Exam Questions

Section A
 Instructions:
• Explain what you understand about the
following terms or topics that relate to
petroleum geoscience. Use a sketch or
example as appropriate.
1. Paleozoic, Devonian, 13. Reasonable range of oil and
Pliocene (exact numerical gas recovery factors for
ages are not important) fields: a) under gas
2. Basin depletion, and b) under
3. Transgression and waterflood
regression 14. The abbreviations STOIP,
4. Fractures GIIP, TD and TVDSS.
5. Plunging anticline 15. Strike and Dip
6. Trough cross-bedding 16. Gross rock volume
7. Deltaic deposits 17. Isopach
8. Turbidites 18. Source rock
9. Secondary sedimentary 19. Primary migration
structures 20. Metamorphic rocks
10. Crust and lithosphere 21. Biostratigraphy
11. Plate margin 22. Walther’s Law
12. Lowest known oil (LKO) 23. Triangulation
24. True vertical thickness
25. Seismic resolution
1. Paleozoic, Devonian, Paleozoic is an era – the oldest
Pliocene (exact numerical of the three (approx 540 to
ages are not important) 250 Ma).
2. Basin Devonian is a period within the
3. Transgression and Paleozoic era (~395 to 345)
regression Pliocene is a epoch within the
4. Fractures Tertiary period of the
5. Plunging anticline Cenozoic era (the youngest
era).
6. Trough cross-bedding
7. Deltaic deposits
8. Turbidites
9. Secondary sedimentary
structures
10. Crust and lithosphere
11. Plate margin
12. Lowest known oil (LKO)
1. Paleozoic, Devonian, A basin is a large-scale
Pliocene (exact numerical (regional) depression where
ages are not important) sedimentation is occurring
2. Basin and subsidence is
3. Transgression and continually creating
regression accommodation space for
more sediments to
4. Fractures accumulate.
5. Plunging anticline Basins form in many different
6. Trough cross-bedding plate tectonic settings, with
7. Deltaic deposits subsidence caused by
thinning of the crust
8. Turbidites (extension) or by loading
9. Secondary sedimentary (during compression).
structures
10. Crust and lithosphere
11. Plate margin
12. Lowest known oil (LKO)
1. Paleozoic, Devonian, Transgression and regression
Pliocene (exact numerical refer to rise and fall of
ages are not important) relative sea-level.
2. Basin Transgression occurs when
3. Transgression and relative sea-level rises and
regression the shoreline moves
landwards, regression
4. Fractures occurs when relative sea-
5. Plunging anticline level falls and the shoreline
6. Trough cross-bedding moves sea-wards.
7. Deltaic deposits
8. Turbidites higher sea level
9. Secondary sedimentary
structures
10. Crust and lithosphere
“normal” sea level
11. Plate margin
12. Lowest known oil (LKO)

lower sea level

1. Paleozoic, Devonian, A fracture is a break in the rock
Pliocene (exact numerical mass across which no
ages are not important) relative movement has
2. Basin occurred. Fractures can be
3. Transgression and closed (by finer ground
regression material or by crystalline fill
creating ‘veins’) or open
4. Fractures (creating secondary porosity
5. Plunging anticline and permeability).
6. Trough cross-bedding Fractures occur related to faults,
7. Deltaic deposits folds and other structural
deformation.
8. Turbidites
9. Secondary sedimentary
structures
10. Crust and lithosphere
11. Plate margin
12. Lowest known oil (LKO)
1. Paleozoic, Devonian, A plunging anticline is an
Pliocene (exact numerical anticline (upfold) whose fold
ages are not important) axis is non-horizontal:
2. Basin
3. Transgression and
regression
4. Fractures
5. Plunging anticline
6. Trough cross-bedding
7. Deltaic deposits
8. Turbidites
9. Secondary sedimentary
structures
10. Crust and lithosphere
11. Plate margin
12. Lowest known oil (LKO)
1. Paleozoic, Devonian, Trough cross-bedding is a
Pliocene (exact numerical sedimentary structure, created by
ages are not important) the migration of megaripples or
2. Basin dunes with curved crests. The
3. Transgression and sets of cross-beds have curved
regression erosional boundaries (set
boundaries), and are greater than
4. Fractures 5 cm thick (thickness is controlled
5. Plunging anticline by the height of the original
6. Trough cross-bedding beform, which is controlled by the
7. Deltaic deposits flow). Curved crested
megaripples represent a higher
8. Turbidites energy flow than straight crested
9. Secondary sedimentary megaripples.
structures
10. Crust and lithosphere
11. Plate margin
12. Lowest known oil (LKO)
1. Paleozoic, Devonian, Deltaic deposits are wedge-shaped
Pliocene (exact numerical volumes of sediment, deposited at
ages are not important) the mouth of rivers where they
2. Basin meet a standing body of water
3. Transgression and (lake or sea). They are subdivided
regression based on the dominant process –
river, wave or tide. Reservoir
4. Fractures facies in deltas include mouth-bars
5. Plunging anticline in fluvial dominated deltas, and
6. Trough cross-bedding shoreline facies in wave dominated
7. Deltaic deposits deltas.
8. Turbidites
9. Secondary sedimentary
structures
10. Crust and lithosphere
11. Plate margin
12. Lowest known oil (LKO)
1. Paleozoic, Devonian, Turbidites are the deposits of
Pliocene (exact numerical turbidity currents, and are
ages are not important) found in submarine fans
2. Basin (channelised and sheet
3. Transgression and turbidites) and on the basin
regression floor (sheet turbidites).
4. Fractures A turbidite is sharp-based
(erosive, high energy flow),
5. Plunging anticline has a distinctive fining-
6. Trough cross-bedding upwards trend (because of
7. Deltaic deposits the waning flow), a
succession of sedimentary
8. Turbidites structures (massive,
9. Secondary sedimentary laminated, cross-bedded or
structures convoluted, muddy) and
10. Crust and lithosphere may have internal grain
11. Plate margin alignment.
12. Lowest known oil (LKO)
1. Paleozoic, Devonian, Secondary sedimentary
Pliocene (exact numerical structures are formed after
ages are not important) the deposition of the
2. Basin sediment. They include
3. Transgression and bioturbation (the moving of
regression the sediment by the action
of animals), dessication
4. Fractures cracks, raindrop imprints,
5. Plunging anticline and various soft-sediment
6. Trough cross-bedding deformation structures,
7. Deltaic deposits including pillow structures,
convolute lamination and
8. Turbidites water escape structures.
9. Secondary sedimentary
structures
10. Crust and lithosphere
11. Plate margin
12. Lowest known oil (LKO)
1. Paleozoic, Devonian, Crust and lithosphere are the outermost
Pliocene (exact numerical solid layers of the earth. Crust is the
ages are not important) outer layer and is subdivided into two
2. Basin different types – oceanic and
3. Transgression and continental crust. Oceanic crust in
regression thinner and composed of silica poor
igneous rocks, continental crust is
4. Fractures thicker and more silica rich, and
5. Plunging anticline contains sedimentary metamorphic
6. Trough cross-bedding and igneous rocks. The crust in
7. Deltaic deposits combination with the outermost, solid,
layer of the mantle comprise the
8. Turbidites lithosphere, which is divided into
9. Secondary sedimentary plates that move around above a
structures plastic, slowly convecting mantle layer
10. Crust and lithosphere – the asthenosphere.
11. Plate margin
12. Lowest known oil (LKO)
1. Paleozoic, Devonian, Plate margins or plate
Pliocene (exact numerical boundaries are the zones
ages are not important) where two lithospheric
2. Basin plates meet. The relative
3. Transgression and movement of the plates
regression means that they will either
be separating (a divergent
4. Fractures plate boundary), moving
5. Plunging anticline towards each other (a
6. Trough cross-bedding convergent plate boundary)
7. Deltaic deposits or sliding past each other (a
transform plate boundary).
8. Turbidites
9. Secondary sedimentary
structures
10. Crust and lithosphere
11. Plate margin
12. Lowest known oil (LKO)
1. Paleozoic, Devonian, When drilling has not succeeded in
Pliocene (exact numerical intersecting the oil-water-
ages are not important) contact (OWC), we should have
2. Basin two levels that have been found
3. Transgression and in wells that will constrain where
regression the OWC could occur – these
are the highest known water
4. Fractures (HKW) level and the lowest
5. Plunging anticline known oil (LKO) level. The
6. Trough cross-bedding OWC could occur between
7. Deltaic deposits these values, and volumetrics
can use these to determine
8. Turbidites maximum and minimum
9. Secondary sedimentary volumes for the reservoir.
structures
10. Crust and lithosphere
11. Plate margin
12. Lowest known oil (LKO)
Reasonable recoveries for oil 13. Reasonable range of oil and
and gas under different gas recovery factors for
recovery mechanisms: fields: a) under gas
depletion, and b) under
waterflood
14. The abbreviations STOIP,
GIIP, TD and TVDSS.
15. Strike and Dip
16. Gross rock volume
17. Isopach
18. Source rock
19. Primary migration
20. Metamorphic rocks
21. Biostratigraphy
22. Walther’s Law
23. Triangulation
24. True vertical thickness
25. Seismic resolution
STOIP: Stock Tank Oil 13. Reasonable range of oil and
Originally/Initially In Place gas recovery factors for
GIIP: Gas Initially In Place fields: a) under gas
TD: Total Depth depletion, and b) under
waterflood
TVDSS: True Vertical Depth
Sub-Sea 14. The abbreviations STOIP,
GIIP, TD and TVDSS.
15. Strike and Dip
16. Gross rock volume
17. Isopach
18. Source rock
19. Primary migration
20. Metamorphic rocks
21. Biostratigraphy
22. Walther’s Law
23. Triangulation
24. True vertical thickness
25. Seismic resolution
A way of defining the orientation 13. Reasonable range of oil and
of a planar surface: Strike is gas recovery factors for
the orientation of a fields: a) under gas
horizontal line on the depletion, and b) under
surface, and dip is the angle waterflood
between the surface and a 14. The abbreviations STOIP,
horizontal plane. GIIP, TD and TVDSS.
15. Strike and Dip
16. Gross rock volume
17. Isopach
18. Source rock
19. Primary migration
20. Metamorphic rocks
21. Biostratigraphy
22. Walther’s Law
23. Triangulation
24. True vertical thickness
25. Seismic resolution
The volume of rock in the 13. Reasonable range of oil and
structure that is filled with gas recovery factors for
hydrocarbons – so between fields: a) under gas
the top of the structure and depletion, and b) under
the OWC. This can be the waterflood
volume of reservoir rock 14. The abbreviations STOIP,
(with the non-reservoir GIIP, TD and TVDSS.
removed) if the reservoir is 15. Strike and Dip
complex or in segments, or it
could be the volume of rock 16. Gross rock volume
including a certain 17. Isopach
proportion of non-reservoir 18. Source rock
material, which is then
removed by applying a net- 19. Primary migration
to-gross multiplier. 20. Metamorphic rocks
21. Biostratigraphy
22. Walther’s Law
23. Triangulation
24. True vertical thickness
25. Seismic resolution
 A contour (line joining points of 13. Reasonable range of oil and
equal height) of true gas recovery factors for
stratigraphic thickness fields: a) under gas
values. depletion, and b) under
waterflood
14. The abbreviations STOIP,
GIIP, TD and TVDSS.
Θ (dip) 15. Strike and Dip
16. Gross rock volume
True Stratigraphic
Thickness (isopach)
17. Isopach
18. Source rock
True Vertical 19. Primary migration
Thickness (isochore)
20. Metamorphic rocks
TST = TVT x cos Θ 21. Biostratigraphy
22. Walther’s Law
23. Triangulation
24. True vertical thickness
25. Seismic resolution
The organic rich (5-20%) 13. Reasonable range of oil and
sedimentary rock that under gas recovery factors for
the right temperature and fields: a) under gas
pressure conditions depletion, and b) under
generated hydrocarbons, waterflood
which migrate upwards into 14. The abbreviations STOIP,
reservoirs and traps. GIIP, TD and TVDSS.
15. Strike and Dip
16. Gross rock volume
SEAL
SEALING:
IF: seal is deposited before migration
17. Isopach
impermeable &: it is sufficiently impermeable
TRAPPING: 18. Source rock
RESERVOIR TRAP IF: trap formation occurs
porous and permeable before migration
19. Primary migration
SECONDARY MIGRATION
CARRIER BED
20. Metamorphic rocks
porous and permeable
21. Biostratigraphy
SOURCE ROCK 22. Walther’s Law
organic rich
23. Triangulation
24. True vertical thickness
25. Seismic resolution
Primary migration is the initial 13. Reasonable range of oil and
migration out of the source gas recovery factors for
rock (probably by means of fields: a) under gas
hydraulic fracturing within the depletion, and b) under
low permeability source due to waterflood
overpressuring from volume 14. The abbreviations STOIP,
expansion as hydrocarbons GIIP, TD and TVDSS.
are created), into the 15. Strike and Dip
surrounding rocks. Further
migration of the hydrocarbons 16. Gross rock volume
away, along carrier beds and 17. Isopach
into reservoir rocks is called 18. Source rock
secondary migration.
SEAL
SEALING:
IF: seal is deposited before migration
19. Primary migration
impermeable &: it is sufficiently impermeable
TRAPPING: 20. Metamorphic rocks
RESERVOIR TRAP IF: trap formation occurs
porous and permeable before migration
21. Biostratigraphy
SECONDARY MIGRATION
CARRIER BED
22. Walther’s Law
porous and permeable
23. Triangulation
SOURCE ROCK 24. True vertical thickness
organic rich
25. Seismic resolution
Metamorphic rocks are created 13. Reasonable range of oil and
when heat or heat and gas recovery factors for
pressure on original fields: a) under gas
sedimentary or igneous depletion, and b) under
rocks causes changing of waterflood
the mineral structures 14. The abbreviations STOIP,
(recrystallization) without GIIP, TD and TVDSS.
melting of the rock. Heating 15. Strike and Dip
rocks (adjacent to igneous
intrusions) create spotted 16. Gross rock volume
rocks or hornfels, rocks 17. Isopach
under heat and pressure 18. Source rock
(burial) turn into schists and
gneiss. The final rock type 19. Primary migration
is dependent on the original 20. Metamorphic rocks
rock composition – for 21. Biostratigraphy
example muddy sediments
turn to schists, limestones to 22. Walther’s Law
marble and quartz 23. Triangulation
sandstones to quartzite. 24. True vertical thickness
25. Seismic resolution
Biostratigraphy is the subdivision of 13. Reasonable range of oil and
the stratigraphic record (rocks) gas recovery factors for
into units based on the fields: a) under gas
presence, absence or grouping depletion, and b) under
of fossils. Biostratigraphic units waterflood
can be defined based on 14. The abbreviations STOIP,
appearance and GIIP, TD and TVDSS.
dissappearance of organisms, 15. Strike and Dip
or by abundance of particular
species. 16. Gross rock volume
Appearance and disappearance 17. Isopach
are linked to evolution and 18. Source rock
extinction of species, so that
fossil species that are useful 19. Primary migration
for biostratigraphy need to be 20. Metamorphic rocks
types that occur in many 21. Biostratigraphy
different environments (are 22. Walther’s Law
wide ranging) so that
evolutionary changes affect the 23. Triangulation
whole population, worldwide 24. True vertical thickness
simultaneously. 25. Seismic resolution
Walther’s Law states that facies 13. Reasonable range of oil and
which appear in a vertical gas recovery factors for
conformable succession, must fields: a) under gas
have been deposited in depletion, and b) under
adjacent depositional waterflood
environments. 14. The abbreviations STOIP,
The movement of these GIIP, TD and TVDSS.
environments through time, for 15. Strike and Dip
example due to transgression
and regression, causes 16. Gross rock volume
deposition of the different 17. Isopach
facies above previously 18. Source rock
deposited facies from a
different (but adjacent) 19. Primary migration
depositional environment. 20. Metamorphic rocks
If facies which cannot be 21. Biostratigraphy
deposited in adjacent 22. Walther’s Law
depositional environments
appear in vertical succession, 23. Triangulation
then the presence of an 24. True vertical thickness
unconformity can be inferred. 25. Seismic resolution
Triangulation is a techniques used 13. Reasonable range of oil and
for creation of contour maps, gas recovery factors for
which is based on subdividing fields: a) under gas
the area of the map into depletion, and b) under
triangles with a data point at waterflood
each corner, assuming each 14. The abbreviations STOIP,
triangle represents a plane with GIIP, TD and TVDSS.
a single gradient, and then 15. Strike and Dip
contouring in straight lines
across the assumed plane. This 16. Gross rock volume
results in an unrealistic map, 17. Isopach
because of the angles of 18. Source rock
intersection of the final contour
lines. It is therefore rarely used, 19. Primary migration
but can be used in situations 20. Metamorphic rocks
where different geologists have 21. Biostratigraphy
different interpretations of the
available data. A map 22. Walther’s Law
constructed by triangulation 23. Triangulation
should be the same not matter 24. True vertical thickness
who constructs it.
25. Seismic resolution
 Thickness of a rock unit 13. Reasonable range of oil and
measured vertically – this is gas recovery factors for
always greater than true fields: a) under gas
stratigraphic thickness, depletion, and b) under
depending on the dip. A waterflood
contour of true vertical 14. The abbreviations STOIP,
thickness is called an GIIP, TD and TVDSS.
isochore. 15. Strike and Dip
16. Gross rock volume
Θ (dip) 17. Isopach
18. Source rock
True Stratigraphic
Thickness (isopach) 19. Primary migration
20. Metamorphic rocks
True Vertical 21. Biostratigraphy
Thickness (isochore)
22. Walther’s Law
TST = TVT x cos Θ
23. Triangulation
24. True vertical thickness
25. Seismic resolution
Seismic resolution is the minimum 13. Reasonable range of oil and
thickness that a rock layer gas recovery factors for
must be in order that the top fields: a) under gas
and bottom surfaces will be depletion, and b) under
imaged by the seismic waterflood
reflection survey (the unit will 14. The abbreviations STOIP,
be ‘seen’ on the seismic line). GIIP, TD and TVDSS.
It is generally assumed to be 15. Strike and Dip
approximately ¼ of the
wavelength of the seismic 16. Gross rock volume
pulse. 17. Isopach
18. Source rock
19. Primary migration
20. Metamorphic rocks
21. Biostratigraphy
22. Walther’s Law
23. Triangulation
24. True vertical thickness
25. Seismic resolution