Hooke made with a reflecting
escaping air from Earth’s interior. He was also the first microscope that he built himself. His commentary in-
to use “geology” in its modern sense of Earth science. cluded biological specimens, and he coined the word
Flamsteed, John. Historia Coelestis Britannica (3 vols., cell to explain the microscopic structures he ob-
1725). Published posthumously, this work contained served. Micrographia also presented the results of his
the positions of nearly 3,000 stars and established microscopic studies of crystalline solids, including
Greenwich as one of the world’s leading observato- snowflakes.
ries. A set of star maps—Atlas Coelestis (1729)— Huygens, Christiaan. Horologium Oscillatorium (1673),
based on the catalog also appeared posthumously. Included a mathematical analysis of the compound
Galileo. La bilancetta (1586). This treatise described pendulum and derivation of the relationship between
Galileo’s improved hydrostatic balance. pendulum length and period of oscillation. Huygens
also included the laws of centrifugal force for uniform
Galileo. De motu (1590). Contained Galileo’s experiments circular motion and an early formulation of Isaac
on falling bodies. Newton’s first law of motion.
Galileo. Sidereus nuncius (1610). This work included Huygens, Christiaan. Traité de la lumière (1690). Huy-
Galileo’s descriptions of his self-built telescope, which gens’ response to Isaac Newton’s corpuscular theory
he constructed and used in January 1610, making of light. Huygens presented a wave construction ca-
him perhaps the first person to use a telescope to pable of explaining light’s rectilinear propagation, re-
view the heavens. flection, refraction, and certain properties of double
Galileo. Dialogue Concerning Two Chief World Systems refraction in Iceland spar. He also predicted, in oppo-
(1632). This book was ostensibly meant to present an sition to Newton, that light travels slower in denser
impartial discussion of the Copernican and Ptolemaic media. Newton’s theory dominated eighteenth-centu-
systems. The discussion was anything but impartial, ry optical thinking but was eclipsed by Huygens’s the-
marshaling as it did overwhelming empirical evi- ory in the early nineteenth century. The two views
dence in support of heliocentrism. Galileo was tried were later synthesized in quantum theory during the
as a heretic, convicted, and sentenced to permanent early years of the twentieth century.
house arrest. Kronland, Johannes von. Thaumantias liber de arcu
Galileo. Two New Sciences (1638). Dealt with the engi- coelesti.... (1648). Here Kronland discussed the colors
neering science of strength of materials and kinemat- of the rainbow, the dispersion of light beams directed
ics. It included the law of the lever, used to establish through a prism, and the diffraction of light around a
the breaking strength of materials. It also provided a wire. He also observed that repeated refraction does
mathematical treatment of motion in which Galileo not cause monochromatic rays to change color.
introduced the idea of uniformly accelerated motion. Lemery, Nicolas. Cours de chymie (Course on chemistry,
He also established the law of free fall in a vacuum, 1675). Europe’s most influential chemical textbook
deduced the terminal velocity for any body falling for over fifty years, with eleven editions in Lemery’s
through air, and derived the parabolic trajectory of own lifetime and over thirty editions by 1756.
projectiles from uniform horizontal and accelerated
Leonardus, Camillus. Speculum lapidum (1502). Treated
vertical motions.
over 200 minerals. This compilation proceeded ac-
Gilbert, William. De magnete, magneticisque Corporibus, et cording to traditional knowledge and concepts, rely-
de magno magnete tellure (Concerning magnetism, ing little on independent observation, although the
magnetic bodies, and the great magnet earth, 1600). invention of gunpowder was alluded to. The author’s

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focus was primarily the occult powers of gems and years after Regiomontanus’s death, the work was a
Physical images carved upon them. great success and attracted the attention of a young
Nicolaus Copernicus.
Sciences Libavius, Andreas. Alchemia (Alchemy) (1597). This book
summarized the discoveries that alchemists had made
Reinhold, Erasmus. Tabulae Prutenicae (1551). The first
1450-1699 up to the date of publication. Later editions of the
practical set of planetary tables based on Nicolaus
book were more than 2,000 pages long and contained
Copernicus’s theory. More accurate than the Alfonsine
200 illustrations.
Tables of Johannes Kepler, Reinhold’s tables were
Longomontanus. Astronomia danica (1622). Longomon- widely adopted and provided a strong argument in
tanus was Tycho Brahe’s only disciple. Upon his mas- favor of Copernicanism.
ter’s death Longomontanus assumed responsibility for
selecting and integrating Tycho’s data into a coherent Steno, Nicolaus. De Solido intra Solidum naturalites contento
account of planetary motions and presenting this dissertionis Prodromus (1669). Here Steno maintained
work in a systematic treatise. His task was brought to the organic origins of fossils. The work contains the
fruition in this work, which was enthusiastically re- outlines of modern geology. Steno argued that fossils
ceived by the astronomical community. The prestige are animal remains that had become embedded in sea-
attached to his work saw it through two reprintings floor strata and then petrified by the concreting action
of chemical forces, heat, and compression over time.
Newton, Isaac. Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathemati-
He suggested that strata are deposited horizontally in
ca (“The Mathematical Principles of Natural Philoso-
layers from aqueous fluids with occasional crustal col-
phy,” 1667-86). Perhaps the greatest scientific work
lapses accounting for diversities of topography. In ex-
ever written. It united two competing strands of nat-
plaining this stratification he established the principle
ural philosophy—experimental induction and mathe-
of superposition—underlying sedimentary layers are
matical deduction—into the scientific method of the
older than those overlaying them—upon which mod-
modern era. His emphasis on experimental observa-
ern geochronology is based. To accompany his expla-
tion and mathematical analysis changed the scope
nations, Steno produced what are considered the ear-
and possibilities of science.
liest geological cross sections.
Norman, Robert. The Newe Attractive (1581). One of the
first systematic treatises in experimental physics, in Stevin, Simon. De Beghinselen des Waterwichts (1586).
which Norman announced his discovery of the dip of Here Stevin provided the first systematic develop-
compass needles. Norman measured the deviation ment of Archimedes’ hydrostatics. He explained
from the horizontal of compass needles at London Archimedes’ displacement principle for submerged
and speculated on whether or not the effect varied bodies and showed that the pressure exerted by a liq-
over Earth’s surface. He also suggested compass nee- uid on a surface depends on the height of the liquid
dle orientation was due to turning toward rather than above that surface and is independent of the shape of
attraction to a particular point. the vessel containing it.
Owen, George. Description of Pembrokeshire (written Torricelli, Evangelista. De motu gravium (1641). Here Tor-
1603, published 1892). The map Owen made of ricelli developed some of Galileo’s ideas on projectile
Pembrokeshire was considered a landmark, and motion. He experimentally verified many new con-
Owen has been referred to as the patriarch of English clusions and stated what is today known as Torricelli’s
geologists. law—a rigid system of bodies can move spontaneous-
Pena, Jean. Euclidis Optica et Catoptrica (1557). In his ly on Earth’s surface only if its center of gravity de-
treatise on geometrical optics of lens and mirrors, scends.
Pena noted that a comet’s tail pointed away from the
Sun, prompting him to theorize that comets were Vossius, Isaacus. De lucis natura proprietate (1662). Con-
made of some celestially transparent substance that tained many bold conjectures about light, including
refracts light and causes combustion and thus the tail. the assertion that light is not a corporeal body, as well
as commentary on Willebrord Snell’s unpublished law
Perrault, Pierre. De l’origine des fontaines (1674). One of of light refraction.
the foundational works in experimental hydrology.
Perrault demonstrated rainfall is sufficient to main- Whiston, William. New Theory of the Earth (1696). This
tain the flow of rivers. He determined the drainage work sought rapprochement between Newtonian sci-
area for a portion of the Seine River and calculated ence and the Biblical account of Creation. According
the total precipitation. After adjusting for losses he to Whiston, Earth was originally a comet whose ec-
compared the total volume of water with the river’s centric orbit was made circular by God; until the
annual flow and showed that only one-sixth of the Flood, Earth possessed no diurnal rotation and its
annual rainfall was necessary to sustain it. poles were perpendicular to the ecliptic. Finally, a
Regiomontanus, Johannes. Epitome of Astronomy (1496). comet guided by God penetrated Earth’s surface,
The work contained, in addition to the Georg von causing the waters of the abyss to overflow, shifting
Puerbach-Regiomontanus translation of Ptolemy’s the poles, and imparting axial rotation.
work, critical commentary, revised computations, and
additional observations. Though not printed until 20 NEIL SCHLAGER

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Technology and Invention

Chronology


1450 Johannes Gutenberg invents a print- 1617 Scottish mathematician John Napi-
ing press with movable type, an event that er first develops what comes to be known
will lead to an explosion of knowledge as as Napier’s bones, an early calculator that
new ideas become much easier to dissemi- makes use of wooden rods labeled with
nate. numbers.

1504 German clockmaker Peter Henlein 1622 English mathematician William

builds the first truly portable clock, a 6- Oughtred invents the slide rule, which
inch (15-cm) high spring-driven “watch” makes possible rough but rapid multipli-
made entirely of iron. cation and division by sliding a numbered
stock between two slats.
1521 Cesare Cesariano, student of
Leonardo da Vinci, publishes his master’s 1631 Pierre Vernier invents the vernier, a
observations on the phenomenon called two-part scale that measures angles and
the camera obscura, forerunner of the lengths in small divisions; ultimately it re-
modern photographic camera. places the astrolabe, and finds its opti-
mum use in surveying.
1525 Rifled gun barrels, which cause a
bullet to spin—thus providing greater sta-
1667 The cabriolet, a light, two-wheeled
bility and accuracy for its flight—make
carriage that will become very popular
their appearance.
during the eighteenth century, makes its
1589 William Lee of England invents the first appearance in France.
first knitting machine.
1681 France builds the Languedoc Canal,
1590 Some 40 years after the first simple, also known as the Canal du Midi, a 150-
or single-lens, microscopes appeared, mile (241-km) waterway considered the
Dutch optician Sacharias Jansen, together greatest feat of civil engineering between
with father Hans, invents the first com- Roman times and the nineteenth century.
pound microscope.
1698 English engineer Thomas Savery
1610 Dutch-English inventor Cornelius patents the first steam engine, a mono-
Drebbel devises the first self-regulating cylinder suction pump that drains water
oven, which uses a thermostat. from mines.

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Overview:
Technology
& Invention Technology and Invention 1450-1699
1450-1699


Background ings as well as descriptive text so that their read-
ers could replicate various technological methods
The age of humanism that followed the Me-
and machinery. Ready access to the tools and
dieval era built upon a revolution in science
processes of technology through the printed
that celebrated human curiosity and its use of
record also stimulated invention and innovation
rational inquiry. This embrace of human discov-
as this knowledge spread throughout the West-
ery also affected technology with a rational ap-
ern world in the new portable form. This age of
proach to the material world and a growing in-
literate technology spurred so much develop-
terest in transforming that world through indi-
ment that technology for the first time was divid-
vidual action. With the advent of mechanical
ed into two categories: military engineering and
printing and the resulting development of a lit-
everything else—civilian or civil engineering.
erate technology, technological change acceler-
ated and technological diffusion widened. As a
result, the Western world associated science and
technology with progress, incorporating them New Weapons of War
into the larger framework of a humanist per- Gunpowder first used in China diffused to the
spective so characteristic of the Renaissance and West during the Renaissance with a significant
Age of Enlightenment. impact on weapons development. New weapons
of war such as the cannon, muskets, and pistols
became hallmarks of armies as both strategic
Mechanized Printing and tactical methods changed to reflect the use
More than any other development of this era, of these new weapons. For example, ship design
mechanized printing transformed the nature of was modified to include a cannon deck, allow-
technology. Johannes Gutenberg (c. 1398-1468) ing the ship to play a more active role in military
used his background as a metallurgist to devise a action. In addition, land-based warfare saw the
means of printing with interchangeable, stan- increased use of cannons, first to frighten and
dardized metal type. He achieved this process of later to destroy communities. This new weapon
using movable type by casting various letters in made the typical Medieval walled fortress much
the same mold; each piece of type was identical more vulnerable because cannon fire easily
in size and shape to every other piece, which could permeate those walls. Many Renaissance
gave him complete interchangeability. His type engineers successfully pursued careers in de-
mold, not the printing press itself, was the criti- signing and building new city fortifications
cal part of this revolutionary means of printing. using slopped walls, placing cannons through-
The result was the first information revolution out the line of defense. The resulting star fort
with an explosion of accessible knowledge avail- design replaced the high stone walls of the Me-
able to a wide audience. Mechanized printing dieval fortress with lower earthen and brick
made the production of books less expensive, al- walls less susceptible to damage by cannon fire.
lowed for the wide dissemination of knowledge, Cannon fire was less likely to destroy an entire
greatly enhanced the accuracy of description, wall made of brick or of angled earthen surfaces.
and permitted individuals to gain knowledge
The increased use of gunpowder also trans-
and to challenge established authority through
formed the role of governments in encouraging
their own self-learning and exploration.
and supporting military technology. The new
Less expensive printing fueled the growth of weapons required skilled metallurgists, manu-
technical literature and created the world of facturing systems, trained soldiers, and standing
handbook technology. Georg Bauer (also known armies. Governments, especially those intent on
as Agricola [1494-1555]) published the widely expansionism and increased regional influence,
used handbook of metallurgy and mining, De Re began supporting a military establishment for
Metallica. Vannoccio Biringuccio (1480-c. 1539) the maximum exploitation of new weapons and
focused on the metallurgy of precious metals and new military activities. A growing partnership
the art of casting in his De la pirotechnia. These between governments and the military establish-
works, among many others, contained engrav- ment made war a more professional activity.

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Mechanized Time oceanic travel. The results were the voyages of

In this era, the ways people measured time
discovery and exploration that flourished in the Technology
moved from the use of sun dials and water
seventeenth century. With these experiences ex- & Invention
plorers discovered new flora and fauna, increased
clocks to mechanical clocks. The regular effects
the pool of human knowledge, and provided new 1450-1699
of weights, springs, or a pendulum became a
trade routes that stimulated trade and commerce.
means of measuring time; time keeping moved
As a consequence, the material wealth of Western
away from natural rhythms to abstract mechani-
Europe increased substantially, a happening that
cal intervals established by scientists and inven-
fed the materialistic thrust of the era.
tors. Christiaan Huygens (1629-1695) played a
key role in developing the pendulum clock, and Improved measuring instruments and tech-
men such as Jean de Hautefeuille (1647-1724), niques affected technology on land as well as at
Peter Henlein (1480-1542), and Robert Hooke sea. Canal building on a vast scale attested to the
(1635-1703) provided techniques for producing civil engineering skills of Renaissance engineers.
portable clocks in the form of watches that used In Britain, Hugh Myddleton (c. 1560-1631) cre-
a controlled force released by a spring to mea- ated a canal known as the New River, which re-
sure and display time. mains as a means of supplying water to London.
The widespread use of mechanical clocks In France, Pierre-Paul Riquet de Bonrepos
mirrored a changing attitude toward nature. In- (1604-1680) was instrumental in the construc-
stead of seeing the world as an organic or mysti- tion of the Canal du Midi (Languedoc Canal);
cal place, those involved in science and technol- this impressive engineering feat had a 500-foot
ogy sought mechanical measures of their world. (152-m) tunnel, several aqueducts, and a hun-
Based largely on the new scientific attitudes of dred locks along its 180-mile (290-km) length.
the time, this analytical, logical, and mechanical The widely traveled and experienced Dutch en-
approach provided an intellectual foundation for gineer Simon Stevin (1548-1620) engaged in
the rationalized technology that was essential for several projects focusing on canals, drainage,
the industrial age. This mechanical mindset also and irrigation projects throughout Western Eu-
encouraged people to observe, measure, and an- rope. The surveying instruments and techniques
alyze various aspects of the world around them. necessary for canal building also played a key
Man, indeed, became the measure and measurer role in the design and construction of urban for-
of all things. tifications, another major contribution of Re-
naissance civil engineers. No less a person than
Leonardo da Vinci (1452-1519) devoted most of
Measuring Instruments and Measuring the his time and talent to various civil engineering
World tasks such as building canals and forts. Leonar-
do was typical of the many Renaissance engi-
The interest in measurement and the perception neers who made a living by selling their skills
of a mechanical world enhanced the develop- and experience at designing and building forts
ment and use of scientific instruments. Devices for an era of gunpowder warfare, and canals and
such as the telescope, the microscope, calcula- other water control devices in an age that valued
tors, the magnetic compass, barometers, gun the control and distribution of water.
sights, scales, lenses, and clocks provided a tech-
nological underpinning for both scientific in-
quiry and practical application. Measurement Conclusion
was critical for astronomy, navigation, and sur-
The improvements in agriculture, the growth of
veying; precise observation and description be-
urban centers for trade and commerce, and the
came a hallmark for the world of Renaissance
enhanced shipping technology available created
science. For example, Galileo’s (1564-1642) use
a more urban-based society in the West during
of the telescope allowed him to challenge long-
this era. These developments stimulated popu-
standing astronomical theories and to replace
lation growth, an interest in the material, and a
them with explanations based on his personal
utilitarian/mechanical perspective on the world.
observations; these new models contributed to
Clearly, the advent of mechanized printing ac-
the Newtonian revolution in science.
celerated the spread of technical knowledge and
In the world of transportation technology, increased the literacy of engineers and the
the bringing together of the compass, the lateen growth of technical treatises or handbooks. As
or triangular sail, and the stern-post rudder creat- Renaissance society became more secular, tech-
ed a vastly improved sailing ship worthy of trans- nology played an increasingly important role.

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Technology became associated with secular vation in both civil and military engineering.
Technology progress in a world that embraced rational in- The resultant Renaissance emphasis on and re-
& Invention quiry, careful and precise observation, and wards for technological change provided a
widespread experimentation. To a degree not proto-industrial base from which industrialism
1450-1699 seen before in the West, technology was more would emerge a century later. Because individ-
closely linked to science; the resultant scientific ual action and analysis played an important part
revolution that created the modern scientific in understanding the world, increasingly indi-
method affected technology as well. Rational- viduals took credit or were credited with tech-
ism, a mechanical world view, and logical in- nological developments; Western history be-
quiry served both science and technology at a came the record of human achievement to a
time when both allowed people to take the new degree. All of these factors contributed to a
measure of themselves and the world that sur- new era of humanism that stimulated both sci-
rounded them. The pace of technological ence and technology and shaped modern West-
change and diffusion accelerated, aided in large ern culture, a culture in which science and
measure by the new technologies in the fields of technology are central to human progress.
printing and sailing. These technological devel-
opments stimulated more invention and inno- H. J. EISENMAN

The Birth of Print Culture: The Invention of

the Printing Press in Western Europe


Overview copies of books could be generated in a short
period of time, making available an unprece-
The invention of the printing press in Western
dented number of familiar books and encourag-
Europe stands as one of the most important
ing the creation of new works. Though this in-
events in the history of human civilization.
flux of printed books was initially limited to the
Though various printing processes had earlier ap-
moneyed and literate upper and scholar classes,
peared in Asia, it was the mechanical apparatus
the growing availability and affordability of
developed by Johannes Gutenberg (1398?-1468)
printed texts later resulted in increasing levels of
that ushered in a new age of communications and
mass literacy and provided for the free flow of
comprehension with far-reaching implications
information essential to scientific progress, capi-
that continue to shape our world and perception.
talism, and modern democracy.
The Gutenberg Bible, the first known printed
book in the West, remains the marker by which
500 years of “print culture” began. Background
Prior to Gutenberg’s invention, which in- The invention of printing had its origins in
volved the use of moveable type, books were ex- China, where as early as the second century A.D.
pensive and relatively scarce, as each text was printing from engraved wood blocks, or xylogra-
painstakingly copied by hand over a period of phy, was in use. In 1041-1048 Pi Sheng, a Chi-
weeks or months. As a result, the transmission nese blacksmith and alchemist, developed the
and preservation of knowledge relied heavily process of printing with movable type; however,
upon oral, or spoken, communication and due to the large number of Chinese characters—
memorization, particularly among the vast ma- some 80,000—and the frailty of his baked clay
jority of people who could not read or write. For type, this method proved impractical. Later, in
those with access to manuscript books, the lack the fourteenth century, moveable wood type was
of standardization among texts and the time- used in China, and in the fifteenth century
consuming process of duplication limited the ac- moveable type cast in bronze was developed in
curacy and speed by which both existing and Korea. But despite the apparent success of these
new ideas could be distributed. innovations, it remained unknown in Europe.
Through the use of Gutenberg’s mechanized During the late 1430s, Gutenberg, a Ger-
instrument of reproduction, numerous exact man goldsmith, began experimenting with

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Technology
& Invention
1450-1699

An early printing press (1511). (Bettman/Corbis. Reproduced with permission.)

techniques for “artificial writing,” as the eleventh century A . D ., almost 1,200 years
printing press was first known. Its develop- later. Before paper arrived in Europe via the
ment in Europe hinged upon several key fac- Muslim Middle East, the pages of manuscript
tors—the new availability of paper, the cast- books were made of vellum (calfskin) or
ing of metal type, and increasing demand for parchment (pigskin). Both materials were ex-
books. While paper had existed in China pensive and, furthermore, the outer surface of
since 240 B . C ., paper and papermaking tech- the skin was too rough to use, allowing only
nology did not reach Europe until the one side of the page for writing.

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Gutenberg’s expertise as a metallurgist en- with ornamental initials and Gothic print. How-
Technology abled him to develop a method for casting inter- ever, the familiar conventions of printed books
& Invention changeable lead typefaces for printing. The use were quickly established and widely adopted,
of metal typefaces, as opposed to wood or clay, including the use of title pages (previously
1450-1699 improved the quality and durability of the print- nonexistent), page numbers, running titles,
ing process. Gutenberg also developed ink that colophons indicating the publisher of the book,
readily adhered to his type and to the paper sur- and easily readable Latin typefaces such as
face. A relatively simple machine, Gutenberg’s roman and italics (except in Germany, where
printing press worked by arranging type—indi- gothic Fraktur persisted until the twentieth cen-
vidual characters consisting of letters, numbers, tury). Books produced during the infancy of the
spaces, or symbols—into sentences and lines, printing press—the period from 1450 to 1500—
thus forming the text of a full page. The type, are referred to as incunabula, Latin for “swad-
arranged in a type “bed,” was then inked and dling clothes” or “infancy.”
pressed upon a sheet of paper under the force of
a screw press. The resulting impression on the
paper could be duplicated repeatedly by simply Impact
re-inking the type and inserting additional Within 50 years of its invention in Germany,
paper. The advantage of reusable moveable type printing presses appeared in nearly all major Eu-
involved its ability to be dissembled and re- ropean centers: Cologne (1464), Basel (1466),
arranged into new pages of text, from which ad- Rome (1467), Venice (1469), Paris (1471), Va-
ditional pages could be printed and the process lencia and Budapest (1473), London (1480),
repeated. The printed sheets could then be and Stockholm (1483). Though documentary
arranged, folded, and bound into books. evidence is lacking, it is estimated that by 1500
During the fourteenth and fifteenth cen- more than 10,000 different titles had been pub-
turies the demand for books among European lished and several million printed books were al-
scholars and aristocrats increased dramatically. ready in existence. Another indication of the
This period, known as the Renaissance, was press’s rapid spread was the proliferation of
characterized by a new scientific and artistic in- paper mills throughout Europe during this time,
terest in secular—as opposed to religious—un- as the corresponding demand for paper in-
derstanding of the world. Coupled with the ear- creased manyfold. The Spanish brought the
lier rise of the university during the eleventh and press to the New World, where the first was es-
twelfth centuries, there emerged intensified tablished in Mexico City in 1539. During the
pressure to produce greater numbers of text- sixteenth century, European colonists and mis-
books, scientific treatises, and other written re- sionaries, particularly the Portuguese, intro-
ports of new discoveries. Before the printing duced the printing press to other parts of the
press, manuscript books were produced primar- world, including China, Japan, India, and
ily by medieval monks in specialized workshops Africa. The printing press did not appear in
called scriptoria, where groups of clerics hand- North America until 1638, where in Cambridge,
copied individual texts. Later, as demand in- Massachusetts, Stephen Day published the first
creased, professional and state-sanctioned American book.
scribes were also employed to mass produce From the beginning, book publishing was a
books for sale. However, the labor-intensive profit-motivated industry inextricably linked to
process of transcribing by hand was expensive the rise of capitalism in early modern Europe.
and could not meet the growing demand, thus Printing press operators simultaneously served
encouraging the development of a machine to as agents, editors, publishers, and booksellers,
speed this process. and competition was aggressive as printers vied
The Gutenberg Bible, also known as the for market share. Gutenberg was himself entan-
“42-line Bible” in reference to the number of gled in a legal dispute with his financial benefac-
double column lines on each page, is universally tor Johann Fust (1400?-1466?), who seized
hailed as a landmark technical and aesthetic Gutenberg’s invention in 1455 and with Peter
achievement. Of the estimated 200 copies print- Schoeffer (1425?-1502), Fust’s son-in-law and
ed between 1455-56, fewer than 50 are known Gutenberg’s former assistant, founded the first
to exist. While Gutenberg’s Bible at once set the commercial publishing company. By 1560 many
standard for all subsequent books, many early of the most famous early printer-publishers had
printed books were designed to replicate the ap- established themselves, including Anton
pearance of more expensive manuscript books, Koberger (1445-1513) in Nuremberg, Aldus

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Manutius (1450-1515) in Venice, Johann those who could read Latin, prompted numer-
Froben (1460-1527) in Basel, William Caxton ous translations into the vernacular, or common Technology
(1420?-1491) in London, Robert Estienne languages, of Europe. Though the first vernacu- & Invention
(1503-1559) in Paris, and Christophe Plantin lar Bible appeared in German in 1466, Luther’s
(1520?-1589) in Antwerp. 1522 German translation of the New Testament 1450-1699
(followed by the Old Testament in 1534) was
The invention of the printing press exerted
the most popular and influential, reprinted in
an immediate effect on the social and intellectual
numerous editions and serving as the basis for
climate of Europe. As a product of the Renais-
subsequent translations into Dutch, Swedish,
sance, the press served the interests of human-
and English.
ists by making available many ancient Greco-
Roman classics, such as the works of Homer, While Latin remained the universal lan-
Plato (427?-347? B.C.), Aristotle (384-322 B.C.), guage for European religious and scientific texts
Cicero, and Virgil, previously rare or unavailable for several centuries, the growing availability of
in western Christendom. The rediscovery and vernacular texts fostered a larger reading audi-
study of scientific works by ancient writers such ence of both men and women, including a bur-
as Hippocrates (190?-120? B.C.), Ptolemy (100?- geoning nonaristocratic class of wealthy mer-
170?), and Galen (c. 130-200) also had a major chants, artisans, and financiers—the bour-
impact on fifteenth- and sixteenth-century sci- geoisie, or middle class. Though early literacy
ence. In addition to the rise of classical scholar- rates are uncertain, in 1533 Thomas More
ship, one of the hallmarks of the Renaissance, (1478-1535) claimed that half of the English
printing facilitated the growth and consolidation population could read—undoubtedly an inflated
of learning by making available the works of figure, but telling in its optimistic presumption.
more recent medieval philosophers, including In England, unlike the rest of Europe, native-
Albertus Magnus (1193-1280), Roger Bacon language books were printed from the begin-
(1214?-1294), Thomas Aquinas (1227?-1274), ning, and English superceded Latin as the most
and Arab scholars Avicenna (980-1037) and popular language of publication. The growth of
Averroes (1126-1198). vernacular texts promoted wider readership in
general, but it also had the effect of delimiting
It is significant that the first book to be boundaries, out of which distinct national litera-
printed was the Bible, as one of the first discern- tures arose. As Latin progressively lost favor,
able impacts of the printing press on society was translations between vernacular languages be-
the Reformation, a period of dramatic, often vio- came increasingly important and, particularly in
lent, religious dissent during which various sects the case of scientific knowledge, the absence of
of European Christians broke from the Roman translations could result in isolation and unnec-
Catholic Church to form the branches of Protes- essarily duplicated research. For most of Europe
tantism. This sixteenth-century religious up- and America, however, high levels of literacy—
heaval was given impetus and international sig- rather than basic competence—remained limit-
nificance largely through printed texts that as- ed to the wealthy, educated, and clergy until the
serted opposing views. In 1517 Martin Luther nineteenth century.
(1483-1546) published his famous “95 Theses,”
The new availability of books soon gave rise
followed by three additional tracts in 1520, in
to the growth of libraries. While the existence of
which he denied the supremacy of the Church.
libraries as storehouses of knowledge dates back
Because Luther’s writings were printed and
to the ancient Egyptian and Greco-Roman
widely distributed, a local controversy was
worlds, the advent of printing permitted far
transformed into a major public event, touching
more extensive collections to be amassed, partic-
off the Reformation in Germany and elsewhere.
ularly as new titles and knowledge rapidly be-
Other religious dissenters, in particular John
came available. Aristocrats, wealthy merchants,
Calvin (1509-1564) in Switzerland, published
and humanist scholars began to assemble per-
important texts that opposed the authority of
sonal libraries that brought together the most
the Church and further spread the Reformation
valuable works on diverse subjects—and served
throughout Europe.
to display their owner’s social status and cultiva-
One of the central arguments of the reform- tion. Some of these early royal and private col-
ers was that the Bible itself—not the Church— lections later became the core of major national
was the supreme authority on matters of morali- libraries, such as the Bibliothèque Nationale in
ty and religious practice. This emphasis on the France and the British Museum (1759) in Eng-
text of the Bible, previously accessible only to land. Both of these libraries required that a copy

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of all new printed works be donated to their experimentation, and cumulative documenta-
Technology holdings, establishing the concept of the deposi- tion—was well complemented by the advent of
& Invention tory library system, adopted by the Library of printing. Printed books provided a means by
Congress (1800) in the United States. which knowledge could be systematically record-
1450-1699 ed, arranged, preserved, and reproduced with
Important university collections were also
unprecedented accuracy, speed, and consistency.
founded, notably the Bodleian Library at Ox-
Thus scientists were increasingly able to assimi-
ford, established by Thomas Bodley in 1602.
late the research and innovations of their prede-
Public libraries began to emerge in the eigh-
cessors in order to produce further advances of
teenth century, originating first as lending li-
their own. With the rise of scientific societies
braries, such as that established by Benjamin
during the seventeenth century also emerged the
Franklin (1706-1790) in Philadelphia, and later,
role of the scientific journal as a tool of knowl-
during the nineteenth century, as civic institu-
edge preservation and dissemination. The first
tions intended for the education and benefit of
such journal was the Philosophical Transactions of
the public at large. The proliferation of books
the Royal Society of England, whose first issue
made libraries important as centers of consolida-
appeared in 1665. Others soon followed, such as
tion and organization. It is perhaps not surpris-
the Mémoires of the Academié des Sciences in
ing that several highly influential scholars—Got-
France, and the standard practice of publishing
tfried Wilhelm Leibniz (1646-1716), David
one’s research for the use and scrutiny of the sci-
Hume (1711-1776), and Johann Wolfgang von
entific community was established. As a growing
Goethe (1749-1832)—worked as librarians dur-
number of scientific works became available, and
ing their careers.
new and existing branches of science became in-
The impact of the printing press on science creasingly complex, the trend toward specializa-
and technology was tremendous. Whereas scien- tion also emerged as a new feature of the sci-
tists and inventors had long worked in relative iso- ences. Mastery of all branches of science by a sin-
lation and had limited ability to share information, gle individual—the celebrated Renaissance
the use of the press to publish the results of their man—was nearly inconceivable by the end of the
work greatly accelerated the rate of scientific dis- eighteenth century, as so much new knowledge
covery and progress, and many of these advances had been created and disseminated by the press.
directly impacted the quality of life for large
The press also facilitated the publication of
groups of people through improved medicine, do-
travel accounts that made known the voyages
mestic and agricultural technology, and trans-
and expeditions of European explorers during
portation. The birth of the modern scientific revo-
the great age of discovery. Such reports were es-
lution can be directly linked to early printed
sential to monarchs interested in expanding
works by Nicolaus Copernicus (1473-1543), Jo-
colonial empires, as well as to merchants seeking
hannes Kepler (1571-1630), Galileo Galilei
lucrative new lands where raw materials and
(1564-1642), and Isaac Newton (1646-1728),
goods could be traded and obtained—another
with his Principia (1687) as the crowning achieve-
important way in which the press is linked to
ment of this early phase. In addition to major ad-
the rise of capitalism. Some of the most famous
vances in mathematics and astronomy, medicine
early accounts include “The Columbus Letter”
and physiology were advanced by the published
(1493), in which Christopher Columbus (1451-
(and illustrated) works of Andreas Vesalius (1514-
1506) announced his discovery of the New
1564) and William Harvey (1578-1657), mineral-
World, accounts of the travels of Marco Polo
ogy and metallurgy by Georgius Agricola (1494-
(1254-1324), Ferdinand Magellan (1480?-
1555), physics and chemistry by Robert Boyle
1521), and James Cook (1728-1779), as well as
(1627-1691), microbiology by Robert Hooke
important compilations by Richard Hakluyt
(1635-1703) and Anton von Leeuwenhoek
(1552?-1616) and others. Exploration was fur-
(1632-1723), entomology by Jan Swammerdam
ther aided by the publication of maps, providing
(1637-1680), plant and animal classification by
explorers with increasingly accurate guides. Car-
Carolus Linnaeus (1707-1778), and scientific phi-
tography flourished in the Netherlands, due to
losophy by Francis Bacon (1561-1626) and René
the knowledge of Dutch mariners, and resulted
Descartes (1596-1650). This is only a small sam-
in several important atlases, including those by
pling of the many new works that contributed to-
Ortelius (1527-1598), Willem Janszoon Blaeu
ward advances in the sciences.
(1571-1638) and his son Jan, and Gerardus
The new empirical methodology of scientific Mercator (1512-1594), who developed the mod-
research—mainly the emphasis on observation, ern projection map.

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The printing press had a dramatic effect on cial sanction, the printing press made their sup-
literature and the arts in Europe. The humanism pression more difficult, as condemned books Technology
of the Renaissance fostered a new spirit of cre- could be quickly produced and distributed in & Invention
ative individuality and self-consciousness that great numbers and in relative secrecy. In 1559
resulted in many new works of poetry, drama, the Roman Catholic Church established the 1450-1699
and history. Literary works such Thomas Malo- Index Librorum Prohibitorum, a notorious list of
ry’s Le Morte Darthur (1470), Ludovico Ariosto’s banned books that was issued continuously
Orlando furioso (1516), and Dante Alighieri’s Di- until 1966. Likewise, royal decrees were regular-
vine Comedy (1555) soon appeared in print. A ly issued in England and other countries with
vast array of devotional literature also flour- the aim of controlling the content and publica-
ished, such as the early bestseller The Imitation of tion of books. As a result, many great Renais-
Christ (1473), attributed to Thomas à Kempis, sance intellectuals, most famously Galileo, were
and later John Bunyan’s allegorical work The Pil- persecuted for their published writings. Resis-
grim’s Progress (1678). In England the Renais- tance to such controls by printers and authors
sance plays of William Shakespeare (1564-1616) helped establish the “freedom of the press,” a
were published at the time of their performance, political and artistic principle championed by
and the first collection of Shakespeare’s dramatic writers such as John Milton (in his Areopagitica,
works, the so-called First Folio, appeared in 1644), and a cornerstone of democratic society.
1623. With printing also emerged the profes- The rights of the author and publisher found
sional writer, whose livelihood could be earned protection in the development of publishing
by publishing and selling original works to the guilds and copyright laws. While printers sought
public, rather than to a wealthy patron alone. to preserve their exclusive right to print and sell
New genres of secular writing also emerged, certain titles, authors demanded that their
such as the personal essay, pioneered by Michel unique ideas, or intellectual property, be protect-
de Montaigne (1533-1592), and, perhaps most ed from plagiarism and unauthorized sales from
notably, the modern novel, whose history in the which they did not receive proceeds—a problem
West is generally thought to begin with the pub- that hardly existed before printing. In England
lication of Don Quixote (Part I, 1605; Part II, the Stationer’s Company was incorporated in
1615) by Spanish writer Miguel Cervantes. The 1557, taking on the role of regulating publishers
novel became one of the most popular forms of by requiring that new works be registered and li-
literature during the first half of the eighteenth censed. This concept was extended in the Copy-
century, particularly in England through the right Act of 1709, the basis for all subsequent
works of Daniel Defoe, Samuel Richardson, and copyright laws, through which authors and pub-
Henry Fielding. The confluence of literature, pol- lishers were granted legal rights to their work for
itics, and social criticism also found expression in a limited period of time. Unauthorized, or “pirat-
the new genre of utopian fiction, exemplified by ed,” editions of books were common during the
Thomas More’s Utopia (1516), and satires, such first several centuries of printing, and the effort
as Desiderius Erasmus’s The Praise of Folly (1511) of publishers and authors to protect against in-
and Francois Rabelais’s masterpiece, Gargantua fringement began early and remains an ongoing
and Pantagruel (1532-64). In addition, the devel- struggle in modern times, particularly as new
opment of art and architecture was shaped by technologies, such as the Internet, pose new
several important works, including Giorgio challenges to such protections.
Vasari’s Lives of the Most Eminent Italian Painters, While the printing press is inextricably
Sculptors, and Architects (1568) and Antonio Pal- linked to the history of the book, the invention
ladio’s Four Books of Architecture (1570). of the press gave rise to many other important
The rapid proliferation of new and often forms of publication such as the newspaper, the
highly controversial scientific and literary publi- magazine, the broadside, and the pamphlet. The
cations prompted the emergence of improved first newspapers, or newsletters, appeared in the
modes of control—censorship and copyright— mercantile centers of Holland and Germany dur-
to serve the interests of both the authorities and ing the first decade of the seventeenth century,
the author. Censorship, the official prohibition spreading to other parts of Europe shortly there-
of certain books deemed scandalous, subversive, after. The earliest known magazines were pub-
or heretical, was implemented by both the lished during the 1660s, first in Germany and
Church and ruling monarchs almost immediate- then in France and England. Other “ephemeral”
ly after the first books came off the press. formats, including the pamphlet and broadside,
Though books had always been subject to offi- a hybrid of poster and newssheet, were even

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cheaper to produce than books and made possi- comprehensive scholarship, the movement to-
Technology ble the rapid dissemination of current informa- ward standardization also influenced pedagogy,
& Invention tion, such as local news, advertisements, and lit- as a growing abundance of textbooks, guides,
erary pieces, as well as religious controversies and reference volumes provided an established
1450-1699 and unpopular or officially censored ideas. The framework for the education of the young.
diffusion of such publications attests to the ex-
With only minor improvements, the tech-
pansion of literacy in early modern Europe, and
nology of Gutenberg’s printing press remained
the power and importance of the press as a vehi-
relatively unchanged until 1814, when the first
cle of mass communication.
steam-powered press, built by Friedrich Kön-
In many ways the social impact of Guten- ing (1774?-1833), was installed to print the
berg’s printing press culminated with the En- London Times. Thenceforth, during the Indus-
lightenment. This intellectual milieu during the trial Revolution, new and much faster powered
seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, also presses became available and the printing revo-
known as the Age of Reason, was characterized lution begun by Gutenberg was greatly expand-
by new confidence in the powers of the rational ed, further assisted by improved methods of
human mind to discover and order the laws of transportation that aided the distribution of
the universe and society. These lofty aspirations books and other reading materials. With supe-
hinged upon the supreme importance of knowl- rior tools of mass production, this period wit-
edge and freedom, both of which the press em- nessed an astonishing proliferation of pub-
bodied. With the power of the Church dimin- lished works, beginning an overwhelming ac-
ished by humanism and the Reformation, celeration of knowledge production in all fields
philosophers such as Thomas Hobbes (1588- of study that continues to this day. During the
1679), John Locke (1632-1704), Voltaire (1694- late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries,
1778), Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712-1778), Im- the benefits of public education, libraries, and
manuel Kant (1724-1804), and others took up literacy were finally extended to the greater ma-
controversial issues involving the nature of reli- jority of society in the West. As the number of
gion, human agency, and the rights of govern- readers increased, so too did the uses of the
ment. Such investigations, widely published and printed text for mass consumption. Advertising
debated throughout Europe, had a profound im- became a became a major industry in the nine-
pact on religious, political, social, and economic teenth century, as did the use of print for pro-
thought of the time, introducing the concepts of paganda in various forms.
free-market capitalism and democracy, and
shaping modern attitudes of skepticism, secular During the twentieth century the primacy of
materialism, and individualism. These develop- the printed word was challenged by several new
ments precipitated the American and French mediums of mass communication—film, radio,
Revolutions, both of which were fueled by the television, and the computer. Though none of
circulation of pamphlets, such as Thomas Paine’s these technologies have effectively supplanted
“Common Sense” (1776) in America, that chal- reading, the great popularity, efficiency, and
lenged the established order and galvanized emotional power of the modern multimedia ex-
public support. perience has raised new questions about the fu-
ture of the book and the mentality of print cul-
In addition to fomenting social and political
ture, including the meaning of authorship.
upheaval, one of the central roles of the press
While books require the active participation of a
during the Enlightenment involved standardiza-
solitary reader who abides by the linear logic of
tion. The ambitious effort to organize and pre-
the author’s fixed text, video and computer pre-
sent all knowledge based on the principles of ra-
sentations have altered the parameters of com-
tionalism is exemplified by the 17-volume L’En-
munication with nontangible, nonlinear mon-
cyclopèdie (1751-65) compiled by Denis Diderot
tages of sound and imagery, including text, pho-
and Jean d’Alembert, as well as works in specific
tography, and visual art, that often involve
fields: in natural history, Georges Buffon’s 44-
extensive creative collaborations. Some note that
volume Historie Naturelle (1749-1804); in lexi-
aspects of this new malleability and interaction
cography, Samuel Johnson’s Dictionary of the Eng-
seem to hark back to oral tradition, and that the
lish Language (1755); in history, Edward Gib-
interconnectivity of electronic media evokes the
bon’s 6-volume Decline and Fall of the Roman
notion of a global village.
Empire (1776-88); and in law, William Black-
stone’s 4-volume Commentaries on the Laws of It may be said that the authority of the
England (1765-69). In addition to encouraging text—an authority that books once carried due

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to their relative expense, seeming permanence, Further Reading

and veneration as cultural objects—has been Carter, John, and Percy H. Muir, eds. Printing and the Technology
undermined by the use of computer technology Mind of Man: A Descriptive Catalogue Illustrating the & Invention
to cheaply and instantaneously transmit vast Impact of Print on the Evolution of Western Civilization
quantities of electronic data around the world. During Five Centuries. London: Cassell, 1962. 1450-1699
This progressive affordability and expedience Eisenstein, Elizabeth L. The Printing Press as an Agent of
has also contributed toward a daunting over- Change: Communications and Cultural Transformations
in Early-Modern Europe. 2 vols. 1979. Reprint (2 vols.
abundance of information in the modern
in 1), Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1994.
world, a defining feature of the so-called Infor-
Eisenstein, Elizabeth L. The Printing Revolution in Early
mation Age. Yet this same technology has also
Modern Europe. Cambridge: Cambridge University
made the tools of mass communication more Press, 1996.
accessible than ever before, offering the
Febvre, Lucien, and Henri-Jean Martin. The Coming of the
prospect of a more free and equitable democra- Book. Translated by David Gerard. 1958. Reprint,
tic society, along with the attendant risks of ex- London: Verso, 1999.
clusion and manipulation. In many direct and Katz, Bill. Dahl’s History of the Book. 3rd English ed.
indirect ways these freedoms—religious, politi- Metuchen, NJ: Scarecrow Press, 1995.
cal, social, intellectual, and technological—are McLuhan, Marshall. The Gutenberg Galaxy: The Making of
testament to the profound and enduring impact Typographic Man. 1962. Reprint, Toronto: University
of Gutenberg’s press. of Toronto Press, 1995.
Nunberg, Geoffrey, ed. The Future of the Book. Berkeley:
JOSH LAUER
University of California Press, 1996.
Steinberg, S. H. Five Hundred Years of Printing. 3rd ed.
New York: Penguin, 1974.

The Advent of Newspapers

Overview A second genre of news publishing was
known as the coranto. In England, Thomas
Before the invention of printing in the 1500s,
Archer, Nicholas Bourne, and Nathaniel Butter
people kept each other up to date with news and
published several such publications between
gossip through personal letters. Members of for-
1620 and 1625. That year the government tem-
mal organizations accomplished the same func-
porarily suspended publication of foreign news.
tion through handwritten newsletters. Following
After the restriction was dropped, in 1638
the arrival of print in the sixteenth century, news
Bourne and Butter were granted the exclusive
publishing went through four distinct stages be-
right to print news from abroad.
fore it evolved into what we would recognize as
a newspaper. The very first examples were not The coranto bore some resemblance to con-
sheets of two or four pages made up into ventional newspapers in that it was published
columns but news books, or news pamphlets, on a weekly basis, with some gaps. However, it
looking a lot like a book, with a title page. Only had no single voice, and its front-page title
in the seventeenth century did news begin to be would change from week to week. Sometimes
distributed regularly and frequently. editions were announced as a continuation of
the previous week’s edition. Corantos took their
content from letters and foreign publications, a
Background practice acknowledged on the title pages. For
The first stage in the evolution of newspapers example, a coranto dated May 30, 1622 an-
was publication of a single story, called a rela- nounces “Weekly Newes from Italy, Germanie,
tion. This kind of publication recounted an Hungaria, Bohemia, the Palatinate, France, and
event long after it had occurred. For example, in the Low Countries.” The coranto’s significance
1619 Nathaniel Newberry of London published lay in its attempt to cover events the world over,
a pamphlet under the title “Newes out of Hol- and to establish itself as an authority on world
land,” translated from the Dutch, that recounted affairs. During this time, short news items began
details of a conspiracy. to appear, called “broken stuffe.”

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The coranto evolved into the diurnal, which ed to royal censorship up until the time of the
Technology was a weekly account of several days’ worth of French Revolution (1787-1799). In England, in
& Invention events. In the aftermath of the Thirty Years War 1538, the Royal Privy Council forbade publica-
(1618-1648), news attention in England shifted tion of any book without its permission. A peri-
1450-1699 to domestic issues. Robert Coles and Samuel od of religious dissent in the late 1500s broke
Pecke had a large hand in producing English di- through this control. Although periodical publi-
urnals, and they tended to draw their copy from cation of all news was banned in 1637, the be-
daily goings-on in Parliament. These diurnals ginning of the English Civil War in 1640 helped
often featured woodcut illustrations. to cement the collapse of the censorship and
control system.
The fourth stage of early news publishing
was also a book-like publication, called a mer- Sporadic publication gave way rapidly to
cury. It took its name from a Latin publication of regular publication. In 1597, Samuel Dilbaum
the 1580s that covered affairs in central Europe. was printing a monthly newssheet. In Stras-
When civil war broke out in England, mercuries bourg in 1609, a bookseller brought out a
multiplied, and it was possible to buy one every monthly account of “noteworthy happenings.”
day of the week, including Sunday. A contempo- In Antwerp, Belgium, Abraham Verhoeven
rary publication to the mercury—slightly more began publishing his Niewe Tydinghe in 1605. It
official in tone—was called the intelligencer. John appeared irregularly at first, but by the 1620s
Thurloe (1616-1668), secretary of state under had reached three editions per week. Verho-
Oliver Cromwell (1599-1658), supervised such a even’s newssheet was influenced by the ornate
publication during the second phase of the Civil style favored by the French, and featured en-
War (1648). Its purpose was allegedly to “prevent gravings and maps. In 1610, both France and
misinformation.” A singular feature of the intelli- Switzerland had begun regular city papers.
gencer was that it marked a move toward cover- The medium was adopted most enthusiasti-
age of a greater breadth of subject matter, and cally in Holland and Germany. At first, the ap-
even to provide entertainment. An additional pearance of newspapers followed trade routes,
characteristic of news pamphlets published dur- and early papers were copycat versions of other
ing the Civil War was that they dropped the papers. In 1650, a paper called Einkommende
book-style title page in favor of putting as much Zeitung (Incoming news) was produced—the
news as possible onto the front page. oldest daily newspaper in the world. By 1626,
The printing press used to generate the first Holland had 140 news publications.
regular news publications was a variation on Jo- In France, the physician Théophraste Re-
hannes Gutenberg’s (c.1400-1468) device for naudot (1586?-1653) was the first person to
moving type. This machine consisted of a wood- conceive of combining advertising with publish-
en screw with a horizontal iron plate attached to ing the news. Widely traveled before accepting a
its lower end. A page of type was placed on a post as commissioner-general for the poor, Re-
movable flat bed that slid under the iron plate. naudot was quick to spot the journalistic inno-
Lowering the plate put enough pressure on the vations of the time and to incorporate them in
type to make a printed impression on a sheet of his experiments in communicating urgent infor-
paper positioned over the type. The type was mation regarding “human life and society.” In
inked between each printing. In 1620, a Dutch 1631, Renaudot obtained from Louis XIII
innovation basically doubled printing capacity (1601-1643) the sole right in France to “make,
by modifying the machine to allow the iron plate print, and to have printed and sold by those ap-
to rise automatically after each impression. The propriate, news, gazettes and accounts of all that
next major advance in printing would not ap- has happened and is happening inside and out-
pear until the early 1800s. side the Kingdom.” This Renaudot did until the
Early printers were supervised by the state king died, after which an era of political instabil-
in a process called prior censorship. Prior cen- ity set in that made publishing the news a haz-
sorship was a way authorities had of controlling ardous occupation.
what could and could not be published through In England, the changes in attitudes
licensing agreements. The degree of supervision wrought by the Civil War led emboldened news-
varied from country to country and changed paper publishers to flout legal prohibitions in re-
with time. In Italy and Germany, for example, counting parliamentary affairs. Stimulated by a
both the Church and state were involved in cen- public appetite for domestic news, an unbridled
soring. In France, all publications were subject- flowering of journalism occurred in the 1640s

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that would not happen again for another centu- Early printing was expensive in terms of human
ry. Relations, corantos, diurnals, intelligencers, effort and the cost of making the metal letters and Technology
and mercuries proliferated, covering stories on composing a page. But news publishing was a less & Invention
marine monsters, battles, and the limits of per- precise affair than book printing, and printers de-
missibility in the press. pended on news to subsidize the high cost of 1450-1699

Early newspapers were not aesthetic ob- making books.

jects. Material was crammed into eight to twelve The attitude of political authorities to the
pages, and the size of the typeface kept shrink- rise of newspapers was deeply ambivalent. On
ing to accommodate more stories. Text was set the one hand, so long as they maintained control
in a single column, and there were few para- over who could print what, governments could
graph breaks and no subheads. But an increase use the dissemination of news to their own ends.
in exports between the Restoration (1660) and But the press could also turn politics upside
the Glorious Revolution of 1688 that brought down. The disappearance of biological succes-
William III of Orange (1650-1702) and Mary II sion in England resulted in a growing power of
(1662-1694) to the throne translated into a mar- public opinion that was rooted in political fac-
ket for both ordinary and financial information. tionalism. This development was helped by the
In 1665, the first number of the Oxford Gazette rise of coffeehouses, where news was discussed
appeared in a new format: a half-sheet printed and distributed. Additionally, after 1680, a penny
on both sides, made up in two columns, topped post operated hourly within London to transport
by a title of a single line. materials quickly between the suburbs and the
city. By 1695, licensing was viewed no longer as
an effective system of control but as an intrusion
Impact on good government. From then on, newspapers
The growth of newspapers depended on a con- in England could expand and multiply as they
stellation of different developments. For example, liked, a freedom exceeded only by Holland as the
at the start of the seventeenth century, a basic net- seventeenth century drew to a close.
work of postal routes, printing capacity, and local
GISELLE WEISS
distribution was already in place over much of
Europe. An additional factor was the century’s re-
ligious wars, which provided a demand for news. Further Reading
Moreover, permanent shifts in how families were Hutt, Allen. The Changing Newspaper: Typographic Trends
structured, where people lived, and how aware in Britain and American, 1622-1972. London: Gordon
they were of the world around them created a fur- Fraser, 1973.
ther desire for news that was evident even in the Smith, Anthony. The Newspaper: An International History.
first corantos shipped from Holland in 1620. London: Thames and Hudson, 1979.

Advances in Firearms


Overview tached to it. The barrel was plugged at one end
and a hole was drilled through the barrel,
The first firearms were small canons, the earliest
which was called a vent. The gun was loaded
of which was known as the millimete canon, dat-
with powder and ammunition. The ammuni-
ing from 1326. Public records from Florence in
tion consisted of a ball, shot, or small stones.
that same year that indicate a provision for guns
Finally, after the vent had been sprinkled with
in the protection of the town. Within about 30
powder, the gun was ready to fire. The wood
years, there is evidence that handguns were
was tucked under the arm and a hot iron was
being used for personal protection.
applied to the vent to ignite the powder and
While early handguns had some distinct discharge the weapon. This method proved to
differences based on where they were made be unreliable in both the discharge and accura-
and where they were used, they had many cy. In addition, there was tremendous recoil
things in common. They consisted of a wood- associated with the discharge, so improve-
en plank with an iron or bronze barrel at- ments were necessary in design.

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Technology
& Invention
1450-1699

Seventeenth-century soldiers, one armed with a pike (left), the other with an early musket. (Alan Towse;
Ecoscene/Corbis. Reproduced with permission.)

Background was the snap matchlock. This was a spring that

drove the matchlock down to the vent. At the
The first major improvement to firearms came in
same time, the gunstock changed to reflect the
the fifteenth century, when a hook was attached
increased ability to aim the gun. Rifle butts were
at a right angle to the barrel. This could be slung
enlarged, allowing them to be placed against the
over a wall so that the shock from the recoil of
shoulder, which absorbed most of the recoil.
the gun would be absorbed by the supporting
structure. These weapons were given the name These simple firearms were inexpensive to
hakenbuchse (for hook), which eventually build and operate. They did, however, have cer-
evolved into harquebus or arquebus. Further tain disadvantages. Because they always needed
modifications markedly improved the use of the to be lit, the matchlock made stealth nearly im-
personal firearm. possible, and harsh weather could severely com-
promise its effectiveness.
An important early innovation was a simple
design that allowed a lighted cord, rather than a The wheel lock, an ancestor of the cigarette
hot iron, to ignite the powder. Initially, the cord lighter, was probably developed in Germany
was carried by hand, but the serpentine was around 1515. It contained a serrated iron wheel
added to hold the cord and act as a trigger. This that struck a spark to ignite powder on the vent.
freed the gunman from having to be near a hot This happened when the iron wheel was rotated
iron and greatly increased the aim of the against a shard of flint or a piece of iron pyrite to
weapon. Improvements continued as the vent form sparks. This was a fairly complicated mech-
was moved to the side, then covered to protect anism, so despite the fact that it was an improve-
the powder from the elements. ment over the matchlock, it saw little use in the
military. It did become the preferred weapon for
The matchlock soon replaced the early ser-
private citizens, however. It also allowed the
pentine lock. This mechanism consisted of a
firearm to be concealed. There is evidence that as
trigger, an arm holding a smoldering match, a
early as 1518 there were laws passed in Europe
pin connecting the trigger and arm, and a me-
to forbid carrying concealed weapons.
chanical link that opened the vent as the match
descended to ignite the powder. This step Since the military was a large market for
proved to be an important one and opened the guns, it was important to design one that was
door to modern gun design. Another refinement cheaper than the wheel lock, but better than the

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matchlock. The snaphaunce was invented for just until the eighteenth century, soldiers with guns
this purpose in the late sixteenth century. It con- began to accompany swordsmen. Men riding Technology
sisted of a cock (the hammer in a gun) and a horses started to use pistols in conjunction with & Invention
frizzen (striker) that when brought together swords as part of their attack. In the heat of bat-
caused a spark; it then opened the firing cham- tle, gun technology often made the difference 1450-1699
ber to the spark, causing the gun to fire. This de- between victory and defeat, as shown during the
sign was modified in the early seventeenth cen- Age of Exploration. Much of the Spanish con-
tury to become the flintlock. quest of America was, in part, due to superior
The flintlock quickly became the gun of weaponry. Francisco Pizarro’s (1470?-1541)
choice for the military. It was simple, reliable, army, for example, which numbered fewer than
strong, easy to repair, and most of all, inexpen- 200 men, used arquebuses to kill nearly 5,000
sive. These guns were also much faster to load. Inca warriors while sustaining only one casualty.
The flintlock had a one-piece frizzen and pan This battle, which lasted less than an hour,
cover that when triggered, made the frizzen began the fall of the Inca empire.
strike the flint, showering sparks onto the gun- Guns have had profound and subtle effects
powder in the priming pan; the ignited powder, on society. They afford a great deal of protec-
in turn, fired the main charge in the bore, pro- tion and allow people to defend themselves,
pelling the ammunition. This design seemed to but, like many forms of technology, can also be
be an adaptation of the tinderbox used at the used for evil purposes. Ever since the gun was
time to start fires—the flint and the steel striking invented, people have argued over whether
each other created the spark. A further develop- their benefits outweigh their risks. As early as
ment was the prepared cartridge. This put the 1588, Toyotomi Hideyoshi (1536-1598), em-
bullet and powder together, premixed and ready peror of Japan, banned citizens from possessing
to fire. The flintlock remained the most widely any type of weapon, including firearms. The
used gun until the percussion lock was devel- military, however, were armed with guns, large-
oped in the early nineteenth century. ly to protect the nobility against a peasant up-
rising. Because the government was able to reg-
ulate firearms, many people turned to
Impact
makeshift weapons, substituting one weapon
Early guns like the matchlock made modern for another. It remains to be seen what course
small arms possible, with obvious ramifications modern society will take.
for both the military and the general public. But
they were not immediately adopted by the JAMES J. HOFFMANN

armed forces. They were expensive, unreliable,

and cumbersome, weighing between 15 and 20
lbs (7 and 9 kg). As the guns evolved over time,
Further Reading
however, their use became more widespread, Chant, Christopher. The New Encyclopedia of Handguns &
Small Arms. New York: Smithmark Publishing, 1995.
and adaptations were made to improve its per-
formance and utility. Diamond, Jared. Guns, Germs, and Steel: The Fates of
Human Societies. New York: W. W. Norton & Compa-
As guns gained greater acceptance in the ny, 1999.
military, their use changed fighting tactics. Hogg, Ivan. An Illustrated History of Firearms. New York:
While swords remained the primary weapon A & W Publishers, Inc., 1980.

The Military Revolution

Overview 323 B.C.). Several inventions between the fifteenth
War is a characteristic of virtually every human so- and eighteenth centuries changed this, leading to a
ciety and civilization in nearly every era of human revolution in the way wars were fought. This set in
history for which some sort of records exist. How- motion many trends in warfare that have contin-
ever, until the fifteenth century most military con- ued to this day, such as the concept of total war,
flicts were fought using largely the same weapons the almost exclusive use of guns, and tactics better
and tactics as those of Alexander the Great (356- suited for the age of guns.

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Technology
& Invention
1450-1699

Heavy artillery at the beginning of the sixteenth century. (Bettmann/Corbis. Reproduced with permission.)

Background rection of a king, general, or other highly placed

leader. In this brand of warfare, the rules were
Mankind is almost unique among animals in
fairly well fixed, tactics were well known, and
consciously waging war. Through all of recorded
there was little in the way of strategic planning.
human history, accounts of warfare are common,
That is to say, wars were fought one battle at a
and archeological evidence exists confirming the
time, mostly without coordinating the activities
presence of warfare deep in prehistory. For most
of various armies, industry, transportation, and
of human history, in fact, until the fifteenth cen-
with no overall plan for arranging the downfall
tury, warfare changed very little. Men armed with
of the enemy beyond destroying its armies on
sharp objects (typically swords, arrows, or pikes)
the field of battle. And, necessarily, most fighting
would try to kill each other. Whichever side lost
was done in hand-to-hand combat because
so many men that it could no longer fight cohe-
archers were few and their range limited. These
sively would lose the battle. The major innova-
general rules began to change in the mid-fif-
tions in warfare were the use of chariots by the
teenth century, and the changes accelerated and
Romans and the use of cavalry by many powers.
became more profound with time.
In general, battles were waged by foot sol- One of the first innovations was the intro-
diers, with mounted soldiers (knights, in me- duction of firearms on a large scale. Another was
dieval Europe) adding mobility, all under the di- the use of large guns (artillery) to bombard cities,

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fortifications, and armies from a distance. At sea, in Europe and, as they spread, throughout the
the change from galleys (which were rowed world. In addition, they helped change the glob- Technology
rather than sailed) to larger and more powerful al balance of power in favor of Europe, which & Invention
sailing ships turned naval warfare into a strategic helped Europe financially dominate most of the
weapon. Another innovation was mounting large world for several centuries. Finally, changes in 1450-1699
guns on ships. This was first done by simply cut- weaponry changed the nature of nations and the
ting holes in the sides of ships and putting guns way they fought wars, as well as helping to
behind them. Over time, this evolved into ships usher in the end of the feudal system in Europe.
with two or three gun decks that might carry 100
Perhaps the most obvious impact of the inno-
guns or more. This, in turn, caused ships to be-
vations mentioned above involves the manner in
come important weapons for fleet actions, raid-
which wars were fought. Extensive use of firearms
ing merchant ships, and bombarding shore facili-
was the final step in driving the knight and chival-
ties in support of armies ashore.
ry into oblivion. With this, and the advent of
As these technological changes became en- standing national armies, the stage was set for in-
trenched, the Swedish army developed revolution- troducing standardized tactics, military drills, war
ary new battlefield tactics, quickly adopted by other games, and the like. This, in turn, started to turn
European powers, that maximized the utility of soldiering into a profession, as it remains in many
guns while rendering the horse-mounted knights nations. A corollary of this trend was that profes-
obsolete. In fact, the Swedish army of the 1650s sional (or at least highly trained conscripts) could
was perhaps the first army that used tactics signifi- fight more effectively and more efficiently than
cantly different from those of Alexander the Great. swarming masses of peasants who were given a
They were also the first army in nearly 2,000 years pike and told to stab at anyone from the other
that could have defeated Alexander in battle. side. Warfare again began to involve military ma-
At the same time, power was becoming neuvers and more sophisticated tactics, as had the
more centralized, with national governments (al- Roman legions and the army of Alexander the
beit still monarchies) assuming power previous- Great. These tactics had fallen into disuse in the
ly held by many smaller nobles. As this hap- intervening centuries because the large masses of
pened, larger armies became the norm, although untrained soldiers were simply unable to learn the
many nations relied on mercenaries (especially techniques, and the large numbers of smaller
the Swiss) to fight wars for them. fighting forces (consisting of the men each knight
As a side note, Japan’s retreat from the use or nobleman brought with him) tended to pre-
of firearms in battle must be mentioned. The clude coordinated movements on the battlefield.
Japanese used firearms enthusiastically for over a In addition, more highly trained armies
century, achieving a proficiency that exceeded were expensive. This not only led to somewhat
that of European powers. However, the ruling smaller army sizes, but also made each soldier
Samurai class realized that a common peasant more valuable because of the training that had
with a gun could kill a highly trained warrior. gone into making him an efficient cog in the war
They understood that this could threaten the machine. In turn, this made commanders less
Samurai’s place in Japanese society and decreed willing to risk their men’s lives because they
that guns could only be manufactured for the knew that each casualty would require replace-
government, then failed to purchase any. As a re- ment, which was often a very junior, inexperi-
sult, as late as the nineteenth century Japan had enced, and poorly trained soldier. Armies did
no indigenous firearms industry and relied on everything they could to avoid high losses.
essentially medieval weaponry.
By the dawn of the eighteenth century, most At sea, warfare also changed dramatically, to
of the innovations noted above had become in- the point that sea power became indispensable
corporated into European military strategy. Al- to the Dutch, Spanish, and British and was very
though technology continued to improve, the important to the Portuguese and French. As
world caught its breath for a century or so be- noted above, the chief breakthrough lay in real-
fore the next round of rapid change again trans- izing that ships could hold large guns. This dic-
formed the face of warfare. tated a sturdier, stronger vessel to hold the gun
and withstand its recoil when discharged. The
larger ships became nearly impossible to row,
Impact making them dependent on their sails for
These dramatic innovations had a significant im- propulsion. This, in turn, vastly increased their
pact on the manner in which wars were fought range, although at the cost of speed and maneu-

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verability. Adding larger and more numerous changes in the structure of nations. As noted
Technology guns required even larger ships, and it quickly above, new weapons led to new tactics, which
& Invention became apparent that more guns resulted in a led to increasing emphasis on foot soldiers at the
greater chance of victory in battle. With all of expense of heavy cavalry. In effect, this caused
1450-1699 these developments, naval tactics changed dra- much of the aristocracy to lose prominence in
matically as commanders strove to take advan- the army. At the same time, forming large stand-
tage of the positive characteristics of their new ing armies led to the elimination of the smaller
platforms. With all of this, ships became increas- armies formerly maintained by the aristocracy. To
ingly capable of destroying other warships, raid- help remedy feelings of discontent, many nations
ing enemy merchant vessels, and bombarding developed a practice of choosing officers entirely
enemy shore facilities. These new offensive capa- from the ranks of theses aristocrats. This not only
bilities served to turn naval war into a legitimate provided a corps of leaders who were in posi-
strategic weapon. This, in turn, helped small tions of social authority, but also helped turn the
seagoing nations such as Britain and Holland be- aristocrats into paid employees of the central
come major powers, even though their armies government instead of relatively independent
were often outnumbered on the field of battle. leaders with private armies. By so doing, the rela-
tively new central governments helped eliminate
Europe’s technological and economic advan-
a potential threat to their authority.
tages, developed during this period, enabled var-
ious European nations to dominate much of the Most of these new weapons and trends
rest of the world for several centuries. Superior emerged in the fifteenth century and were in full
firepower was combined with advanced tactics swing by the eighteenth century. Once incorpo-
and an appreciation for increasingly wide-rang- rated into military and political strategy, they
ing strategy, a combination that was used to de- tended to remain relatively constant for the next
feat most of the armies Europeans faced for sev- 150 years, until the American Civil War.
eral centuries. This, in turn, gave Europe a decid-
P. ANDREW KARAM
ed financial advantage over most of the world, an
advantage that largely remains to this day. In fact,
of the major economic powers, only Japan is nei- Further Reading
ther European nor a former European colony.
Dyer, Gwynne. War. New York: Crown, 1985.
Finally, changes in the nature of warfare ush- Keegan, John. The Price of Admiralty. New York: Viking,
ered in by these technological innovations led to 1989.

Inventing the Submarine

Overview diving bell, accompanied by two companions
and lunch. Although likely a legend only, this is
In 1623 Dutch inventor Cornelius Drebbel
the first record of anyone entering the water for
(1572-1633) invented the first submersible that
longer than they could hold their breath, and it
could remain underwater for an extended period
was not to be repeated (or at least, not written
of time, be propelled through the water, and be
about) for nearly 2,000 years.
steered. Although this invention was not capital-
ized upon for more than two centuries, Drebbel’s The next mentions of submarines (or, more
submersible marked the first step towards sub- properly, submersibles) was not until Leonardo da
marine warfare and caused quite a stir in many Vinci (1451-1519) mentioned a military diving
circles at the time. Today, nearly four centuries system in the late fifteenth century, although he
later, the submarine is a powerful tool for re- gave no details because of “the evil nature of men
search and a potent weapon in war. who practice assassination at the bottom of the
sea.” Following the passage of a few more cen-
turies, William Bourne (1535-1583) described the
Background principles by which a ship could operate sub-
As legend has it, in 332 B.C. Alexander the Great merged, although he did not propose building
descended to the bottom of the sea in a glass such a vessel or provide any drawings for one.

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After Bourne, only another 40 years were to pass ploration and discovery, and inciting the public
before Drebbel’s invention made its appearance. imagination. Technology
Drebbel made a few significant advances, “Assassination at the bottom of the sea” was & Invention
some of which are unfortunately lost to us be- probably the first and most important outcome of
1450-1699
cause of his penchant for guarding his secrets. developing a successful submarine. The immedi-
Perhaps the most important of these was his ap- ate impact of Drebbel’s invention was to spur a
parent discovery of a method for replenishing flurry of activity among submarine designers,
the atmosphere of his tiny vessel while remain- both serious and crackpot, each trying to find
ing underwater. This was important on a few some way to exploit this invention for purposes
levels. For starters, Drebbel was one of the first of warfare or exploration. One of the first record-
to realize that part of the air is necessary for life ed uses of submarines in warfare was David Bush-
and the rest is not. We now know that about nell’s (1742?-1824) boat, the Turtle, which made a
20% of air is comprised of oxygen, termed the total of three unsuccessful attacks on British war-
“quintessence” by Drebbel. It is unlikely that ships during the American Revolution.
Drebbel actually succeeded in separating oxygen
In subsequent years, many nations experi-
from air; this was not to be accomplished for an-
mented with submarines, including the French,
other century. However, it is possible that he
Germans, British, and Americans. All nations
stumbled upon a method of scavenging carbon
shared several problems: keeping the air fresh,
dioxide from the air; prolonging the time a ves-
navigating underwater, and affixing explosives
sel could remain submerged. Unfortunately,
to the hulls of ships (or finding some other way
while there seems little doubt that Drebbel did
of causing damage). And all struggled with
make use of a chemical reaction to do so, exactly
these problems for similar reasons: because the
which chemicals he used is not known. Many
potential military value of a warship that could
modern “scrubbers” use either lithium hydrox-
approach and sink a vessel undetected was so
ide or complex chemicals for this task; however,
great that it was worth the investment in time
these did not exist in the seventeenth century
and money.
and could not have been used by Drebbel.
Eventually, around the beginning of the
There is some doubt, too, that Drebbel’s craft
twentieth century, these problems were either
actually submerged fully, as a modern submarine
solved or sidestepped. The German navy took a
does. The scheme described for submerging the
terrible toll on Allied shipping during the First
boat, by changing the volume of water contained
World War, forcing the Allies to learn some
within goatskin sacks inside the boat, seems im-
lessons, although they were largely forgotten by
plausible at best. It is more likely that Drebbel
the start of the next great war. However, the abil-
designed the craft to float with the upper deck
ity of German submarine wolfpacks to interdict
just awash, counting on the vessel’s forward mo-
Allied shipping during the Second World War,
mentum to carry it beneath the water, in a man-
and the similar impact that U.S. submarines had
ner similar to that used by many submarines
on Japanese shipping during the same war,
today. Yet another innovation was the ability to
forced military strategists to make future plans
propel and steer the craft. This was successful to
with submarines in mind. The further refine-
the point that, according to contemporary ac-
ment of submarines by the addition of nuclear
counts, it “could be rowed and navigated under
reactors, nuclear weapons (in some cases), air
water from Westminster to Greenwich, the dis-
regenerating equipment, and advanced diesel
tance of two Dutch miles: or even five or six
engines (in some cases) turned them into one of
miles, or as far as one pleased.” It was demon-
the most formidable—and revolutionary—naval
strated to a number of people, and Drebbel may
and strategic weapons of the twentieth century.
have even built additional craft. And, invariably,
one of the first thoughts was about the military Submarines and submersibles have also
advantage that could be enjoyed by any nation seen much use in oceanographic and marine bi-
building a fleet of submarines. ological explorations for at least 200 years. Ed-
mund Halley (1656-1742) described some ex-
cursions to the sea floor in a diving bell in the
Impact latter part of the eighteenth century, and the use
Since the first voyage of Drebbel’s machine over of bathyspheres and bathyscaphs also came into
three centuries ago, the submarine has exerted practice. Submarines have played, and continue
three primary impacts on science and society. to play, a vitally important role in the explo-
These involve military advantage, scientific ex- ration of the ocean and its inhabitants.

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This exploration, in turn, has led to a vastly ulations, with the exception of parts of Asia)
Technology increased understanding of the Earth, the were oblivious to happenings in Europe.
& Invention oceans, and the role played by the oceans and Drebbel’s submarine caused a stir among a small
their inhabitants. For example, the theory of group of the educated elite in a few of the na-
1450-1699 plate tectonics was developed based on data tions of Europe, and had absolutely no impact
from both the land and seas. However, some of whatsoever on the rest of the world.
the most interesting information confirming and As time went on, however, technology
elaborating on this theory depends on marine caught up with the sporadic military interest in
data. Research submersibles have returned with submarines. Once a successful military weapon
photos of “black smokers,” where the oceanic was produced and used, the public could not
crust is being formed. These same submersibles help but pay attention. The romance and mys-
have brought back observations of extensive tery of submarines, which existed primarily be-
colonies of bacteria, tube worms, and other or- cause they could attack unseen from beneath the
ganisms living completely divorced from the waves, caught the attention of an increasingly
surface—the first ecology found on Earth that literate and engaged public. This interest was
did not rely, even indirectly, on solar energy for enhanced during World War II, with the suc-
sustenance. Other submersibles have returned cesses of the German and, later, American sub-
with countless geologic and biologic specimens, marines. The publicity surrounding the develop-
archeological data, sunken treasure, photos of ment of nuclear submarines and, later, ballistic
the Titanic, and more. missile submarines further encouraged public
Submarines do not seem to have appeared interest in these ships, as did popular books and
in the consciousness of the general public until movies, such as Ice Station Zebra, Run Silent, Run
several centuries later, when Jules Verne wrote Deep, The Hunt for Red October, and others. Al-
20,000 Leagues Under the Sea (1869-1870), but though slow in starting (over 300 years passed
this and the use of unrestricted submarine war- between Drebbel’s craft and Ice Station Zebra),
fare by the German navy in the First World War the public seems fascinated with submarines
quickly brought them to the attention of the and their uses, both military and scientific.
public. In fact, in the world of the seventeenth It is likely that Drebbel would have expect-
century, Drebbel’s submarine was the talk of the ed submarines to have enormous military value,
town, assuming the “town” consisted of those although he would probably not have imagined
with enough spare time to watch or talk about the missions they have turned out to have. How-
it, or those who were sufficiently literate to read ever, it is likely that he would be amazed or dis-
the accounts. Although those who were in- believing at the range of scientific applications
formed (or could read) found it important and developed for them, and he would likely be even
fascinating, they comprised a small minority of more amazed at the level of interest on the part
the total population. Most people lived a book- of the general public.
less life of hard work, narrow perspectives, and
P. ANDREW KARAM
little or no formal education. In addition, in
spite of the stir caused by Drebbel’s submarine
in Europe, Europe is only a small part of the Further Reading
world. In Asia, Africa, Australia, and the Americ- Harris, Brayton. The Navy Times Book of Submarines. New
as, the inhabitants (largely tribal aboriginal pop- York: Berkeley Books, 1997.

The Invention of Spectacles

Overview sighted who have trouble focusing on near ob-
The human body has evolved in a rough and jects (presbyopes) and the nearsighted who have
ready response to environmental demands. The poor vision beyond a very short distance (my-
eye is no exception to this rule, for very few peo- opes). Presbyopes require spectacles with con-
ple have perfect vision. The many with imper- vex lenses that curve outwards on both surfaces,
fect vision fall into two general groups, the far- myopes need lenses that are concave, or curve

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inwards. Attempts to correct human vision are had produced the best “reading stones.” The
as old as human society. The oldest known lens, Venetian crystalworkers’ guild laid down regula- Technology
of polished rock crystal, was found in the ruins tions for producing “glass discs for the eyes” in & Invention
of ancient Nineveh. The classical Roman writer 1301, and by c. 1320 a guild of spectacle-mak-
Seneca is said to have read all the books in Rome ers existed there. 1450-1699
by using a glass globe of water to enlarge the
These earliest spectacles had no sidepieces, or
handwritten letters. However, spectacles in some
temples, the invention of which in 1725-1730 is
way shaped to sit on the face, (as opposed to
attributed to Edward Scarlatt of London. Medieval
eyeglasses, which are held to the eye but are not
spectacles were riveted at the center and had
on the face for long periods), seem to have been
leather grips to hold on to the bridge of the nose.
an invention of medieval Europe. Over the peri-
Some pictures show readers holding spectacles on
od from 1450 to 1700 they helped to change the
the face by hand, and some frames were made of
way in which Europeans both perceived the
leather to reduce their weight. By the 1360s the
world and operated within it.
early Renaissance writer Petrarch could refer to
spectacles for the elderly as if they were common-
Background place in Florence, and in paintings of this period
and the fifteenth century they are often included
The first spectacles contained convex lenses and in portraits of saints and scholars to signify piety
were only effective for presbyopia or farsighted- and learning. By the late fifteenth century their use
ness, which normally occurs around the age of had spread so far outside the elite that artists in-
40 as the crystalline lens of the eye hardens. creasingly used them to signify folly or senility.
They may have developed from “reading stones,”
segments of glass spheres used by presbyopic Making concave lenses was more difficult
monks to read manuscripts by holding the glass than convex ones, which evolved naturally from
against the letters. Convex spectacles seem to the magnification observed through convex read-
have evolved by chance, not through optical the- ing stones. Any convex lens will magnify, and
ory, although medieval Europe had acquired even inaccurate medieval lenses helped presby-
some scientific knowledge of optics from the opes. However, concave lenses have an impor-
Muslim world. The Muslim mathematician and tant relationship with literacy, since they enable
natural philosopher Ibn al-Haitham (c.965- shortsighted myopes to read even small letters
1039), called Alhazen by Europeans, wrote and to write more clearly themselves. The inven-
about the properties of lenses in a work translat- tion of concave lenses is sometimes attributed to
ed from Arabic into Latin in 1266. In 1267 the Nicholas Krebs (1400?-1464), better known as
English monk and scientist Roger Bacon (c. Nicholas of Cusa, a Cardinal, senior politician,
1214-1294) wrote about his experiments in and diplomat of the Roman Catholic Church,
using convex lenses to correct vision, advocating who wrote on philosophy, theology, and science.
their use to help old people. In a treatise of 1450, De beryllo (Concerning
Beryl), Nicholas described that semi-precious,
Convex spectacles seem to have been in-
sometimes transparent stone, “to which a con-
vented around 1285. The first reference to spec-
cave as well as a convex form is given; by looking
tacles dates from 1289, in a manuscript written
through it you reach what was previously invisi-
about the Popozo family from Tuscany, Italy. The
ble.” Even though beryllo was a Latin word used
Dominican Friar Giordano da Rivalto of Pisa, in
at the time for spectacles, the stone itself was
a sermon delivered in Florence in 1305 or 1306,
used as a magnifying glass rather than in specta-
claimed that spectacles had been invented nearly
cles, for which cheaper and lighter concave glass
20 years earlier, and that he had met the un-
lenses were by then available.
named inventor. Historians differ over whether
Florence or Pisa was the site of this invention, Nicholas, however, may have been aware of
though it has been considered so important that the recent development of concave lenses in Flo-
for centuries patriotic historians of Italian cities rence, through his Florentine friend Paolo
have altered manuscripts and invented evidence Toscanelli (1397-1482). The need for literacy
to claim the prestige of the invention for their among the merchant and political elite of Flo-
city. Venice became an early center of the mass rence probably led to the discovery of concave
production of lenses. The glass blowers of the lenses by an anonymous inventor before 1450.
Venetian suburb of Murano produced thicker Certainly by 1451 Florence had overtaken Venice
and clearer glass, better for grinding high-quali- as the manufacturing center for high-quality
ty lenses, than elsewhere in Europe, just as they spectacles, including concave lenses for myopes,

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which are first mentioned in a letter of August 25 in the early fifteenth century of the principles
Technology that year. On October 21, 1462, the Duke of governing linear perspective, by the Florentine
& Invention Milan ordered three dozen spectacles from his artists Filippo Brunelleschi (1377-1446) and
resident ambassador at Florence, including a Leon Battista Alberti (1407-1472). “Perspective”
1450-1699 dozen with concave lenses for improving dis- at this period meant mostly “optics,” a branch of
tance vision. Although the order was filled within mathematics, and Brunelleschi and Alberti used
days, suggesting a large-scale manufacture and a geometry to create the illusion of space and dis-
stock of lenses ready to be ground by several spe- tance on a flat or curved surface. This is also con-
cialist shops, these were not prescription lenses nected with map-making, the perspective projec-
in the modern sense. However, the Florentines tion of the curved surface of Earth onto a flat sur-
understood that vision declines with age and face, practiced by Paolo Toscanelli, who was
made convex lenses in different strengths for perhaps the source of Nicholas of Cusa’s knowl-
five-year age groups from 30 years old, and con- edge of Florentine optics.

Impact
The invention of concave and convex spectacles
LATER DEVELOPMENTS IN SPECTACLES aided the revival of learning in the early Renais-

sance, adding years of eyesight to older readers.
The increasing refinement of spectacles at the

T
he development of sidepieces, or “temples,” by 1730 allowed a moment when printing was invented in 1450
further change to spectacles in the 1780s. The human eye as it may be no coincidence. The rapid spread of
printing increased the supply of books and in-
ages adjusts its focus less rapidly when moving from close work
creased the number of readers, enlarging the
to distance vision, and may need a combination of both concave and market for spectacles, encouraging cost cutting
convex lenses to see distant and near objects properly. However, the and the production of specialized lenses. In turn
eye can adjust to using such lenses, called bifocals, when they are the availability of spectacles allowed more read-
held at sufficient distance from the eyes along the nose by the ers to read small pages of small type, allowing
“temples.” The first craftsman to perceive the need for bifocals and to printers to reduce the cost of their books by
using less paper. The spread of printing accom-
find a solution to their construction was typical of Western civilization
panied the spread of spectacles, which raised
in that he was an inveterate scientific experimenter and tinkerer with standards of book and manuscript production
machinery, always seeking ways to improve upon received by placing more emphasis on fine workmanship,
knowledge. Realizing that a combination of convex and concave accuracy, neatness, and detail, for example in
lenses in one spectacle frame would enable his aging eyes both to miniature illustrations in manuscripts.
work close up with machinery and adjust to seeing at a distance, he This carried over into other aspects of Euro-
worked out a way of grinding such lenses on a lathe and putting them pean society. Effectively, spectacles doubled the
into a frame. His name was Benjamin Franklin. skilled craft workforce by doubling the working
GLYN PARRY
life of skilled craftsmen, especially those who did
fine jobs—scribes and readers, instrument and
toolmakers, metalworkers, and close weavers.
The demand for precision-ground lenses encour-
aged improvements to the basic lathe, as instru-
cave in two strengths. Lenses bought by the
ment makers required precision parts. So con-
Duke of Milan were ground for distant, near, and
versely, spectacles pushed Europe towards the in-
normal sight. The latter suggests that spectacles
vention of precision instruments found nowhere
had become a fashion accessory at the Milanese
else. Europeans further developed the crude in-
court, perhaps to make courtiers look more intel-
struments borrowed from other societies to create
lectual, and perhaps also because the elderly
a range of gauges, micrometers, and many other
Duke and his young Duchess both wore glasses
tools linked to precision measurement and con-
with concave lenses for their myopia.
trol. This process led to the establishment of a
Venice challenged Florence in the large-scale machine-tool industry, of machines to make other
production of quality spectacles, which also machines, and continues in the precisely fitted
spread to Germany and other parts of Europe. parts of modern articulated machines. Thus Eu-
However, Florence may have gained its advan- rope could move to skilled replication, batch and
tage in optical research through the rediscovery then mass production of identical goods that did

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not rely on skills learned over long apprentice- Further Reading

ship, but on finely made machines. Technology
Books & Invention
Spectacles magnified the authority of the eye Derry, T.K., and Trevor I. Williams. A Short History of
and allowed people to challenge received authori- Technology. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1960.
1450-1699
ty on the basis that seeing was believing, after Dreyfus, John. Into Print: Selected Writings on Printing His-
overcoming some initial resistance. George Bar- tory, Typography and Book Production. London: The
tisch in the first book on eye diseases, entitled British Library, 1994.
Ophthalmodouleia (The service of the eye, 1583), Landes, David S. The Wealth and Poverty of Nations: Why
could not imagine how an imperfect eye could Some Are So Rich and Some So Poor. New York: W.W.
Norton, 1998.
see better through a lens. Contemporary theory
held that the eye emitted a visual spirit, which Mumford, Lewis. Technics and Civilization. London, 1934.
created vision when reflected back from objects. Singer, C., E.J. Hall, A.R. Holmyard, and Trevor I.
Only after Galileo’s (1564-1642) improved tele- Williams. A History of Technology. 8 vols. Oxford: Ox-
ford University Press, 1954-84, vol. 3 (1957).
scope of 1609 encouraged Johannes Kepler
(1571-1630) to formulate modern optical theory Periodical Articles
in his book Dioptrice (Concerning measuring alti- Ilardi, Vincent. “Eyeglasses and Concave Lenses in Fif-
tude, 1611) did the eye become accepted as an teenth-Century Florence and Milan: New Docu-
optical instrument that received light rays reflect- ments.” Renaissance Quarterly 29, no. 4 (Winter
1976): 341-60.
ed from objects. Thereafter, the cosmic world
seen through telescopes, and the microcosmic Rosen, Edward. “The Invention of Eyeglasses.” Journal of
the History of Medicine 2, no. 1 (January 1956): 13-46
world seen through microscopes, would be used and no. 2 (April 1956): 183-218.
to develop entirely new systems of scientific
knowledge in the seventeenth century.
GLYN PARRY

Camera Obscura:
Ancestor of Modern Photography


Overview could create a reversed image of the Sun on the
ground. He used this device as a means for view-
Capturing an image from life was long ago the
ing an eclipse without having to stare directly
sole proprietorship of the skilled artist, whose
into the Sun.
brushstrokes precisely recreated portraits of man
and landscape on canvas. That art is now shared Aristotle’s experiments went no further. He
by anyone who cares to peer through a camera’s could not explain why the image was created, or
viewfinder and snap the shutter. Modern pho- why it was in reverse. In 1035 an Egyptian sci-
tography had its start in the 1800s, with the in- entist named Ibn al-Haitham (965-1039) contin-
vention of the Dageurrotype and Englishman W. ued Aristotle’s work, by first devoting himself to
H. Talbot’s (1800-1877) negative-positive devel- the understanding of what makes up light. He
opment process. But its roots can be traced to had a theory that light traveled in straight lines,
centuries earlier, to a simple mechanism—a dark called rays, and set out to prove his theory by ar-
room, in which light passed through a pinhole, ranging a line of candles on a table, lighting
projecting an image on the opposite wall. It was them, then standing behind a screen that sepa-
called camera obscura. rated him from the candles’ light.
Al-Haitham pricked a hole in the screen and
Background watched as the light rays passed through it. The
More than 2,000 years before the invention of image from a candle placed at the left side of the
the camera obscura, its earliest predecessor came hole would pass through and strike the wall to
to light in ancient Greece. In 500 B.C., the its right, and vice versa. Light from the top of
philosopher Aristotle (384-322 B.C.) discovered the candle flame would strike downward of the
that by passing sunlight through a pinhole, he hole. Thus, he proved that light rays move in

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Technology
& Invention
1450-1699

A depiction of the camera obscura’s use. (Library of Congress. Reproduced with permission.)

straight lines. He recorded his findings in a book sides, lest any light breaking in should spoil
titled Kitab al-Manazir. Centuries later, the book all. Only make one hole...as great as your
found its way to Europe. little finger....
In Italy, inventor and artist Leonardo da When the Sun shone through the hole, an
Vinci (1452-1519) caught word of al-Haitham’s image would appear “and what is right will be
work and decided to try his own experimenta- the left, and all things changed.”
tion using mirrors, lenses, and pinholes. In
around 1510 he wrote in his notebooks:
Impact
When the images of illuminated objects
pass through a small round hole into a Della Porta was the first to be able to manipulate
very dark room...you will see on the paper the image, through the use of a camera obscura
all those objects in their natural shapes fitted with convex lenses and mirrors. A concave
and colors. They will be reduced in size, mirror would enable the device to reflect an
and upside down, owing to the intersection image right side up. He suggested that artists
of the rays at the aperture. could project scenes from nature on a piece of
paper to assist in the rendering of their works.
In Italian, the name for darkened room,
camera obscura, became synonymous with the Thrilled by his new invention, della Porta
projection of light through a small hole. In summoned his friends and important members
1521 one of da Vinci’s students, Cesare Cesari- of Naples society to his home for a demonstra-
ano (fl. 1520s), published the first description tion. Instead of sharing his excitement, the
of the camera obscura, but it was not widely group was appalled when they saw real human
read. The public did not gain knowledge of this images displayed on the wall, believing it to be
new device until an account was written more the work of witchcraft. The Catholic Church got
than 30 years later by Italian nobleman Giovan- wind of della Porta’s demonstration and prompt-
ni Battista della Porta (1535-1615). He de- ly charged him with sorcery. His work was
scribed the process for assembling the camera banned for six years.
obscura in his book Magiae Naturalis (Natural This did not usher in the end for the camera
magic, 1558): obscura, however. The Magiae Naturalis was dis-
You must shut all the Chamber windows, seminated throughout Europe, and the device
and it will do well to shut up all holes be- became a novelty item across the continent.

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Meanwhile, an interest in optics exploded In the early 1800s French printer Joseph
throughout the European scientific community. Niepce (1765-1833) achieved a greater degree of Technology
In 1604 German astronomer Johannes Kepler success. He was convinced that if he could coat & Invention
(1571-1630) studied the mathematical laws gov- a surface with light-sensitive chemicals, he could
erning mirror reflection, and seven years later recreate an image by exposing that surface to the 1450-1699
worked out the theory of lenses. Scientists were Sun. Niepce placed an engraving between a
unknowingly providing an invaluable service to plate coated with a substance called bitumen of
the artistic community. Judaea, and a sheet of clear glass. The resulting
Throughout the next century, several im- images of the engravings he called heliographs.
provements were made to the camera obscura. A In 1824 Niepce switched from copper and
German mathematics professor, Daniel Schwen- zinc plates to a pewter plate, which he coated
ter, discovered that by drilling a hole through a with a special light-sensitive varnish and placed
wooden ball and placing a lens at either end, he into a camera obscura. He set the camera in the
could focus images in any direction upon a wall. window of his home and opened the aperture.
Scientist Friedrich Risner (d. 1580) invented a He left it in the Sun for a full eight hours.
portable version of the camera, housed in a col-
lapsible tent. The only problem was, the opera- When Niepce returned, he removed the
tor still had to climb inside the clunky device. pewter plate and dipped it into a chemical bath.
Johann Zahn (fl. 1680s), a German monk, The softest portions of the varnish softened, while
solved that dilemma by inventing a camera ob- the hardest sections remained. While indistinct,
scura that was just 9 inches (22.86 cm) high and the image revealed was unmistakably the view
24 inches (61 cm) long. Inside the box was a out of his window in Saint-Loup-de-Varennes. He
mirror placed at a 45-degree angle to the lens. could see the outlines of buildings, roofs, and
The mirror reflected the image to the top of the chimneys. It was the world’s first permanent pho-
box, where he had placed a sheet of frosted tograph.
glass. The glass was covered with tracing paper, In 1829 French scene artist Louis Jacques
allowing images to be easily copied by an artist. Mandé Daguerre (1787-1851) formed a partner-
Zahn’s design would remain in use for nearly ship with Niepce, believing that he could im-
200 years. prove upon the latter’s heliographic process even
Further assisting the artist was the invention further. Daguerre discovered that he could cre-
of the camera lucida by William Hyde Wollaston ate an image on plates coated with silver iodide,
(1766-1828) in 1806. This was no actual cam- which could then be “developed,” that is, per-
era, but rather a glass prism suspended at eye manently affixed to the plates, with the use of
level from a brass rod. This device enabled even sodium chloride (salt). Exposure time quickly
the most untrained artist to trace an image on a dropped from eight hours to a mere (at the time)
piece of paper, by allowing him to view his sub- 30 minutes. His photographic process, which he
ject and the paper at the same time. But even the called “daguerreotype,” proved the next major
camera lucida required the skilled hand of an step in the evolution of modern photography.
artist, and many more people clamored for the
chance to capture reality. The final piece of the puzzle that launched
modern photography was discovered by Eng-
The camera obscura had made it possible to lishman William Henry Fox Talbot. In 1834 Tal-
successfully project an image—the next chal- bot invented the first light-sensitive paper by
lenge was to make that image permanent. The soaking it in a salt solution, then coating it with
first attempts at freezing an image were made by silver nitrate. A year later, he wrote: “In the Pho-
Tom Wedgwood (son of the famous pottery togenic...process, if the paper is transparent, the
maker Josiah Wedgwood) in 1800. Drawing on first drawing may serve as an object to produce a
his understanding of the camera obscura, as well second drawing, in which the lights and shad-
as the discovery by German natural philosopher ows would be reversed.”
Johann Heinrich Schulze (1687-1744) that silver
salts are light sensitive, he began experimenting The image that Talbot captured was a “nega-
by coating paper with silver nitrate, then placing tive”—that is, the light objects appeared dark on
it in a camera obscura and exposing it to the the paper, and vice versa. He realized that by plac-
Sun’s rays. His experiments were unsuccessful— ing this negative on top of a second sheet of paper
the image refused to hold on the paper. Wedg- and exposing both to sunlight, the process would
wood abandoned his work due to poor health. repeat itself, forming a “positive,” or true image.

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By the mid-1800s photography became the turing our emotions, encouraging us to purchase
Technology rage throughout the world. People everywhere a wide array of products, and showing us a
& Invention were thrilled at the sight of their own visage, world that mere words could never reveal.
preserved forever on Daguerre’s patented plates,
STEPHANIE WATSON
1450-1699 and later on film. From purely artistic applica-
tion, photography spread into the news arena,
capturing scenes of horrific violence during the
Further Reading
American Civil War through the lens of Matthew
Newhall, Beaumont. The History of Photography. Boston:
Brady (c. 1823-1896).
Little, Brown and Company, 1988.
From a simple projection of light through a Pollack, Peter. The Picture History of Photography. New
pinhole eventually emerged an entire industry. York: Harry N. Abrams, Inc., Publishers, 1958.
The expression “a picture is worth a thousand Steffens, Bradley. Photography: Preserving the Past. San
words” has proven true, with photographs cap- Diego, CA: Lucent Books, Inc., 1991.

Antonio Neri Reveals the Secrets of

Glassmaking and Helps Make High Quality
Glass Available to the World


Overview It was with the Egyptians, though, that the
actual manufacture of glass was first undertaken,
The second oldest of all manmade materials
with glass beads produced between approxi-
(after bronze) is glass, which for thousands of
mately 3000 and 2500 B.C. Within a thousand
years has served important building, decorative,
years the art of glass manufacture had pro-
and utilitarian purposes. Because of its value,
gressed to the point where the Egyptians were
glass became a prized possession of the wealthy
producing small glass containers, although
and powerful. By the 1600s the world’s finest
many of these were carved or ground from glass
glasses were produced in Venice, Italy, whose
blocks, rather than being molded or shaped into
leaders sought to protect their dominance by
finished form during the glass-manufacturing
imposing a strict ban on the sharing of knowl-
process. Another early method of forming glass
edge about glassmaking methods and tech-
into desired shapes involved forming glass
niques. In 1612 a Florentine priest and chemist,
around clay or metal molds.
Antonio Neri (1576-1614) published a book,
L’artra vetraria (The art of glass) that revealed the That process itself is both simple and com-
glassmaker’s secrets. Making those secrets avail- plex. At it simplest, glass is the product of apply-
able to the public not only made possible the ing high heat to a mixture of silica (sand), soda
duplication of Venetian glassmaking, but also (generally wood- or plant-ash), and limestone.
provided a basis for further innovation, hasten- These ingredients—along with smaller amounts
ing improvements in glassmaking and spurring of other materials that yield different qualities to
the shift in glassmaking from artisan’s craft to the glass—are heated at temperatures of approx-
mass-manufactured material. imately 1500°C. The ingredients melt and com-
bine; when cooled the resultant material is glass.
Background The complexity enters the formula through
Among the most important of the advances in the the various additional ingredients that can be
material sciences, the invention of glass, and the used to alter the qualities of the finished glass.
development of techniques for manufacturing it, The addition of lead, for example, was found to
go back at least as far as Egypt in 3000 B.C. Indeed, increase the clarity of the finished glass. Variances
the only older manmade substance is bronze. Nat- in the amount of silica also produced differences
urally occurring glass, also known as obsidian, the in the finished quality of the glass, as did alter-
product of volcanoes, was used as a tool by early ations in the amount of heat applied to the mix of
humans long before the emergence of social orga- materials. Of particular importance to the devel-
nizations resembling ancient civilization. opment of glass manufacture was the develop-

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Technology
& Invention
1450-1699

Seventeenth-century glassmakers. (Historical Picture Archive/Corbis. Reproduced with permission.)

ment, by at least 2500 years B.C., of simple but ef- Roman development of a hollow iron pipe used
fective furnaces that allowed for greater control of for blowing glass—using blown air to create de-
heat, resulting in a more pure final product. sired glass shapes and consistencies from the
molten glass adhering to the far end of the pipe.
The most dramatic early refinement in glass The Romans also made large advances in etching,
manufacture occurred around A.D. 1 with the coloring, molding, cutting, and engraving glass.

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Between A.D. 200 and 1200 the fundamental rapidly throughout Europe, where most previ-
Technology nature of glassmaking changed little—refinements ous glass manufacturing undertakings had failed
& Invention in furnaces and in methods for adding color to glass to approach to the quality of Venetian glasses.
were among the few innovations in the process. De-
Neri’s book hastened the decline of Venice
1450-1699 spite that stagnation in further development, glass-
as the world’s glass capital, although Venetian
making remained an important undertaking, and
domination of the industry was already threat-
by the thirteenth century had spread throughout
ened by the immigration of glassmakers who
Europe, with Venice becoming the acknowledged
took their secretes with them. In 1622, for ex-
center of both the glassmaking art and industry.
ample, an English company sent six Italian
That centrality resulted in great wealth and in- glassmaking artisans to the Jamestown colony in
fluence for Venice. As a result, Venice’s governing the New World.
body, the Grand Council, relocated all glassmaking
More importantly, by consolidating in one
enterprises to the island of Murano in an effort to
volume the essence of glassmaking, Neri provid-
keep secret the mastery of glassmaking and related
ed all glassmakers with knowledge that had pre-
technologies. Any who violated the code of secrecy
viously been restricted only to a few. In short, he
faced penalties including execution.
made available not only an existing body of
Protectiveness about glassmaking techniques knowledge but also, and ultimately of more im-
was nothing new. The Mesopotamians, more portance, he provided glassmakers with a foun-
than 3,000 years ago, identified their instructions dation upon which they could build improve-
for glassmaking as secret. Yet the value of glass ments. By having fundamental principles at their
and the public’s desire for the material resulted in disposal, glassmakers were better and more easi-
almost constant attempts to wrest the secrets ly able to experiment, refine, and improve the
away from those who controlled them. formulas and mixtures that were used to pro-
One who knew the secrets was Italian priest duce glass. Better and more diverse types of
and chemist (and alchemist) Antonio Neri. A citi- glass, both practical and decorative, were devel-
zen of Florence, Neri was the son of a physician. oped over the course of the 1600s. Antonio Neri
From an early age Neri applied himself to the had opened the windows of the world.
study of glassmaking, and by 1612 had intro- With the ability to make glass of high quali-
duced at least one major innovation. This was the ty more widespread, more glass was produced.
addition of a minute amount of gold to the molten What had been a material restricted to the upper
mixture of glassmaking materials. Chemical reac- classes began to spread throughout society,
tions instigated by the gold produced a glass of a transforming the nature of everyday life. Win-
brilliant ruby color. The glass—which to this day dows became common for all buildings, and this
cannot be mass-produced and is thus more of an brought an unexpected but highly beneficial so-
artisan’s product than an industrial one—came to cial and cultural change. Because windows al-
be known as cranberry glass or gold ruby glass. lowed more light into buildings and homes than
For all of his technical skills, it was Neri’s was previously common, the occupants of those
ability—and boldness—as a writer that earned structures became more aware of their sur-
him his greatest fame. In defiance of the edict roundings, particularly of dirt and grime. Trans-
against sharing the secrets of glassmaking, Neri parent windows led to cleaner homes, and in-
wrote a small book called L’arte vetraria (The art creased cleanliness—hygiene—led to a general
of glass) in 1612, the same year as his discovery improvement in the quality of life. Neri’s revolt
of cranberry glass. against secrecy made a large contribution to
both individual and social wellbeing.
In L’arte, Neri presented virtually all of the
body of knowledge that surrounded the manu- KEITH FERRELL
facture of glass. He addressed the nature of fur-
naces, proper temperatures and melting times,
mixtures of materials that resulted in different Further Reading
types and qualities of glass, and more. Brock, William H. The Norton History of Chemistry. New
York: W.W. Norton, 1993.

Impact Mumford, Lewis. Technics and Civilization. New York:

Harcourt, Brace and Company, 1934.
Neri’s little book created a revolution—the ele- Sass, Stephen L. The Substance of Civilization: Materials
ments required for high level glassmaking be- and Human History from the Stone Age to the Age of Sili-
came widely known, and the industry spread con. New York: Arcade, 1998.

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The Origins and Development

Technology
of the Magic Lantern & Invention

1450-1699

Overview bate. In 1646 Athanasius Kircher (c. 1602-

1680), a German Jesuit priest, detailed improve-
More than twenty-five hundred years ago, intel-
ments in “mirror writing” in Ars Magna lucis et
lectuals from many cultures began to experiment
umbrae. This method of projecting images etched
with image projection in their attempts to un-
into highly polished metal plates had earlier been
derstand the relationship between the mechan-
described by Giambattista della Porta (c. 1535-
ics of the human eye and the physical principles
1615) of Naples, Italy, in his Magiae naturalis libri
of light. Consequently, they discovered the value
viginti (1589). Kircher’s modifications included
of image projection for religious, educational,
the addition of a bi-convex lens arrangement,
and entertainment purposes. In the fifth century
using either candle or sun as a light source. The
B.C., Chinese philosopher Mo Ti described a
mirror was replaced with images painted on a
“collecting place” or “locked treasure room”
water-filled glass container. A few years after the
where an inverted image appeared on a screen
initial publication of Ars Magna, Kircher’s pupil,
when light passed through a pinhole. During the
missionary Martin Martini, reportedly began
fourth century B.C., Aristotle (384-322 B.C.) sim-
touring Europe, illustrating his trip to China by
ilarly described what would eventually be called
projecting images from glass slides, a contraption
the camera obscura; Chinese inventor Ting Huan
Martini attributed to Kircher. In 1657, and again
is said to have perfected a device for projecting
in 1671, Gaspar Schott (1608- 1666), in his
moving images in c. 207 B.C. Others attribute
Magica Optica, described every type of magic
the earliest description of sequential animation
lantern then known, and gave Kircher credit for
to Titus Lucretius Carus, a Roman poet and
originating the technology. In Kircher’s expand-
philosopher, in c. 65 B.C. Around the tenth cen-
ed second edition of Ars Magna (1671), he illus-
tury A.D., the Arab philosopher Ibn al Haytham
trated a projection lantern, and took credit for
(965-1038) described the mechanics of the pin-
its invention. Kircher’s drawing indicated a lamp
hole camera. It is now thought that al Haytham
as light source, a lens, a mirror, slides, and an
was describing optic principles already well
image projected on a wall. Interestingly, the
known throughout the world. By the Renais-
slides were shown mounted in the inverted posi-
sance, ground glass lenses had made possible
tion in order to provide an upright presentation,
the improvement and widespread use of specta-
and thus indicated his understanding of optics.
cles and telescopes, as well as improved focus in
Although the illustration contained some techni-
pinhole boxes or “cameras obscuras,” from
cal contradictions, it indicates Kircher’s objective
which the magic lantern derives.
of projecting a series of images successively onto
In the seventeenth century, the optical prin- a large screen.
ciples of the camera obscura were applied to dis-
play multiple images painted on glass plates. Some historians maintain that it was the
This “magic lantern” technology incorporated Dutch physicist Christiaan Huygens (1629-
the same basic components as modern optical 1695) who in around 1659 constructed the first
projection systems—a subject in a holder, a light working magic lantern. This view is supported
source, a projection lens, a condenser, or lens to by a letter that Huygens wrote to his brother
redirect as much light as possible through the Ludwig in which he described the lantern, and
projection lens; and a ground, or viewing screen. by reports of a slide presentation of Martini’s trip
The combined processes of controlled light pro- by Huygens’s friend, the Jesuit priest Andreas
jection through specialized lenses and intermit- Tacquet. Other historians have argued that re-
tent movement of painted images in the magic ports of magic lanterns predate Huygens’s de-
lantern lay the foundation for modern slide and scription, and that Huygens’s model never ad-
movie projectors. vanced beyond the experimental stage. Yet
Schott wrote that Tacquet used Kircher’s method
of projection to illustrate Martini’s journey from
Background China back to the Netherlands.
The invention and first public demonstration of In the second edition of Ars Magna,
the magic lantern has long been a subject of de- Kircher himself attributed another magic

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lantern prototype to “the learned Dane who the light source, and a condensing lens (absent
Technology came to Lyons in 1665.” It is thought that the from the lantern constructed by Reeves in the
& Invention reference was to Thomas Rasmussen Walgen- 1660’s). The illustration also indicates telescopic
sten, a professor of mathematics who had effects, the ability to project at a distance
1450-1699 begun touring Europe with an improved ver- through a combination of lenses, and the inver-
sion of the magic lantern in the mid 1660’s. sion principle with the subject upside down,
Francesco Eschinardi, an Italian priest who has and the image right-side up. At the end of
been credited with coining the term, “magic Molyneux’ book was an advertisement for the
lantern,” referred to a description of Walgen- lantern and components “made and sold by
sten’s device, the scare lantern in his Centuriae John Yarwell at the Archimedes and Three Gold-
Optical Pars Altera (1668). A similar reference en Prospects. . .London.”
was made by Claude François Milliet de Chales As with many new inventions, the magic
(1621-1678) a French mathematician. In the lantern was first used to entertain. However,
second edition of his Cursus seu mundus mathe- Milliet de Chales noted that the lantern had
maticus, (1690), he included illustrations of value for scientific instruction, as it could be
Walgensten’s version of the lantern. Milliet de used to show enlarged images of insects and
Chales is another one of the people credited other specimens. Johann Zahn (fl. 1600s) ad-
with the invention. In his book, he advanced vanced the idea of slide presentations for
lantern technology by addressing issues of anatomical lessons, and in his Oculus artifi-
focus and illumination, and by suggesting the cialis teledioptricus sive telescopium (1685/
procedure of moving a series of glass slides 1686) he suggested tracing book illustrations
from side to side through the lantern appara- onto glass plates for that purpose. Zahn in-
tus. Nevertheless, he disclaimed any credit for cluded illustrations of both cameras obscuras
inventing the process. and magic lanterns, and suggested hiding the
magic lantern out of sight of the audience for
Despite the controversy over who actually
effect.
produced the first lantern projector, by the mid-
seventeenth century descriptions of prototypes By the end of the seventeenth century, the
and reports of demonstrations were being pub- popularity of the magic lantern motivated the
lished throughout Europe. A London optician development of prepared slides for sale to edu-
and acquaintance of Huygens named John cators and to the public. For example, in 1705
Reeves began producing his own lanterns In Johann Conrad Creiling, a professor of natural
1663. In 1668, British scientist Robert Hooke history in Tübbingen proposed the production
described a universal projector for both trans- of educational magic lantern slides to accompa-
parent and opaque slides, which could use ei- ny lectures in subjects such as natural history,
ther sun or candle as a light source. In the same biblical studies, geography, and mathematics.
year, Francesco Eschinardi published Centuriae In 1713, B. H. Ehrenberger of Hildburghausen
opticae pars altera seu dialogi optici pars tertia, produced such slides, as described in his
which included a detailed description of the Novum et curiosum laternae magicae augmentum
construction of the magic lantern. In 1672, Jo- (1713). Ehrenberger’s teacher, Hamberger,
hann Christoph Sturm, professor of mathemat- credited the origin of prepared slides to Erhard
ics at the University of Nurnberg, introduced the Weigel, a physicist who he said made them be-
lantern into Germany where he gave experimen- fore 1700.
tal lectures supposedly using Walgensten’s
model lantern and slides.
Impact
Twenty years later, William Molyneux Improved projection technology had an im-
(1656-1698), a professor at Trinity College, mense impact on society in the following cen-
Dublin, published Dioptrica Nova (1692), in turies. In many ways, because of the magic
which he devoted a whole section to a descrip- lantern’s descendants—slide shows and mo-
tion of a metal lantern with adjustable focusing tion pictures—people gained a new perspec-
lenses. Molyneux pointed out in the introduc- tive about themselves and the world around
tion to his book that there had previously been them. Public moving picture exhibitions made
nothing written on mathematics in English, everything larger than life, literally reflecting
making his description of the lantern also the back upon society both its cultural and tech-
first work in English on that topic. Molyneux’s nological accomplishments and its social ills.
illustration of the lantern indicated a candle as But it also provided working people and a

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Technology
& Invention
1450-1699

Athanasius Kircher’s projection device. (Christel Gerstenberg/Corbis. Reproduced with permission.)

growing middle class with a new social outlet and refined by French inventor Pierre Desvi-
for entertainment. gnes under the name Zoetrope, was later
patented in the United States by William F. Lin-
The value of projecting multiple images be- coln and in England by Milton Bradley. The de-
came obvious to both scientists wishing to share vice consisted of a drum with evenly spaced
new discoveries about natural phenomena and slits that spun on a pedestal. As the drum was
entrepreneurs anxious to make money entertain- turned, individual images drawn in a narrative
ing the public. By the late eighteenth century, sequence and wrapped around the inside of the
public exhibitions were already widespread. drum would appear as one smooth action
One of the most popular of the magic lantern when viewed through the slits. The Zoetrope
shows were “Phantasmagoria” demonstrations, had become a popular toy by the late 1800s. In
in which ghostly apparitions seemed to appear 1877, Emile Reynaud introduced the Prax-
and vanish in the dark before viewers’ eyes. De- inoscope, a modified version of the Zoetrope in
mand for such performances was so great that in which the image was viewed on mirrors placed
1798 E. G. Robertson took his London phantas- in the center of the drum instead of directly
magoria show on the road to Paris, Vienna, and through the slits.
St. Petersburg.
By the late 1800s, larger, more complex
In the nineteenth century, a variety of “op- versions of these devices were being developed
tical” toys and gadgets were introduced concur- for commercial use. More streamlined methods
rently with improvements in magic lantern of producing and displaying slides were intro-
technology. Among them was the “thaumat- duced, advancing from painted glass strips to
rope,” developed by astronomer John Herschel flexible gelatin or film. In 1892, Reynaud gave
and popularized by British doctor, John Ayrton the first public exhibition of his commercial
Paris. As a cardboard disk with a different pic- Praxinoscope, using long strips of hand-paint-
ture on either side is rotated rapidly on a ed frames. The jerky effect of Reynaud’s
string, the optical principle of persistence of vi- method would be corrected by the likes of the
sion takes over, and the viewer sees an optical Lumiere brothers in France and Thomas Edison
illusion—one combined image. More elaborate (1847-1931) in the United States with the in-
devices were developed that worked on the troduction of moving pictures. Movie projec-
same principle. The Daedalum, introduced by tion uses the same principle of persistence of
W.H. Horner in the mid-nineteenth century vision as the thaumatrope toy: Multiple frames

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of individual pictures snapped in rapid succes- spring through sonograms projected on lab
Technology sion give the illusion of continuous motion monitors. Millions of people around the world
& Invention when projected at rapid speed. In 1895 the Lu- can view the same images at once through satel-
miere brothers exhibited the first short motion lite and internet broadcasts, making what was
1450-1699 pictures in France using their cinematograph. once larger than life seem smaller and more ac-
Quickly, others with new versions of moving cessible.
picture lanterns followed, including Edison
LISA NOCKS
and Georges Melies, who became famous for
his special effects.
Further Reading
Carousel and tray slide projectors became a Books
mainstay of educational, corporate, and indus- Chadwick, W. J. The Magic Lantern Manual. London:
trial facilities by the middle of the twentieth Frederick Warne, 1878.
century. In recent years, innovations in digital Hammond, John H. The Camera Obscura: A Chronicle.
technology have broadened the scope of dis- Bristol: Adam Hilger, 1981.
played images far beyond that introduced by Liesegang, Franz Paul. Dates and Sources: A contribution to
Kircher and his contemporaries. Today, close-up the History of the Art of Projection and to Cinematogra-
images of a ball game or concert can be project- phy. Hermann Hecht, ed/trans. London: The Magic
ed to thousands of people on giant screens. Lantern Society of Great Britain, 1986.
Enormous curved screen IMAX movie theaters, Lindberg, David. Studies in the History of Medieval Optics.
originally installed in museums, have made London: Variorum Reprints, 1983.
their way to shopping malls and now include 3- Weiss, Richard J. A Brief History of Light and Those That Lit
D effects. Early projections of mystifying images the Way. River Edge, NJ: World Scientific, 1995.
have modern parallels in holographic presenta- Internet Sites
tions and laser light shows. In medical centers, Burns, Paul T. “The Complete History of the Discovery of
expectant parents watch their developing off- Cinematography.” www.precinemahistory.com.

William Lee and the Stocking Knitting

Frame: Micro- and Macroinventions


Overview tied to the bottom of the pantaloons (hence the
word pants), as we can see from any picture of
Some technological inventions can be explained by
Tudor men’s clothing. Tudor women wore stock-
the societal conditions in which they emerge, since
ings under their long skirts. The vast majority
they clearly meet an existing societal need. Histori-
wore woolen stockings, either cut from cloth and
ans call these gradual changes in techniques mi-
seamed up the back of the leg, or knitted by
croinventions, trial and error tinkering that usually
hand as with modern hand-knitted sweaters. The
resulted from an intentional search for improve-
rich wore silk stockings knitted this way. Despite
ments and can be explained by economic theo-
the huge demand for stockings, no one knows
ries—as ways to improve production, lower costs,
why William Lee (c. 1550-1610) decided to de-
or use less labor. However, macroinventions are
sign a machine or frame to knit them. He was the
more difficult to explain, because they seem to be
son of prosperous farmers in Calverton, Notting-
the result of individual genius and luck more than
hamshire, England. His education at Cambridge
economic forces. They seem to come out of
University, where he entered Christ’s College in
nowhere, because they bring to bear seemingly un-
May 1579, and later moved to St. John’s College
related ideas that just happen to produce a totally
to take his B.A. in 1583, was in traditional
new solution. The invention of the stocking knit-
scholastic subjects such as Latin grammar and
ting frame by William Lee is one such invention.
rhetoric. There is evidence that he graduated
with an M.A. in 1586, but again this degree pro-
Background vided no training in practical skills. Lee invented
Stockings, or hose, were universally worn in the stocking-frame in his spare time as a church
Tudor England instead of trousers or pants, being minister back in Calverton in 1589, and legend

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Technology
& Invention
1450-1699

A spinning wheel. (Leonard de Selva/Corbis. Reproduced with permission.)

claims that he did so because a young woman horizontally under the rigid hooks, and the
whom he wished to marry would always pay stitches were drawn over it by the moveable
more attention to her hand-knitting than to him hooks. Repeating the process created stockings
when he came courting. much faster than before.
Like many macroinventions, Lee’s frame-
knitting machine combined two previously unre- Impact
lated ideas into a dramatic new development.
The long-term impact of Lee’s development has
Knitting had been done on circular or rectangu-
been enormous. This simple action for knitting
lar frames for many centuries. Wooden or bone
has never been bettered, and is basic to all the
pegs were fitted at regular intervals all round the
machines used in the machine-knitting industry
top of the frame. Thinner pegs placed closer to-
throughout the modern world.
gether made finer knitting. Yarn was tied to the
first peg and then wound counter-clockwise However, its immediate impact was limited
around each peg until every peg had a crossed by sixteenth-century social and political beliefs.
loop of yarn lying at its base. More yarn was then Although individuals in Tudor England could rise
wound around the pegs in the same way to make or fall in social status through their abilities, most
a second set of loops above the first. The first set people believed that God had ordained the social
was then drawn over the second set of loops. By hierarchy and everyone’s place within it, and that
Lee’s time a hooked implement rather like a cro- there should be no social change. This meant that
chet needle was used to raise one loop at a time each person knew their responsibilities to others
over the other by hand. Continually repeating in the hierarchy, for example to obey superiors
this process created a tube or hose of knitted fab- and protect inferiors, but also that they strongly
ric in crossed stocking-stitch, hanging down believed in their just rights, for example to be em-
from the frame. Lee’s very ingenious machine ployed when they offered their labor to support
had a series of rigid hooks on the frame, and a themselves, and not to have their accustomed
second series of moving hooks at right angles to work taken away. Politicians from local magis-
them. The first stitches were wound on to the se- trates to Queen Elizabeth shared these beliefs, not
ries of rigid hooks in the traditional way, but then just because the emphasis on obedience kept the
the knitter used a simple mechanism to move all political system stable, but because they accepted
the moveable hooks into the stitches looped their God-given obligation to protect the rights of
around the rigid hooks. The yarn was then laid those lower in the social hierarchy to work and

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feed themselves and their families. Lee’s invention the application of established technology, in
Technology threatened this social order, as it offered the order to maintain a stable and controllable social
& Invention promise of producing the same amount of stock- and political environment. However, Europe was
ings with fewer workers. Therefore, when Lee politically decentralized, containing many states
1450-1699 first began to use his frame to make stockings in a who competed along technological and econom-
small workshop at Calverton, employing his ic as well as political lines. When technological
brother and others, he met widespread opposi- change was discouraged in one state, it often
tion from the local hand-knitters, who recognized found encouragement from another ruler who
the threat that his fast, cheap production of stock- saw its economic and political advantages. Histo-
ings represented to their livelihood. rians call this technology transfer. Thus Henry IV
of France invited Lee to settle in France, promis-
Perhaps because of this resistance, in 1591 ing him great rewards, and Lee established a
he moved his machine and workers to Bunhill workshop at Rouen, where he manufactured
Fields outside the walls of London, and sought stockings under the king’s protection. During the
the patronage of Lord Hunsdon, the Queen’s political unrest that followed the assassination of
cousin and a leading courtier. Lee’s aim was to ob- Henry IV in 1610, Lee died in Paris. His son and
tain from Elizabeth a royal patent of monopoly seven of his workmen returned to England, and
for the machine, forbidding anyone to copy it and together with one Aston of Calverton, one of
perhaps demanding that all hose should be knit- Lee’s former apprentices, they laid the foundation
ted on similar machines—for a fee payable to Lee. of an important new household industry in the
At that time Elizabeth was raising money for her East Midlands of England around Nottingham.
wars against Spain by selling such monopoly con- People began to make stockings in large num-
trol over many everyday commodities. However, bers, working on the frame at home, and its use
when Elizabeth saw Lee’s machine in action she spread throughout Europe in the first half of the
was disappointed by the coarseness of the ordi- seventeenth century.
nary stockings it produced—she had been hop-
ing that he would make the fine silk stockings she Lee’s knitting frame remained at the heart of
preferred. Even though Lee began to improve the stocking-frame technology until late into the
machine with microinventions, so that by 1598 nineteenth century, with only one major change
he could make the frame smaller to produce silk in 1758, when Jedediah Strutt (1726-1797) cre-
stockings, and presented a pair to her, she still re- ated an attachment for knitting ribbed fabrics.
fused his monopoly. Members of the House of The main problem in applying mechanical
Commons had begun to complain about the power to the knitting industry was that it was
hardship monopolies caused by driving up prices, difficult to adapt the fine mechanism that varied
and a series of bad harvests had created economic the frame width, on which the quality of the
unrest, unemployment, and political instability in stocking depended, to machinery more power-
the countryside, which was already feeling the ful than human muscle power. Thus for cen-
burden of continuing war. As well as the social turies one of Europe’s basic and most important
and political assumptions outlined above, condi- industries depended on an invention of genius
tions were too dangerous for Elizabeth to risk by an obscure Nottinghamshire clergyman.
making hand-knitters unemployed by encourag- GLYN PARRY
ing Lee to bring the frame into general use. Un-
employed workers created problems of law and
order in a country without a police force, and Further Reading
weakened the state in its struggles with Spain, as Derry, T.K., and Trevor I. Williams. A Short History of
well as destabilizing the social hierarchy that Technology. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1960.
everyone assumed should be preserved. For simi- Kranzberg, M., and C. W. Pursell, Jr., eds. Technology in
lar reasons, when James I succeeded Elizabeth in Western Civilization. New York: Oxford University
1603 he also refused to support Lee. Press, 1967.
Mokyr, Joel. The Lever of Riches: Technological Creativity
What happened next shows how Europe’s and Economic Progress. New York: Oxford University
political system gave it an advantage over other Press, 1990.
parts of the world in developing and applying Singer, C., E.J. Holmyard, A.R. Hall, and Trevor I.
new technology. In a highly centralized empire Williams. A History of Technology. 8 vols. Oxford: Ox-
such as Ming China, for example, one person’s ford University Press, 1954-84, vol. 3 (1957).
political decision could prevent any technologi- “William Lee.” In The Dictionary of National Biography. 22
cal changes from being introduced, or even cease vols. London: Oxford University Press, 1921-22.

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Advances in Metallurgy


Technology
& Invention

Overview la’s earliest book on metallurgy, Bermannus 1450-1699

(1530). In return Agricola translated some pas-
In Europe, more than any other part of the
sages from Pirotechnia into Latin for his De re
world, industrial manufacturing and technology
metallica, thus paying tribute to Biringuccio’s ex-
has developed from metallurgy, the mining and
pert knowledge.
smelting of metals. Advances in metallurgy have
been at once the cause and effect of European Like Biringuccio, German mineralogist
technological superiority. In the Renaissance the George Agricola (1494-1555)—Agricola is the
extraction and smelting of ore was a strongly tra- Latin version of his original name, Bauer—was
ditional industry, and Vanoccio Biringuccio’s an empiricist, not a scientist. He did not start
book De la pirotechnia libri X (Ten Books of a from mining theory but described practical solu-
Work in Fire, 1540), like George Agricola’s De tions, which had been developed to a uniquely
Re Metallica Libri XII (Twelve Books on Metals, high level in the southern German mining re-
1556), did not announce any dramatic inven- gion, to such problems as flooding, vertical
tions. However, their books described with ex- haulage, and the blasting of rocks. His systemat-
ceptional clarity craft processes that trial and ic study provides much of our knowledge of
error had gradually improved over centuries. mining techniques in the sixteenth century. He
Their works demonstrate how printing helped is often called the Father of Mineralogy as he
to systematize knowledge and helped the spread was the first to describe minerals in terms of
of mechanization. In the eighteenth century the their observable, physical properties, rather than
techniques required for profitable mining could their supposed magical or philosophical powers.
be applied to developing the new steam technol-
Agricola sought a different readership from
ogy that powered the Industrial Revolution in
Biringuccio by writing in Latin according to the
Britain and throughout the world.
standards of Renaissance scholarship, which is
why he translated his name into Latin. Like
Background many Renaissance intellectuals he pursued sev-
In the High Renaissance of the early sixteenth eral careers—as a diplomat, historian, editor,
century, the Mediterranean region, and especially physician, and apothecary. Following his educa-
Italy, dominated European civilization. Italy led tion in Greek and Latin at Leipzig University, he
in many production techniques, including the first published a book of Latin grammar and
most skillful metalwork, described by the Italian then studied medicine between 1524 and 1526
Biringuccio (1480-1539). He learned his trade at Bologna, Italy. His classical education made
working in foundries throughout the metallurgi- him very receptive to Italian Renaissance cul-
cal regions of Italy and southern Germany, where ture, and he emulated the Italian architect-engi-
profitable mining centers had developed using neers of the period who had enhanced the social
abundant ores and water-powered machinery. status of their profession by creating a learned
literature about it. Coming from the mining area
A self-taught expert who wrote in vernacu-
of Saxony, he believed that by writing about
lar Italian for nonscholars, Biringuccio’s practical
mining techniques in good Latin, full of terms
manual described metallurgical processes—as-
ransacked from classical Greek and Roman liter-
saying, smelting, alloying, and casting—that he
ature, he could raise a practical art into a learned
had seen or practiced. In many cases his was the
subject. He succeeded so well that the great hu-
first written description of processes for smelting
manist scholar Erasmus (1469-1536) wrote the
and casting gold, silver, copper, lead, tin, iron,
preface to Agricola’s Bermannus in 1530.
steel, and brass. He also described the casting of
medallions, fine art objects, type for printing, He could use classical Latin to describe the
and cannon, which in typical Renaissance fash- methods of mining at the rock-face because
ion he insisted should be ornamented to make those methods had remained unchanged since
them beautiful. Biringuccio’s book went through classical antiquity. Yet Agricola, because he was a
many editions for practical metallurgists. His ex- doctor and a humanist, also used analytical ob-
pertise explains his appointment in 1538 as servation and precise Latin to describe the new
head of the papal foundry at Rome. Biringuccio machinery developed since c. 1450 to solve in-
modeled his Pirotechnia on the scholarly Agrico- creasing problems of drainage, ventilation, and

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Technology
& Invention
1450-1699

A sixteenth-century depiction of metallurgical processes. (Corbis Corporation. Reproduced with permission.)

haulage as Saxon mining went deeper in search wheels and shafts built from heavy timber, using
of precious ores. iron only for ties and bearings to reduce costs.
Cleverly organized, Agricola’s De re metallica Agricola paid much attention to the pumping
discussed all aspects of mining from prospecting and ventilation machinery that were vital for ex-
through the production of gold, silver, lead, salt, tending mining deeper once easily accessible ores
soda, alum, sulfuric acid, sulfur, bitumen, and were exhausted. He described suction pumps and
glass. One of the great monuments of technology, pistons, whose principles he had found described
for two centuries it remained through many in ancient classical works, and chain and rag
reprints the best mining textbook in Europe, be- pumps, in which each carefully made rag ball on
cause of its comprehensive coverage and bril- a chain moved up a tightly fitting tube, pushing
liantly clear illustrations of machinery, powered water in front of it to the next level.
by horses or water wheels, for pumping water,
hoisting spoil, ventilating shafts, crushing and
grinding ore, assaying and sampling for quality, Impact
stirring and mixing ore in tubs, blowing smelting The fact that Biringuccio and Agricola began the
furnaces, and moving heavy hammers to work large-scale publishing of books dealing with tech-
wrought iron. Agricola gave two or three variant nology does not prove that technology in this or
types for each machine, all of their massive other fields began to change principally because

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the highly educated class now found its study so- licity campaign to secure a royal patent for the
cially acceptable. Agricola had to defend mining process, and his claims are generally rejected. Technology
against charges that it caused diseases, and deflect Raw coal contains sulfur and other substances & Invention
modern-sounding complaints that it polluted the that make cast iron brittle, and the only way of
soil and water-courses, and that its huge demand using coal for smelting was to reduce it to coke 1450-1699
for wood as fuel and building materials caused first, since coking eliminates the sulfur content.
deforestation, destroying the eco-systems of birds Abraham Darby (1678?-1717) achieved the first
and animals eaten by humans. successful smelting of iron ore with coke in
More practical limitations also slowed the 1709, by chance using coal with a naturally low
impact of this technology. Agricola himself ac- sulfur content.
knowledged that only in the largest mines over While Biringuccio and Agricola gave much
100 feet (30.5 m) deep was water-powered ma- more space to gold and silver than to describing
chinery cheaper and more efficient than horse- the production of iron, the machinery they de-
power. The machinery itself was poorly de- scribed did make an eventual contribution to
signed and inefficient, its power output propor- technological development in the eighteenth
tional to its size, and therefore its useful limits century. Smelting iron with coke released for
were soon reached. Also a large gap existed be-
tween this best practice and standard tech-
niques, which limited the impact of these expen-
sive, complex machines on industrial practice.
They were difficult to adapt to different environ- ORIGIN OF THE DOLLAR


ments, being dependent on regular supplies of
water to the wheels.
Many German craftsmen also found Agrico-

G
eorgius Agricola spent part of his career as a doctor at the
la’s elegant Latin an obstacle to understanding,
copper and silver mines at Joachimstal in Saxony, now in
and some inaccurate German translations gave
very confused versions of his processes. In the Germany. The silver produced at Joachimstal was so pure that
second half of the sixteenth century the German it was used to make a coin accepted throughout Europe for its high
mining industry also declined because the tech- precious metal content. This coin was known as the Joachimsthaler,
nology he described reached its limits in dealing after the mine. Later coins were also named thalers to suggest their
with growing technical problems, and suc- high silver content, and from the German word thaler evolved the
cumbed to competition from Spanish mines in
word “dollar,” which continues the Renaissance tradition of its earlier
the New World.
namesake by being accepted as a hard currency.
However, German mining’s great demand
GLYN PARRY
for capital and the return it gave in silver did
create early capitalist enterprises. All the major
banking firms of the period, such as the Fuggers
and the Welsers, were heavily involved in min-
ing and became lenders to Renaissance rulers Britain the immense accumulated potential ener-
who required increasingly vast sums of money gy of her coalfields, instead of relying on the
to wage war with the expensive new gunpowder current available energy of wood and water. Al-
weapons of cannons and muskets. The increas- though cheaper coke-smelted iron proved inferi-
ing frequency of such wars and the mechaniza- or in quality to charcoal-smelted iron, economic
tion of gunpowder armies increased the con- pressure lowered standards and made it accept-
sumption of iron for weapons and projectiles to able, particularly when precisely engineered.
the extent that by the end of the sixteenth centu- Precision engineering, like the increasing knowl-
ry rapid deforestation was leading Europe to the edge of metallurgy, chemistry, mechanics, and
limits of the charcoal resources required for civil engineering, can be traced back to six-
smelting iron. teenth-century mining.

The rising price of this energy source en- As Agricola’s book demonstrated, mining
couraged attempts to substitute coal in its place. sought out desirable minerals even in the face of
In England, Dud Dudley (1599-1684) claimed increasing problems with water drainage that
in his Mettalum Martis (1665) to have success- pushed its pumping technology to the limits. The
fully smelted iron with coal as early as 1619. further refinement of this technology required in-
However, this was part of an unsuccessful pub- creasingly accurate boring machines and machine

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tools to make efficient pumps. In the eighteenth Derry, T.K., and Trevor I. Williams. A Short History of
Technology century the earliest coal-burning steam engines Technology. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1960.
& Invention required precise engineering to be efficient. Their Klemm, F. A History of Western Technology. Trans. by D.W.
designers could turn to the manufacturers of min- Singer. New York: Scribner, 1959.
1450-1699 ing pumps for the means of making the precisely Kranzberg, M., and C. W. Pursell Jr., eds. Technology in
engineered vessels that powered the early Indus- Western Civilization. New York: Oxford University
trial Revolution in Britain and throughout the Press, 1967.
world. Therefore, the metallurgical industry de- Mokyr, Joel. The Lever of Riches: Technological Creativity
scribed by Biringuccio and Agricola had a direct and Economic Progress. New York: Oxford University
impact on the early Industrial Revolution and Press, 1990.
helped to solve its most difficult problem, that of Mumford, Lewis. Technics and Civilization. New York:
harnessing the stored energy of coal. Harcourt, Brace, 1934.

GLYN PARRY Pacey, Arnold. The Maze of Ingenuity. New York: Holmes
& Meier, 1975.
Singer, C., E.J. Holmyard, A.R. Hall, and Trevor I.
Further Reading Williams. A History of Technology. 8 vols. Oxford: Ox-
Cardwell, D.S.L. Technology, Science and Society. London: ford University Press, 1954-84, vol. 2 (1956), vol. 3
Heinemann, 1972. (1957).

Development of the Horse-Drawn Coach

Overview ence riding to the opening of Parliament in 1571
that she never used that particular vehicle again.
Although carriages were used in continental Eu-
No one knows when exactly builders first used
rope as early as 1294, vehicles to carry passen-
springs to soften the jolting caused by the rough
gers first appeared in England in 1555. That
roads the carriages had to travel on. But already
they did not appear earlier was due to the ap-
in the mid-1400s, there is evidence to suggest
palling condition of English roads, which were
that coach bodies were being hung on leather
little more than cattle tracks and water courses.
straps or braces connected to a wooden frame to
Winter was an especially treacherous time for
take some of the dead weight of the coach body
wheeled transport. In England, in the twelfth
off the undercarriage.
century, wagons were used by distinguished per-
sons for travel. Because they were comparatively The first coach to be made in England was
more comfortable, litters supported by two hors- made by Walter Rippon of Holland for the Earl
es (one in back, one in front) carried ladies of of Rutland. It had a covered body and a pivoted
rank, the sick, and also the dead. front axle, unlike the rigid-axle carriages of earli-
er times, and was driven by a pair of horses.
Queen Elizabeth preferred another coach
Background brought out of Holland by William Boonen, who
The earliest surviving carriages (from the 1500s) was made and remained her coachman to the
were four-wheeled, with an arched tilt (cover- end of the century. This coach had four wheels
ing) of leather or fabric over a bent-wood with seven spokes each. Each wheel had a thick
hooped frame. Although the wooden body and wooden rim bound round it and was secured to
tilt framework from earlier carriages also sur- the wheels with pegs.
vive, the undercarriage and wheels are gone.
The most common model of the first gener-
These carriages are long, and were mainly used
ation of coaches had a seat, called the boot, pro-
by aristocratic ladies. From the beginning of the
jecting outwards at either side, between the
sixteenth century, a new type of body—a box
wheels. These seats were usually occupied by
slung on wheels, or coach—was invented.
pages, grooms, or ladies in attendance. The boot
Passengers in early carriages could look for- was an uncomfortable seat because it had no
ward to a jerky ride. Queen Elizabeth I (1533- covering of any kind and would have exposed
1603) suffered so much from her first experi- those sitting in it to the wet and cold. The boot

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remained a feature of coaches until they became the Royal Society, too, took up the question of
enclosed and supplied with glass windows. improvements in carriage design. Technology
Ever-increasing road traffic led to a demand & Invention
The first coaches were drawn by two horses,
but as coach travel over country roads became for smaller vehicles for general use. The gig, a
1450-1699
more frequent, additional horses were required light, two-wheeled carriage, was invented in
to deal with the demands of the road surface. France in 1667. A later version was called the
More horses also meant that the vehicles could cabriolet, and proved enormously popular there,
travel at faster speeds, since the horses had to and in England. The gig had a curved seat set on
work less and were thus able to trot or to gallop. two long bending shafts that were placed in
front on the back of the horse and behind on the
In 1605, the first hackney coaches came into two wheels. Like other carriages of the period,
use. These were four-wheeled coaches drawn by its springs were constructed of leather straps.
two horses that could accommodate six people
and were used for hire to transport people about
the city. At first, hackneys remained in their own- Impact
ers’ yards until they were sent for. However, by Although carriages were important to the Ro-
1634 hackney stands had appeared in London, mans, as is evident from their excellent roads,
where drivers in uniforms called livery would with the fall of the Roman Empire, carriage tech-
wait for fares. A year later, there were so many nology suffered. And without the incentive to
hackney coaches on the streets in London, creat- maintain repairs for the passage of vehicles
ing a nuisance, that Charles I (1600-1649) issued (horseman required less well maintained roads),
a proclamation prohibiting their use for journeys the roads disintegrated. In Western Europe, ac-
under three miles. In France, hackney-like vehi- counts from England and France describe roads
cles were called fiacres, and they performed a damaged, decayed, and hindered by brooks,
similar function. stones, brambles, and trees.
Carriages with glass windows first appeared Carriage building enjoyed a renaissance in
in 1599 in Paris, where they created a scandal at the sixteenth century, owing to the growth of
the court of Louis XIII (1601-1643). Glass was trade, and increasing mobility among people.
first used in the upper panels of the doors, but But the technology was not embraced whole-
soon covered all the upper half of the sides and heartedly. In the thirteenth century, for example,
the front of the body. Although in England glass as part of a bid to stamp out luxury, Philip the
windows were common in houses before 1650, Fair of France forbade the wives of citizens to
the kind of plate glass needed to withstand the ride in carriages—though at this time, carriages
rigors of carriage travel had to be imported from were little more than baggage carts. By the four-
France. From 1670, it was also made in England. teenth century, more luxurious carriages had
evolved in England from the four-wheeled
The stagecoach came into vogue in England wagon, and were used to transport wealthy
in about 1640. These coaches were constructed ladies (the men rode behind). In England, as
like a hackney coach but on a larger scale, and well, by 1580 coaches were so usual among the
were intended to take passengers between Lon- wealthy classes that they became associated with
don and towns between 20 and 40 miles away. degeneracy. Those who chose to ride in coaches
Journeys to further towns such as York, Chester, instead of actively riding on horseback were
and Exeter took four days and were accommo- seen as lazy. Critics called the carriages “upstart
dated by so-called flying coaches. Stagecoaches four-wheeled tortoises.” Nonetheless, so popular
carried eight passengers inside, and provided a did coaches become that in 1601 a bill was
large basket behind, over the axle, for baggage passed in Parliament to “restrain the excessive
and as many passengers as could fit in what use of coaches.” The bill was never enforced,
space was left. Passengers inside were protected and in any event, coaches were little used out-
from the rain and cold by leather curtains. side of London and large towns, owing to the
bad condition of country roads.
As early as 1625, Edward Knapp was grant-
ed a patent for suspending the bodies of car- The success of hackney coaches had a dra-
riages on steel springs. Steel springs were hard matic effect on the livelihood of the watermen
to make, and his design failed, but 40 years who until then had monopolized passenger traf-
later, others took up the problem more success- fic across the Thames River. Some chalked pas-
fully. Soon after its founding in the mid-1600s, senger preference up to a taste for novelty, but in

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fact, at the time, crossing the Thames in a boat upsets in the first place. In 1663, the first turn-
Technology was a risky proposition. One waterman com- pike gate was erected on the Great North Road to
& Invention plained of seeing his fares dwindle from eight or collect tolls to repair the highway in the sur-
ten in a morning to two for the entire day. rounding region, but it proved so unpopular that
1450-1699 it took a hundred years to erect the next one. Re-
Just as hackney coachman were accused of
pairs to highways were made by forced labor,
taking bread from the mouths of Thames water-
only when the roads absolutely required it.
men—and in fact, the profession of waterman
was scarcely heard of after 1662—so stagecoach- In 1677, Charles II (1630-1685) founded
es were accused of robbing licensed hackney the Company of Coach and Coach Harness
coachmen of their livelihood. Moreover, stage- Makers, illustrating the importance and favor
coaches were believed to be destroying the breed coaches had taken on at the time. When Eng-
of good horses, the profession of watermen, and land was at war with France in 1694, a new sys-
lessening royal revenues formerly brought by tem of taxing hackney coaches provided rev-
saddle horses. They were also accused of en- enues for defense. Although roads and highways
couraging simple folk to make idle visits to Lon- were slow to improve, the diversity of vehicles
don, where they would be exposed to vice. On ensured that Europe would dominate technolog-
the positive side, stagecoaches were believed to ical development in transportation until the
have provided the first incentive to improve eighteenth century.
country roads, though the truth was the other
GISELLE WEISS
way around. As long-distance coach travel flour-
ished, prohibitions were put into place to pre-
vent existing highways from being ploughed up
by carriage wheels carrying heavy loads.
Further Reading
Gilbey, Walter. Early Carriages and Roads. London: Vin-
Early carriages often had to be driven across ton, 1903.
fields and through ditches. It was symptomatic of Piggott, Stuart. Wagon, Chariot, and Carriage: Symbol and
the attitudes of the times that between 1684 and Status in the History of Transport. London: Thames and
1792, 10 patents were granted for devices to keep Hudson, 1992.
carriages from overturning, though few thought Straus, Ralph. Carriages and Coaches: Their History and
to work on improving roads so they did not cause Their Evolution. London: Marin Secker, 1912.

Systematic Crop Rotation

Transforms Agriculture


Overview in this case those small changes that over cen-
turies gradually improved farming technology
The French landowner and lawyer Olivier de
and productivity, and of the dissemination of
Serres (1539-1619) published in 1600 his book
these best practices throughout Europe by the
Théatre d’agriculture, which described systematic
printing press, perhaps the key technological in-
crop rotation for the first time. His ideas were
vention of the period because it helped to spread
developed further in England by Sir Richard We-
knowledge of other inventions.
ston (1591-1652) in his book Discourse of Hus-
bandry Used in Brabant and Flanders, Showing the
Wonderful Improvement of Land There, and Serving
as a Pattern for Our Practice in This Common- Background
wealth (1650). Neither man invented the ideas Europe before the late eighteenth century was a
they collected in their books. However, their de- subsistence society. Its agricultural productivity
scriptions helped to spread the efficient farming was so low that in some regions up to 90% of
practices that had developed in some European the population had to labor in the fields to en-
regions in the sixteenth century to meet the de- sure that crops and farm animals produced
mands of a rising population. As such they enough food for the whole population, and to
demonstrate the importance of microinventions, plant the next harvest and breed the next gener-

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Technology
& Invention
1450-1699

Seventeenth-century etching of farmers rolling fields. (Christel Gerstenberg/Corbis. Reproduced with permission.)

ation of animals. This was because at any one Belgium) and from Flanders to Germany and
time up to one third of the fertile arable land England after the mid-seventeenth century.
was left fallow, unplanted and used for rough
grazing. Villagers practiced an ancient crop rota- The chief importance of de Serres and West-
tion that divided their lands into three large on is that they described in detail agricultural in-
fields, each of which was successively planted in novations that had actually been proven to in-
winter wheat (planted in the fall, harvested in crease agricultural productivity over time. By
early summer), spring wheat (planted in spring, publishing their books, they distributed this best
harvested in late summer), and then left fallow, practice all over Europe and influenced their
that is, allowed to grow rough grass. So every readers to apply the ideas themselves.
year one field in three remained fallow, in order
De Serres was a Calvinist lawyer who lived
to manure it by feeding cattle on it. The great
all his life on the small family estate at Vil-
problem was that the fallow did not provide
leneuve de Berg in the Vivarais region of France,
enough food to sustain the cattle through winter,
where he tested the innovations that he pro-
so that many had to be slaughtered in the fall.
posed in his Théatre d’agriculture (1600). This
Therefore cattle could not be improved by care-
very popular work appeared in several editions
ful breeding, and farmers also missed out on
throughout the seventeenth century. Serres sur-
their future manure and on using their muscle
veyed all aspects of agriculture, starting with ad-
power to work farm implements.
vice on running a religious Calvinist household.
Before de Serres and Weston, many writers He discussed how to domesticate and cultivate
on farming had recommended the cultivation of all the plants and animals he knew. He enthusi-
fodder crops, such as clover, turnips, sainfoin, astically advocated using irrigation to improve
and buckwheat, to increase animal winter food meadows, carefully draining land, and conserv-
stocks. This would use the ground formerly left ing water. He supported the sowing of “artificial
fallow more productively and in turn produce grasses”—that is, nonnative fodder crops—and
more manure, increasing crop production and their use in a rotation of fields that avoided leav-
allowing more animal energy to be applied to ing them fallow. He introduced hops to France,
farming. However, it is now impossible to deter- vital for the development of the brewing indus-
mine where fodder crops were first grown. try because they preserved beer. He was the first
Clover may have been first used in northern agricultural writer to describe and encourage the
Italy, and from there spread to Flanders (now in cultivation of maize and potatoes, newly import-

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ed from the Americas. Eventually these new small area of the Low Countries, differences in
Technology crops improved the diets of many French peas- the soils and the level of the water-table required
& Invention ants because they were cheap and nutritious. different systems. However, their treatment of
Around the time that he published his the light sandy soils astonished foreign visitors
1450-1699 like Weston, and this sandy soil system played a
book, dedicated to King Henry IV of France, de
Serres successfully lobbied Henry to expand ser- great part in the development of modern farm-
iculture, the cultivation of silkworms and the ing in Britain, which has similar soils, as well as
mulberry tree on whose leaves they fed. Begin- other countries of the world.
ning at Henry’s Tuilleries palace, de Serres plant- Weston came to know the Low Country
ed mulberry trees in many other areas of France. farming methods because he fought for the los-
This laid the basis for the important French silk ing side in the English Civil War. A devoted sup-
industry. It is little wonder that de Serres is often porter of Charles I, his estates were seized by
called the father of French agriculture. Parliament in 1644, and he was forced into exile
Because France was so geographically var- in the Low Countries until 1649. He published
ied and traditional localism was so strong, few of his Discourse of Husbandry in 1650 to spread the
these innovations were adopted widely by knowledge of the “ley” farming techniques that
French farmers. Until the French Revolution of he saw between Antwerp and Ghent while in
1789, most farmers persisted in using medieval exile. Ley farming emphasized the careful accu-
methods, leaving a third of their land fallow, and mulation of manure from animals hand-fed in
not breeding their cattle selectively because they stalls during summer with green and root crops,
lacked sufficient feed to keep them through the such as hay, clover, turnips, or flax. When the ley
winter. The improvement of French agricultural lands were ploughed under, the roots left in them
techniques began only just before the Revolu- fertilized the soil. This created a rising cycle of
tion, and in imitation of what had been achieved production, because better-manured crops pro-
in England. duced more food for animals, which in turn pro-
duced more manure. Animals could also be kept
England had increased its agricultural pro- through the winter on the reserves of larger
ductivity by the later eighteenth century largely crops, enabling them to be selectively bred and
because writers like Sir Richard Weston had a preserving their muscle power and manure.
greater impact on English society, which was vig-
orously developing its farming before 1650. Weston tried out this system in Surrey, Eng-
Many earlier books on farming, such as Fitzher- land, after his return from exile. He planted flax,
bert’s Boke of Husbandry (1523) and Thomas turnips, and oats mixed with clover, the latter
Tusser’s Hundreth Good Pointes of Husbandrie mowed three times in the second year, and then
(1557), summarized changes in England such as left as improved grazing for four or five years be-
the floating of water-meadows to better feed cat- fore being ploughed under. More than any other
tle, the grafting and planting of trees, the cultiva- individual Weston was responsible for the crop
tion of hops, and the management of poultry and rotation system that spread over large areas of
cattle, but they also imitated the methods used in Britain after 1650.
the Low Countries, now the Netherlands and The traditional system had used large com-
Belgium. In this way the printing press helped to munal open fields divided into scattered person-
transfer new technology across Europe. al strips of arable land, with communal grazing
The Low Country farmers had to be very rights over the fallow. This new system stimulat-
careful in their farming methods because this ed the conversion of the open fields into individ-
was the most densely populated area in Europe, ually owned enclosed fields, because no one
and they also grew many industrial crops such could grow the new fodder crops on his share of
as flax for the linen industry, red madder and the fallow fields where cattle traditionally
blue woad for dyeing, barley and hops for brew- grazed, for they would be eaten by other peo-
ing, hemp for ropes, and tobacco, recently intro- ple’s animals as well as his own. Nor could good
duced from North America. Farmers specialized cattle be kept apart from the common herd that
in market-gardening of vegetables and fruit bred promiscuously and passed on diseases.
growing, which also required extreme care and Therefore in the long run traditional English so-
the use of fertilizers from cattle-raising areas and ciety based on the communal use of arable and
human waste from the towns. They also pasture land gave way to private farming by in-
changed the ancient three-field system by intro- dividuals. In the process some suffered and oth-
ducing artificial grasses. Even in the relatively ers prospered, increasing social inequality and

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leading to conflict between those who wanted to lation. Without the new rotations that allowed
preserve traditional communal rights and those European farmers to bring more of their land Technology
who wanted to pursue their own self-interest. into production and to keep more and better an- & Invention
On the other hand, the greater productivity imals alive for their fertilizing and energy re-
sources, the industrialized nations would still be 1450-1699
of the new kind of agriculture meant that fewer
workers were needed to ensure an adequate living in a subsistence society comparable to
food supply. So more labor was available for the many third-world countries today.
growing requirements of industry, as the increas- GLYN PARRY
ing demand of a rising population of generally
more prosperous, better-fed people stimulated
Further Reading
the early Industrial Revolution in Britain.
Derry, T.K., and Trevor I. Williams. A Short History of
Technology. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1960.
Impact Mokyr, Joel. The Lever of Riches: Technological Creativity
and Economic Progress. New York: Oxford University
Overall, the modern world could not be possible Press, 1990.
without the innovations practiced and advocat-
Pacey, Arnold. The Maze of Ingenuity. New York: Holmes
ed by de Serres and Weston to increase the pro- & Meier, 1975.
ductivity of the soil and of the animal resources
“Richard Weston.” In The Dictionary of National
of Europe. Our modern industrial society, with Biography. 22 vols. London: Oxford University Press,
its highly specialized workforce, depends on the 1921-22.
application of technology to ensure that the tiny Singer, C., E.J. Holmyard, A.R. Hall, and Trevor I.
minority who work in agriculture can produce Williams. A History of Technology. 8 vols. Oxford: Ox-
an adequate food supply for our growing popu- ford University Press, 1954-84, vol. 3 (1957).

The Development of
Key Instruments for Science


Overview croscope, and other devices for observing and
measuring the world and the universe in which
The unaided human eye can see individual ob-
we live. The growth, then, of ever-more sophisti-
jects as small as a few tens of microns, can detect
cated scientific instruments has had a significant
single photons (when dark-adapted), and can
impact on our view of the world, the universe,
see objects millions of light-years away in space.
and ourselves.
Our fingertips can feel differences in texture re-
sulting from features less than a thousandth of
an inch high, and our other senses can detect Background
similarly small differences in molecular concen-
trations (taste and smell) and vibration (hear- There is no doubt that for as long as humanity
ing). Yet, our eyes are poor compared to a has existed, we have squinted at objects impos-
hawk’s, we cannot hear or smell as well as most sibly tiny or off in the distance. We have done so
dogs, and we cannot begin to duplicate a to try to understand the world in which we find
salmon’s ability to taste the waters of its home ourselves, or simply out of wonder and curiosity.
stream. In order to explore and understand our And where our senses were unable to take us,
world and universe, we must extend our senses our imagination picked up, resulting in fanciful
further still. So we have learned to make tele- hypotheses in areas too numerous to mention.
scopes that can see nearly to the beginning of Our early astronomical observatories date to the
time and microscopes that can see individual time of Stonehenge or before, and the Babyloni-
atoms. And whatever we can see, we have ans, Egyptians, Mayans, Chinese, and most
learned to measure. Our ability to understand other cultures have some history of naked-eye
our world is limited by our senses, as they have astronomical observations.
been augmented by our scientific instruments, At the same time, the small has fascinated
descendents of the first telescope, the first mi- us, too. Unable to see individual cells, we won-

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dered what the human body was made of, the bi- nication from the Catholic Church unless he re-
Technology ology of fertilization, and where disease came nounced his unsettling discoveries. However,
& Invention from. We felt that we should be able to measure within a century, scientists had accepted the fact
anything we could detect, no matter how large or that Earth was not the center of the universe,
1450-1699 small, while the use of ever-more-complex calcu- that the Sun and the Moon were not perfect and
lations made early scientists yearn for a way to unblemished spheres, and that other planets had
reduce the drudgery of endless arithmetic. their own satellite systems.
In the sixteenth century humanity began to These discoveries had the result of displac-
overcome some of these limitations. The Renais- ing Earth from a special place in the cosmos.
sance saw the invention of the telescope, the mi- Once Earth’s motion around the Sun was con-
croscope, precision measuring devices, and firmed, we could no longer claim to live at the
rudimentary calculating devices. All of these center of the universe. We were simply one
helped scientists to see things previously only planet of many around a star that later observa-
speculated about, and in many cases, what was tions were to show was really nothing special,
seen was completely unexpected. As a result, either. Until Galileo’s observations, and those
humanity’s notions of how the world worked that were to follow, man could claim to be the
were turned upside down. favored species of God, living at the center of
Creation. Ultimately, developments in new and
Impact different telescopes have given us “eyes” above
the atmosphere and in wavelengths not even
The impact of these new instruments on science known to exist by Newton. We can now see
and on society was profound and nearly univer- back in time almost to the big bang (at least, to
sal. Although a great many instruments were de- within about a million years of the big bang)
veloped during this time, we will concentrate on and can look at our universe in wavelengths
the scientific and societal impacts of only four: ranging from gamma rays to radio waves. And
the telescope, the microscope, the vernier with each new improvement, we continue to
caliper, and calculating devices. find explanations, new phenomena, and still
more questions.
The Telescope
Although there is some evidence of lenses
The Microscope
going back over 2,000 years, the first telescope
If the telescope gave us the ability to peer out-
was not consciously made until sometime in
wards into the universe, the microscope has
the late sixteenth or early seventeenth cen-
given us the ability to gaze within; within our-
turies. The standard story is that a Dutch spec-
selves and within just about any other object we
tacle maker by the name of Hans Lippershay (c.
care to examine. The microscope may have been
1570-1619) invented the first telescope, but it
invented by Lippershay, too, although Sacharias
was almost certainly invented earlier, and Lip-
Jansen (1588-c. 1628) is thought to have per-
pershay was simply the first to apply for a
formed important work as well, and Robert
patent (later denied) in 1608. By 1609 Galileo
Hooke (1635-1703) was among the first to
(1564-1642) had heard about the device and
make microscopic discoveries widely known.
made one of his own that turned out to be a
significant improvement over Lippershay’s. Just as the telescope gave us an entirely
Over the next century the telescope was im- new way to look at the heavens, the microscope
proved by a number of people, including gave us an unprecedented ability to look at our-
Galileo and Isaac Newton (1642-1727), com- selves and the details of our world. Cells were
ing to roughly modern form (in design, if not discovered in cork, showing us for the first time
in size) relatively quickly. what our bodies were made of. Pond water was
shown to be swarming with microscopic life,
The telescope was a boon to scientists and
leading eventually to the germ theory of disease
the bane of the Church and tradition. Looking
upon which so much of public health is based.
through a relatively simple and inexpensive de-
More discoveries followed, and each of them
vice, astronomers found that the Moon’s face
showed more detail about how the living world
was cratered and mountainous, the Sun’s face
worked.
was mottled with dark spots, the Milky Way was
actually a collection of uncountable stars, Jupiter These discoveries, in turn, helped to show
had both bands and moons, and much more. again that humans did not differ significantly
Galileo was actually threatened with excommu- from other animals. Like them, we were com-

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prised of cells, and most of these cells looked verse. In many ways, science and technology can
like their counterparts in the animal world. only advance to the limits of what we can mea- Technology
This was another indication that, although gift- sure, because what we cannot measure, we can- & Invention
ed with the power of abstract thought, not scientifically understand. And with these in-
mankind was also a member of the animal creased powers of measurement, our ability to 1450-1699
kingdom, and was likely not placed on a understand our place in the universe and our
pedestal. At the same time, biological and med- ability to manipulate our world have increased
ical research performed with these microscopes substantially, contributing directly to the devel-
has led to an immeasurable increase in human opment of engines, aircraft, and modern elec-
medical knowledge, and it’s safe to say that tronics, among others.
much of the success of modern medicine is
based in whole or in part on the microscopic Calculating Devices
examination of tissues, germs, and more. The last of the devices this essay will address is
Over the intervening centuries, the micro- the calculating device. Until John Napier (1550-
scope, too, has been expanded in capability and 1617) developed the first slide rule in 1617, all
in utility, now finding uses in geology, materials calculation was performed by hand. As anyone
science, and more. Modern microscopes include who has labored through a difficult series of cal-
the confocal microscope, able to focus on very culations can attest, working through involved
small slices of individual cells; the electron mi- calculations by hand greatly increases the oppor-
croscope, which can image viruses and smaller tunity to make mistakes, often requiring each set
objects; and the atomic force microscope, which of calculations to be repeated several times to
can “see” and manipulate individual atoms. ensure everything was done properly. To get an
idea of the work involved, try to picture one of
the lengthy tables of logarithms or trigonometric
The Vernier Caliper
functions often still found in the back of mathe-
Although often overlooked or taken for granted,
matics textbooks. Now, try to picture calculating
the ability to make precise and accurate mea-
all of those numbers individually, by hand, with-
surements is crucial to both science and technol-
out the benefit of a calculator or computer. Yet
ogy. Manufacturing a steam engine, for example,
this is precisely how such tables were originally
requires one to measure with sufficient accuracy
constructed.
that a piston will slide freely in a cylinder, nei-
ther binding to the sides nor leaving such a gap The first slide rule simplified these calcula-
that steam leaks out. Similarly, making a tele- tions enormously by making the basics of multi-
scope requires grinding lenses and fitting them plication and division mechanical rather than
to a tube with some degree of precision. These mental. Assuming the slide rule was made prop-
tasks are both dependent on the ability to make erly, all one had to do was to line up the appro-
dimensional measurements that are precise and priate numbers and read out the answer accord-
accurate. ing to some simple rules. Not only was much of
the labor taken out of these calculations, but the
One of the first precision measuring devices
chances of error were reduced substantially. Sci-
was invented in the early seventeenth century by
entists, engineers, and mathematicians became
French mathematician Pierre Vernier (1584-
more accurate as well as more productive.
1638). This device, still called a “vernier,” con-
sists of two scales, a main scale and a sliding As with the other devices mentioned here,
scale. Using this, one can measure dimensions the process of calculation has advanced beyond
with a fairly high degree of precision and accura- Napier’s dreams in the intervening centuries.
cy. In fact, vernier calipers are still in common Surprisingly, the slide rule survived almost un-
use in machine shops, scientific laboratories, in- changed for nearly 350 years before being sup-
strument shops, and elsewhere because of their planted by the hand calculator in the 1970s.
simplicity and accuracy. Since that time, electronic calculators have be-
come more powerful than the earlier computers,
The vernier was, of course, only the first
while computers and computer-aided computa-
precision measuring instrument. In the interven-
tion have gained the ability to perform more cal-
ing centuries, measuring technology has ex-
culations in a few minutes than an early mathe-
panded greatly to the point where scientists can
matician could have performed in a lifetime.
directly weigh individual molecules, can mea-
sure lengths to a matter of angstroms, or can The impact of calculating devices on soci-
measure distances to the edge of the visible uni- ety and the ability to perform calculations

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rapidly and accurately has been a tremendous creased greatly. This, in turn, helped humanity
Technology boon to science and technology, as well as to to gain a better understanding of our place in
& Invention the worlds of finance, insurance, business, the universe.
and more.
1450-1699 P. ANDREW KARAM

Summary
The last centuries of the Renaissance saw the Further Reading
development of the first of what became a Brecht, Bertholt. Galileo. New York: Grove Press, 1966.
centuries-long succession of scientific instru- King, Henry C. The History of the Telescope. Cambridge,
ments and devices. These devices helped to MA: Sky Publishing, 1955.
reduce much of the tedium of scientific calcu-
Maor, Eli. E: The Story of a Number. Princeton, NJ: Prince-
lation, made possible the development of pre- ton University Press, 1994.
cision machinery, and extended the range of
Morrison, Philip, and Phylis Morrison. Powers of Ten: A
human senses immeasurably. With all of this, Book about the Relative Size of Things in the Universe
our ability to understand and manipulate our and the Effect of Adding Another Zero. Redding, CT:
world, our universe, and ourselves also in- Scientific American Books, 1982.

The Measure of Time

Overview
Beginning with the designs of Leonardo da Vinci
(1452-1519) and Galileo Galilei (1564-1642),
pendulums set in motion an evolution in accuracy
and utility of clocks and watches. Various escape-
ments managed motion into regular intervals. Bal-
ance wheels made miniaturization possible. Relia-
bility became the holy grail of clockmakers, as
temperature, torque, and friction were countered.
Measurements became precise enough to justify
adding a second hand, and clocks and watches be-
came standard instruments for navigation and sci-
entific experimentation. Ultimately, accurate
clocks initiated changes beyond the measurement
of hours, minutes, and seconds, creating mechani-
cal devices, new philosophical concepts, and a
new view of time itself.

Background
There is only one measurement most people
make every day—that of time. Clocks and
watches are both widely used and highly person- Christiaan Huygens. (Library of Congress. Reproduced
with permission.)
al devices. For timepieces—and a mechanical
view of time—to permeate our culture, they had
to become accurate and mobile. The first break- cal clocks had existed since about A.D. 1000,
through came with a simple mechanism for di- powered by falling weights and controlled by
viding time into equal intervals—the pendulum. verge escapements (bars with points at each end
The person who had this insight was Galileo. that rocked back and forth, allowing the energy
In Galileo’s time, clocks were imprecise and of the falling weight to escape bit by bit by limit-
used primarily for religious purposes. Mechani- ing the turning of a toothed gear). These clocks,

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at best, lost 15 minutes a day. The hours of the known scientist. It was only when Huygens re-
day were not yet standardized (a practice which vealed his detection of the ring of Saturn that he Technology
came about with another invention, the train), was accepted as an original who was extending, & Invention
and the modern sense of timekeeping, absolute, rather that stealing, the legacy of Galileo.
scientific, and independent of nature and tradi- 1450-1699
tion, did not yet exist. As valuable as the regulating quality of the
pendulum was, it wasn’t a very portable mecha-
But careful measurement had begun to nism. In about 1500 Peter Henlein (1480-1542),
come into its own during the Renaissance as ob- a German blacksmith, created the first watch,
servation and the scientific method took root. powered by a spring. Henlein’s use of a spring as
Nicolaus Copernicus (1473-1543) tracked the a portable power could replace weights, but how
planets; Albrecht Dürer (1471-1528) used de- could a pendulum be made equally portable?
vices to add perspective to his drawings; explor- Here, Englishman Robert Hooke (1635-1703) is
ers like Christopher Columbus (1451-1506) and given credit for a clever leap of imagination.
Ferdinand Magellan (1480?-1521) took careful Hooke, an accomplished scientist who discov-
notes of winds, currents, and stars. Leonardo da ered refraction, first used the word “cell” as a bio-
Vinci, a keen observer with exceptional mechan- logical term, and stated the inverse square law to
ical intuition, even sketched out a design of a explain the motion of planets, was fascinated by
pendulum clock. But, as was typical of Leonar- the physics of springs. He had discovered the
do, the design remained hidden in his note- principle (now known as Hooke’s Law) that the
books for generations. stretching of a solid body is proportional to the
Galileo was a major proponent of making force applied to it, and saw that a spring could be
science more quantitative, and taking advantage used to perform the task of a pendulum. His spi-
of the power of experimentation. When he first ral balance spring (1660) was fixed to the move-
turned his attention to the pendulum in 1582, ment at the outer end and to a friction-held col-
the device was the subject of the experiment, lar at the other. The spring winds and unwinds,
not the means for its measure. He used his own according to the balance of the mechanism, oscil-
pulse to time the intervals of the swings of a lating in exact analogy with the working of a
chandelier and discovered that they were ex- pendulum. (As with the pendulum, the balance
ceedingly regular, even when the angles were wheel must get a regular “kick,” provided by the
varied. He and his students observed oscillations mainspring, to keep going.) By 1674, Huygens
of pendulums throughout an entire day to con- was making watches that included balance
firm that the swing of a pendulum has a con- wheels and spring assemblies (with what was
stant period (now known not to be completely probably the first useful instance of the spiral
true). From this point on, Galileo used pendu- balance spring) that were correct within 10 min-
lums to measure short periods of times in his ex- utes over the period of a day.
periment, but he did not succeed in creating the
About that same time, Englishman Thomas
first pendulum clock. Though weight power,
Tompion (1639-1714) also began making
gears, and escapements were familiar to him,
watches that used balance springs. He went on
Galileo was defeated in his attempts to build a
to become the most famous English clockmaker
pendulum clock by the difficulty in transferring
of his time, and introduced a number of im-
the energy from the pendulum to a cog-wheel,
provements that made pendulum clocks more
and by problems with keeping the pendulum
accurate and portable. Together with Edward
from slowing up and stopping.
Barlow and William Houghton, he also patented
The honor of building the first practical the cylinder escapement (1695). Here, the
pendulum clock goes to the Dutch physicist and wheel’s teeth alternately ride on the inside of the
astronomer Christiaan Huygens (1629-1695). cylinder, then on the outside. This created a
He completed his first model in 1656, using compact mechanism for regulating spring
gravity not just to power the mechanism, but power, which allowed the making of flat watch-
also to regularly give a “kick” to the pendulum es. Jean de Hautefeuille (1647-1724), a French
to keep it going. By 1657 he had created a clock physicist interested in acoustics and tidal phe-
that was accurate to less than a minute per day, nomena, claimed priority for the invention of
many times better than any clocks that preceded the spiral balance spring, but is not generally
it. Huygens’s triumph was not immediately cele- credited with it (though he is credited with the
brated in his day. In fact, there quickly were invention of the virgule escapement for watches
charges of plagiarism against the young, un- in 1670).

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In the 1660s, William Clement invented an accurate timekeeping did. As clocks came to
Technology escapement that was so effective that it justified represent shared, community time, rather that
& Invention the use of a second hand. The anchor escape- personal time, they especially needed regularity,
ment (so-called because of its shape) rocks back consistency, and standardization. Accomplishing
1450-1699 and forth in the same plane as the toothed this required new tools and new skills. With this
wheel, providing a highly controlled braking of new capability, springs, gears, and other devices
the motion of the mechanism. for managing energy found their way into other
devices, including toys, automata, weapons, and
industrial equipment. The success of these de-
Impact vices and the mechanical view they engendered
Over a 250-year period, timekeeping went from led to a cultural change. Clockmakers began
the village clocktower, accurate to the hour, to forming their own craft guilds as early as 1544,
timepieces that were personal, portable, reliable, with the Guild of Clockmakers in Paris. These
and accurate to the second. The very concept of people shared a point of view. They actively
time and its use changed during this period. sought to use their skills to solve other prob-
Noon came not to mean when the Sun was at its lems. It is no coincidence that inventors John
zenith (apparent time), but the average of the Fitch (1743-1798), John Whitehurst, David Rit-
times it was at its zenith (mean time), and hu- tenhouse (1732-1796), Eli Terry (1772-1852),
mans began dividing their days by the rule of a Alexander Bain (1818-1903), Benjamin Hunts-
mechanism rather than nature. man (1704-1776), and John Kay (1704-1780?),
as well as French economist and politician Pierre
The ever more exact measurement of time du Pont de Nemours (1739-1817), were all
was part of a general trend of measurement clockmakers. The image of the clockmaker-in-
brought about by the successes of the scientific ventor even entered literature (for example,
method. Numbers and standards were being ap- Drosselmeyer in The Nutcracker) and became the
plied to mass, volume, distance, heat, and other precursor for nutty inventors and mad scientists
physical properties, inevitably moving toward that are prevalent in popular culture.
the adoption of the metric system. Accurate
measurement became essential to the progress of The clock exemplified a mechanical view
science and, on a more fundamental level, mea- that, with the rise of science, moved inexorably
surement allowed scientific concepts to be de- into the philosophical arena. With the develop-
veloped and expressed with equations, where ment of Isaac Newton’s (1642-1727) laws, the
pictorial and geometric methods had previously idea of a clockmaker god, who built the universe
been dominant. The clock’s contribution to sci- then stood aside to listen to it tick, took hold. By
ence initially centered on astronomy, allowing an the 1700s this concept was an inspiration to
ever more detailed understanding of celestial dy- Deists, Rationalists, and Materialists, and contin-
namics. However, physics and engineering were ues to be a lively subject of debate.
not far behind. Western culture is obsessed with time (time
The Age of Exploration was nearly over be- is money), creating ever more accurate electronic
fore the clock made a contribution. John Harri- digital clocks, as well as watches that are the hall-
son’s (1693-1776) chronometer allowed accu- marks of fashion and beauty. Our machines also
rate determination of longitude, but Columbus, have an obsession with time. Every computer in-
Magellan, and Vasco da Gama (1460?-1524) had cludes a clock, which is essential to its operation.
depended on luck and “sailing the parallel” to And the watch, in particular, has been a model
avoid getting lost at sea. While this may have for interactive devices of the information age.
been adequate for adventurers, it was not suffi- Accoding to historian Lewis Mumford: “The
cient for naval operations and was particularly clock, not the steam engine, is the key machine
unacceptable for commerce. Thus, the of the modern industrial age. In its relationship
chronometer became a key tool in establishing to determinable quantities of energy, to stan-
sea power and facilitating worldwide trade. dardization, to automatic action and finally to its
own special product, accurate timing, the clock
Accurate clocks also made a commercial im-
has been the foremost machine in modern tech-
pact in factories by regulating work and syn-
nics; and at each period it has remained in the
chronizing activity. This allowed more complex
lead: it marks a perfection toward which other
processes and greater efficiencies. In addition,
machines aspire.”
the development of precision parts for clock-
making made at least as large a contribution as PETER J. ANDREWS

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Further Reading Landes, David S. Revolution in Time: Clocks and the Making
Asimov, Isaac. Isaac Asimov’s Biographical Encyclopedia of
of the Modern World, Cambridge, MA: Harvard Uni- Technology
versity Press, 2000.
Science & Technology. New York: Doubleday, 1976. & Invention
Yoder, Joella G. Unrolling Time: Christiaan Huygens and the
Barnett, Jo Ellen. Time’s Pendulum: From Sundials to Atom- Mathematization of Nature. Cambridge: Cambridge
ic Clocks, the Fascinating History of Timekeeping and 1450-1699
University Press, 1989.
How Our Discoveries Changed the World. Chestnut Hill,
MA: Harvest Books, 1999.

Development of the Self-Regulating Oven

Overview glass spiral that contained a small amount of liq-
uid. Changes in temperature caused the air in
At the start of the seventeenth century, there was
the bulb to increase by day and decrease during
no way to measure heat. Although it was known
the night. These variations caused the liquid in
that air expanded as it was heated, and com-
the spiral to move back and forth in a continu-
pressed as it was cooled, no one had thought to
ous motion, mimicking the flow of the tides. To
assign numbers to the degrees of hot and cold.
many, the motions of the liquid in the tube were
Cornelis Drebbel (1572-1633) was one of a
mysterious; but other of Drebbel’s contempo-
small group of European practical and learned
raries realized that what he had built was an air
men who worked on developing air thermome-
thermometer.
ters that included numerical scales. Their inven-
tions and innovations illustrate the seventeenth- Drebbel later used the principle of the per-
century trend toward quantifying natural phe- petuum mobile in constructing his most notable
nomena. But Drebbel’s greatest invention was invention: an oven with an automatic tempera-
the thermostat. ture-regulating device that we now call a ther-
mostat. So that he could hatch duck and chick-
Background en eggs all year round, Drebbel built an appara-
tus consisting of a closed pool of alcohol
Drebbel began his career in Holland as an en- connected to a tube containing mercury. As the
graver, but turned to mechanical invention in temperature rose in the oven, the alcohol ex-
1598. He had a special interest in how tempera- panded, and pushed the mercury up the tube,
ture and pressure cause a volume of air to vary. which opened a valve that admitted cold air. The
For example, Drebbel observed that heating air air then cooled the oven, and as the temperature
and water causes them to expand, whereas cool- fell, the volume of alcohol decreased. This
ing compresses them. He described experiments caused the mercury column to drop and thereby
in which he hung an empty glass laboratory ves- shut the valve, so that the heat of the oven
sel, called a retort, with its mouth in a container would again begin to raise the temperature.
of water and its bulb toward a flame. As the air in
the glass warmed, air bubbled out of the mouth Drebbel wrote little, and left no records con-
of the retort into the water. But removing the cerning his thermostatic furnaces. What we
flame from the fire cooled the air and com- know of his work, we know from his contempo-
pressed it, drawing water up into the glass. raries. After Drebbel’s death, the executors of his
estate filed an English patent on his furnaces on
Drebbel first applied the results of his ob- behalf of his descendants. His inventions did not
servations to a kind of perpetual motion ma- become widely known until years later. At a
chine that he called the perpetuum mobile. The meeting of the Royal Society in 1662, in response
perpetuum mobile was an elaborate toy that to a problem proposed by Sir Robert Moray, a
Drebbel delighted in showing off to the Emperor member suggested Drebbel’s method of regulat-
Rudolf II (1552-1612) in Prague in 1610. ing a furnace using a mercury thermometer. But
Drebbel divided his working life between Eng- the proceedings in which Moray’s remarks are
land and continental Europe, and his initial quoted provide no technical details. Drebbel’s in-
fame was probably due to this invention. cubators for hatching eggs were mentioned in
Basically, the perpetuum mobile consisted of a the Royal Society in 1668. In fact it is Drebbel’s
glass bulb filled with air and connected with a son-in-law Johan Sibertus Kuffler (1595-1677)

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that we have to thank for building several of from the desired temperature. In Drebbel’s time,
Technology Drebbel’s furnaces and supplying technical infor- the oven was going constantly. For him, the feed-
& Invention mation about the temperature regulators. back mechanism didn’t reduce the production of
Drebbel was not alone in proposing ideas heat, as it does in a modern thermostat where the
1450-1699 furnace goes off. Instead, for Drebbel, as the heat
for keeping heat at a constant degree. In 1677
the physicist Robert Hooke (1635-1703) de- increased, the feedback mechanism dissipated
scribed how several oil lamps could be made to the heat by applying cold air. Drebbel applied a
burn evenly. And in 1680, Johann Joachim principle that we realize is a much more signifi-
Becher (1635-1682) claimed to have invented cant one than just hatching eggs. It led to the
temperature regulators. But Becher failed to sup- self-control of mechanical devices.
ply technical details and illustrations. The question persists whether Drebbel can
also claim credit for having independently in-
Although the idea of temperature regulation
vented the air thermometer. His perpetual mo-
remained undeveloped in England for the next
tion machine is usually interpreted as one, al-
century, a nobleman from Lyon named Balthasar
though Drebbel did not call it that. Certainly,
de Monconys (1611-1665) had visited re-
contemporary accounts appear to indicate that
searchers and learned of Drebbel’s thermostatic
he was widely thought to have invented it. A let-
furnace in conversation with them. Johan Siber-
ter written to the philosopher and astronomer
tus Kuffler had even shown it to him. Monconys
Galileo Galilei (1564-1642) mentions that the
published his observations in a book that ap-
machine’s tube was marked with equidistant di-
peared in several editions between 1677 and
agonal lines. But although it is clear that Drebbel
1697. Thus, though neglected in England, the
understood the principles involved and could
temperature regulator became common knowl-
have constructed a thermometer if he had want-
edge in continental Europe.
ed to, the actual inventor remains unknown.
Along with Drebbel, the other likely candidates
Impact are Galileo; Santorio Santorre (1561-1611), a
The thermostatic principle of Drebbel’s self-reg- professor of medicine at Padua in Italy; and the
ulating furnaces applies to self-regulation of all Welsh mystic Robert Fludd (1574-1637).
kinds, in engineering and industry, as well as bi- Drebbel lived in troubled times. The Refor-
ological systems such as body temperature. We mation, a religious revolution that began in
use the term “feedback control” to describe the 1517, had raised questions that were still not re-
mechanisms that drive these systems. Drebbel’s solved in the early 1600s. Artists and inventors
thermostatic furnace has been called the first depended for their survival on the favor of
feedback system invented since antiquity. kings, and they were often caught up in a web of
Feedback control functions to make unstable religious and political machinations. Drebbel
systems stable. It’s what allows quantities such as himself was arrested and released several times
pressure, temperature, velocity, and thickness to in various countries. The established order of
be maintained at a constant level. Feedback con- science was still governed by the Aristotelian
trol systems have three components: they mea- view of the universe, and by rigidly held ideas
sure output, compare the output with a desired about the constitution of matter that had no
value, and then make corrections to achieve that basis in the observable world.
value. For example, in a steel rolling mill a feed- In his inventions, Drebbel displayed under-
back mechanism controls the thickness of the bil- standing of established scientific principles.
lets, in a robot it controls the position of the end Moreover, his research in chemistry and physics
of the robot’s arm, and in a tank it controls the may well have contained significant discoveries.
pressure of the contents of the tank. But he was also a showman, and sometimes
As you produce a product, the accumulation mixed his results with magic to exhibit to an ad-
of the product slows or stops further production. miring public. What science there was would
When something is being heated in the oven, as have been hard to discern behind the hocus-
the temperature of the oven increases, the pocus. What he was, through and through, was
process of heating decreases. A modern room an inventor who had little concern for publiciz-
thermostat has a sensing element that responds ing his inventions.
to the air temperature in the room, and a control Although no one disputes Drebbel’s inven-
element that regulates the heating process by tion of the temperature regulator, he did not
making a correction whenever the air deviates himself document his invention, nor did he at-

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tempt to produce it on any scale. It was others 1790) economic postulate of laissez-faire, by
who in the eighteenth century turned his impro- which, given the right conditions, economies will Technology
vised laboratory device into a carefully designed automatically swing into equilibrium. & Invention
practical appliance. It is one of the mysteries of
GISELLE WEISS
the history of technology why some inventions 1450-1699
appear and fail to develop, even when the sci-
ence and know-how to develop them are at Further Reading
hand. One argument, aside from Drebbel’s own Books
peculiar methods, is that interest in feedback Mayr, Otto. The Origins of Feedback Control. Cambridge,
mechanisms had to await inventions that re- MA: MIT Press, 1970.
quired them, such as the steam engine or float Middleton, W. E. Knowles. A History of the Thermometer
regulators for domestic water supplies. and Its Use in Meteorology. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins
Press, 1966.
Mystery notwithstanding, the importance of Tierie, G. Cornelis Drebbel (1572-1633). Amsterdam: H. J.
the idea of feedback control from the eighteenth Paris, 1932.
century forward cannot be underestimated. Ap- Thorndike, Lynn. The Thermometer: History of Magic and
plied to biology, it is known as homeostasis, and Experimental Science. Vol. 7: Seventeenth Century. New
refers to the ability of organisms to remain stable York: Columbia University Press, 1958.
while adjusting to conditions they need to sur- Internet Sites
vive. It was also adopted in fields beyond engi- http://es.rice.edu/ES/humsoc/Galileo/Things/thermome-
neering, for example, in Adam Smith’s (1723- ter.htm

Denis Papin Invents the Pressure Cooker

Overview stove appeared in the 1600s, the vast majority of
cooking was done over an open fire, or more
A pressure cooker is a vessel that uses steam
rarely, in a rudimentary oven. Even in the latter
under high pressure for cooking food. It offers a
case, fire provided the heat.
number of benefits, including fast, often low-fat
cooking that preserves the minerals—and even Fire would also be the source of heat in the
the coloration—of fruits, vegetables, and meats. steam digester, though the significance of Papin’s
For Americans born in the twentieth century, innovation was that it introduced a new medium
pressure cookers were a familiar part of home between the flame and the food it cooked:
life, so much so that they had come to seem pos- steam. In fact the road to Papin’s invention was
itively old-fashioned by the 1990s, when they not a direct one, because his chief concern was
began making a comeback among health-con- not cooking but steam pressure and power.
scious consumers. In fact the genesis of the pres- The last real progress in steam power prior
sure cooker dates back to a 1679 invention by to Papin’s time dated back some 1,500 years, to
French physicist Denis Papin (1647-1712), Hero of Alexandria (fl. first century A.D.). Hero’s
though it would be many centuries before a aeliophile consisted of a sphere resting on two
modified version of his “steam digester” would hollow tubes, themselves connected to a steam-
be adapted for household use. producing boiler. The heated steam escaped
through the hollow tubes, which then caused
Background the sphere to whirl. It was an interesting inven-
Many of the features associated with the modern tion, but really nothing more than a curiosity—
kitchen and dining room are more recent in ori- rather like the wheels created by the Olmec of
gin than most modern people would imagine: ancient Mesoamerica, who used them only in
the plate, for instance, did not make its debut making children’s toys, and failed to grasp their
among the common people until the sixteenth use in providing traction for transportation, agri-
or seventeenth century. Much of a cook’s work culture, and building projects.
was done by methods that had persisted more or Papin himself began his career working not
less unchanged since prehistoric times. Until the on steam, but on air pumps, as an assistant to

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physicists Christiaan Huygens (1629-1695) and into this he placed a drop of water. He could
Technology Robert Boyle (1627-1691). He worked with Huy- then see when the water boiled, and using a
& Invention gens in Paris from 1671 to 1675, then with Boyle three-foot pendulum, he was able to time the in-
in London until 1679, the year he presented his terval necessary for boiling as well as for evapo-
1450-1699 steam digester to the Royal Society. No doubt the ration. He also weighed the coal necessary to op-
heightened atmosphere of curiosity and experi- erate the pressure cooker, as a means of measur-
mentation associated with the Royal Society, one ing the instrument’s efficiency.
of the most influential scientific institutions in
world history, had an effect on his thinking. In
any case, it was during this period that he devel- Impact
oped the idea of using steam as a form of power. Though Papin’s invention would ultimately have
Papin first demonstrated his “New Digester a great impact in the kitchen, its influence was
for Softening Bones” before the Royal Society on still greater, because in fact what he had created
May 22, 1679. To modern eyes, it was an un- was a forerunner of the piston and cylinder
gainly looking contraption, a far cry from the mechanism later incorporated into engines.
compact pressure cookers that would later ap- When the cold water inside the cylinder was
pear in modern kitchens. Shaped rather like a heated, this raised the “piston”—i.e., the cooking
potbellied stove, the digester consisted of a vessel. This in turn created a partial vacuum, and
raised metal cylinder containing a glass vessel. as a result, the outside air pressure forced the pis-
Papin filled the cylinder with water equal to the ton downward. Of course in the case of the pres-
difference in volume between the glass container sure cooker, the purpose was not to force the
and the cylinder itself, then placed some meat cooking vessel toward the bottom of the cylinder,
into the container, added liquid to it, and sealed but simply to produce the pressure necessary for
it. He then applied heat from a fire beneath the cooking; nonetheless, the principle of the active
cylinder, using a built-in safety valve to release piston stroke had made its appearance.
excess steam once the interior of the container Sir Christopher Wren (1632-1723) of the
had reached the necessary pressure. Royal Society commissioned Papin to write a
The gentlemen of the Royal Society were booklet concerning his invention, and Papin went
pleased to discover that the steam digester on to conduct experiments with the idea of a steam
cooked the meat quickly and thoroughly, pro- engine. In 1690 he produced an atmospheric en-
ducing a dish far more tender and tasty than a gine using a tube, three inches (7.6 cm) in diame-
similar item cooked over a fire. The key element ter and sealed at one end, that contained a movable
was the steam, which increased the pressure piston. The tube was filled with cold water that,
and—because of the relationship between pres- when heated, converted to steam. This caused the
sure and temperature—heated the meat more tube to rise; then as the steam cooled and con-
quickly than a mere fire could have. As a result densed, the atmospheric pressure forced the piston
of cooking faster, the food retained more of its to move downward to its original position.
flavor and (though this was a fact far beyond the In 1698 English inventor Thomas Savery
knowledge of scientists in the seventeenth cen- (1650-1715) developed a pump used for remov-
tury) its nutritional content. ing water from flooded mines. Papin studied Sav-
Another aspect of scientific knowledge yet ery’s pump, which did not include a piston, and
to make its appearance at the time was an accu- concluded that the addition of the latter would
rate means of measuring temperature. That make a more effective engine. He also improved
would have to wait for two men who were not on Savery’s idea of a boat propelled by side pad-
even born at the time: Daniel Fahrenheit (1686- dles, which though it seemed impractical to
1736) and Anders Celsius (1701-1744), who many at the time, would obviously offer great ad-
produced their respective temperature scales in vantages over either human or wind power.
the following century. Because the pressure Savery himself, failing to see the implica-
cooker did its work so quickly, it was important tions of steam in this instance, had intended to
to have some idea when the meat was cooked, use muscle power for operating the paddles,
so as to avoid overcooking—but for safety, this whereas Papin’s paddle wheel—prefiguring the
had to be done without lifting the lid. idea of a steamboat—used steam. Unfortunately,
Papin devised an ingenious method for the vessel was destroyed, apparently by river
overcoming this challenge. He had a depression boatmen who feared a challenge to their means
built into the top of the pressure cooker, and of livelihood. The full realization of the steam

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engine itself would have to wait for Thomas energy-efficient means of cooking. As a result,
Newcomen (1663-1729), who produced his in baby boomers grew up on meals cooked in the Technology
1712, the same year that Papin died. appliance, which became as much a fixture of & Invention
1950s and 1960s households as television sets
Ironically, the man who created the pressure
and frost-free refrigerators. Pressure cookers 1450-1699
cooker, and played a major role in the use of
were particularly useful for people living in
steam power, died poor and largely forgotten.
high-altitude areas, where lowered atmospheric
The pressure cooker, too, lingered in obscurity
pressure required longer cooking times for foods
for many years, and when it finally did receive
prepared with a traditional oven or stove.
attention, it was not used for the application
most commonly associated with it today. Rather, The pressure cooker proved so popular, in
as scientists in the centuries that followed came fact, that it had come to seem rather passé by the
to recognize the value of sterilization in the 1970s and the 1980s. Fear of dangers associated
medical environment, the pressure cooker en- with high-pressure cooking may also have had
tered service as a sterilizer for metal instruments. something to do with its waning use: an episode
of the highly popular I Love Lucy television show
The first notable culinary application of the during the 1950s, for instance, featured a pres-
pressure cooker after Papin’s time came in 1810, sure cooker that exploded, sending hot food fly-
when French chef and confectioner Nicolas ing all over star Lucille Ball’s kitchen. Pressure-
François Appert used it for boiling sealed con- cooker manufacturers responded by adding safe-
tainers of food. Thus was born the canning in- ty features such as locks, pressure regulators,
dustry, which made it possible to preserve foods and low-pressure fryers. These measures, cou-
indefinitely, and to transport them anywhere. pled with a growing interest in healthy eating,
At the beginning of the twentieth century, spurred a resurgence of interest in the pressure
when other innovations such as the harnessing cooker during the 1990s.
of electrical power served to facilitate the use of
JUDSON KNIGHT
the pressure cooker for home use, the appliance
finally began to appear in the kitchen. The term
“pressure cooker” itself first appeared in print in Further Reading
1915, and by the 1920s pressure cookers them-
selves had made their way into the homes of Books
Bluestein, Barry. Express Cooking: Making Healthy Meals
wealthy and middle-class consumers. At the Fast in Today’s Quiet, Safe Pressure Cookers. New York:
World’s Fair in 1939, National Presto Industries HP Books, 2000.
presented what became the first widely popular Larson, Egan. The Pegasus Book of Inventors. London: D.
commercial pressure cooker. Dobson, 1965.
World War II proved to be a boon for the Internet Sites
pressure cooker, when wartime shortages of en- “Papin Engine Animation.” http://www.geocities.com/
ergy forced American homemakers to seek more Athens/Acropolis/6914/pappe.htm (July 12, 2000).

Andrea Palladio and Developments

in Western Architecture


Overview philosophies on the design of houses, bridges,
civic and public buildings, and ancient temples.
At the height of his popularity and influence in
Quattro Libri is widely regarded as the finest ar-
1570, Italian architect Andrea Palladio (1508-
chitectural textbook ever produced.
1580) published his masterpiece, a treatise titled
I Quattro Libri Dell’ Architettura (Four Books of Ar-
chitecture). The book solidified his standing as
one of the greatest architects in history. Quattro Background
Libri allowed Palladio’s contemporaries and fu- Palladio’s spiritual mentor was ancient Roman
ture generations of architects to examine his architect Vitruvius, whose work Ten Books on Ar-

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chitecture, was the first attempt to outline the tor’s ideas regarding symmetrical layout, with a
Technology theoretical principles of the field. Although Vit- large central room and flanking towers. During
& Invention ruvius’s efforts gave architecture an intellectual his studies, Palladio copied Serlio’s woodcuts
footing it lacked prior to his study, he still was and drawings of Roman monuments. Humanis-
1450-1699 unable to cover the discipline completely. Never- tic architecture study centered on the writings
theless, Vitruvius still supplied the best blue- and remains of classical antiquity.
print to date and his work was regarded as the
Architecture historians are not sure why
exemplary text for hundreds of years.
Palladio was drawn to publication, but it seemed
Vitruvius’s influence was so great that Leon to be on his mind from the start of his career.
Battista Alberti (1404-1472) imitated his style in Many of his early villa and palace drawings look
his own De Re Aedificatoria, even though he was as if he intended them to be published. Palladio’s
critical of the Roman master. Alberti incorporated career as an author seems to stem from his early
numerous literary sources into his work, includ- trips to Rome in the 1540s. He acquired many
ing Plato (427?-347 B.C.) and Aristotle (384-322 blueprints for ancient buildings and added them
B.C.), to create a sociology of architecture. to his own expanding portfolio.
The advent of mass printing allowed both Architects in the sixteenth century, like Serlio,
authors to gain wider audiences. Alberti was first commented on the difficulty and high cost associ-
published in 1485, while publishers reprinted ated with studying ancient buildings. Thus, pub-
Vitruvius’s treatise a year later. Architectural lishing was a way to preserve their work. In the
books increased dramatically in the sixteenth dedication of the first two books of Quattro Libri,
century and were translated into Italian, thus ex- Palladio echoes this sentiment. Also, in 1555,
panding readership and the use of the works as writer Anton Francesco Doni discussed Palladio’s
teaching tools. Translators were also able to il- prodigious output, saying, “The man came into
lustrate the books with woodcuts. In 1522 an the world to put architecture to rights. His book
Italian version of Vitruvius appeared with more has no title, but from its contents it could be de-
than 100 illustrations. scribed as a guide to good architecture.”
Another important architect and author, Se- With his publication of Quattro Libri, Palla-
bastiano Serlio (1475-1554), published a multi- dio drew upon the various strands of architec-
volume handbook beginning in 1537. His five tural writing, but then improved on them by
books on architecture were the first to deal with presenting them in a more concise and fluent
the subject visually as well as in theory. Serlio’s narrative. In addition, Palladio’s own intensely
treatise served as a blueprint for Palladio’s later productive building career, spanning more than
publications. Palladio relied heavily on drawings two decades, contributed to the book’s success.
in his own work and paired them with logical, He aspired to publish a complete guide to archi-
concise narrative descriptions of his theories. tecture that encompassed everything from the
foundation to the roof. Evidence exists suggest-
Impact ing that Palladio hoped to publish more than
four volumes and planned them to be the first in
In his late twenties and trained as a stonemason, a series of books, along the lines of his spiritual
Palladio met Gian Giorgio Trissino (1478-1550), mentor Vitruvius.
Vicenza’s leading intellectual and humanist.
Trissino was rebuilding a villa in nearby Cricoli Quattro Libri, in essence, became Palladio’s
in classical ancient Roman style and set up an summary of his lifelong study of classical archi-
academy there to provide young aristocrats with tecture. The first two books outline Palladio’s
a traditional education. Palladio worked on the principles of building materials and his designs
renovation project and his natural design skills for town and country villas. The third volume il-
led Trissino to invite him to join the academy. lustrates his thinking about bridges, town plan-
Trissino then directed the young man’s initial for- ning, and basilicas, which were oblong public
ays into architecture and renamed him Palladio halls. The final book deals with the reconstruc-
(he was born Andrea di Pietro della Gondola), a tion of ancient Roman temples.
frequent occurrence in humanist study. Quattro Libri secured Palladio’s great impor-
Palladio’s focused architectural education tance in architectural history. The treatise popu-
was unusual in this period; most students were larized classical design and his own innovative
steered toward a general course of study. Under style. It served as a veritable blueprint for design
Trissino’s guidance, Palladio adopted his men- worldwide, reaching its zenith in the eighteenth

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1450-1699

An illustration from Palladio’s I Quattro Libri Dell’ Architettura (1570). (Corbis Corporation. Reproduced with permission.)

century. In the eyes of many scholars, the work ceived. His status as an international bestseller
stands as the clearest and best-organized text- spread his theories far beyond his native Italy,
book on architecture ever produced. and inspired the label Palladianism, considered
Palladio’s treatise revealed the link between the search for classical beauty in architecture.
humanistic education and architecture, and by Palladianism spread beyond the grand ar-
doing so changed the way architecture was per- chitect’s death in 1580. Palladio’s most brilliant

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pupil, Vincenzo Scamozzi (1552-1616), contin- was an ideal model for plantation owners to en-
Technology ued his mentor’s work as the founder of Neo- dure the hot humid summers. In fact, many Vir-
& Invention classicism. Because of his stature as Palladio’s ginia plantation homes were so closely imitated
student, Scamozzi received a jumpstart on his that Palladio and later Palladians seemed to sim-
1450-1699 career, which then took off even further after ply provide a pattern book.
Palladio’s death. Although Scamozzi did attempt Peter Harrison, a native of England but trans-
to distance himself somewhat from Palladio, the planted to Rhode Island, was the first true Palladi-
master’s influence spread. an in America. He designed the Redwood Library
Palladio stayed in the public’s eye through in Newport, Rhode Island, and King’s Chapel in
subsequent editions of Quattro Libri, published Boston based on Palladian principles. Harrison
in multiple languages. An important Palladian died in 1775, at the beginning of the Revolution-
revival began in Venice in the early 1700s. Ar- ary War, but another, more famous person—
chitects there returned to the classical work of Thomas Jefferson (1743-1826)—emerged to
Palladio in reaction to the ornate style of the late grasp the Palladian mantle in America.
Baroque period. The earliest Palladians were Jefferson’s intellectual curiosity and human-
Domenico Rossi and Andrea Tirali. The most ist education almost destined him to adopt Pal-
prominent neo-Palladian was Tommaso Teman- ladianism. Jefferson’s lifelong interest in architec-
za, who provided an intellectual basis to the ture began as he started to build his own home,
movement. the famous Monticello (from Italian, meaning
England faced a similar resistance to the ex- Little Mountain), overlooking Charlottesville,
cessiveness of the Baroque era. English tourists Virginia. Around the same time, Jefferson head-
discovered Venice and a market developed for ed a committee charged with designing the new
mementos from Italy. English consul Joseph state capitol of Richmond. In this role he also
Smith funneled drawings, paintings, and sculp- trumpeted architecture in the classical style of
tures from Venice to England. Soon, the artists antiquity.
Smith patronized visited England and were sub- In 1816, giving advice to a friend in the
sidized by English nobles. process of building a house, Jefferson declared
The greatest proponent of Palladianism in Palladio, “the Bible. You should get it and stick
England was Inigo Jones (1573-1652). He visit- close to it.” As president, the prominent Virgin-
ed Vicenza and the aging Scamozzi in 1614. Al- ian also implemented aspects of Palladianism in
though Scamozzi was secretive and irritable, the design of the Capitol and along Pennsylvania
Jones obtained original drawings by Palladio. Up Avenue. Perhaps Jefferson’s greatest display of
to that time, most architectural works from Italy the use of Palladian principles lies in his design
were poorly translated or unavailable all togeth- of the University of Virginia. Interestingly, Jeffer-
er. Sir Henry Wotton, England’s ambassador in son’s use of Palladianism reflected the humanist
Venice, also collected original drawings from political theories of the day and his dedication to
Palladio and Scamozzi. Jones’s collection supple- republican principles.
mented, and in some ways, surpassed the wood- BOB BATCHELOR
cuts in the Quattro Libri.
Under Jones, Palladio’s drawings gained a
wider audience in the English-speaking world.
Further Reading
He passed them among leading architects of the Boucher, Bruce. Andrea Palladio: The Architect in His
Times. New York: Abbeville Press, 1994.
day, which continued for more than a century,
providing a constant source of information and Constant, Caroline. The Palladio Guide. London: Architec-
tural Press, 1987.
inspiration. Later, increasingly impressive trans-
lations of Palladio’s Quattro Libri appeared in Holberton, Paul. Palladio’s Villas: Life in the Renaissance
Countryside. London: John Murray, 1990.
English and French.
Tavernor, Robert. Palladio and Palladianism. London:
In young America, Palladio’s influence Thames and Hudson, 1991.
could be found in the aristocratic circles of plan- Wundram, Manfred, and Thomas Pape. Andrea Palladio,
tation Virginia. Because the region’s weather 1508-1580: Architect Between the Renaissance and
mimicked that of northern Italy, Palladio’s villa Baroque. Cologne, Germany: Benedikt Taschen, 1993.

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The Palace of Versailles

Technology
& Invention

Overview Louis XIV decided that his entire court would be 1450-1699
moved from Paris to Versailles. In preparation for
Louis XIV, France’s Sun King, demanded a
the move, a second building phase started in 1668
palace symbolic of his power and authority, a
that totally redesigned the chateau, essentially
place that would awe the nobility of Europe. He
transforming it into an entirely new building.
turned to noted French architects Louis Le Vau
(1612-1670) and Jules Hardouin-Mansart Le Vau extended the palace overlooking the
(1646-1708) to transform a modest hunting gardens by wrapping the area in stone. He then
lodge southwest of Paris into the greatest palace built two symmetrical apartments, the north
ever known. For nearly two decades, the men end reserved for the king, while the south por-
carved the Palace of Versailles out of the thick tion went to the queen. In the central area stood
wooded marshes and achieved Louis’s vision of a reception area and a terrace overlooking the
enormity and splendor. gardens.
Le Vau worked with noted gardener Andre
Background Le Notre and painter Charles Le Brun to design
Originally built in 1624, Versailles served as a the landscape and gardens outside the palace
hunting lodge for Louis XIII, but was trans- and the walls within. Le Vau was a student of
formed into the palace of his son, Louis XIV, classical architecture and combined his theories
over many decades. Since the elder king died with dedication to enormous scale, in line with
when his son was only five years old, his mother the Sun King’s grandeur. Le Vau’s interiors, in-
and prime minister Cardinal Mazarin ruled cluding the Ambassador’s Staircase (destroyed in
France. The monarchy survived a civil war, but 1752), unite a vision of largesse and baroque in-
instilled in the young Louis XIV a lifelong dis- fluences that was well beyond anything that ex-
trust of Paris and the nobility. The boy witnessed isted at the time.
the invasion of the royal palace by enemy forces The excavation of the Grand Canal began in
and the memory remained permanently etched 1667. Louis XIV worried about having enough
in his mind. water for the gardens and decided the Seine
After Mazarin’s death in 1661, Louis XIV as- River should be used as the main source. Work-
cended to his birthright and ruled France. Be- ers used immense hydraulic machines driven by
cause of his boyhood memory of revolution, he the current of the river to deliver water. The
decided to establish a palace far from Paris. He Grand Canal became a giant artificial pond of
chose Versailles, a sight he first hunted at in more than 70 acres with a circumference of 5
1651 and visited on several occasions until his miles (8 km). An intricate network of under-
marriage in 1660. After he chose the site, Louis ground reservoirs and aqueducts supplied the
XIV became obsessed with it and spent an in- palace fountains and waterfalls.
creasing amount of time concerned with its de- In fact, Le Vau was responsible for many of
sign. Over the objections of his advisers, the the palace’s remarkable gardens and its park-like
young king disregarded the amount of money or setting, centralized on the Grand Canal. The
time he spent at Versailles. palace of Versailles holds numerous monuments,
Major modifications of the original hunting sculptures, and secondary buildings, including
chateau began in 1661. Louis Le Vau served as the Grand Trianon and the Petit Trianon (a fa-
the principal designer. Transforming a chateau vorite of the infamous Marie Antoinette). In total,
into the world’s greatest palace was an arduous there are more than 300 statues and multiple
undertaking. The first step was draining the ponds in the gardens. Interestingly, the layout of
swamps and leveling the land in the palace loca- the gardens remains the same in current times as
tion. Thousands of laborers paid for this work when Louis XIV originally planned them.
with their lives, dying from fever and pneumo- After Le Vau’s death in 1670, French archi-
nia. Slowly, however, the change took shape. tect Jules Hardouin-Mansart became royal archi-
One of Le Vau’s first additions was a tect in 1675. He undertook a massive campaign
menagerie and orangery that would become the that would last for more than a decade. Initiated
initial piece of a grand entry court. Gradually, in 1678 and involving more than 30,000 labor-

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1450-1699

A view of the Palace of Versailles. This shows a statue of Louis XIV in the Court de Marbre. (Adam Woolfitt/Corbis.
Reproduced with permission.)

ers and craftsmen, Hardouin-Mansart designed Louis XV continued an aggressive building

the north and south wings of the palace. Includ- campaign at Versailles. Jacques-Ange Gabriel de-
ed in his designs was Versailles’s most enduring signed an opera house for the palace that was
symbol, the Hall of Mirrors, completed in 1684. completed in 1748. It took the French Revolu-
He is noted for introducing French materials tion (1789-1799) to halt further building at Ver-
(rather than Italian) into the building process, sailles. After the reign of Louis XVI ended with
including mirrors and pink marble. the revolt, the furnishings of the palace were sold
and the building was turned into a museum.
Hardouin-Mansart had a special skill at de-
signing buildings and monuments that expressed
Louis XIV’s wealth and power. His trademarks
were buildings with enormous scale, yet possess- Impact
ing an understated simplicity. At the end of his In addition to being one of the world’s most
career, Hardouin-Mansart fell victim to rumors beautiful buildings, the palace of Versailles was
and innuendo spread by jealous architects. They also one of the most expensive. In no small mea-
claimed that he stole designs, but this charge sure, Versailles can be blamed for most of the
lacks credibility. Hardouin-Mansart’s grand vision economic problems the country endured in the
of Versailles is seen throughout the palace. generations leading up to the French Revolu-
tion. Louis XIV’s disregard for the costs associat-
The building project did not stop, even after
ed with the castle placed an economic burden
Louis XIV transferred the court and the seat of
on the people of France that eventually festered
government to the Palace of Versailles in 1682.
into revolt.
The largest court in Europe, Versailles housed
20,000 nobles. Moving the nobility from Paris to Versailles
also undercut their power, which Louis XIV real-
Hardouin-Mansart began construction of
ized. After 1682 the nobility no longer had
the palace chapel in 1699, but it was not com-
power to affect French politics. Instead, life at
pleted until two years after his death in 1710.
Versailles centered on etiquette and serving the
The architect’s brother-in-law, Robert de Cotte,
king’s every whim and fancy.
finished the chapel in his place. Construction of
the grand chapel even outlived the king himself, By the time Louis XVI assumed the reigns of
who died in 1715. France, the national debt exceeded 4,000 mil-

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lion livres. Even under intense economic pres- tions, but on the other, it outlined harsh repara-
sure, Louis XVI continued adding to the palace. tions against Germany that would remain a ral- Technology
In the nineteenth and twentieth centuries, lying point for German nationalists, leading to & Invention
architects and designers restored Versailles to its the rise of Adolph Hitler and the Third Reich.
1450-1699
original glory. Many of the palace’s stunning dec- Versailles attracts more than 30,000 tourists
orations and furnishings were located and put a day, an average of nearly 10 million a year. The
back in place. The refurbished areas included long history and beautiful grounds and buildings
the Salon of Hercules and Marie Antoinette’s draw visitors from every corner of the globe. Per-
bedroom. haps the most lasting tribute to the Sun King is
Living up to Louis XIV’s original vision, the that the palace of Versailles continues to leave
Hall of Mirrors in Versailles served as an impor- visitors awestruck, just as he planned.
tant meeting place for gathering diplomats. The BOB BATCHELOR
Hall of Mirrors was the site where a united Ger-
many declared Wilhelm I its emperor after the
victory over France in the Franco-Prussian War Further Reading
(1870-1871). The palace had been used as a
Ballon, Hilary. Louis Le Vau: Mazarin’s College, Colbert’s Re-
Prussian military headquarters during the war. venge. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1999.
While Versailles witnessed the rise of the Constans, Claire. Versailles: Absolutism and Harmony. New
German Empire, it also saw its fall nearly 50 York: Vendome Press, 1998.
years later. After defeating Germany in World Hibbert, Christopher. Versailles. New York: Newsweek,
War I (1914-1918), the Allied powers held their 1972.
diplomatic meeting at Versailles. On one hand, Van der Kemp, Gerald. Versailles. New York: Vendome
the meeting set the stage for the League of Na- Press, 1978.

Development of the Midi Canal

Overview called the Languedoc or Midi Canal. Francis
died in 1547, and it was not until 1598 that
Civilizations depend on water supply, and since
Henri IV (1553-1610) resuscitated the plans for
ancient times people have sought ways of build-
the canal. But at the time, he had several more
ing channels to hold water that would circum-
pressing canal projects, and his first matter of
vent natural barriers both to the supply of water
business was to build the Briare Canal. Henri
and to navigation. The Romans and Charle-
died before he could return to the Midi Canal,
magne dreamed of a way to transport merchan-
and it was Louis the XIV (1638-1715) under
dise that would avoid having to detour around
whose aegis the Midi Canal was realized.
the coast of Spain or risking attack by Barbary
pirates. The solution appeared in the seven-
teenth century in the form of the Midi Canal. The person hired to carry out the project
was a French public official and self-made engi-
neer named Pierre-Paul Riquet (1604-1680). Ri-
Background quet had himself become interested in how to
The Briare Canal in France, constructed by construct a shortcut from the Bay of Biscay to the
Adam de Crappone (1526-1576), was the first Mediterranean Sea. In 1662, already past middle
important watershed canal in the West. A water- age, he wrote a canny letter to the controller-gen-
shed is a ridge of high land that divides areas eral of finances outlining his plans for a canal
drained by different river systems. On his return that would help to cut in on the King of Spain’s
to France in 1516, Francis I (1494-1547) dis- profits from the Straits of Gibraltar. The letter
cussed with Leonardo da Vinci (1452-1519) a was brought to the attention of the king, who ap-
watershed canal between the Mediterranean Sea pointed a royal commission to approve Riquet’s
and the Atlantic Ocean. The idea was to join the project. Because the canal would have to cross a
Garonne and Aude Rivers—the latter leading watershed, the royal commission immediately
south to the sea—via a canal that was later pointed out the difficulty of supplying water to

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1450-1699

A view of the Canal du Midi in France. (Michael Busselle/Corbis. Reproduced with permission.)

the canal’s summit. Riquet proposed to solve the not invent them, Leondardo da Vinci is credited
problem using two feeders, one 26 miles (42 km) with having brought the idea to France in 1515.
long. It would be one of the canal’s most notable But for the next 200-odd years, they were used
technical achievements. Work began on the chiefly in building watershed canals. Riquet con-
water supply in 1665, and construction began on structed his system of locks arranged like a stair-
the canal soon after. Ultimately, 8,000 workers case to negotiate the 206-foot (63-m) rise to the
were put to work on building the canal, includ- summit, and 620 feet (189 m) down.
ing several hundred women. It took 14 years to
complete, and opened in 1681. Riquet did not Near the southern French town of Beziers,
live to see it finished. he encountered a rocky rise. The problem with
the rise was that it was made of alluvial stone, li-
The Midi Canal stretched 150 miles (240 able to collapse, and permeable to water. In the
km) between the City of Toulouse and the face of considerable opposition, Riquet used
Mediterranean Sea, and had 101 locks—devices black powder to blast a 515-foot (157-m) tunnel
that allow a vessel to negotiate changes in alti- through the rise, afterward leading an astounded
tude by raising or lowering the water level. Until commission through it by candlelight. Riquet’s
the early 1800s, most locks used in river canal- was the first canal tunnel built in this way, and
izations were flash locks. The flash lock was a he was the first to use explosives in under-
barrier that acted as a dam. Water would build ground construction. He also constructed three
up behind the dam, and when the reach behind large aqueducts to carry the canal over rivers. In
the dam was full, a line of waiting boats would one of these aqueducts, the Repudre aqueduct,
be let in through narrow lift gates in the dam. the bed of the canal served as a single-arch
The process circumvented some of the problems bridge across the river.
of natural rivers, but it was slow, wasteful of
water, and expensive. Without sufficient water, a canal is no more
reliable than the natural waterways it seeks to
For the Midi Canal, Riquet used pound improve. The Midi Canal is most renowned for
locks, which are enclosed chambers about the its water supply system, which included the
same size as the boats using them, with gates at world’s first known artificial reservoir for canal
both ends. These locks first appeared in the water supply. The reservoir was an earth-filled
Netherlands and northern Italy during the four- dam with masonry walls across the Laudot
teenth and fifteenth centuries. Although he did River, and it took four years to build. As a gravi-

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ty dam, it relied on its weight for stability, and it construction was vulnerable to the fortunes and
was the first in Europe of its size. Water could be caprices of a particular government. An advantage Technology
let out from the reservoir by means of two un- for the Midi Canal was that the 14 years it took to & Invention
derground vaults. Riquet and the military engi- build it fell within a peaceful and prosperous era
neer Sebastien Vauban (1633-1707) built feeder in French history. By contrast, during the building 1450-1699
channels to supplement the reservoir. Additional of the Briare Canal, the king was assassinated, the
dams were built in the eighteenth century to treasurer was forced to resign, and a commission
supply still more water to the canal. of inquiry was appointed.
By suggesting that the commercial success
of the canal would enhance the king’s revenues,
Impact
Riquet was able to obtain construction subsidies
French canal builders of what is called the old from Louis XIV. Moreover, owing to the adminis-
regime focused their technical abilities on specif- tration’s affection for Riquet, royal support con-
ic problems of artificial waterways. For ages, tinued even after Riquet had spent the last
people had developed ways of moving water for penny of his personal funds. Asked why he had
drainage, irrigation, and water supply. But for all sunk all the money set aside for his daughters’
their remarkable achievement, these efforts at dowries into the canal, Riquet answered, “The
improving or creating navigable waterways rep- canal is my dearest child.”
resented a minor effort in the ancient world.
Economically speaking, Riquet’s technologi-
The Midi Canal has been called Europe’s cal prowess was ahead of its time. Despite the
finest seventeenth-century engineering work. improvements made to the waterways, including
Apart from its architectural interest, it served as a a handful of canals, of which the Midi Canal was
model of technical ambition and excellence. For one, navigation conditions progressed very little
many years, leaders had sought an all-water link up to the time of the Revolution. Towpaths for
between the two seas as a triumph of military hauling barges along canals were not well main-
strategy over Spain. Landowners and merchants tained, and in other places, farmers and millers
in the region saw the canal as a means to com- encroached on them. Boatmen’s corporations
mercial development that bypassed bad roads. rose up that sought to establish their members’
But the Midi Canal also illustrates the con- monopolies over carrying goods along a water-
tradictions between high and low technological way. These monopolies were vigorously defend-
systems that existed in France prior to the eigh- ed, using political, economic, and sometimes
teenth century. Until the time of the French Rev- physical means. Moreover, tolls, heavy to begin
olution (1787-1799), France lacked a coherent with and often arbitrary from river to river, con-
transport policy. What this meant in practical tributed to the high cost of water transport,
terms was that no one had ever thought through which limited its appeal.
a way of transporting goods and people that For all that the achievements of a few canal
would maximize the benefits and minimize the builders failed to fulfill the promises of canal en-
inefficiencies of both roads and rivers. The result thusiasts, France was still the world leader in ar-
was confusion, and a disproportionate empha- tificial waterways almost up to the end of the
sis—for military and political reasons—on a sys- 1700s. Despite impressive waterway networks,
tem of highways linking Paris to other parts of some countries, like Holland, did not have to
the country, even though water was clearly cope with the same technical problems posed by
preferable for shipping heavy, low-value goods. the French countryside. In other countries such
Another reason roads were preferred was that as the United States and Germany, programs of
they were cheap because they were built and waterway improvement had hardly begun.
maintained largely by unpaid labor.
GISELLE WEISS
Until 1750, therefore, when the government
began to take a greater interest in them, water-
ways were largely funded by private means. But Further Reading
the state did not abdicate control over them. The
Books
state chose the engineers to build the canals, ap- Geiger, Reed G. Planning the French Canals: Bureaucracy,
proved the building specifications, and provided Politics, and Enterprise under the Restoration. Newark:
a portion of funding. A disadvantage to this University of Delaware Press, 1994.
hands-on, hands-off system was that it was politi- Hadfield, Charles. World Canals: Inland Navigation Past
cal: the entire process from conception through and Present. New York: Facts on File, 1986.

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Payne, Robert. The Canal Builders: The Story of Canal Engi- Internet Sites
Technology neers through the Ages. New York: Macmillan, 1959. “History of the Canal des Deux Mers.” http://www.canal-
du-midi.org/history.htm
& Invention
1450-1699

Biographical Sketches


Vannoccio Biringuccio forts the Petrucci family were restored to power
under the leadership of Fabio, Borghese’s
1480-1539 younger brother. Biringuccio, too, was returned
Italian Metallurgist to his former position and property, and in 1524
was granted a monopoly over the saltpeter trade,

A lthough he had a tempestuous career in

which he found himself embroiled in the po-
litical intrigue that characterized Renaissance
valuable for its uses in making munitions.
Just two years later, however, the Petrucci
Italy, Vannoccio Biringuccio is known chiefly for were again thrown out, this time for good.
a book that appeared only after his death. This Biringuccio lost all his property, but was fortu-
was De la pirotechnica, an encyclopedia of metal- nate enough to be in Florence when the crisis
lurgical knowledge focused more on technique broke out in Siena. During his second exile,
and observation than on scientific generalization. from 1526 to 1529, he traveled again to Ger-
many; then, with the restoration of peace in
Biringuccio was born in Siena in 1480, and Siena in 1530, he returned to his hometown.
grew up amid the turmoil of the era. During this
period Italy, which had not been united under a During the early 1530s, Biringuccio held a
single government since Roman times—and number of key posts in Siena, and in 1538 was
would not be again until the 1800s—was domi- appointed director of the papal foundry and the
nated by powerful families of warlords and ty- papal munitions in Rome. He did not hold these
coons, the most famous of which were the Bor- positions for long, however: in early 1539, he
gias and the Medici. The first family of Siena died in Rome at the age of 59.
were the Petrucci, and from the beginning of his The following year saw the publication of the
career Biringuccio was associated with them. Pirotechnica, a book containing a career’s worth of
knowledge on mining ores and extracting metals
Under the patronage of Pandolfo Petrucci,
from them. Because Biringuccio was a practical
young Biringuccio traveled throughout Italy and
metallurgist and not a scientist, the book is little
Germany, beginning to compile the information
concerned with theory or speculation; nonethe-
that would go into his life’s work, the Pirotechni-
less, it made an invaluable handbook for students
ca. Pandolfo later appointed him director of
of the subject, and went into nine subsequent
mines in a town near Siena, and following the
editions over the next 138 years.
elder Petrucci’s death in 1512, Biringuccio
aligned himself with Borghese, Pandolfo’s son. JUDSON KNIGHT

Borghese appointed Biringuccio to a post in

the Siena armory, but in 1515 Biringuccio found William Caxton
himself caught up in a controversy that had at its 1421?-1491
root a rival political faction’s antipathy toward
the Petrucci. On claims that Borghese had or- British Printer
dered Biringuccio and mint director Francesco
Castori to debase the currency by adding base
metal to the silver and gold, all three men were
I n the late fifteenth century, as printing presses
on the continent were gaining prominence,
one man, William Caxton, had the foresight to
forced to leave the city along with their families
bring printed works to England. Although his
and many others.
career began in textiles, Caxton retired from the
During the period of his exile, which lasted textile business before learning the art of print-
until 1523, Biringuccio traveled around Italy ing. He set up a printing business in Bruges in
and Sicily. Finally Pope Clement VII became in- 1474, the same year he printed the first known
volved in the Siena conflict, and through his ef- book in the English language, Recuyell of the His-

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tories of Troie, which he translated from the

French. In 1476 Caxton returned to England Technology
and set up his printing and publishing business & Invention
near Westminster Abbey. In the ensuing years
his press introduced many of the literary master- 1450-1699
pieces of his day, including Chaucer’s Canterbury
Tales (1478) and Malory’s Morte d’Arthur (1485).
Born around 1421 in Kent, England,
William Caxton received schooling before enter-
ing the Mercers’ Company, an influential Lon-
don guild, and being apprenticed to Robert
Large, a leading textile merchant, in 1438. He
learned the export trade in textiles and, around
1441, moved to Bruges, Belgium (modern Brus-
sels), where he developed a successful trade
business. In 1462 Caxton was appointed Gover-
nor of the English Nation at Bruges, an appoint-
ment for an organization created by the Mercers
and the Merchant Adventurers. After some time
devoted to diplomatic missions for this organi-
zation, Caxton retired from commerce and be-
came secretary of the household of Princess
Margaret of York, the Duchess of Burgundy and William Caxton, from an egraving c. 1700. (Public
Domain. Reproduced with Permission.)
sister of King Edward IV of England. The
Duchess was a noted scholar of literature, and
she encouraged Caxton to begin producing fine Chaucer, such as The Canterbury Tales (which he
manuscripts, which he copied by hand, making published in 1478 and, in second edition, in
translations from the French. 1484) and Troilus and Creseide, Gower and Ly-
dgate, Malory, and others.
In 1471 Caxton traveled to Cologne to learn
the art of printing. He returned to Bruges and in Before his death in 1491, when Caxton left
1474 set up a printing business with partner Co- his press to his former apprentice and current
lard Mansion, calligrapher and bookseller, whom foreman, the publisher produced about 100
it is thought Caxton taught the art of printing. printed works, including 74 books, of which 20
The same year, the first known book published were his own translations from Latin, French,
in the English language, Recuyell of the Histories of and Dutch (he even published a French-English
Troie by Raoul le Fevre, was produced. The duo dictionary). Because he adopted the language of
also printed, in 1475, The Game and Playe of the London and the court, Caxton had a tremendous
Chesse Moralised, before Caxton moved his print- impact on fixing a permanent standard for writ-
ing and publishing business to England. ten English. The products of his press, which in-
cluded many of the first editions of the literary
In the vicinity of Westminster Abbey, conve-
masterpieces of the Middle Ages, hold an eternal
niently near the court and members of Parlia-
place of honor in English literature. Caxton’s
ment he expected to serve, Caxton established
scholarly vision, as well as his anticipation of the
his printing and publishing business in 1476. In
importance of the printing press, made him very
December he produced the first piece of printing
influential in the history of the written word.
done in England, a Letter of Indulgence (a col-
lection of rules showing how to deal with the ANN T. MARSDEN
concurrence of religious festivals). In November
1477 Caxton produced the first dated book
printed in England, The Dictes or Sayengis of the
Philosophhres, translated from French, which had Giambattista della Porta
been translated from Latin. In 1481 Caxton’s 1535-1615
press also produced the first illustrated book in Italian Natural Philosopher and Scientist
England, The Mirrour of the World, which includ-
ed 27 crude woodcuts. Caxton did much to pro-
mote English literature, producing works from G iambattista della Porta was a natural
philosopher whose ground-breaking devel-

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opment and research in optics was undermined thing of an alchemist. It is said that his patron
Technology by his belief in miracles and magic. earlier in life, the Cardinal, saw him as such and
& Invention Home educated, della Porta grew up in an
consequently saved him from the Inquisition.
Later, Rudolf II sent his chaplain to Naples to
environment where he was mostly self-taught. It
1450-1699 contact della Porta, hoping to procure some al-
is likely that his maternal uncle supervised his
chemical secrets. Della Porta himself spoke of fa-
education. His education was augmented by the
vors he received from Rudolf and to him he in-
discussion of scientific topics with the learned
tended to dedicate his Taumatologia.
society that frequented the della Porta home.
Della Porta published additional works, in-
Della Porta’s mother was from the aristocrat-
cluding Villae (1583-1592), an agricultural en-
ic Spadafora family, part of the ancient nobility
cyclopedia, and De distillatione (1609), a de-
of Salerno. His father, Nardo Antonio served
scription of his pursuits in chemistry. He wrote
Emperor Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor and
on many topics: Astrology, cryptography, fortifi-
King of Spain. It was this service that trans-
cation, horticulture, mathematics, meteorology,
formed the modest fortunes of the Porta family,
mnemonics, optics, physics, and physiognomy.
into a sum that would allow his son to devote
His other accomplishments include conceptual-
himself entirely to study.
izing a steam engine before it was a reality, rec-
Della Porta was a traveler at heart, exploring ognizing the heating effect of light rays, and
Italy, France, and Spain extensively. However, adding a convex lens to the camera obscura (the
his work always led him back to his estate near prototype of the camera).
Naples, which afforded him the solitude he pre- When he died at the age of 80, he was writ-
ferred to pursue his studies. ing a dissertation in support of his claim of in-
In 1579, della Porta moved to Rome to venting the telescope.
serve Luigi, cardinal d’Este. During this time, he
AMY MARQUIS
functioned as a dramatist who wrote comedies
for his patron, alongside Torquato Tasso, a well-
known Italian poet of the Renaissance. Cornelius Drebbel
He also began making optical instruments for
1572-1633
the Cardinal. It is this experience that later led to Dutch Alchemist, Inventor, and Engineer
his work De refractione, optices part (1593), an ex-
pansive study of refraction. Using this publication
as substantiation, della Porta claimed that he—not C ornelius Drebbel is best known as one of
the possible inventors of the thermometer.
A celebrated wonder-worker in his day, Drebbel’s
Galileo—was the inventor of the telescope. How-
ever, there is no evidence that della Porta con- experimental investigations in chemistry and
structed the apparatus before Galileo did. physics may have been of real significance, but
his penchant for secrecy and mysticism meant
Della Porta’s first book, Magiae naturalis that many of his ideas died with him and had to
(1558), constituted the foundation of an ex- be rediscovered.
panded 20-book edition of the Magia naturalis
Drebbel was born in 1572 at Alkmaar in
(1589). The document explores the natural
West Friesland of the Netherlands. His father,
world, claiming it can be manipulated through
Jacob Jansz, was a burgher of Alkmaar. Drebbel
theoretical and practical experimentation. Ma-
received only an elementary education and was
giae naturalis is della Porta’s most recognized
apprenticed to the famous Haarlem engraver
work and the basis of his reputation.
Hendrik Goltzius. In 1595 he married Sophia
The Accademia dei Segreti, dedicated to Jansdocther, a younger sister of Goltzius, and
studying nature, was founded by della Porta settled in Alkmaar, where he established himself
himself some time before 1580. It met in his as an engraver and mapmaker. Shortly thereafter
house in Naples, however, despite his status as a he devoted himself to developing his mechanical
devoted Catholic, the Inquisition closed down inventions: receiving patents for a pump and a
the academy around 1578. By 1585 he joined perpetual-motion clock in 1598; building a
the Jesuit Order, however, in 1594 the Inquisi- fountain for the town of Middelburg in Zeeland
tion banned any further publication of his works, in 1601; and designing a new chimney for
and did not permit them again until 1598. which he received a patent in 1602.
Interestingly, in addition to all his other ac- Drebbel’s perpetual-motion clock has been
complishments, della Porta was seen as some- interpreted by many as the first thermometer.

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The device was in fact an astronomical clock despite involvement in efforts to drain the fen-
whose motive power was the expansion and lands of eastern England, he was forced to earn a Technology
contraction of the air contained within. Though living by running an alehouse. He died in Lon- & Invention
Drebbel well understood the principles in- don in 1633.
volved, this was not an air thermometer. Howev- 1450-1699
STEPHEN D. NORTON
er, a distinctive type of air thermometer, which
came into use in the low countries no later than
1625, was widely attributed to Drebbel. The evi-
dence regarding the inventor’s identity remains Robert Estienne
inconclusive, but Drebbel had sufficient knowl- 1503-1559
edge to construct such a device if it had so oc- French Printer and Scholar
curred to him.
Around 1605 Drebbel moved to England.
His inventions so impressed the monarch James I B orn to a family of printers, Robert Estienne
made his mark not only by printing the first
editions of many Greek and Roman works but
that he was given an annuity and lodgings at
Eltham Palace. He was there occupied primarily by using the distinct symbol of the olive tree to
with constructing machinery for stage perfor- represent his enterprises. An outspoken human-
mances. In 1610 he moved to Prague at the be- ist, hostility from the theologians of the Univer-
hest of Emperor Rudolph II. During this period sity of Paris ultimately drove him out of his na-
he devoted himself to alchemical studies and de- tive France.
veloping a perpetual motion machine and min- Estienne’s father Henri founded a printing
ing pumps. Unfortunately, Rudolph was deposed firm in Paris around 1502. During his reign, the
by his brother Matthias in 1611 and Drebbel im- firm produced more than 100 books. Upon his
prisoned. Through the intervention of Henry, death, Foreman Simon de Colines not only suc-
Prince of Whales, he was released in 1613 and ceeded him but married his widow. At the age of
allowed to return to England with his family. 23, Robert took over the family business from
Upon returning to London, Drebbel began his stepfather.
manufacturing microscopes, producing com- In 1526 Robert began running the firm and
pound devices as early as 1619. In 1620 he built devoted himself to more scholarly pursuits. His
what has been called a submarine but is more focus included his first achievement, a Latin
accurately described as a diving bell. The appa- Bible issued in 1527-1528 as well as his most in-
ratus consisted of two chambers. The upper was fluential work, Dictionarium sue linguae latinae
above water and occupied by rowers. The lower thesaurus (1531), a Latin dictionary. He was also
chamber was completely sealed from the upper responsible for preparing the first printed edi-
and was below water. According to eyewitnesses, tions of several Greek and Roman classics, many
the “submarine” carried a number of passengers of which he edited himself. In 1539 Francis I of
from Westminster to Greenwich; and Robert France appointed him the king’s printer for He-
Boyle (1627-1691) claimed Drebbel had devel- brew and Latin works. A year later he took on
oped a method for purifying the air within. the responsibility of printing Greek texts for the
Around this time Drebbel made the ac- royal library.
quaintance of the four Kuffler brothers who be- Estienne paid special attention to the quali-
came his disciples and promoters (and two be- ty of his printing, not only by using the olive
came sons-in-law). Their activities revolved tree insignia designed by Proofreader Geogroy
around the distribution and sale of his micro- Tory but with types designed by Claude Gara-
scopes and other instruments and the exploita- mond specifically for the printing house. It was
tion of his discovery of a tin mordant for dyeing Robert’s attention to typography during this time
scarlet with cochineal. Through their activities that was unparalleled by his successors. Estienne
his dyeing method spread throughout Europe. embraced humanism, which focused on the im-
After the death of his benefactor James I in portance of reason as opposed to faith. It was
1625 Drebbel was engaged by the British navy the antithesis of theology during the Renais-
to produce explosives and construct fire-ships to sance. These beliefs were what made him a tar-
be used in the failed expedition to raise the get of Sorbonne faculty. In 1550 he fled to Gene-
French siege of the Huguenot stronghold of La va, Switzerland to escape increasing pressures. It
Rochelle. After leaving the employ of the navy was here that he set up a press and produced a
Drebbel’s spendthrift ways left him broke; and Greek New Testament (1551) that revealed the

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division of the text into verses for the first time loan him money to finance the realization of his
Technology in history. dream. But when nine years passed and Guten-
& Invention His brother, Charles, took over the Parisian berg had still not paid back his debts to Fust, the
establishment that same year. Charles, a writer latter brought suit against him. In the resulting
1450-1699 settlement, Gutenberg was forced to hand over
himself, chose to move his attentions toward
medical and agricultural subjects, which were to Fust all claims to the invention, along with all
more in line with his own interests. However, tangible work he had put into it to that point—
some of his works were given to Robert to print. including his famous 42-line Bible.

Robert’s son, named for Henri Estienne, Some scholars believe that it was Fust and
eventually inherited his father’s press under the not Gutenberg who printed the famous Guten-
condition that it would not be moved from berg Bible in 1455. In any case, it is unques-
Geneva. Following in Robert’s footsteps, the sec- tioned that Fust printed the second book in his-
ond Henri was the family’s greatest scholar and a tory: Gutenberg’s Psalter, or Book of Psalms, in
humanist as well. His incumbency marks the 1457. The latter was the first printed book that
height of the family’s prowess. His accomplish- included both a publication date and a
ments include many editions of Greek and Latin colophon, a symbol to identify the printer.
works, known for their accuracy and textural By then Fust had gone into partnership
criticism. Some of his most well known pursuits with his son-in-law Peter Schöffer (1425?-
are Thesaurus Graecae linguae (1572) and La Pre- 1502), and the two had set up a printing office
cellence du language françois (1579), arguably his in Mainz. Among the other works they pub-
most important work. His outspoken Apologie lished were the Constitutiones of Pope Clement
pour Herodote (1566) caused trouble with the V in 1460 and, five years later, De officiis by the
Consistory of Geneva. Consequently, Henri fled Roman orator Cicero. The latter was the first
to France to escape punishment. Upon his re- printed classic, and the first printed book to
turn to Geneva he was briefly imprisoned and contain Greek letters.
afterward became a wandering scholar. The fam-
JUDSON KNIGHT
ily’s printing firm survived five generations,
maintaining its prominent status until the late
seventeenth century. Johannes Gutenberg
AMY MARQUIS
1398?-1468
German Inventor, Craftsman, and Printer

Johann Fust
c. 1400-1466
German Printer
J ohannes Gutenberg was a German craftsman
whose invention of the moveable type print-
ing process allowed for the first mass production
of books, letters, and other written documents.

T hough he is much less famous than his

sometime associate Johannes Gutenberg (c.
1395-1468), Johann Fust was also a pioneer of
His technique would survive virtually intact
until the twentieth century.
Little is known of Gutenberg’s early years;
printing. His lesser stature is deserved, since it only that he was born in Mainz, the son of a
was Gutenberg’s technology, seized in a legal ac- wealthy aristocrat named Friele Gänsfleisch,
tion, that Fust used; nonetheless, Fust was re- whose lineage dates back to the thirteenth cen-
sponsible for a number of firsts in the history of tury. Gutenberg’s last name was derived from the
the printed word. name of his father’s ancestral home, zu Laden, zu
Fust, whose surname is sometimes rendered Gutenberg. A craftsman by trade, he was exiled
as Faust, was born in Mainz, the town Gutenberg from Mainz during a feud between the patricians
would later make famous. He was initially a and tradesmen of the city around 1430. Guten-
goldsmith, and with the proceeds from that trade berg moved to Strassburg (now Strasbourg,
also became a moneylender. It was in this capaci- France), and joined the goldsmith’s guild. There,
ty that he first came into contact with Gutenberg, he also taught various crafts, including gem pol-
who had been experimenting with the idea of a ishing, the manufacture of looking glasses, and
movable-type printing machine for eight years the art of printing.
before he moved to Mainz in about 1446. At the time, printed materials were repro-
The two men met, and Gutenberg so in- duced via a lengthy process, hand written by
trigued Fust with his idea that Fust agreed to scribes one at a time or printed page by page with

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who completed printing of the Bible. Fust later

carried on the inventor’s work with the assistance Technology
of his son-in-law, Peter Schöffer. & Invention
Moveable-type printing presses soon be-
1450-1699
came abundant throughout Europe. Many of the
earliest printers learned their skill in Mainz,
taught by Gutenberg himself. In the fifteenth
century, there were as many as 1,000 printers
actively working, most of them of German ori-
gin. By 1500 an estimated 30,000 titles had
been published.
In addition to the Bible, a number of other
printings were attributed to Gutenberg, includ-
ing a Türkenkalender, which was a warning
against Turkish invasion, printed in 1454, and
the Catholicon of Johannes de Janua, a more than
700-page encyclopedia.
In January 1465 Gutenberg took a position
as courtier to the Archbishop of Mainz, who
provided him with a food and clothing stipend
that carried him through his final years. Guten-
Johannes Gutenberg. (Library of Congress. Reproduced berg passed away in his hometown in 1468.
with permission.)
Gutenberg’s printing method is now consid-
ered among the greatest inventions of all time.
the use of a hand carved wooden block. Guten- Whereas reading was once only available to the
berg had the idea to use the tools of metalwork- elite classes, with the advent of the press, books
ing, such as casting, punch-cutting, and stamp- became widely available to the general public. The
ing, to mass-produce books. He created a font printing press allowed literacy to flourish, con-
consisting of 300 individually cast characters, tributed to the rapid development of science, and
which replicated the ornate scroll of handwritten made knowledge and education available to all.
letters. These characters were cut onto small stem
STEPHANIE WATSON
rods called patrices, and the dies made were im-
pressed upon a soft metal, such as copper.
Gutenberg blended lead, antimony, and tin Peter Henlein
to make a variable-width mold that would ac- 1480-1542
commodate his many fonts. Printers could then German Clockmaker
mix-and-match the various letters to create mul-
tiple pages. Some of Gutenberg’s earliest printed
works included “Poem of the Last Judgment”
and the “Calendar for 1448.”
T he invention of the portable timepiece or, as
we know it today, the watch, is attributed to
Peter Henlein, a locksmith from the city of
Nuremburg, Germany. He introduced the main-
In 1450, he returned to Mainz to continue
spring as a replacement for weights, enabling the
his work on the press. He convinced wealthy fi-
small size and portability of the watch.
nancier Johann Fust to lend him 800 guilders—
a large sum of money at the time—with which During Henlein’s time the role of locksmith
to complete his invention. Fust later added an- extended well past locks. Such a locksmith was
other 800 guilders to his investment and became also an expert mechanic, similar to a modern
a full partner in the endeavor. toolmaker. The medieval locksmith, like the me-
The oldest surviving printed work in the dieval blacksmith, was involved in producing
Western world, The Bible of 42 lines, now known complex and detailed devices. As a result, many
as the Gutenberg Bible, was completed in 1456. locksmiths and blacksmiths were involved in the
Shortly before the Bible was finished, Fust initiat- development and construction of time-keeping
ed a lawsuit against his debtor for failure to repay devices.
the loan plus interest, and eventually gained con- Around 1500, Henlein began to make small
trol of Gutenberg’s shop and machinery. It was he clocks that were driven by a spring. These were

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the first portable timepieces and, designed to be Sacharias Jansen

Technology carried by hand, were frequently circular or oval
1588-c. 1628
& Invention in shape. Because of this oval shape, and a mis-
translation of the German word Ueurlein (little Dutch Optician
1450-1699 clocks) for Eierlein (little eggs), these timepieces
were called Nuremburg eggs. The dials of these
clocks were placed on top of the device and fea- S acharias Jansen is generally credited with in-
venting the first compound microscope and
may possibly have invented the telescope. A
tured only an hour hand. A record of 1511 indi-
cates that Henlein’s watches included iron move- traveling merchant as well as optician, Jansen
ments that were mounted in musk balls. This was a bit of a rogue, involved as he was in vari-
ball was a decorated and perforated sphere in ous counterfeiting schemes.
which musk was placed. Jansen was born in 1588 in The Hague,
The watches invented by Henlein were both Netherlands. His father, Hans, was a lens grinder
desirable, fashionable ornaments and devices in- based in Middelburg, the flourishing capital of
dicative of an increased societal reliance on tech- Zeeland. Hans died four years after his son’s
nology. As Henlein’s contemporary Johannes birth, and Sacharias’s mother taught her son the
Coeulus wrote in 1511, “every day produces skills necessary for managing the family busi-
more ingenious inventions. A clever and compar- ness. Jansen married in 1610, and his son Jo-
atively young man—Peter Henlein—creates hannes Sachariassen was born the next year.
works that are the admiration of leading mathe- It is generally believed that Jansen built the
maticians, for, out of a little iron he constructs first compound microscope around 1595. Since
clocks with numerous wheels, which, without Sacharias was so young at the time it may have
any impulse and in any position, indicate time for been Hans who actually invented the device,
forty hours and strike, and which can be carried with his son merely having assumed production
in the purse as well as in the pocket.” These de- after his father’s death. Jansen’s first microscopes
vices were also indicative of a new kind of future. had a maximum magnification of only 9X, with
However, despite the fascination that these images being somewhat blurry. Though not very
devices elicited from mathematicians and intel- useful as a scientific tool, knowledge of the prin-
lectuals, the Nuremburg eggs were far from ac- ciples involved spread quickly and within a few
curate or reliable. In essence, they could not be years instrument makers throughout Europe
moved and still keep accurate time. Likewise, were producing improved devices.
they kept time unevenly: the force of the main- Jansen’s role in the invention of the tele-
spring was greater when fully wound than when scope is more controversial. In early October
it was nearly run down. As the design possibili- 1608 Hans Lippershay (c.1570-1619) filed a
ties of the Nuremburg egg increased, so did hos- patent claim for the telescope. Shortly thereafter
tility to the inaccuracy of the device. In Shake- Jansen testified before the Committee of Coun-
speare’s Love’s Labour’s Lost, for example, Shake- cillors of Zeeland that he knew the art of making
speare compares an inconstant woman to “A such glasses. A third claimant was Jacob Adri-
German clock / Still a-repairing, ever out of aenszoon of Alkmaar, known as Jacob Metius,
frame, / And never going aright, being a watch.” who after learning of Lippershay’s claim ad-
Around 1525, however, Jacob Zech, a Swiss vanced his own. No patent was granted since it
mechanic who lived in the city of Prague (in was determined the technology was too readily
what is now the Czech Republic), began to available and easily copied.
study the problem of equalizing the pressure of
Metius claimed to have been perfecting his
the mainspring. Zech developed the fusee, a
telescope over the previous two years. Evidence
cone-shaped grooved pulley that was used to-
for Jansen’s priority is mainly derived from the
gether with a barrel containing the mainspring.
statements of his son. In 1634 Johannes Sachari-
Because the mainspring rotates the barrel in
assen claimed his father, in 1604, had copied an
which it is housed, the leverage of the main-
instrument in the possession of an Italian. In
spring is progressively increased as it runs
1655 he claimed his father invented the device
down. This device improved the accuracy of the
in 1590. The latter statement was made during
watch, and ensured its continuation and devel-
an official investigation into the origins of the in-
opment beyond the failings of Peter Henlein’s
strument and was clearly a self-serving prevari-
Nuremburg egg.
cation since Jansen would have been two at the
DEAN SWINFORD time. The former statement has more to recom-

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mended itself, as it was made during casual con- duced by the Koberger press—in 1488 the Lives
versation. However, even if Jansen did invent of the Saints by Voragine; in 1491 the Schatzbe- Technology
the telescope in 1604, the question stands as to halter, a religious treatise by Stefan Fridolin; and & Invention
why it remained a secret. in 1493 his most famous work, the Weltchronik,
also known as the Liber Chronicarum and, more 1450-1699
The most likely explanation is that while
Jansen probably did copy an instrument in 1604 commonly, as the Nuremberg Chronicle, by Hart-
—consisting of a concave and convex lens in a mann Schedel.
tube that provided a slight magnification—it Born in Nuremberg, Germany, in 1445 to an
was not used as a telescope. Giambattista della old Nuremberg family of craftsmen, Anton
Porta (1538-1615) and others seem to have pos- Koberger’s early life is shrouded in mystery, but it
sessed similar instruments that they used to im- is known that he began his career as a goldsmith
prove faulty vision. This was the typical use for before becoming a printer. The first dated book
such devices. produced by his press was Alcinous’s Discipli-
A likely scenario is that after Jansen and narum Platonis Epitome, printed in November
Metius learned of Lippershay’s instrument they 1472. This early work was indicative of many of
realized they were in possession of the same de- Koberger’s books for it contained nearly 100 il-
vice, which they had been using for other pur- lustrations. In the early days of his press, Koberg-
poses. They then laid claim to the invention as er had the foresight to enlist the services of two
their own. While it may never be known who distinguished artists, Michel Wolgemuth, master
first realized such a device could be used to en- and teacher of Albrecht Dürer (who was Koberg-
hance normal vision for viewing objects at a dis- er’s godson), and Wolgemuth’s stepson Wilhelm
tance, it remains certain that the earliest mention Pleydenwurff. Their woodcut illustrations were
of a telescope is in connection with Lippershay’s used in many of Koberger’s publications.
patent application. The scope of the works published by
On April 22, 1613, Jansen was fined for Koberger is phenomenal considering the techni-
counterfeiting copper coins. He moved to Arne- cal complexities of printing in the late fifteenth
muiden, where he expanded his operation to in- century. In 1474 Koberger published Pantheolo-
clude gold and silver coins. After being appre- gia by Rainerius de Pisi, which contained 865
hended in 1618 he escaped to Middelburg to leaves. In 1481 he surpassed that total with the
avoid a death sentence. Financial difficulties fol- Postillae super Biblia by Nicolaus de Lyra, a two-
lowed, leading to bankruptcy in 1628 and the volume set that included 939 leaves. Koberger
subsequent sale of property to settle his debts. also made good use of ornament and illustra-
He died sometime before 1632. tion, including the 1491 religious treatise enti-
tled Schatzbehalter der wahren Reichtümer des
STEPHEN D. NORTON
Heils, which contained 96 full-page illustrations.
His firm published an illustrated German bible
Anton Koberger in 1483 along with numerous editions of Bibles
in Latin (the first in 1475).
1445-1513
German Publisher and Printer Of the hundreds of books and products
published by Anton Koberger, none are more fa-

O ne of the outstanding publishers of the fif-

teenth century was Anton Koberger, reput-
ed to have operated 24 presses, employed 100
mous than the Nuremberg Chronicle, published
in Latin and German versions in July and De-
cember 1493, respectively. A monument of book
printers and craftsmen, and had agencies in illustration, the Chronicle used 645 different
most of the principal cities of Europe for the sale woodcut illustrations, some used more than
of his books and for manuscript acquisition. Be- once (up to ten times for some of the orna-
fore his death in 1513, Koberger’s presses issued ments) to produce 1,809 total illustrations de-
236 products, most of which were theological in picting the full pictorial life of Christ, episodes
character, which is logical considering that read- in the lives of many saints, portraits of prophets,
ing skills were not commonplace in his lifetime kings, emperors, popes, heroes and great men of
and theologians were the scholars of his time. history, genealogical tress, nature’s wonders,
(Reportedly, his only oversight was in turning maps, and panoramic views of cities. The Chron-
down Martin Luther’s request to become his icle was a compendium of history (the text of the
publisher.) Three of the most influential illus- book is a full chronicle of the world’s history
trated early German printed books were pro- from its creation up to the year the book was

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printed), geography, and the natural wonders of means of preserving jobs. The fact was that Eng-
Technology the world. The German translation by Georg Alt land had a strong hand-knitting industry on
& Invention was published in a shorter version of only 297 which many of the queen’s subjects depended
leaves, but the Latin edition contained over 326 for their livelihood, and she was not about to
1450-1699 leaves and 596 pages. There was also a limited endanger the status quo. Therefore Lee did
edition with hand-colored illustrations. something that, while not particularly patriotic,
Koberger’s presses and his agencies in cities made plenty of sense from an economic stand-
such as Paris, Lyon, Strasbourg, Milan, Como, point: he took his idea to England’s most hated
Florence, Venice, Augsburg, Leipzig, Prague, rival.
and Budapest thrived during his lifetime, when In France, Lee found a warm reception from
more than 230 publications were issued. Al- King Henry IV, who arranged for him to set up a
though it is alleged that he fathered no less than factory in the town of Rouen. There Lee began
25 children, Koberger was succeeded in busi- manufacturing stockings, and he prospered for
ness by his nephew (two sons later came into many years under the patronage of Henry. Then
control of the publishing house). None of his in 1610, Henry—who had made peace with the
family was successful in continuing his publish- Protestants by signing the Edict of Nantes 12
ing and printing company, and it was no longer years earlier—was assassinated by a religious fa-
in business after 1540. natic named Ravaillac. Lee died around this
time, though whether his death had anything to
ANN T. MARSDEN
do with that of his patron is not known.

William Lee Later, Lee’s brother, who had been working

with him in France, returned to England with
1550?-1610? plans of establishing the knitting industry there.
English Inventor Elizabeth was long gone, but the opposition
from hand-knitters was as strong as ever, and

A ccording to legend, William Lee invented

the first knitting machine because the
woman he was in love with spent more time
the brother initially faced great challenges. In
time, however, Lee’s methods took over the mar-
ket, helping to spawn a revolution in industry
knitting than she did with him. Whatever the that would transform England’s economy.
cause, his 1589 invention would create an eco-
nomic revolution, and would establish princi- JUDSON KNIGHT

ples of operation still used in modern textile

equipment. Leonardo da Vinci
Lee was born in about 1550 in the town of 1452-1519
Calverton in Nottinghamshire, England. He later
Italian Painter and Inventor
became a minister in the town, and though he
may indeed have begun his work on the knitting
machine out of romantic frustration, the actual
facts are not known. Perhaps Lee married the
L eonardo da Vinci was the quintessential fig-
ure of the Italian Renaissance, and one of the
most versatile geniuses who ever lived. His artis-
preoccupied woman in the end. tic accomplishments alone, including some of
The initial machine of Lee’s design was the most famous paintings in the world, would
made to produce coarse wool for knitting stock- have made his name immortal. Yet he was also
ings. As was the law in England at that time, he an inventor whose ideas were hundreds of years
presented it to Queen Elizabeth I for a patent, before his time. His technical drawings and care-
but she refused it. Not daunted, Lee went back ful scientific observations were preserved in
to the drawing table and refined his creation to notebooks that give a fascinating glimpse into
produce a machine capable of knitting silk. one of history’s most creative minds.
Again he presented it to the queen, and again Leonardo was born near Florence, Italy, on
she denied him his patent. April 15, 1452. He was the illegitimate son of a
In fact Elizabeth’s refusal had nothing to do peasant girl named Caterina and a prosperous
with concerns over the quality of the machine, notary, Ser Piero da Vinci, who came from a
or of the garments it produced. Rather, she was well-to-do family. Leonardo was brought up by
motivated by what would be called protection- his father from the age of five, but the circum-
ism in modern trade parlance—that is, the sup- stances of his birth meant that many careers
pression of free economic competition as a considered prestigious at the time, including his

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ing detailed observations on both form and func-

tion. He kept a workshop where he tinkered with Technology
such inventions as a diving suit and a flying ma- & Invention
chine with wings that flapped like a bird’s.
1450-1699
Forced to flee Milan when his sponsor was
overthrown, Leonardo returned to Florence.
There he painted the Mona Lisa, also called La
Gioconda. The model was Lisa del Giocondo, the
wife of a local merchant, and her enigmatic
smile has been famous for 500 years. The paint-
ing is now displayed at the Louvre.

During 1502 Leonardo worked as an engi-

neer for the infamous warlord Cesare Borgia as
he marched with his armies on the region of Ro-
magna. He traveled with the soldiers, prepared
maps, and built barracks, a fort, and war ma-
chinery. Yet his notebooks of this period ignored
the bloodshed around him; they describe such
points of interest as an attractive fountain in Ri-
mini and local farming methods. Perhaps the sit-
uation eventually became intolerable for the sen-
Leonardo da Vinci. (Library of Congress. Reproduced sitive Leonardo, who refused to eat meat, and
with permission.) sometimes bought caged birds at market so he
could set them free. In any case, he again retreat-
father’s profession, were closed to him. However, ed to Florence.
he showed great talent in drawing, and painting
Leonardo did not inherit any of his father’s
and sculpture were considered “mechanical
fortune because his parents had not been mar-
arts,” suitable for a boy of his station. In due
ried, so he was dependent on wealthy patrons all
course he was apprenticed to the artist Andrea
his life. These included Giuliano de Medici,
del Verrocchio. Verrocchio was a painter of the
brother of Pope Leo X, who brought Leonardo
early Renaissance style, but Leonardo’s paint-
with him to Rome. But Leonardo was more trou-
ings, with their shadows and soft edges, por-
blesome to the Vatican than his colleagues among
tended the beginning of high Renaissance style.
Renaissance artists; he was a scientist as well, and
After his apprenticeship and a few years of difficult to restrain in his investigations. Leo X
maintaining his own studio in Florence, Leonar- was an art lover, and willing to put up with
do went to Milan as court artist and engineer for Leonardo, but after the pope’s death, the support
the duke Lodovico Sforza. There he spent the of the Vatican was no longer forthcoming.
next 17 years, and painted The Last Supper on
the wall of the refectory of the monastery of In 1517 Leonardo settled near Tours,
Santa Maria delle Grazie. Unfortunately, the ex- France, at the invitation of King Francis I, an ad-
perimental compound he intended to protect mirer who provided him with a comfortable
the painting had the opposite effect. The paint- chateau and a generous stipend. He spent his
ing began to flake away almost as soon as he had last years continuing to draft designs for a num-
finished it, and continues to do so to this day. ber of ingenious machines. He died at his home
in Cloux on May 2, 1519.
As an engineer, Leonardo provided the duke
with designs for artillery, folding bridges, and ar- While he was arguably as close to a univer-
mored vehicles, and plans for diverting rivers. He sal genius as humanity has yet produced,
enlivened parties and pageants with such mar- Leonardo did have his blind spots. He had little
vels as a mechanical planetarium. He could also interest in history, literature, or religion. Perhaps
provide musical entertainment, singing and play- more important, he never got around to organiz-
ing musical instruments, some of which were of ing or publishing his work. His notebooks were
his own construction. As a scientist, he under- largely an awe-inspiring jumble of thoughts and
took a careful study of human anatomy, dissect- ideas put down as they occurred to him. For this
ing both human and animal corpses and record- reason, many of his inventions were not widely

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known until after they had been built by others ary 13, 1609, receiving a final payment of 300
Technology hundreds of years later. guilders.
& Invention Metius claimed to have been perfecting his
SHERRI CHASIN CALVO
telescope for the previous two years. Evidence
1450-1699
today for Jansen’s priority is mainly derived from
Hans Lippershay statements his son made decades after the fact.
In 1634 Johannes Sachariassen claimed that in
c. 1570-1619 1604 his father had copied an instrument in the
Dutch Instrument Maker possession of an Italian. In 1655 he claimed his
father invented the device in 1590. The latter

H ans Lippershay is one of several Dutch

spectacle-makers who claimed to have in-
vented the telescope. Though the issue of priori-
statement was made during an official investiga-
tion into the origins of the instrument and was
clearly a self-serving prevarication since Jansen
ty for the invention remains clouded, the earliest would have been two at the time. The former
mention of such a device was clearly in reference statement has more to recommended itself as it
to Lippershay’s 1608 patent claim. was made during casual conversation. However,
Though the exact date of Lippershay’s birth even if he Jansen did invent the telescope in
remains uncertain, it is known that he was born 1604, the question stands as to why it remained
in Wesel around 1570. He settled in Middelburg, a secret.
the provincial seat of government for Zeeland. The most likely explanation is that while
This was the most important commercial and Jansen in 1604 probably did copy an instru-
manufacturing center in the southwestern por- ment—consisting of a concave and convex lens
tion of the Netherlands and was home to the old- in a tube that provided a slight magnification—it
est glass factory in the northern provinces (estab- was not used as a telescope. Giambattista della
lished 1581). Lippershay was married in 1594 Porta (1538-1615) and others seem to have pos-
and became a citizen of Middelburg in 1602. sessed similar instruments that they used to im-
In September 1608, Lippershay appeared prove faulty vision. This was the typical use for
before the Committee of Councillors of Zeeland, such devices.
where he demonstrated his “device by means of A likely scenario is that after Jansen and
which all things at a very large distance can be Metius learned of Lippershay’s patent claim they
seen as if they were nearby.” He received a letter realized they were in possession of the same de-
of introduction to the Zeeland delegate to the vice, which they had been using for other pur-
States-General in The Hague requesting an audi- poses. They then laid claim to the invention as
ence be arranged with Maurice of Nassau (1567- their own. While it may never be known who
1625). The meeting was a great success and Lip- first realized that such a device could be used to
pershay formally applied for a patent. The enhance normal vision for viewing objects at a
States-General formed a commission to investi- distance, it remains certain that the earliest men-
gate Lippershay’s instrument and priority claims tion of a telescope is in connection with Lipper-
as well as to negotiate for delivery of six binocu- shay’s patent application.
lar instrument within a year.
STEPHEN D. NORTON
On October 5, 1608, Lippershay was given
an advance of 300 guilders to produce one in- Aldus Manutius
strument built to their specifications. Within
two weeks it was discovered that others pos-
1449-1515
sessed the art of making telescopic devices, in- Italian Printer and Scholar
cluding Sacharias Jansen (1588-c. 1628), also of
Middelburg, and Jacob Adriaenszoon of Alk-
maar, usually referred to as Jacob Metius. After A leader in the printing industry, Aldus
Manutius was also a humanist scholar. He
was responsible not only for establishing several
the committee examined Lippershay’s binocular
scope on December 15, they pronounced it sat- publishing houses but for creating the first
isfactory but rejected his patent claim since Greek alphabet italic fonts as well. He also pro-
knowledge of its construction was clearly pos- duced a small, inexpensive collection of Greek
sessed by others. Nevertheless, Lippershay was and Roman classics for scholars.
paid an additional 300 guilders to produce two Manutius was born Teobaldo Mannuci at
more instruments. He delivered these on Febru- Sermoneta in the Papal States. Between 1467

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and 1473 he was a student in the Faculty of Arts ten work in 1502. The academy, founded by
at the University of Rome. In the late 1470s he Manutius, was composed of scholars who devot- Technology
attended the University of Ferrara, where he ed their time to editing classical texts. & Invention
studied Greek under the distinguished humanist
The press stopped its production during the
and educator Battista Guarino (1435-1505). In 1450-1699
war of the League of Cambrai against Venice but
1480 he was employed as tutor to the children
resumed in 1513 by publishing works by Plato,
of the Duke of Carpi, near Ferrara.
Pindar, and Anthenaeus. When Manutius died
In 1489, Manutius abandoned teaching for in 1515, his brothers-in-law ran the business
the publishing world and moved to Venice. He until his third son, Paulus, took over in 1533.
formed a partnership with established printer Paulus left the press to his son, Aldus Manutius
Andrea Torresano (1451-1529), who provided the Younger in 1561. During the Aldine family’s
both expertise and material resources to the reign between the years of 1495 and 1595, it is
fledgling company. Manutius later married the likely that the firm produced 1,000 editions.
daughter of his partner in 1505.
AMY MARQUIS
In 1490, the Aldine Press opened its doors
in Venice. One of Manutius’s main goals was to
produce the best quality books at the lowest Michelangelo di Lodovico
possible prices. The firm’s staff consisted of
Greek scholars and compositors. The official
Buonarroti Simoni
language at work was Greek and became the 1475-1564
same in Manutius’s home. Manutius’s duties in- Italian Artist and Architect
cluded managing the printing shop, selecting
the texts to be published, making editorial deci-
sions, and marketing of the books. It is likely
that he owned only 10% of the firm during his
M ichelangelo was born on March 6 in the Re-
public of Florence. His father was a minor
government official who at the time of Michelan-
lifetime, although his marriage to Maria Torre- gelo’s birth was administrator of the small town
sano seemingly increased his holdings. of Caprese. When Michelangelo was still very
young, the family returned to its permanent resi-
In March of 1495 came Manutius’ first dence in Florence. Michelangelo’s father wished
dated book, the Erotemata of Constantine Las- for him to pursue a career in banking, a long-
caris. Over the next three years, he printed five standing family tradition. Despite his father’s ini-
volumes of Aristotle. He published editions of tial objections, Michelangelo was eventually per-
many Greek classics including works from au- mitted, at the age of 13, to become an artist-ap-
thors such as Aristophanes, Euripides, prentice. This first apprenticeship, under
Herodotus, Plutarch, Sopocles, Thucydides, and prominent Florence painter Domenico Ghirlan-
Xenophon. dajo, lasted only one year. After devoting his
Manutius’s most famous pursuit came in short apprenticeship to copying the works of ear-
1499. That year the Hypnerotomachia Poliphili lier Florentine artists, such as Giotto, Michelan-
was published, exhibiting exceptional woodcuts gelo declared himself fully studied.
by an unknown artist.
Already regarded in Florence as a gifted
His firm made several innovations in the artist, Michelangelo was shortly thereafter granted
printing domain, one of which was the revolu- patronage by Lorenzo de Medici. The Medici fam-
tionary development of the pocket-sized book. ily was famous not only for their wealth and po-
This new, portable article provided convenience litical power, but also for their generous sponsor-
for traveling scholars of the day. In addition, an ship of artists, poets, and philosophers. Michelan-
italic typeface was created by punchcutter gelo used this period of Medici patronage to
Francesco Griffo, who was said to have imitated study their vast art collection. Especially im-
the cancellaresco script of calligrapher Bar- pressed by the numerous pieces of ancient
tolomeo Sanvito. Under Manutius’s leadership, a Roman statuary, Michelangelo dedicated himself
Greek alphabet font was born as well. Through- to the mastery of marble sculpture rather than the
out his reign, Manutius marked his work with more popular Renaissance medium of bronze.
the symbol of a dolphin and an anchor.
Michelangelo’s detailed research and study
Manutius established the New Academy in of the human figure was reflective of the artistic
1500. This school, dedicated to the promotion and even scientific spirit of the European Renais-
of Greek studies, was first mentioned in a writ- sance—the rebirth of Classical philosophy and

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sources to the military conquest of the Italian

Technology states, and Michelangelo was sent to work on a
& Invention less costly project. As a result, he received one of
his most famous assignments in 1508, the paint-
1450-1699 ing of the Sistine Chapel ceiling. The frescoes
took four years to complete and required the as-
sistance of a series of apprentices. Construction
of the frescoes was stopped for a period of about
a year, perhaps because of a dispute over pay-
ment. Julius II died in 1513 and his successor
sent Michelangelo to work on projects in Flo-
rence. There he continued his painting and
sculpting work, and also pursued architecture,
constructing a library.
In 1530, Michelangelo briefly put aside
artistic pursuits to serve as the designer of forti-
fications during the siege of Florence. The
sketches that survive not only demonstrate his
engineering know-how, but also are some of the
only surviving depictions of such early modern
fortifications and siege weaponry. Michelangelo
designed low and thick-walled fortifications,
A painting of Michelangelo by Volterra. with several pointed wall junctions, meant to
withstand blasts from the relatively new cannon.
After the siege, Michelangelo remained in
art. However, the Renaissance was not simply Florence to work on the tombs of the newly re-
the rediscovery of ancient ideas, rather it was re- stored Medici. Though the project was incom-
vived exploration of those ideas combined with plete, Michelangelo left Florence for Rome for
a pursuit of new scientific inquiry. Some Renais- the last time in 1534. His return to Rome also
sance artists, such as Leonardo da Vinci (1452- marked his return to the Sistine Chapel. There,
1519), chose to explore the human form by con- Michelangelo painted the fresco of the Last Judg-
ducting surgical research on cadavers and ment in 1534, completing the interior of the
recording their findings in detailed sketches of church.
the skeletal and muscle systems of the body.
Michelangelo was certainly influenced by this In the later years of his life, Michelangelo
new artistic philosophy, but his sculpture and focused on architecture—perhaps because it was
painting reflect the Classical ideal more than a less physically demanding for the artist. His
Renaissance understanding of anatomy. most recognized architectural work is probably
St. Peter’s Basilica, the center of the Vatican. The
The patronage of the Medici, however, Pope commissioned Michelangelo to design the
proved to be short-lived. In 1494, the Medici cathedral and pieta (or square) in 1557 follow-
were overthrown. Before their ousting, Michelan- ing the death of the original project architect,
gelo had sensed the increasingly tense political Bramante. Michelangelo followed the original ar-
environment in Florence and fled the city. In chitect’s general design, but embellished the pro-
Bologna, Michelangelo’s first commission was to ject with his own designs. The result was an
finish the remaining marble statuary for the tomb artistic and engineering masterpiece. The most
of St. Dominic. Though his reputation as a fine striking examples of these additions are the key-
sculptor was forged in Bologna, Michelangelo re- hole design of the columned promenade that
turned to Florence. In 1501, he received a com- flanks the square and the dome that was com-
mission to design a marble statue for the cathe- missioned to top the basilica. More subtle em-
dral; the work, David, was perhaps Michelange- bellishments, such as window trims, gave the
lo’s most renowned work as a sculptor. building a Classical character reminiscent of
Called by Pope Julius II to create 40 statues Michelangelo’s statuary.
for his tomb, Michelangelo moved to Rome. The The work was not completed before his
expense of the project soon became overwhelm- death, but many historians believe that the end
ing for the Papacy who was devoting its re- result did not differ greatly from Michelangelo’s

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original design. The dome atop the cathedral, Neri traveled in Italy and Holland, at one point
however, may have suffered more modifications working in Florence and Pisa where he experi- Technology
at the hands of his successors. The dome that mented with glass. From 1604-1611 he stayed in & Invention
was finally constructed was more pointed and Antwerp with Emanuel Ziminer, a Portuguese
steep than Michelangelo’s intended perfect noble who was keenly interested in Neri and his 1450-1699
hemisphere. Whether the change was done for studies in alchemy, for which he was well known
stylistic or engineering reasons remains the sub- during the seventeenth century.
ject of debate.
Throughout his life Antonio Neri was active
Michelangelo sought to capture the full in chemical technology, alchemy, and iatrochem-
scope of the human experience, and succeeded istry, considering himself a practicer of the
brilliantly. His manifold artistic triumphs earned spagyrical art. Difficult to define, alchemy is a
him fame in his own time. Not only were his many-faceted art, subject to broad interpretations
works admired, but Michelangelo himself was and applications. Some explored the mystical as-
the subject of great curiosity. Three editions of pects of the practice, while others conducted
his biography were written while he was still chemical experiments in hope of providing med-
alive. Contemporaries such as Raphael were ical and spiritual benefits. Alchemy centered on
credited with beginning whole schools of art, the search for the philosopher’s stone, which al-
but the work of Michelangelo has, over the span chemists believed held the key to their art; in
of hundreds of years, rarely been emulated in an particular, they believed it would have the ability
artistically literal manner. Traces of Michelange- to change lead, or other mundane substances,
lo’s style can be found from seventeenth-century into gold. Those who were interested in applying
Baroque painting to nineteenth-century sculp- alchemy and medicine through chemistry were
ture, but there is no singular artistic movement called iatrochemists. Using the principles of
that binds these works to the Renaissance mas- alchemy, spagyrists tried to use chemical process-
ter. Regardless, his frescoes, sculptures, and ar- es to break down and purify substances and then
chitecture are prized as most perfectly represent- reunite them with the intention of providing
ing the Renaissance ideal. Michelangelo remains spiritual benefits. Neri was fascinated with alche-
one of the most prolific figures in the history of my and spent some time working with Don An-
western art. tonio Medici, a fellow alchemist.
ADRIENNE WILMOTH LERNER The Art of Glass was a notable work, reveal-
ing many secrets of the glassmaking world. It
was rich and detailed and a major influence on
Antonio Neri other books on the subject. Neri’s book con-
1576-1614 tained descriptions on the coloring and making
Italian Glassmaker and Alchemist of glass, as well as information on how to imi-
tate precious stones. Cranberry glass, a beauti-

A ntonio Neri was a glassmaker who had an

interest in chemical technology and alche-
my. Best known for his book, L’arte Vetraria (The
ful, red-colored glass, has been attributed to
Neri. He added gold during the melting
process, which produced a ruby-colored glass.
Art of Glass), written in 1612, Neri revealed Cranberry glass became highly collectible in
many of the secrets of glassmaking. The book, nineteenth-century England and is still a prized
colorful and detailed, has served as a basic refer- collectible today. Neri may have studied in Mu-
ence for other essays on the subject ever since. rano, where glassmaking dates back to the first
millennium. The glass coming out of Murano
Antonio Neri was born in Florence, Italy, on
set the standard for fine glass, making Murano
February 29, 1576. The name of his father is not
the glassmaking capital of the world. Many of
known, but it is certain that he was a physician.
the techniques and tools described in Neri’s
Little else is known about Neri’s family back-
book remain in use.
ground. Studying glassmaking and other chemi-
cal arts throughout his life, Antonio Neri did not Neri’s book was first published in 1612, and
attend university. Some suggest he learned glass- later in 1661 and 1817. Dr. Merret translated it
making at Murano, a famous and influential into Latin in 1662; it has subsequently been
force in glassworks, but this fact has been dis- translated into many languages, including
puted. It is not really known how Neri support- French and German. Much of what is known
ed himself, but he did become an ordained today about glassmaking comes from Neri’s
priest before 1601. It is thought that Antonio book, and it remains an important work. Al-

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though Neri is not considered a major figure in steered toward a general course of study. Under
Technology the history of alchemy, he did promote its cause. Trissino’s guidance, Palladio adopted his men-
& Invention Sometimes considered to be a product of me- tor’s ideas regarding symmetrical layout, with a
dieval superstitions, alchemy did contribute to large central room and flanking towers. Trissino
1450-1699 the development of sciences like medicine and also introduced his student to the works of Se-
chemistry. The scientific methods developed by bastiano Serlio (1475-1554), whose five books
alchemists served as the basis for modern scien- on architecture were the first to deal with the
tific experimentation. Neri spent the last years of subject visually as well as in theory. Serlio’s trea-
his life in northern Italy and died in 1614. tise served as a blueprint for Palladio’s later pub-
lications. Palladio studied ancient Roman archi-
KYLA MASLANIEC
tect and theorist Vitruvius, who he labeled as his
master and guide.
Andrea Palladio
In 1540 Palladio designed his first villa and
1508-1580
first palace. These works incorporated the teach-
Italian Architect ings of Trissino with Palladio’s own innovations
based on his study of ancient Roman buildings.
I talian architect Andrea Palladio is one of the
most important figures in the history of West-
ern architecture. He initially gained fame for his
Over the next several decades Palladio made
many trips to Rome, which greatly enhanced
and solidified his theories about architecture. He
design of palaces and villas and theories linking
applied these ideas as he set out creating palaces
current thinking about architecture with classi-
for Vicenza’s elite, including many of his fellow
cal Roman style. These ideas have been imitated
students from Trissino’s academy.
again and again for more than 400 years. Palla-
dio’s influence was seen most notably in eigh- While in Rome from 1554-56, Palladio
teenth-century America, England, and Italy. published Le Antichita di Roma (The Antiquities
While the architect’s work stands as a lasting of Rome), which remained the standard guide-
tribute, Palladio’s four-volume treatise, I Quattro book to Rome for 200 years. He also collaborat-
Libri dell’Architecttura (1570), or Four Books of ed with a classical scholar in reconstructing
Architecture, established his enduring reputation Roman buildings for a new edition of Vitruvius’s
worldwide. The collected work was an interna- De Architectura, or On Architecture. Over a 20-
tional bestseller for more than two centuries. year period of intense construction, Palladio be-
Born Andrea di Pietro in 1508, Palladio was came the first architect to systematize the plan of
the son of a grain mill worker in Padua, a major a house and use the Greco-Roman temple front
city in the Venetian Republic. He apprenticed to as a roofed porch.
a stonemason at 13, but broke his contract three
years later and moved to his adopted hometown More important, in 1570 Palladio published
of Vicenza in northern Italy. Palladio joined the his four-volume treatise I Quattro. The work was
mason’s guild and joined the workshop of Gia- a summary of his lifelong study of classical ar-
como da Porlezza, the city’s most important ar- chitecture. The first two books outline Palladio’s
chitect at that point. principles of building materials and his designs
for town and country villas. The third volume il-
In his late twenties, Palladio met Gian Gior-
lustrates his thinking about bridges, town plan-
gio Trissino (1478-1550), the city’s leading intel-
ning, and basilicas, which were oblong public
lectual and humanist. Trissino was rebuilding a
halls. The final book deals with reconstruction
villa in nearby Cricoli in classical ancient Roman
of ancient Roman temples.
style and set up an academy there to provide
young aristocrats with a traditional education. I Quattro cemented Palladio’s place in archi-
Through his association with Porlezza, Palladio tectural history. The treatise popularized classi-
worked on the renovation project, and his nat- cal design and his innovative style, subsequently
ural design skills led Trissino to invite him to became a veritable blueprint for design world-
join the academy. Trissino then directed the wide, reaching its zenith in the eighteenth cen-
young man’s initial forays into architecture and tury. In the eyes of many scholars, the work
renamed him Palladio, a frequent occurrence in stands as the clearest and best-organized text-
humanist study at the time. book on architecture ever produced.
Palladio’s focused architectural education
was unusual in this period; most students were BOB BATCHELOR

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Technology
& Invention
1450-1699

The Villa Rotonda, built by Andrea Palladio in Vicenza, Italy (1567-70). (Bettmann/Corbis. Reproduced with permission.)

Denis Papin Beginning in 1675, he moved to England to

become a tutor to the sons of an unknown mem-
1647-1712 ber of the aristocracy. Soon, he made the transi-
French-born British Inventor, tion to Assistant to Physicist Robert Boyle (1627-
Engineer, and Physicist 1691) in London, where he spent the next four
years. However it wasn’t until 1681 that Papin
F rench-born engineer, physicist, and inventor
Denis Papin was responsible for inventing
the pressure cooker as well as other innovations.
achieved independent notoriety by publishing a
paper, dedicated to the Royal Society, on the pres-
sure cooker. This closed vessel with a tight-fitting
His most important contribution was developing lid kept steam trapped within until pressure
the concept of a steam engine, which was the forced the boiling point of water to rise consider-
first step toward the Industrial Revolution. ably. A safety valve prevented explosions. The
Born to a Huguenot family, Papin’s father, pressure cooker, which Papin called the steam di-
also named Denis, was a government official. It is gester, made faster cooking possible. It was this
known that his title was Receiver General of the creation, combined with his earlier work under
Domaine de Blois, however the family’s specific Huygens, which would later lead to his idea of
financial status remains uncertain. It is clear that, using steam to drive a piston in a cylinder.
throughout his life, Papin had little financial sta-
bility and floated from one patron to another. Papin was appointed the Temporary Cura-
tor of Experiments at the Royal Society from
Although Papin originally left France volun- 1684 until 1687, when he became Professor of
tarily, it is likely that, because of his religious be- Mathematics at the University of Marburg. His
liefs, the Edict of Nantes kept him in exile. He next big idea was the steam engine. It used
was educated at the University of Angers. His steam to generate pressure. The engine itself was
first pursuits were accomplished in the early a tube made of metal, closed at one end with a
1670s while working with Dutch Physicist piston inside. Under the piston, a small quantity
Christiaan Huygens (1629-1695) at the Royal of water would be heated until it converted into
Library in Paris. Their work on air pump experi- steam, forcing the piston to rise to the edge of
ments involved using gunpowder to create a the cylinder.
vacuum under a piston, allowing pressure from
the outside air to force the piston down. His Because of his lack of stable income, Papin
time with Huygens lasted until 1674. was always in pursuit of developing advanta-

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1709 and lived in obscurity until his death three

Technology years later.
& Invention AMY MARQUIS

1450-1699
Baron Pierre-Paul Riquet
de Bonrepos
1604-1680
French Engineer

F rench engineer Baron Pierre-Paul Riquet de

Bonrepos designed and built the Languedoc
Canal, sometimes called the Canal du Midi. The
latter, which connects the Mediterranean Sea
and the Atlantic Ocean, has been called the
greatest civil engineering feat between Roman
times and the nineteenth century.
Riquet worked as a tax collector under King
Louis XIV, during whose long reign he became
interested in a problem that had long perplexed
French civil engineers: how to construct a means
Denis Papin. (Library of Congress. Reproduced with of travelling by boat from the Bay of Biscay to
permission.) the Mediterranean. The relatively narrow width
of the land between the two bodies of water
geous relationships. He attempted this by creat- made this a tempting prospect, as did the fact
ing inventions that would make a spectacle. One that two rivers at either end—the Garonne and
example was a steam engine that Papin called the Aude—already provided part of a waterway.
“the Machine of the Elector.” A demonstration Without the canal, vessels from southern France
was performed in order to impress Charles-Au- had to sail all the way around the Iberian penin-
guste, Landgrave of Hesse-Kassel, and therefore sula, where they faced a number of dangers, to
elicit monetary support. The apparatus success- reach the country’s western coast; with the canal,
fully pumped water into a tank at the top of a boats could travel between coasts without ever
palace in order to run the fountains in the gar- leaving France.
dens below. The Landgrave, who spent most of In 1662 Riquet, already 58 years old, went
his funds on wars, was center-stage for this and to French finance minister Jean-Baptiste Colbert
many other demonstrations. While Papin was with a proposal for the building of the canal. He
able to get some funding from him, the Land- quickly won Colbert to his side, and the power-
grave lost interest regularly. ful minister then went to work on his behalf
In 1705, it was Thomas Savery’s sketch of with Louis and other figures whose support and
the first practical steam engine that inspired permission would be required. Work finally
Papin’s paper on the topic of steam engines, “Ars began in 1665.
Nova ad Aquam Ignis Adminiculo Efficacissime The remaining 15 years of Riquet’s life
Elevandam” (“The New Art of Pumping Water would go into the building of the canal, which
by Using Steam,” 1707). Papin continued his by any standards was an awe-inspiring creation.
developments with a man-powered paddle- On the way to its highest point, 26 locks raised
wheel boat in 1709. Again he created a success- it some 206 feet (63 m); then at the summit, it
ful venture. This one demonstrated the efficien- ran for 3 miles (5 km) before beginning a de-
cy of using a paddle wheel in place of oars to scent of 620 feet (189 m) over the course of 114
move steam-driven ships. miles (183.5 km). Other features included a
Throughout his lifetime, Papin worked on reservoir to provide water for the summit during
many innovations including a grenade launcher the dry season, as well as the 515-foot (157-m)
during the War of the Spanish Succession, a Malpas Tunnel, which was 22 feet (6.7 m) wide.
mine ventilator, and he even worked with food In digging the latter, necessary in order to
preservation. Papin moved back to London in breach a rocky promontory near Bézier, Riquet

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became the first engineer in history to use an ex- signed this machine to lift quantities of water in
plosive—specifically, black powder—to blast order to keep mines dry or to supply towns with Technology
away rock. Malpas was also the first canal tunnel water. The pump operated according to similar & Invention
ever built, and given the fact that explosives had principles that guided the use of vacuums. Sav-
never before been used for blasting, Riquet was ery used steam, and not an air pump, to form a 1450-1699
exceedingly daring to do so. vacuum. Consider, for instance, a chamber filled
The building of the canal took a consider- with steam. If you cooled the outside of the
able toll on its creator, and by 1680 his body chamber with cold water, the steam within the
had given out. The canal was nearing comple- chamber would condense, leaving only a few
tion, and he was in the middle of work on the drops of water. A vacuum would exist in the
harbour of Cette (now called Sète) on the place of the steam. If this chamber featured a
Mediterranean when he died on October 1. movable wall, exterior air pressure would drive
Workers continued putting on the finishing that wall into the chamber. However, this wall
touches during the course of more than a year: could also be pushed outward again if steam
thus the canal opened in 1691, but was not fully filled the chamber. Then, this wall could be
completed until 1692. pushed inward if the steam was condensed again.
Such a movable wall is, in effect, a piston of the
JUDSON KNIGHT sort that could be used to run a pump. Savery’s
steam engine relied on high-pressured steam to
Thomas Savery effect this process. The vacuum then sucked
water into a container and out of the coal mine.
1650?-1715
English Engineer Savery’s machine was quite unstable, how-
ever. The boilers, pipes, and containers were tin

T homas Savery was a military engineer who is

known for the invention of the Savery pump.
This machine was designed to use steam in order
soldered and unable to sustain the high pres-
sures necessary to pull water from deep mine
shafts. Another Englishman, Thomas New-
to pump floodwaters from coal mines. While not comen (1663-1729), was able to devise a steam
a steam engine in the modern sense, the Savery engine that operated on more stable, low-pres-
pump was the first machine that used steam to sure steam. This new design emerged as the
provide mechanical power. safest and most efficient at the time.
Savery was interested in devising mecha- The success of Newcomen and the Scottish
nisms for practical applications. His significance engineer James Watt (1736-1819) helped to
lies in the extent to which his work serves as a turn scientific developments into practical
transition from the laboratory-centered experi- achievements. These achievements, and the in-
ments of figures such as German physicist Otto creasing ease and safety with which they were
von Guericke (1602-1686) and Irish chemist accomplished, allowed for the transformations
Robert Boyle (1627-1691) to the large-scale me- engendered by the Industrial Revolution.
chanical applications that precipitated the In-
DEAN SWINFORD
dustrial Revolution. Guericke and Boyle devel-
oped air pumps and were interested in the prop-
erties of gases and the specifics of atomic theory. Peter Schoeffer
The enduring image of two teams of horses
straining to pull apart Guericke’s vacuum-sealed 1425-1502
metal hemispheres suggests the quest for the tri- German Printer
umph of knowledge over physical force.
Savery, on the other hand, wanted to use
scientific knowledge to accomplish tasks beyond
P eter Schoeffer was the principal workman of
Johannes Gutenberg (1398?-1468), the in-
ventor of the movable type printing press. He
the means of brute force. He spent his free time helped to form the firm of Fust and Schoeffer
performing mechanical experiments. Indeed, after Johann Fust (1400?-1466) foreclosed his
Savery is responsible for inventing a device ca- mortgage on Gutenberg’s printing outfit in 1455.
pable of polishing plate glass as well as a ma- Besides being a founding member of the first
chine that used paddle wheels to move ships publishing firm, Schoeffer was also responsible
stuck in the open water. for many printing innovations such as: dating
His most important invention, which was books, introducing Greek characters in print,
patented in 1698, was the Savery pump. He de- developing the art of type-founding, and print-

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ing in colors. Furthermore, his success as an en- printed a version of Thomas Aquinas under his
Technology trepreneur helped to solidify the importance of own name, thus marking the beginning of his
& Invention printing in late-medieval Europe. leadership of the firm. Furthermore, in 1470, he
issued the first bookseller’s advertisement of
1450-1699
Little is known of Peter Schoeffer’s early his-
available printed books.
tory. He was educated at the University of Paris
and lived in the city of Mainz in Germany. By the Schoeffer’s business continuously expanded.
time he began to work for Johannes Gutenberg, While he continued to print books in Mainz,
Gutenberg had already worked through many of and to experiment with printing techniques, he
the preliminary stages in his development of the also devoted considerable energy to extending
printing press. He began these experiments as his business throughout Europe. Because of
early as 1436 while living in the city of Stras- Schoeffer, Gutenberg’s technology was widely
bourg. Gutenberg was forced to exile himself in applied and practiced, and the products of the
this city due to an anti-aristocratic uprising led press widely distributed and sold.
by the tradesmen and craftsmen of Mainz. DEAN SWINFORD

While Gutenberg came from a wealthy fam-

ily (his father was an aristocrat and one of the Thomas Tompion
four master accountants of the city of Mainz),
1639-1713
Gutenberg needed capital in order to master the
art of printing. As a result, he was involved in English Clockmaker
several lawsuits through the course of his life.
The first of these was brought against Gutenberg
in 1439 because of a partnership Gutenberg had
T homas Tompion was one of the greatest
clock and watchmakers. He is often regarded
as the father of English clockmaking. He made
established between a man named Dritzehn and
some of the first watches with balance-springs,
several others. In return for the payment of a
helped to develop the quadrant, and produced
sum of money, Gutenberg agreed to teach these
clocks for prestigious clients. He is renowned
men the secrets of a new art. When Dritzehn
both for the accuracy of his timepieces and for
died, his brother sued so that he would be ad-
their beauty.
mitted to the partnership in place of Dritzehn.
While Gutenberg won this case, it provides an Thomas Tompion was born in Ickfield
example of the extreme interest generated by Green, a hamlet in the parish of Northill, Bed-
Gutenberg’s early experiments with printing. fordshire, in 1639. He was the eldest son of
Thomas Tompion senior, a blacksmith, and his
A second, and much more important, lawsuit wife Margaret. Very little is known of Tompion’s
occurred in 1455, well after Gutenberg had estab- upbringing. However, the facts that are known
lished his new art. Johann Fust, who had lent allow us to trace Tompion’s development as a
money to Gutenberg, sued because the printer maker of the exquisite clocks that ornamented
had made no attempt to repay either the interest the spacious salons of the English upper classes.
or the principal. Gutenberg could not pay, and
Fust foreclosed, taking over as much of the print- Tompion’s grandfather was a blacksmith of
ing plant as possible. Furthermore, he persuaded limited means who guided his son’s entry into
Peter Schoeffer, who was, by that point, a skilled the blacksmith trade. Tompion’s father, however,
craftsman, to enter into a partnership. was able to profit considerably from this profes-
sion. He not only amassed acres of land in the
Fust the businessman and Schoeffer the regions surrounding Ickfield Green, but also
craftsman quickly surpassed Gutenberg’s suc- owned several houses in the neighboring parish-
cesses. The first book published by the firm was es of Biggleswade and Caldecote. As a young
a Psalter, or choir book. This was produced in blacksmith, Thomas was instructed by his father
two editions in 1457 and is famous as the first in tasks such as making hinges and bolts for
book printed with a date. A Bible appeared in doors, forging horse shoes, and mending the
1462, becoming the first with a publication date clappers of church bells.
included.
This background helped to secure the leg-
After Fust’s death in 1466, Schoeffer contin- end of Tompion. As the poet Matthew Prior
ued the business under his own name. He re- (1664-1721) remarked, “when you next set Your
tained close ties with the Fust family, however. Watch, remember that Tompion was a farrier,
He was in partnership with Fust’s sons, and was and began his great Knowledge in the Equation
married to Fust’s daughter, Christine. In 1467 he of Time by regulating the wheels of a common

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Jack, to roast meat.” Tompion moved from the clock cases, combined with his enormous pro-
more plebeian role of blacksmith into a profes- ductivity, helped to make him the most famous Technology
sion that, during his life, was closely connected of English clockmakers. & Invention
to the ideas and theories of the greatest thinkers.
DEAN SWINFORD
1450-1699
While the details of Tompion’s movement
from blacksmith to clockmaker are unknown, it
can be surmised that Tompion was apprenticed
to a blacksmith, finished his term at around the Biographical Mentions
age of 21, and spent the next 11 years in a
provincial town. It was during this period that
Tompion became a blacksmith as well as a


clockmaker of church or turret clocks. Georgius Agricola
1494-1555
The Court Minute Book of the Clockmakers’
Company lists Tompion’s admission as a Brother German mineralogist and metallurgist, born
on September 4, 1671. This book describes Tom- Georg Bauer, whose De re metallica (1556) re-
pion as a “Great Clockmaker,” indicating that he mained the authoritative text on mining and
was recognized as a Master blacksmith-clockmak- metallurgy for over four centuries. Lavishly illus-
er who specialized in large iron clocks intended trated with 292 woodcuts, this work presented
for churches. At this point Tompion began to the first detailed, accurate account of sixteenth-
make his fortune in London. There, he made the century mining practices. His series of treatises
acquaintance of and worked with Robert Hooke on geology and mineralogy proved influential
(1635-1703), considered by many to be the during the formative period of these disciplines.
greatest experimental physicist of the seventeenth Known as the father of mineralogy, Agricola in
century, whose discoveries and inventions trans- De Natura Fossilum (1546) attempted the first
formed nearly all of the natural sciences. systematic classification of minerals.

In field of horology, Hooke was responsible Leone Battista Alberti

for two inventions that improved the accuracy of 1404-1472
watches and clocks: the anchor escapement that Italian architect and mathematician whose Della
allowed a long pendulum as a regulator and the Pittura (1435), which contains the first general
use of a spring to regulate watches. At this point account of the laws of perspective, initiated the
Hooke was famous while Tompion was only be- classical Renaissance style in art. Known as the
ginning to establish himself. Hooke commis- Florentine Vitruvius, his De re aedificatoria (pro-
sioned Tompion with the construction of a new mulgated 1452, published 1485) became the
device, the quadrant, which Hooke had invent- bible of Renaissance architecture, incorporating as
ed. This device was a new kind of astrological it did advances in engineering and aesthetic theo-
instrument intended to improve the accuracy of ry. Alberti also produced a treatise on geography
measurements of celestial bodies. that set forth the rules for surveying and mapping
After this commission, Hooke and Tompion and wrote the first book on cryptography.
worked on a hand-held watch that could main- Giovanni Battista Benedetti
tain its accuracy even on a rolling ship. King 1530-1590
Charles II requested a copy of this invention,
helping Tompion’s reputation to grow. Indeed, Italian mathematician who studied astronomy
when the Royal Observatory at Greenwich was and optics, and designed sundials. Born in
established in 1676, Tompion was chosen to Venice, he never attended university but his fa-
make two clocks that were to be wound only ther tutored him in music, philosophy, and
once a year. These were more accurate at keeping mathematics. Benedetti was court mathematician
time than those available at other observatories. from 1558 to 1566; the Duke of Savoy then ap-
pointed him ducal mathematician and philoso-
Likewise, Tompion’s workshop, The Dial pher. He also taught at the University of Turin.
and Three Crowns, began to turn out a consid-
erable number of clocks and watches in the Nicolas van Benschoten
1670s and 1680s. Tompion produced clocks for fl. 1680s
English and European buyers. In fact, many of Dutch inventor who created the modern thim-
his early clocks betray a distinct Dutch influ- ble. Bronze thimbles had existed since Roman
ence. His elegance and restraint in the design of times, and were found in the ruins of Pompeii

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and Herculaneum. Benschoten, however, was choir of Santa Maria del Popolo.
Technology the first to produce a thimble of iron that could
& Invention be manufactured in large quantities. Giovanni Branca
1571-1640
1450-1699 Jacques Besson Italian physicist who provided the first known
1540-1576 description of a steam turbine. In 1629, Branca
French mathematician and inventor who was published La Machine, a gazette of machinery
Leonardo da Vinci’s successor as engineer to the that included 77 woodcuts illustrating various
French court. Around 1568, Besson devised his types of equipment. Among those depicted was a
best-known invention, the first useable screw steam turbine, along with Branca’s notes describ-
cutting lathe. In 1569, the inventor published a ing the means for turning a wheel by shooting
book on mechanical arts entitled Theatrum In- jets of steam against vanes attached to the outer
strumentorum et Machinarum, which included il- rim of the wheel. At the end of a turbine shaft
lustrations of his various machines. Besson also were pestles for pounding materials.
developed an improved vertical water mill, the
principles of which were applied to a power tur- Timothy Bright
bine installed in the mid-1800s in waterworks 1551?-1615
throughout Europe. English physician and cleric who is credited with
developing the first modern shorthand system,
William Bourne which he initially used to transcribe an epistle of
fl. 1570s St. Paul. Bright’s characters were arranged in 18
English mathematician who published the first vertical rows, similar to the method of Chinese.
detailed description of a submarine. In Inven- After Queen Elizabeth granted him a patent for
tions or Devices (1578), Bourne provided a de- his method in 1588, Bright published a short
sign for an enclosed boat that could be sub- work explaining his “charactery” as the art of
merged and rowed underwater. Made of a wood- short, swift, and secret writing.
en framework encased in waterproofed leather,
Bourne’s planned submarine was to be lowered Jean Carre
by means of hand vices, which would contract ?-1572
the sides and reduce its volume. Although a craft French glassmaker who revitalized the English
similar to Bourne’s design appeared in 1605, it glass-making industry. Carre was operating as a
sank due to errors in construction. The first merchant in Antwerp in 1567, when he received
builder of a workable submarine was Cornelius a 21-year license from Queen Elizabeth to make
Drebbel (1572-1633) in 1620. “glass for glazing such as is made in France, Bur-
gundy, and Lorraine.” He brought to England
Donato Bramante glassmakers from Italy and the French regions of
1444-1514 Burgundy and Lorraine, where the art had long
Italian architect who launched the High Renais- thrived.
sance style in architecture. Bramante was born in
Monte Asdruald (now Fermignano), near Salomon de Caus
Urbino. Details of his early life are sketchy, but it 1576-1626
is known that at an early age he studied painting French engineer and architect, who pioneered
under the Italian masters Andrea Mantegna the use of the steam engine. In Les Raisons des
(1431-1506) and Piero della Francesca (1420?- forces mouvantes (1615), Caus described a steam
1492). Bramante later relocated to Milan, where pump in which water was heated in a vessel and
he is believed to have shared discussions on ar- pushed out by the resulting steam. Because he
chitectural style with Leonardo da Vinci (1452- was a Protestant, Caus was exiled from his
1519). Bramante completed several structures in homeland, and spent much of his career in Eng-
Milan before moving to Rome in 1499. His archi- land and Germany. He used steam to power a
tecture was characterized by its use of illusion, number of small devices.
which was more commonplace in painting than
in building design. In 1503, Bramante entered Jacques Androuet du Cerceau
into the service of Pope Julius II (1443-1513) c. 1520-c. 1585
and two years later began work on his greatest French engineer and architect whose designs in-
achievement, the Basilica of St. Peter in Rome. cluded the Pont Neuf bridge over the Seine in
His other major projects included the Belvedere Paris. Cerceau designed a number of palaces for
courtyard in the Vatican (begun c. 1505), and the the French royal family, and wrote several books

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on architectural and decorative engravings. His ed mention of rubber extraction. A Jesuit, Cobo
plans for the Pont Neuf, for which building went to Peru in 1615, and spent the remainder Technology
began in 1578, incorporated elements from two of his life in the Americas. During that time, he & Invention
other famous bridges: the flat arches of the wrote a number of works, including the Historia
Ponte Vecchio in Florence and the cow’s horns or History of the New World. The work contains 1450-1699
of the Pont Notre Dame in Paris. Cerceau was detailed commentaries on animal and plant life,
the patriarch of a distinguished family of archi- along with a passage discussing the extraction of
tects that included sons Baptiste (1545-1590) liquid resin from a rubber tree.
and Jacques II (c. 1550-1614), and grandson
Jean I (1585-1649). Humphrey Cole
1530?-1591
Cesare Cesariano British engraver and goldsmith who was consid-
fl. 1520s ered the most renowned scientific instrument
Student of Leonardo da Vinci (1452-1519) who maker of sixteenth century England. Cole’s work
published his teacher’s observations on the cam- at the Royal Mint as an engraver and his experi-
era obscura. The latter, a forerunner of the mod- ence with metalworking led him to work as an
ern camera, was an enclosed chamber in which instrument maker. He created a wide variety of
Leonardo conducted experiments with light and mathematical instruments. Cole’s masterpiece
darkness. In 1521, Cesariano also published De was a 2-foot (61 cm) diameter astrolabe, dated
Architectura by the Roman architect Vitruvius 1574, but he also designed intricate sundials, in-
(first century A.D.), the first edition of this highly cluding a ring dial (c. 1575) and unusual quad-
significant treatise on Greco-Roman architecture rant dials (1574).
and engineering to appear in a modern language.
François d’Aguilon
Ch’en Yuan-lung 1567-1617
fl. 1600s Belgian optician and mathematician who coined
Chinese scholar who in the seventeenth century the term “stereoscopic.” A Jesuit priest whose
published a book concerning Chinese inven- family was of Spanish descent, d’Aguilon studied
tions. Among the latter were papermaking, print- persistence of vision and visual illusions, and in
ing (China had its own form of movable-type 1613 published his Opticorum. This work con-
printing that dated back to the eleventh century), tained a discussion of stereoscopic projection,
gunpowder, the kite, and the compass. the phenomenon whereby a person’s two eyes
capture and integrate images viewed from slight-
Chu Tsai-Yü ly different angles, thus giving the image greater
fl. 1580s depth. Knowledge of stereoscopy—which had
Chinese Ming Dynasty prince who calculated a been recognized but unnamed since the time of
musical system of 12-tone equal temperament. Greek astronomer Hipparchus (c. 190-c. 120
The problem of the 12-tone scale had long per- B.C.)—would prove useful in the development of
plexed mathematicians and scientists, because to binoculars and, much later, photography.
create a system of equal tones that would trans-
late from instrument to instrument required com- John Davis
putations with numbers containing as many as 1550?-1605
108 zeroes. One had to then find the twelfth root English navigator and explorer who went in
of such a number, an operation performed by cal- search of the Northwest Passage from Europe to
culating the square root twice, then the cube root. the Pacific. Davis was born near Dartmouth, in
In 1596 (some sources say 1584), Prince Chu Devon. He fell in love with the sea as a child, and
published a book containing highly accurate cal- as an adult became convinced that he could navi-
culations of the string length required to produce gate around North America to reach the Far East
12-tone equal temperament on a lute. His find- from Europe. He persuaded the British monar-
ings preceded those of Marin Mersenne (1588- chy, under Queen Elizabeth I (1533-1603), to
1648) in France by a number of years. sponsor his journey. They agreed, and in 1585
Davis began his first expedition. He made three
Bernabé Cobo unsuccessful attempts to locate the Northwest
1582-1657 Passage, in 1585, 1586, and 1587. On his third
Spanish missionary to the New World whose voyage, Davis attempted to navigate the Strait of
Historia del nuevo mondo contains a number of Magellan, but was prevented from doing so by
valuable observations, including the first record- bad weather. On his way back to England in

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1592 he discovered the Falkland Islands. In ad- where the youngster learned the trade of iron
Technology dition to his noteworthy seamanship, Davis au- manufacture. Iron smelting had previously been
& Invention thored several books on navigation, including done with the use of charcoal. Dudley began ex-
The Seaman’s Secrets (1594) and The World’s Hy- perimenting with what he called pit-coal, and
1450-1699 drographical Description (1595). He also invented his experiments were heartily endorsed by the
the back-staff and double quadrant, or Davis’s English government, which was concerned that
quadrant, which was used for navigation until the widespread use of charcoal, which is made
the eighteenth century. Davis was killed in 1605 from wood, was depleting the country’s forests.
by Japanese pirates near Sumatra. Dudley received a patent for his invention in
1621 and began iron production at his father’s
Stephen Daye ironworks.
1594-1668
English-American locksmith and printer credit- Lazarus Ercker
ed with printing the first product of a North 1530-1594
American printing press, The Freeman’s Oath German metallurgist who wrote the first descrip-
(1639), a broadside of which no known copy tive review of metallurgical chemistry. Ercker
exists. The press, set up in Cambridge, Massa- studied at the University of Wittenberg before
chusetts, belonged to the widow of Rev. Jose holding several governmental positions in Sax-
Glover, who had died on the journey to the ony. He later became a control tester for coins
colonies from England. Daye was entrusted with near Prague, Czechoslovakia. In 1574, he wrote
the working of the press from which he and his Beschreibung allerfürnemisten mineralischen Ertzt
son Matthew produced 1,700 copies (only 11 und Berckwercksarten (Description of Leading
survived) of the first book printed in the Ore Processing and Mining Methods), which re-
colonies, The Whole Booke of Psalmes, commonly viewed current techniques for testing alloys and
known as the Bay Psalm Book, in 1640. minerals of silver, gold, copper, antimony, mer-
cury, bismuth, and lead, and for refining those
Leonard Digges minerals.
1520-c. 1559
Erhard Etzlaub
English mathematician known for his applied
fl. c. 1500
work in navigation, surveying, and ballistics. His
almanac (1555) contained much useful informa- German cartographer who produced the first
tion for sailors. In 1556 he published Tectonicon, European road map. Based in the German town
a manual of elementary surveying techniques. of Nüremberg, Etzlaub in 1500 produced the
Pantometria, published posthumously by his son Romweg Map, which provided a guide for pil-
Thomas in 1571, was a manual of practical grims travelling to Rome from parts of central
mathematics that contained more advanced and and western Europe. In the map, Etzlaub ap-
up-to-date surveying techniques. Digges also in- plied principles of stereographic projection,
vented the theodolite, a portable instrument for which would later be improved by Gerhard Mer-
measuring horizontal angles. cator (1512-1594), to render the curved surface
of the Earth on a flat plane. Etzlaub’s Compass
Dionysius and Pietro Domenico Map (1501) offered a conformal projection—
Italian inventors who are said to have designed that is, a representation of small areas free of the
the first double-gate locks for a canal, built on the distortions often necessary to render a mathe-
Brenta, near Padua, in 1481. Some authorities matically accurate, if less useful, map.
claim that this date is too late for the invention of
multiple locks, but an extensive 1778 work on Domenico Fontana
navigation attributed the invention of the canal 1543-1607
lock, which had a water opening built into the Italian architect and engineer who designed some
wooden gates, to the Domenico brothers. of Rome’s most famous structures, including the
Vatican library and St. Peter’s Basilica. Fontana
Dud Dudley was born in Melide in 1543. He traveled to Rome
1599-1684 in 1563, where he was hired by Cardinal Montal-
English ironmaster who was the first to smelt (or to (1521-1590) (who would later become Pope
fuse) iron ore with coal. Dudley was born the Sixtus V) to design a chapel in the church of St.
fourth of eleven children to Edward Lord Dud- Maria Maggiore (1585). Assisting the Pope in his
ley in the county of Worcester. As a child, Dud- plan to modernize Rome, Fontana designed the
ley was fascinated with his father’s iron-works, Vatican library (1587-1590), the Lateran Palace

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(1587), and collaborated with Italian architect Emperor Maximilian, Giocondo designed the
Giacomo della Porta (1541-1604) on the com- Palazzo del Consiglio, one of Verona’s most Technology
pletion of St. Peter’s dome (1588-1590), follow- stately buildings. From 1496-1499, he was in- & Invention
ing the plans left by the great artist Michelangelo vited to France to assist in the design of several
(1475-1564). Fontana was most famous for chateaus and to supervise the construction of 1450-1699
moving the Egyptian obelisk from the Vatican to the Notre-Dame bridge over the Seine in Paris.
the front of St. Peter’s. His work helped introduce the Italian Renais-
sance to French architectural styles. After return-
Regnier Gemma Frisius ing to Italy, Giocondo assisted with the construc-
1508-1555 tion of St. Peter’s in the Vatican.
Dutch mathematician and mentor of Gerhard
Mercator (1512-1594) who provided the first Francesco Griffo
published illustration of a camera obscura, and fl. c. 1500
who advanced attempts at solving the longitude Italian typographer who designed and produced
problem. At that time, navigators were still many the first italic type. Employed in the shop of
years away from finding a means of easily and Aldus Mantius (1449-1515), Griffo developed
accurately measuring longitude, a challenge that the type by modeling it on the informal style of
literally posed a life-and-death problem to handwriting. Epistola devotissime da Sancta
sailors at sea. Frisius’s De principiis astronomiae Catharina da Siena (Devotional Epistles of
cosmographicae (1530) discussed a method for Catherine of Siena), published by Aldus in Sep-
finding longitude using a clock and astrolabe. tember 1500, contained a woodcut showing St.
During the 1530s, he trained Mercator, and in Catherine holding a book. On the book itself
1545 published De radio astronomico et geometri- were the first 18 italic characters in history. Grif-
co, which discusses his observations of a solar fo’s creation would prove to have a massive im-
eclipse the preceding January. The book includ- pact: printers soon dropped the heavy black let-
ed a drawing of the camera obscura, a dark, en- ter Gothic type in widespread use up to that
closed chamber that was a forerunner of the point, and Roman typefaces designed during the
modern camera. next three centuries reflected Griffo’s influence.
Claude Garamond
1490-1561 Frederico Grisone
fl. 1532-1550
French typefounder and craftsman who was the
first to specialize in type design, punch cutting Italian riding master and pioneer of equestrian
and type founding as a service to publishers and arts. In 1532, Grisone founded a riding school
printers. From the late 1520s, Garamond was near Naples, which became a center of equestri-
commissioned to cut types for the publishing an education for the next century. The first
firm of the scholar-printer Robert Estienne. His known riding teacher to write on the sport,
first roman font was used in the 1530 edition of Grisone in 1550 published Gil ordine di caval-
Paraphrasis in Elegantiarum Libros Laurentii Vallae care, a manual of horsemanship.
by Erasmus. Following the success of Gara-
mond’s roman font, King François I of France Otto von Guericke
commissioned a Greek font, now known as the 1602-1686
Grecs du Roi, for his exclusive use (c. 1451). In German physicist and engineer who invented
1545, Garamond also began publishing his own the air pump, which he used to study how air
type designs including a new italic font. was used in respiration and combustion. Guer-
icke completed his university education with de-
Fra Giovanni Giocondo grees in law, mathematics, and mechanics. In
1433?-1515 1631, he was hired as an engineer in the army of
Italian architect and engineer who pioneered the Gustavus II Adolphus of Sweden. From 1646-
high Renaissance style. The young priest began 1681, he served as mayor of Magdeburg. In
his career teaching Latin and Greek in Verona, 1650, Guericke invented the air pump, which
but soon put his background in archaeology and revealed that air travels through a vacuum, while
draftsmanship to work in Rome, where he aptly sound does not. Through several experiments,
sketched its noble buildings. Giocondo later re- he also discovered the force exerted by air pres-
turned to his home, taking a position as an ar- sure. In 1663 he invented the first electrical gen-
chitectural engineer and overseeing the con- erating machine, creating static electricity by
struction of several bridges. At the request of briskly rubbing a revolving ball of sulfur.

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Jules Hardouin-Mansart honor. He also coined the word cell for biological
Technology 1646-1708 systems, discovered the diffraction of light, pro-
& Invention French architect who completed the Palace of Ver- posed a wave theory of light, invented a tele-
sailles, begun by Louis Le Vau (1612-1670). graph system, made significant astronomical ob-
1450-1699 Grandnephew of the architect François Mansart servations of Jupiter and Mars, and is regarded as
(1598-1666), Hardouin-Mansart—he changed his the founder of the science of crystallography.
surname in 1668—worked as building superin- Christiaan Huygens
tendent for King Louis XIV from 1675. In addition 1629-1695
to his work on Versailles, a renovation rather than
a building project, Hardouin-Mansart was respon- Dutch physicist best known for inventing the
sible for the enlargement of the Château de Saint- wave theory of light. Working with his brother
Germain and the designs of the Place Vendôme, Constantijn he invented a two-lens eyepiece,
the Place des Victoires, and the dome of the Hôtel which dramatically reduced chromatic aberra-
des Invalides. Architect of the Château de Clagny tion, and he constructed improved telescopes
(1676-1680), Hardouin-Mansart designed a num- with which he discovered Saturn’s largest satel-
ber of other châteaux, including de Dampierre, de lite Titan (1655), correctly described Saturn’s
Luneville, and de Sagonne. rings (1655), and first observed markings on
Mars (1659). Huygens also invented the first
John Harington successful pendulum clock, so useful for accu-
1561-1612 rate time keeping in astronomical measure-
ments, and independently discovered conserva-
British writer and inventor credited with the orig-
tion of momentum.
inal concept and construction of the valve-operat-
ed water closet (1586). Harington designed and Athanasius Kircher
installed his first water closet in his home near 1601-1680
Bath, England. In 1596, he published a satire en- German scholar who was renowned for his prolif-
titled A New Discourse upon a Stale Subject Called ic writings on a variety of academic subjects.
the Metamorphosis of Ajax, which described the Kircher was the youngest of nine children, the
water closet in his home. That same year, he in- son of a doctor of divinity. He narrowly escaped
stalled his flushing toilet for his godmother, death several times during childhood, and felt
Queen Elizabeth I of England (1533-1603) at that he was spared because he was predestined
Richmond Palace. Harington’s invention was not for a special purpose in life. Kircher studied
very sanitary and had poor drainage and venting, Greek, Hebrew, the humanities, natural science,
so it was not put into general use. and mathematics at various institutions, and was
ordained in 1628. Three years later, he fled to
Jean de Hautefeuille
France to escape the Thirty Years’ War; while in
1647-1724
France he taught mathematics, philosophy, and
French physicist and watchmaker who made oriental languages. After a few years, he began a
significant advances in the development of time- journey through Italy and eventually settled in
pieces and invented the forerunner of the inter- Rome. Once there, he began writing on a wide
nal-combustion engine. Hautefeuille was fasci- variety of subjects, documenting his vast knowl-
nated by mechanics as a youth. He focused edge of geography, astronomy, theology, language,
much of his attention on watches, to which he and medicine. He eventually completed approxi-
made many improvements, most notably replac- mately 44 books in addition to several thousand
ing the pendulum used at the time with a spiral manuscripts and letters. Kircher was also some-
spring. Hautefeuille also invented a thalassame- thing of an inventor. He described several innova-
ter, which was used to register the movement of tions, including a graduated aerometer and a
tides, and was credited with inventing the first method of measuring temperature by the buoyan-
internal-combustion engine, which was de- cy of small balls. Throughout his lifetime he col-
signed to operate a pump. lected a vast array of historical materials, which
were eventually displayed in a museum bearing
Robert Hooke his name, the Museo Kircheriano in Rome.
1635-1703
English physicist with broad scientific interests Nicholas Krebs
and accomplishments, who is best known for his 1401-1464
discovery of the law that governs the behavior of German scholar and humanist who created the
elastic materials, known as Hooke’s law in his first modern map of Germany in 1491. Also

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known as Nicholas of Cusa and Nicholas Cu- and taught philosophy at its convent in Nevers
sanus, Krebs entered the priesthood in 1433 and from 1614-1618. The following year, he re- Technology
rose to the position of cardinal in 1448. He turned to Paris and became a member of the & Invention
wrote and studied widely in a variety of disci- city’s academic circle. Mersenne performed sig-
plines, including geography, medicine, mathe- nificant research in mathematics, arriving at the 1450-1699
matics, the arts, philosophy, law, and theology. formula 2p-1, in which p represents a prime
In addition, Krebs wrote commentaries on clas- number. While this formula, called the
sical writers, and helped to resurrect a number Mersenne numbers, was not applicable to all
of writings from antiquity. prime numbers, it did stimulate interest in their
study. Mersenne also investigated cycloids (types
Louis Le Vau of geometric curves), and proposed the use of a
1612-1670 pendulum as a sort of clock.
French architect who was one of the chief de-
signers of the Palace of Versailles, particularly William Molyneux
the central portion of the garden facade. Born 1656-1698
into a family of architects and builders, Le Vau Irish mathematician and astronomer who in
achieved an impressive reputation as a designer 1692 published the first work in the British Isles
of private estates and was famous for his opulent on the subject of optics, Dioptrica nova, which
interior designs and majestic proportions. Le contained a discussion of the “magic lantern.”
Vau was also commissioned to design part of the The latter was a primitive type of projector, con-
Louvre in Paris. sidered a forerunner of modern-day motion-pic-
ture projectors. Molyneux also designed a tele-
Jean de Locquenghien scopic sundial and a new gyroscope, and with his
1518-1574 father, Samuel Molyneux, conducted experi-
Flemish engineer, sometimes known as Jan van ments in gunnery.
Locquenghien, who designed the most significant
canal in Belgium. In 1561, work was completed Joseph Moxon
on Locquenghien’s Willebroek Canal, which gave 1627-1700
Brussels access to the North Sea by way of British hydrographer, publisher, and instrument-
Antwerp, some 30 miles (48 km) to the north. maker who created and published the most
comprehensive book on the practice of type-cut-
Francesco di Giorgio Martini ting, founding, and setting before the invention
1439-1502 of the power press. Around 1660, Moxon was
Italian engineer and architect whose Trattato di appointed hydrographer to King Charles II of
architettura civile e militare (c. 1482) was one of England. From 1667 to 1679, he published 38
the most significant books on architectural theo- papers for the professional instruction of skilled
ry during the Renaissance. Initially employed as artisans in the metal and woodworking trades.
a military architect, first by the city-state of Siena In 1683, Moxon combined 24 of these papers
and later by both Lorenzo de Medici and the into his famous book entitled Mechanick Exercis-
duke of Urbino, Martini went on to influence es on the Whole Art of Printing, the earliest practi-
civilian architecture throughout much of Italy. cal manual of printing in any language.
He designed parts of the ducal palace at Urbino,
and created a model of the dome for the cathe- Thomas Newcomen
dral at Milan. He was also an accomplished 1663-1729
sculptor and painter. As a theorist, he was great- English engineer who invented the first atmos-
ly influenced by the ideas of the Roman architect pheric steam engine. Newcomen was born in
Vitruvius (first century A.D.) Dartmouth, and spent many years as an iron-
monger there. Finding out that pumping water
Marin Mersenne out of mines was at the time accomplished
1588-1648 through a labor-intensive process, using horses,
French mathematician, philosopher, and theolo- he spent 10 years trying to create an engine that
gian whose Mersenne numbers pioneered the ef- would complete the task mechanically. New-
fort to discover a formula representing all prime comen’s engine was comprised of a piston within
numbers. Mersenne spent five years at the Jesuit a vertical cylinder and a huge beam which con-
College at La Fleche and two years studying the- nected to the mine pumps. The engine was
ology at the Sorbonne in Paris. He joined the groundbreaking in that it used atmospheric
Roman Catholic order of the Minims in 1611, pressure, so as not to be limited by the pressure

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of steam. The first Newcomen engine was used Dom Pierre Perignon
Technology in a South Staffordshire Colliery in 1712, and 1638-1715
& Invention within a few years the invention was put into French Benedictine monk who is renowned for
use in mines throughout the country. In 1765, his contribution to winemaking. Prior to the
1450-1699 however, Newcomen’s engine was overshadowed seventeenth century, abbeys produced only still
by that of Scottish mechanical engineer James wines, although sparkling wines were known in
Watt (1736-1819), who is now considered the France and England. As cellar master at the
true inventor of the steam engine. Abbey of Hautvillers in Champagne, France,
Dom Perignon converted ordinary sparkling
Bertola da Novate wine into the exceptional wine called cham-
c. 1410-1475 pagne. Dom Perignon’s sparkling wine was ex-
pensive, ordered only by royalty and the nobili-
Italian engineer and pioneer of canal-building. ty, and made him famous in his own lifetime.
Novate built the Bereguardo Canal in Italy, com-
pleted in 1458, which was the first lateral canal Ottaviano dei Petrucci
(that is, paralleling a river) to use locks as a 1466-1539
means of controlling its steep elevation changes. Italian printer who in 1498 devised a method of
In 1470, Novate completed work on the Marte- printing musical notation using movable type.
sana Canal, which connected Milan with the This innovation greatly spurred the spread of
River Trezzo and used only two locks over a dis- composers’ work, and helped lead to the stan-
tance of 24 miles (38.4 km). He is also credited dardized system of notation in use today. A
with introducing the mitre gate, one in which Venetian, Petrucci established a paper mill that
the two gates meet at an angle. The latter is remained in operation until the nineteenth cen-
much more effective at resisting the stress placed tury.
on it, and makes it possible to build a wider
canal lock. Sir William Petty
1632-1687
English-Irish economist and physician who in-
Juan Pablos
vented the first modern cataraman, a boat with
fl. 1539-1560
two hulls. A prominent figure in his time, Petty
Italian printer, known by his Spanish name, who served in a number of important positions with
established the first printing house in the New the English government. He was a founding
World. Pablos worked for Johann Cromberger, a member of the Royal Society, and in 1662 pub-
German printer in Seville, who in 1539 sent him lished one of the first books on vital statistics.
to Mexico City. In 1543, Pablos published the Also in 1662, Petty built his catamaran, the Ex-
first surviving book printed in the Americas, periment, in Ireland.
Doctrina breve muy provechosa by Bishop Zumár-
raga. Pablos was joined in 1550 by Antonio de Hugh Platt
Espinosa, a type founder and die cutter whose fl. 1600-1610
Roman and italic types, the first in the New English scientist who discovered coke. In 1603,
World, soon replaced the Gothic forms used by Platt heated a quantity of coal without burning
Pablos up to that point. it, which distilled the coal and left a residue. The
latter was coke, which proved to be a highly
useful fuel for heating and industry. Platt was
Bernard Palissy also one of the first English writers to mention
1509?-1589 molasses, in his Delights for Ladies (1609).
French potter, glass-painter, and writer who pio-
neered lead-based, enameled ceramics called Christopher Polhem
majolica and popularized a rustic form of ceram- 1661-1751
ic art featuring coiled snakes, scaly fish, and Swedish inventor who designed a number of
slinking lizards set in high relief and painted as machines and made great improvements to his
found in nature. Around 1548, after many years country’s mining industries. One of the first no-
of chemical experimentation, Palissy, an avid table scientists from Sweden, Polhem created
naturalist, discovered the secret of producing and built lathes, clocks, tools, and other devices.
Italian majolica, which he combined with his in- He also held a key position with the Royal Board
terest in nature to create a unique style of ceram- of Mines, where in 1716 Emanuel Swedenborg
ic art that remained popular for over 400 years. (1688-1772), destined to become a famous sci-

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entist, mystic, and philosopher, came to work as Anton Maria Schyrlaeus de Rheita
his assistant. The two men worked together for a 1597-1660 Technology
number of decades, during which time they Bohemian astronomer who produced the first & Invention
made mineralogical studies and sought to en- lunar map to represent the Moon as seen
hance the operations of Swedish mines. through an inverting telescope—with its south- 1450-1699
ern-most features at the top. Rheita’s only scien-
Agostino Ramelli tific treatise of value is Oculus Enoch et Eliae, opus
1531-1590 theologiae, philosophiae, et verbi dei praeconibus
utile et iucundum (1645), in which he describes
Italian military engineer and author of Le diverse an eyepiece, of his own invention, that re-invert-
et artificiose machine (Diverse and artifactitious ed the inverted images of Keplerian refracting
machines, 1588), one of the most important telescopes (1645). Rheita coined the terms “ocu-
works on machinery written during the Renais- lar” and “objective.”
sance. Ramelli spent much of his career in the
service of Henry of Anjou, who later became Friedrich Risner
French king under the title Henry III. He was ?-1580
wounded while taking part in the 1572 military German mathematician who first suggested the
action against the Huguenots at La Rochelle, and idea of a portable camera obscura. The latter is a
afterward devoted himself to his writings. His dark chamber, used for experiments in optics
great work on machines, written in both Italian and generally considered to be a precursor to the
and French, contained 194 plates depicting a va- modern camera. In 1572, Risner suggested that
riety of devices, some of them fanciful and imag- rather than a darkened room, a wooden hut
inary creations. These included water pumps, would make a more useful camera obscura since
mills, cranes, a water wheel, fountains, bridges, it could be moved. He also edited a highly influ-
catapults, and what Ramelli called a “book ential edition of writings by Alhazen (965-1039)
wheel.” The latter was a rotating fixture that and Witelo (c. 1230-c. 1275) on optics.
made it possible to keep several books open and
read from them at the same time. In the view of John Rolfe
some scientists, this was a precursor to the idea 1585-1622
of hypertext, as used today on the Internet. English colonist who discovered a method for
curing tobacco, and was the first known settler
in the New World to cultivate the crop. Rolfe ar-
Erhard Ratdolt
rived in Jamestown, Virginia, in 1610, and by
1447-1528
1616 he had a successful tobacco crop using
German printer and type-cutter who published seeds probably obtained from the West Indies.
the first book using more than two different col- Tobacco would have an impact on the
ors of ink on one page. In 1482, Ratdolt printed economies of Virginia and neighboring North
an edition of the Elements by Euclid (c. 325-c. Carolina that is still felt today. Rolfe is also fa-
250 B.C.), which was the first printed book illus- mous as the husband of Pocahontas; ironically, it
trated with geometric figures. Three years later, in is believed that he was killed by Native Ameri-
1485, he published De sphaera by English mathe- cans near his home.
matician Johannes de Sacrobosco (a.k.a. John of
Holywood, c. 1200-1256), which contained Giovanni Ventura Rosetti
pages using more than two colors. Ratdolt was fl. 1540s
also the originator of the decorated title page. Italian textile-maker who published the first
book on dyeing fibers and fabrics, Plictho del-
George Ravenscroft l’arte de tentori (1540). This coincided with the
1618-1681 dawning of the commercial textile industry, as
the process for applying natural dyes—synthetic
English glass maker who developed lead glass, dyes would not appear for several centuries—
also known as flint glass. For several centuries, came to be standardized.
Venice had dominated the glass industry; in
1674, however, Ravenscroft discovered that by Anna Rügerin
adding lead, he could create a glass that was not German printing press owner and operator who
only more durable, but more brilliant and aes- was the first recorded female printer. In June
thetically pleasing than Venetian glass. Today 1484, the Augsburg press owned and worked by
Ravenscroft’s discovery is known as lead crystal. Rügerin printed the Sachsenspiegel of Eike von

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Repgow. It is probable that Johann Schönsperger, Tartaglia

Technology who had been associated with printer Thomas 1499-1557
& Invention Rüger, assisted his widow with the project. Italian mathematician, born Nicolò Fontana,
Olivier de Serres whose La nuova scientia (1537) was the first
1450-1699 book in history on the science of ballistics. The
1539-1619
latter had come to be increasingly important to
French agronomist, thought to be the first to military forces armed with guns and cannons,
practice systematic crop rotation. Sometimes re- and Tartaglia’s work was highly influential; how-
ferred to as the father of French agriculture, Ser- ever, he incorrectly stated that a ball falls straight
res presented King Henry IV with plans for the downward after being propelled forward from a
expansion of sericulture. His advocacy was cannon. As a mathematician, Tartaglia is best
largely responsible for the widespread planting known for his partial solution to the problem of
of mulberry trees in France at the time, and his cubic equations, a discovery that later led him
agricultural manual, Théatre d’agriculture et mes- into a dispute with Girolamo Cardano (1501-
nage de champs (1600), proved highly influential. 1576) and Cardano’s assistant Ludovico Ferrari
In addition to crop rotation, Serres advocated (1522-1565). Interestingly, Cardano published
new irrigation methods, water conservation, and his own work on ballistics and other subjects,
the sowing of artificial grasses. De subtilitate, seven years after Tartaglia’s.
Ludwig von Siegen
Giacomo Torelli
1609-c. 1680
1608-1678
German engraver and painter who in 1642 in-
Italian stage designer and engineer who created a
vented the mezzotint process for printing in
number of innovations for the theatre. In 1641,
graduated tones. Siegen, who described his
Torelli designed and built the Teatro Novissimo
method as one of engraving by dots rather than
in Venice, for which he developed number of
by lines, used a small roulette or fine-toothed
machines, in particular a revolving stage. Invited
wheel to achieve the desired effect. For years he
to Paris by King Louis XIV in 1645, he designed
kept his method a secret, before revealing it to
for the Théatre du Petit-Bourbon the first effec-
Prince Rupert of the Palatinate, a patron, in
tive machinery for making rapid changes to large
1654. Eventually the process made its way to
sets. His set designs, most notably for Pierre
engravers in England, who adopted it to a much
Corneille’s Andromède in 1650, won him praise.
greater extent than their counterparts in other
After returning to Italy in 1661, he designed the
countries.
Teatro della Fortuna in Fano (1677).
Edward Somerset
1601-1667 Geoffroy Tory
c. 1480-c. 1533
British inventor and Army officer who designed
one of the earliest known steam engines, a French printer and engraver whose designs in
steam-operated pump for raising water. Somer- Champ fleury (1529) provided the model for
set was granted a patent for the device in 1663, styles of book decoration in the French Renais-
the same year he published a book written in sance. Typographers long struggled with the
1655 entitled A Century of the Names and Scant- problem of developing a formula for the design
lings of Such Inventions as at Present I Can Call to of capital Roman letters, a question Tory effec-
Mind to have Tried and Perfected, which included tively addressed in his seminal work. He advo-
a description of his steam pump as “an ad- cated a number of other reforms, including the
mirable and most forcible way to drive up water use of accents, the cedilla, the apostrophe, and
by fire.” other punctuation marks, that exerted a pro-
found influence not only on French orthogra-
Frederick Staedtler phy, but on the French language as it is written
fl. 1660s today. Champ fleury won such great acclaim that
German manufacturer who produced the first King Francis I appointed him to the position of
commercially made pencils. In Nüremberg, Ger- Imprimeur du Roy in 1530.
many, in 1662, Staedtler established a factory for
making pencils by fitting a thin strip of graphite Robertus Valturius
into a grooved piece of wood, then covering the 1413-1484
groove and sealing it in place with a glued Italian military engineer whose De re militari
wooden strip. Libri XII included the earliest printed technical

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illustrations. The book, published in Verona in positions. He first made use of the weight-driven
1472, featured depictions of the latest military clock in 1484. Technology
technology, as well as scenes illustrating various & Invention
military activities and warfare. Wan Hu
d. c. 1500 1450-1699
Sébastien Le Prestre de Vauban Chinese rocketry pioneer. Wan Hu was report-
1633-1707 edly a government official, though some sources
French military engineer whose tactics helped identify him as a legendary or semi-legendary
win a string of victories for King Louis XIV. figure. In about 1500, he attached some 47 “fire-
Three years after joining the French engineer arrow rockets” or fireworks to two large kites,
corps, Vauban served as engineer-in-chief at the which were in turn attached to a chair. He then
successful siege of Gravelines in 1658. He went sat in the chair, and on his command, the 47
on to great acclaim for his work in enabling vic- rockets were lit. The result was an explosion that
tories during 12 military engagements from took his life.
1667 to 1703. Vauban designed fortifications at
Strasbourg and a number of other towns, and Richard Weston
invented the socket bayonet. His De l’attaque et 1591-1652
de la défense des places, published posthumously English agriculturalist who was first to describe
in 1737, was a highly influential study of fortifi- a system of crop rotation using no fallow
cations and siege technology. break—that is, a period in which no crops are
planted on the land. An advocate of growing
Sir Cornelius Vermuyden root crops, Weston published his Discours of
1595?-1683 Husbandrie in 1650.
Dutch-born English engineer responsible for a
number of drainage and land reclamation pro- Henry Winstanley
jects. Vermuyden went to England in 1621 (he 1644-1703
later became a naturalized citizen) to repair the English engineer who designed the first Eddys-
Thames embankments. In 1626, he received a tone Lighthouse, which greatly reduced ship-
commission from King Charles I to drain Hat- ping accidents off the Plymouth coast. An inven-
field Chase in Yorkshire, and spent the better tor known for his many bizarre contraptions,
part of the 1630s draining the Great Fens in Winstanley owned two ships that in 1696 sank
Cambridgeshire. He later reclaimed the area on the dangerous Eddystone Rocks 14 miles
after much of it was flooded during the English (22.5 km) from shore. He then resolved to build
Civil War. a lighthouse. Given its distance from inhabitable
land—the Eddystone Rocks were, as their name
Pierre Vernier indicated, mere rocks jutting from the sea—this
1584-1638 was a formidable task. Simply digging the foun-
French military engineer who invented the dation took five months, but finally the light-
Vernier caliper or Vernier scale for measuring house was completed in 1698. Five years later,
small angles and lengths. The instrument, some- Winstanley died in a violent storm that de-
times simply called the vernier, consisted of a stroyed the lighthouse.
large stationary scale for measuring whole num-
bers, along with a smaller, movable scale for Hannah Woolley
measuring fractions. Originally used in astrono- 1623-1684?
my, it replaced the much more complicated as- British schoolteacher and writer, whose name is
trolabe; ultimately, however, the vernier would well known to collectors of books on cookery
gain even wider use among surveyors. and the domestic arts as the first woman to pub-
lish a cookbook. Left an orphan at a young age,
Bernard Walther Woolley found work as a schoolmistress and
1430-1504 governess before attaining the post of stewardess
German astronomer who was one of the first to and secretary for an unnamed woman. She even-
use weight-driven clocks. Walther was a patron tually married and was widowed, about which
of Johann Müller Regiomontanus (1436-1476), time she published her first book, The Ladies’ Di-
and contributed funds toward the building of rectory (1661). Her four subsequent books (and
the latter’s observatory in Nuremberg in 1471. their later editions) were a curious mixture of eti-
After Regiomontanus’s death in 1476, Walther quette rules and behavior in society, the art of let-
continued his associate’s work in measuring star ter-writing, cooking recipes, first aid instructions,

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and education advice for girls’ governesses and Bibliography of

Technology others seeking domestic positions.
& Invention Primary Sources
1450-1699
Sir Christopher Wren
1632-1723


Agricola, Georgius. De re Metallica (1556). This cleverly
English polymath who, after the great fire of
organized work discussed all aspects of mining from
London (1666), designed the new St. Paul’s prospecting through the production of gold, silver,
Cathedral and over 50 churches. He also de- lead, salt, soda, alum, sulfuric acid, sulfur, bitumen,
signed the Greenwich Observatory. Wren was a and glass. One of the great monuments of technology,
charter member of the Royal Society, becoming for two centuries it remained through many reprints
the best mining textbook in Europe, because of its
that body’s president in 1680. He produced the
comprehensive coverage and brilliantly clear illustra-
first lunar globe (1661), determined the arc tions of machinery, powered by horses or water
length and center of gravity for the cycloid wheels, for pumping water, hoisting spoil, ventilating
(1658), independently established conservation shafts, crushing and grinding ore, assaying and sam-
of momentum (1668), and proposed a unit of pling for quality, stirring and mixing ore in tubs,
blowing smelting furnaces, and moving heavy ham-
length based on pendulum oscillations (1673).
mers to work wrought iron.

Yi Sun-shin Alberti, Leone Battista. Della Pittura (1435). This work

contained the first general account of the laws of per-
?-1598
spective.
Korean admiral who built the first ironclad war- Alberti, Leone Battista. De re aedificatoria (promulgated
ships. In 1592, when the Japanese invaded 1452, published 1485). This book became the bible
Korea with the aim of conquering the peninsula of Renaissance architecture, incorporating as it did
and moving on to China, Yi ordered the building advances in engineering and aesthetic theory.
of 12 kobukson, or “tortoise ships.” These low- Aldus Mantius. Epistola devotissime da Sancta Catharina da
decked, armed galleys, covered with an iron- Siena (Devotional epistles of Catherine of Siena,
plated dome, faced a vastly larger Japanese 1500). This work contained a woodcut showing St.
Catherine holding a book. On the book itself were
force—133 ships—and won an overwhelming the first 18 italic characters in history, created by
victory, sinking 31 vessels and routing the re- Francesco Griffo. Griffo’s creation would prove to
mainder. Despite this victory, however, the Kore- have a massive impact: printers soon dropped the
ans did not continue building ironclad warships, heavy black letter Gothic type in widespread use up
and the technique did not appear in the West to that point, and Roman typefaces designed during
the next three centuries reflected Griffo’s influence.
until the nineteenth century.
Besson, Jacques. Theatrum Instrumentorum et Machinarum
Johann Zahn (1569). A book on mechanical arts that included il-
lustrations of Besson’s various machines.
fl. 1680s
Biringuccio, Vannoccio. De la pirotechnia libri X (Ten
German inventor whose box-sized camera ob- books of a work in fire, 1540). Biringuccio’s practical
scuras provided a prototype for the box and re- manual, written in vernacular Italian, described met-
flex cameras that appeared at the advent of pho- allurgical processes—assaying, smelting, alloying,
tography in the nineteenth century. Originally and casting—that he had seen or practiced. In many
cases his was the first written description of processes
the camera obscura consisted of an entire room
for smelting and casting gold, silver, copper, lead, tin,
in which all light was shut off, except for a small iron, steel, and brass. He also described the casting of
hole at one end; thanks to innovations begin- medallions, fine art objects, type for printing, and
ning with Friedrich Risner (d. 1580), however, cannon, which in typical Renaissance fashion he in-
they were small and portable by Zahn’s time. sisted should be ornamented to make them beautiful.
Zahn, a monk from Würzburg, developed lenses Bourne, William. Inventions or Devices (1578). The first
of varying length for viewing scenes at a greater detailed description of a submarine. In the work
or lesser distance. Bourne provided a design for an enclosed boat that
could be submerged and rowed underwater. Made of
a wooden framework encased in waterproofed
Jakob Zech leather, Bourne’s planned submarine was to be low-
fl. 1520s ered by means of hand vices, which would contract
German clockmaker, sometimes known as Jacob the sides and reduce its volume. Although a craft sim-
ilar to Bourne’s design appeared in 1605, it sank due
the Czech, who built the first clock using a bal- to errors in construction.
ance wheel, which made it more regular and
Branca, Giovanni. La Machine (1629). A gazette of ma-
therefore more accurate. Zech’s wheel, called a chinery that included 77 woodcuts illustrating vari-
fusee, represented the first successful attempt to ous types of equipment. Among those depicted was a
regulate the power of the watch spring. steam turbine, along with Branca’s notes describing

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the means for turning a wheel by shooting jets of century. In the eyes of many scholars, the work
steam against vanes attached to the outer rim of the stands as the clearest and best-organized textbook on Technology
wheel. At the end of a turbine shaft were pestles for architecture ever produced. The first two books out-
pounding materials. line Palladio’s principles of building materials and his & Invention
designs for town and country villas. The third volume
Caus, Salomon de. Les Raisons des forcesmouvantes 1450-1699
illustrates his thinking about bridges, town planning,
(1615). Here Caus described a steam pump in which
and basilicas, which were oblong public halls. The
water was heated in a vessel and pushed out by the
final book deals with reconstruction of ancient
resulting steam.
Roman temples.
d’Aguilon, François. Opticorum (1613). This work con-
tained a discussion of stereoscopic projection, the Papin, Denis. Ars Nova ad Aquam Ignis Adminiculo Effi-
phenomenon whereby a person’s two eyes capture cacissime Elevandam (The new art of pumping water
and integrate images viewed from slightly different by using steam, 1707). Thomas Savery’s sketch of the
angles, thus giving the image greater depth. first practical steam engine inspired Papin’s paper on
the topic of steam engines.
della Porta, Giambattista. Magiae naturalis (1558). This
book constituted the foundation of an expanded 20- Ramelli, Agostino. Le diverseet artificiose machine (Diverse
book edition of the Magia naturalis (1589). The docu- and artifactitious machines, 1588). One of the most
ment explores the natural world, claiming it can be important works on machinery written during the
manipulated through theoretical and practical experi- Renaissance. Written in both Italian and French, the
mentation. Magiae naturalis is della Porta’s most rec- work contained 194 plates depicting a variety of de-
ognized work and the basis of his reputation. vices, some of them fanciful and imaginary creations.
These included water pumps, mills, cranes, a water
Ercker, Lazarus. Beschreibung allerfürnemisten mineralischen wheel, fountains, bridges, catapults, and what Ramel-
Ertzt und Berckwercksarten (Description of leading ore li called a “book wheel.” The latter was a rotating fix-
processing and mining methods, 1574). This work re- ture that made it possible to keep several books open
viewed current techniques for testing alloys and miner- and read from them at the same time. In the view of
als of silver, gold, copper, antimony, mercury, bismuth, some scientists, this was a precursor to the idea of hy-
and lead, and for refining those minerals. pertext, as used today on the Internet.
Fevre, Raoul le. Recuyell of the Histories of Troie (1474). Rheita, Anton de. Oculus Enoch et Eliae, opus theologiae,
This was the first known book published in the Eng- philosophiae, et verbi dei praeconibus utile et iucundum
lish language. (1645). Here Rheita described an eyepiece of his own
Frisius, Regnier. De principiis astronomiae cosmographicae invention that re-inverted the inverted images of Kep-
(1530). Discussed a method for finding longitude lerian refracting telescopes.
using a clock and astrolabe. Rosetti, Giovanni. Plictho dell’arte de tentori (1540). The
Frisius, Regnier. De radio astronomico et geometrico (1545). first book on dyeing fibers and fabrics, This coincided
This work discussed Frisius’s observations of a solar with the dawning of the commercial textile industry,
eclipse the preceding January. The book included a as the process for applying natural dyes—synthetic
drawing of the camera obscura, a dark, enclosed dyes would not appear for several centuries—came to
chamber that was a forerunner of the modern camera. be standardized.
Grisone, Frederico. Gil ordine di cavalcare (1550). A man- Serres, Olivier de. Théatre d’agriculture (1600). Described
ual of horsemanship. systematic crop rotation for the first time. This very
popular work appeared in several editions through-
The Gutenberg Bible (1456). The oldest surviving printed out the seventeenth century. Serres surveyed all as-
work in the Western world was originally known as pects of agriculture, starting with advice on running a
The Bible of 42 Lines. religious Calvinist household.
Molyneux, William. Dioptrica nova, (1692). Thefirst work Somerset, Edward. A Century of the Names and Scantlings
in the British Isles on the subject of optics, this book of Such Inventions as at Present I Can Call to Mind to
contained a discussion of the “magic lantern.” The lat- have Tried and Perfected (1663). This book included a
ter was a primitive type of projector, considered a description of Somerset’s pioneering steam pump as
forerunner of modern-day motion-picture projectors. “uoan admirable and most forcible way to drive up
Moxon, Joseph. Mechanick Exercises on the Whole Art of water by fire.”
Printing (1683). Moxon combined 24 papers to create Tartaglia. La nuova scientia (1537). The first book in his-
this famous book, the earliest practical manual of tory on the science of ballistics. The field had come to
printing in any language. be increasingly important to military forces armed
Neri, Antonio. L’arte Vetraria (The art of glass, 1612). In with guns and cannons, and Tartaglia’s work was
this influential work Neri revealed many of the se- highly influential; however, he incorrectly stated that
crets of glassmaking, which had previously been a ball falls straight downward after being propelled
closely guarded among Italian glassmakers. The forward from a cannon.
book, colorful and detailed, has served as a basic ref-
Tory, Geoffroy. Champ fleury (1529). The designs in this
erence on the subject ever since.
work provided the model for styles of book decora-
Palladio, Andrea. I Quattro Libri dell’Architecttura (Four tion in the French Renaissance. Typographers long
books of architecture, 1570). Four-volume treatise struggled with the problem of developing a formula
that popularized classical design and Palladio’s innov- for the design of capital Roman letters, a question
ative style, and became a veritable blueprint for de- Tory effectively addressed in his seminal work. He ad-
sign worldwide, reaching its zenith in the eighteenth vocated a number of other reforms, including the use

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of accents, the cedilla, the apostrophe, and other Land There, and Serving as a Pattern for Our Practice in
Technology punctuation marks, that exerted a profound influence This Commonwealth (1650). Weston published this
not only on French orthography, but on the French work to spread the knowledge of the “ley” farming
& Invention language as it is written today. Champ fleury won such techniques that he saw between Antwerp and Ghent
great acclaim that King Francis I appointed Tory to while in exile. Ley farming emphasized the careful ac-
1450-1699 the position of Imprimeur du Roy in 1530. cumulation of manure from animals hand-fed in stalls
during summer with green and root crops, such as
Valturius, Robertus. De re militari Libri XII (1472). In-
hay, clover, turnips, or flax. When the ley lands were
cluded the earliest printed technical illustrations. The
ploughed under, the roots left in them fertilized the
book, published in Verona, Italy, featured depictions
soil. This created a rising cycle of production, because
of the latest military technology as well as scenes il-
better-manured crops produced more food for ani-
lustrating various military activities and warfare.
mals, which in turn produced more manure. Animals
Vauban, Sébastien. De l’attaque et de la défensedes places could also be kept through the winter on the reserves
(1737). This work, published posthumously, was a of larger crops, enabling them to be selectively bred
highly influential study of fortifications and siege and preserving their muscle power and manure.
technology.
NEIL SCHLAGER
Weston, Richard. Discourse of Husbandry Used in Brabant
and Flanders, Showing the Wonderful Improvement of

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Astronomy. London: Allen & Unwin, 1938. nology Desk Reference: 1,500 Frequently Asked
Asimov, Isaac. Adding a Dimension: Seventeen or Difficult-to-Answer Questions. Washington,
Essays on the History of Science. Garden City, DC: Gale, 1993.
NY: Doubleday, 1964. Christianson, Gale E. Isaac Newton and the Scien-
Basalla, George. The Evolution of Technology. New tific Revolution. New York: Oxford Universi-
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Benson, Don S. Man and the Wheel. London: Pri- Crombie, Alistair Cameron. Medieval and Early
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Beretta, Marco. The Enlightenment of Matter: The day, 1959.
Definition of Chemistry from Agricola to Crone, G. R. Man the Explorer. London: Priory
Lavoisier. Canton, MA: Science History Pub- Press, 1973.
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Debus, Allen G. Chemistry, Alchemy, and the New
Black, Jeremy. The Cambridge Illustrated Atlas, Philosophy, 1550-1700: Studies in the History
Warfare: Revolution, 1492- 1792. New York: of Science and Medicine. London: Variorum
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Boorstin, Daniel J. The Discoverers. New York:
Debus, Allen G. Man and Nature in the Renais-
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Bowler, Peter J. The Norton History of the Environ- Press, 1978.
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Brock, W. H. The Norton History of Chemistry. New York: American Elsevier, 1970.
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Ellis, Keith. Man and Measurement. London: Pri-
Bruno, Leonard C. Science and Technology Firsts.
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by Daniel J. Boorstin. Detroit: Gale, 1997. Finocchiaro, Maurice A., translator and editor. The
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Grafton, Anthony and Nancy Siraisi, editors. European Court, 1500- 1750. Rochester, NY:
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Grattan-Guiness, Ivor. The Norton History of the Press, 1996.
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Hellemans, Alexander and Bryan Bunch. The Singer, Charles. A History of Biology to About the
Timetables of Science: A Chronology of the Year 1900: A General Introduction to the Study
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Singer, Charles. A Short History of Science to the
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