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CHAPTER 1
CONTROL SYSTEM
MODELING 1.1 Basic elements of control system
In recent years, control systems have gained an increasingly importance in the
development and advancement of the modern civilization and technology. Figure shows the
basic components of a control system. Disregard the complexity of the system; it consists of an
input (objective), the control system and its output (result). Practically our day-to-day activities
are affected by some type of control systems. There are two main branches of control systems:
1) Open-loop systems and
2) Closed-loop systems.

Basic Components of Control System

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1.2 Open-loop systems:

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The open-loop system is also called the non-feedback system. This is the simpler of the
two systems. A simple example is illustrated by the speed control of an automobile as shown in
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Figure 1-2. In this open-loop system, there is no way to ensure the actual speed is close to the
desired speed automatically. The actual speed might be way off the desired speed because of the
wind speed and/or road conditions, such as uphill or downhill etc.
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Basic Open Loop System

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Closed-loop systems:
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The closed-loop system is also called the feedback system. A simple closed-system is
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shown in Figure 1-3. It has a mechanism to ensure the actual speed is close to the desired speed
automatically.

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Transfer Function
 A simpler system or element maybe governed by first order or second order differential
equation. When several elements are connected in sequence, say “n” elements, each one
with first order, the total order of the system will be nth order
 In general, a collection of components or system shall be represented by nth order
differential equation.

 In control systems, transfer function characterizes the input output relationship of

components or systems that can be described by Liner Time Invariant Differential
Equation
 In the earlier period, the input output relationship of a device was represented
graphically.

 In a system having two or more components in sequence, it is very difficult to find

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graphical relation between the input of the first element and the output of the last
element. This problem is solved by transfer function

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Definition of Transfer Function:
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Transfer function of a LTIV system is defined as the ratio of the Laplace Transform of
the output variable to the Laplace Transform of the input variable assuming all the initial
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condition as zero.
Properties of Transfer Function:
 The transfer function is the property of a system independent of magnitude and
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the nature of the input.

 The transfer function includes the transfer functions of the individual elements.
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But at the same time, it does not provide any information regarding physical
structure of the system.
 The transfer functions of many physically different systems shall be identical.
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 If the transfer function of the system is known, the output response can be
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studied for various types of inputs to understand the nature of the system.
 If the transfer function is unknown, it may be found out experimentally by
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applying known inputs to the device and studying the output of the system.

How you can obtain the transfer function (T. F.):

o Write the differential equation of the system.
o Take the L. T. of the differential equation, assuming all initial condition to
be zero. Take the ratio of the output to the input. This ratio is the T. F.

Mathematical Model of control systems

A control system is a collection of physical object connected together to serve an objective. The
mathematical model of a control system constitutes a set of differential equation.

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1. Mechanical Translational systems

The model of mechanical translational systems can obtain by using three basic elements
mass, spring and dashpot. When a force is applied to a translational mechanical system, it is
opposed by opposing forces due to mass, friction and elasticity of the system. The force acting
on a mechanical body is governed by Newton‘s second law of motion. For translational systems
it states that the sum of forces acting on a body is zero.

Force balance equations of idealized elements:

Consider an ideal mass element shown in fig. which has negligible friction and elasticity.
Let a force be applied on it. The mass will offer an opposing force which is proportional to
acceleration of a body.

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Let f = applied force
fm =opposing force due to
mass Here fm α M d2 x / dt2 pz
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By Newton‘s second law, f = f m= M d2 x / dt2

Consider an ideal frictional element dash-pot shown in fig. which has negligible mass and
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elasticity. Let a force be applied on it. The dashpot will be offer an opposing force which
is proportional to velocity of the body.
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Let f = applied force

f b = opposing force due to friction
Here, f b α B dx / dt

By Newton‘s second law, f = fb = M d x / dt

Consider an ideal elastic element spring is shown in fig. This has negligible mass and friction.

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Let f = applied force

f k = opposing force due to elasticity
Here, f k α x
By Newton‘s second law, f = f k = x

Mechanical Rotational Systems:

The model of rotational mechanical systems can be obtained by using three elements,
moment of inertia [J] of mass, dash pot with rotational frictional coefficient [B] and torsional
spring with stiffness[k].
When a torque is applied to a rotational mechanical system, it is opposed by opposing

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torques due to moment of inertia, friction and elasticity of the system. The torque acting on
rotational mechanical bodies is governed by Newton‘s second law of motion for rotational

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systems.

Torque balance equations of idealized elements

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Consider an ideal mass element shown in fig. which has negligible friction and elasticity.
The opposing torque due to moment of inertia is proportional to the angular acceleration.
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Let T = applied torque

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Tj =opposing torque due to moment of inertia of the body

Here Tj= α J d2 θ / dt2
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By Newton‘s law
T= Tj = J d2 θ / dt2
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Consider an ideal frictional element dash pot shown in fig. which has negligible moment of
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inertia and elasticity. Let a torque be applied on it. The dash pot will offer an opposing torque
is proportional to angular velocity of the body.

Let T = applied torque

Tb =opposing torque due to friction
Here Tb = α B d / dt (θ1- θ2)
By Newton‘s law
T= Tb = B d / dt (θ1- θ2)

. Consider an ideal elastic element, torsional spring as shown in fig. which has negligible
moment of inertia and friction. Let a torque be applied on it. The torsional spring will offer an
opposing torque which is proportional to angular displacement of the body

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Let T = applied torque

Tk =opposing torque due to friction
Here Tk α K (θ1- θ2)
By Newton‘s law
T = Tk = K (θ1- θ2)

Modeling of electrical system

Electrical circuits involving resistors, capacitors and inductors are considered. The behaviour of
such systems is governed by Ohm‘s law and Kirchhoff‘s laws
Resistor: Consider a resistance of ‘R‘ Ω carrying current ‘i‘ Amps as shown in Fig (a), then the
voltage drop across it is v = R I

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Inductor: Consider an inductor ―L‘ H carrying current ‗i‘ Amps as shown in Fig (a), then the
voltage drop across it can be written as v = L di/dt
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Capacitor: Consider a capacitor ‘C‘ F carrying current ‘i‘ Amps as shown in Fig (a), then the
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voltage drop across it can be written as v = (1/C)∫ i dt

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Steps for modeling of electrical system

Apply Kirchhoff‘s voltage law or Kirchhoff‘s current law to form the differential equations
describing electrical circuits comprising of resistors, capacitors, and inductors.

Form Transfer Functions from the describing differential

equations. Then simulate the model.

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Example

R1 i(t) + R2 i(t) + 1/ C ∫ i(t) dt = V1(t)

R2 i(t) + 1/ C ∫ i(t) dt = V2(t)

Electrical systems
LRC circuit. Applying Kirchhoff‘s voltage law to the system shown. We obtain the
following equation;
Resistance circuit

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L(di /dt) + Ri + 1/ C ∫ i(t) dt =ei …………………….. (1)

1/ C ∫ i(t) dt =e0 ……………………………………….. (2)

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Equation (1) & (2) give a mathematical model of the circuit. Taking the L.T. of equations
(1)&(2), assuming zero initial conditions, we obtain
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Armature-Controlled dc motors
The dc motors have separately excited fields. They are either armature-controlled with
fixed field or field-controlled with fixed armature current. For example, dc motors used in
instruments employ a fixed permanent-magnet field, and the controlled signal is applied to the
armature terminals.

Consider the armature-controlled dc motor shown in the following figure.

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Ra = armature-winding resistance, ohms La

= armature-winding inductance, henrys ia =
armature-winding current, amperes
if = field current, a-pares
ea = applied armature voltage,
volt eb = back emf, volts
θ = angular displacement of the motor shaft, radians
T = torque delivered by the motor, Newton*meter
J = equivalent moment of inertia of the motor and load referred to the motor shaft kg.m2
f = equivalent viscous-friction coefficient of the motor and load referred to the motor shaft.
Newton*m/rad/s
T = k1 ia ψ where ψ is the air gap flux, ψ = kf if , k1 is constant
For the constant flux

Where Kb is a back emf constant -------------- (1)

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The differential equation for the armature circuit

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The armature current produces the torque which is applied to the inertia and friction; hence
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Assuming that all initial conditions are condition are zero/and taking the L.T. of equations (1),
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(2) & (3), we obtain

Kps θ (s) = Eb (s)
(Las+Ra ) Ia(s) + Eb (s) = Ea (s) (Js2 +fs)
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θ (s) = T(s) = K Ia(s)

The T.F can be obtained is
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Analogous Systems
Let us consider a mechanical (both translational and rotational) and electrical system as shown in
the fig.

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From the fig (a)

We get M d2 x / dt2 + D d x / dt + K x = f
From the fig (b)
We get M d2 θ / dt2 + D d θ / dt + K θ = T

From the fig (c)

We get L d2 q / dt2 + R d q / dt + (1/C) q = V(t)

Where q = ∫i dt
They are two methods to get analogous system. These are (i) force- voltage (f-v) analogy
and (ii) force-current (f-c) analogy

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Force –Voltage Analogy

Force – Current Analog
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Problem
1. Find the system equation for system shown in the fig. And also determine f-v and f-i
analogies

For free body diagram M1

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For free body diagram M2

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(2)
Force –voltage analogy
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From eq (1) we get
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From eq (2) we get

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…..(4)
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From eq (3) and (4) we can draw f-v analogy

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Force–current analogy

From eq (1) we get

……..(5)
From eq (2) we get

…………(6)
From eq (5) and (6) we can draw force-current analogy

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The system can be represented in two forms:
Block diagram representation
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Signal flow graph

Block diagram
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A pictorial representation of the functions performed by each component and of the flow
of signals.
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Basic elements of a block diagram

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Blocks
Transfer functions of elements inside the blocks
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Summing points
Take off
points Arrow

Block diagram
A control system may consist of a number of components. A block diagram of a system
is a pictorial representation of the functions performed by each component and of the flow of
signals.

The elements of a block diagram are block, branch point and summing point.

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Block
In a block diagram all system variables are linked to each other through functional
blocks. The functional block or simply block is a symbol for the mathematical operation on the
input signal to the block that produces the output.

Summing point
Although blocks are used to identify many types of mathematical operations, operations
of addition and subtraction are represented by a circle, called a summing point. As shown in
Figure a summing point may have one or several inputs. Each input has its own appropriate plus
or minus sign.
A summing point has only one output and is equal to the algebraic sum of the inputs.

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A takeoff point is used to allow a signal to be used by more than one block or summing
point. The transfer function is given inside the block
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• The input in this case is E(s)

• The output in this case is C(s)
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C(s) = G(s) E(s)

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Functional block – each element of the practical system represented by block with its
T.F. Branches – lines showing the connection between the blocks
Arrow – associated with each branch to indicate the direction of flow of signal
Closed loop system
Summing point – comparing the different signals
Take off point – point from which signal is taken for feed back

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Advantages of Block Diagram Representation

Very simple to construct block diagram for a complicated system
Function of individual element can be visualized
Individual & Overall performance can be studied
Over all transfer function can be calculated easily.

Disadvantages of Block Diagram Representation

No information about the physical construction
Source of energy is not shown

Simple or Canonical form of closed loop system

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R(s) – Laplace of reference input r(t)

C(s) – Laplace of controlled output c(t)
E(s) – Laplace of error signal e(t)
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B(s) – Laplace of feed back signal b(t)

G(s) – Forward path transfer function
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H(s) – Feed back path transfer function

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Block diagram reduction technique

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Because of their simplicity and versatility, block diagrams are often used by control
engineers to describe all types of systems. A block diagram can be used simply to represent the
composition and interconnection of a system. Also, it can be used, together with transfer
functions, to represent the cause-and-effect relationships throughout the system. Transfer
Function is defined as the relationship between an input signal and an output signal to a device.

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Block diagram rules

Cascaded blocks

Moving a summer beyond the block

Moving a summer ahead of block

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Moving a pick-off ahead of block
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Moving a pick-off behind a block

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Eliminating a feedback loop

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Cascaded Subsystems

Parallel Subsystems

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Feedback Control System
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Procedure to solve Block Diagram Reduction Problems

Step 1: Reduce the blocks connected in series
Step 2: Reduce the blocks connected in parallel
Step 3: Reduce the minor feedback loops
Step 4: Try to shift take off points towards right and Summing point towards
left Step 5: Repeat steps 1 to 4 till simple form is obtained
Step 6: Obtain the Transfer Function of Overall System

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Problem 1

Obtain the Transfer function of the given block diagram

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Combine G1, G2 which are in series

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Combine G3, G4 which are in Parallel

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Reduce minor feedback loop of G1, G2 and H1

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Transfer function

2. Obtain the transfer function for the system shown in the fig

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Solution
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3. Obtain the transfer function C/R for the block diagram shown in the fig

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Solution
The take-off point is shifted after the block G2

Reducing the cascade block and parallel block

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Replacing the internal feedback loop
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Equivalent block diagram

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Transfer function

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Signal Flow Graph Representation

Signal Flow Graph Representation of a system obtained from the equations, which shows
the flow of the signal

Signal flow graph

A signal flow graph is a diagram that represents a set of simultaneous linear algebraic
equations. By taking Laplace transfer, the time domain differential equations governing a control
system can be transferred to a set of algebraic equation in s-domain. A signal-flow graph consists
of a network in which nodes are connected by directed branches. It depicts the flow of signals
from one point of a system to another and gives the relationships among the signals.

Basic Elements of a Signal flow graph

Node - a point representing a signal or variable.
Branch – unidirectional line segment joining two nodes.
Path – a branch or a continuous sequence of branches that can be traversed from one node to
another node.

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Loop – a closed path that originates and terminates on the same node and along the path no node
is met twice.

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Nontouching loops – two loops are said to be nontouching if they do not have a common node.

Mason’s gain formula

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The relationship between an input variable and an output variable of signal flow graph is
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given by the net gain between the input and the output nodes is known as overall gain of the
system. Mason‘s gain rule for the determination of the overall system gain is given below.
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Where M= gain between Xin and

Xout Xout =output node variable
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Xin= input node variable

N = total number of forward paths Pk=
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path gain of the kth forward path

∆=1-(sum of loop gains of all individual loop) + (sum of gain product of all possible
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combinations of two nontouching loops) – (sum of gain products of all possible combination of
three nontouching loops)

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Problem

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CHAPTER 2
TIME RESPONSE ANALYSIS

Introduction
After deriving a mathematical model of a system, the system performance analysis can be done
in various methods.
In analyzing and designing control systems, a basis of comparison of performance of various
control systems should be made. This basis may be set up by specifying particular test input
signals and by comparing the responses of various systems to these signals.
The system stability, system accuracy and complete evaluation are always based on the time
response analysis and the corresponding results.
Next important step after a mathematical model of a system is obtained.
To analyze the system‘s performance.
Normally use the standard input signals to identify the characteristics of system‘s response
Step function
Ramp function

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Impulse function
Parabolic function

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Sinusoidal function

Time response analysis

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It is an equation or a plot that describes the behavior of a system and contains much
information about it with respect to time response specification as overshooting, settling time,
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peak time, rise time and steady state error. Time response is formed by the transient response and
the steady state response.
Time response = Transient response + Steady state response
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Transient time response (Natural response) describes the behavior of the system in its first
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short time until arrives the steady state value and this response will be our study focus. If the
input is step function then the output or the response is called step time response and if the input
is ramp, the response is called ramp time response ... etc.
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Classification of Time Response

Transient response
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Steady state response

y(t) = yt(t) + yss(t)

Transient Response
The transient response is defined as the part of the time response that goes to zero as time
becomes very large. Thus yt(t) has the property
Lim yt(t) =
0 t -->∞
The time required to achieve the final value is called transient period. The transient
response may be exponential or oscillatory in nature. Output response consists of the sum of
forced response (form the input) and natural response (from the nature of the system).The
transient response is the change in output response from the beginning of the response to the

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final state of the response and the steady state response is the output response as time is
approaching infinity (or no more changes at the output).

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Steady State Response

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The steady state response is the part of the total response that remains after the transient
has died out. For a position control system, the steady state response when compared to with the

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desired reference position gives an indication of the final accuracy of the system. If the steady
state response of the output does not agree with the desired reference exactly, the system is said
to have steady state error.
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Typical Input Signals
Impulse Signal
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Step Signal
Ramp Signal
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Parabolic Signal
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Time Response Analysis & Design

Two types of inputs can be applied to a control system.
Command Input or Reference Input yr(t).
Disturbance Input w(t) (External disturbances w(t) are typically uncontrolled variations in the
load on a control system).
In systems controlling mechanical motions, load disturbances may represent forces.
In voltage regulating systems, variations in electrical load area major source of disturbances.

Test Signals

Input r(t) R(s)

Step Input A A/s
Ramp Input At A/s2
Parabolic Input At2 / 2 A/s3
Impulse Input δ(t) 1

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Transfer Function
One of the types of Modeling a system
Using first principle, differential equation is obtained
Laplace Transform is applied to the equation assuming zero initial conditions
Ratio of LT (output) to LT (input) is expressed as a ratio of polynomial in s in the
transfer function.

Order of a system
The Order of a system is given by the order of the differential equation governing the
system
Alternatively, order can be obtained from the transfer function
In the transfer function, the maximum power of s in the denominator polynomial gives
the order of the system.

Dynamic Order of Systems

Order of the system is the order of the differential equation that governs the dynamic

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behaviour
Working interpretation: Number of the dynamic elements / capacitances or holdup

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elements between a
manipulated variable and a controlled variable

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Higher order system responses are usually very difficult to resolve from one
another The response generally becomes sluggish as the order increases.
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First Order System 
Y s / R(s) = K / (1+ K+sT) = K / (1+sT) 
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Step Response of First Order System

Evolution of the transient response is determined by the pole of the transfer function at
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s=-1/t where t is the time constant

Also, the step response can be found:
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Impulse response K / (1+sT) Exponential

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Step response (K/S) – (K / (S+(1/T))) Step, exponential

(K/S2)-(KT / S)- (KT / (S+1/T))
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Ramp response Ramp, step, exponential

Second-order systems
LTI second-order system

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Second-Order Systems

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Second order system responses
Overdamped response:
Poles: Two real at
-σ1 - -σ2
Natural response: Two exponentials with time constants equal to the reciprocal of the pole
location
C( t)= k1 e-σ1+ k2 e-σ2
Poles: Two complex at

Underdamped response:
-σ1±jWd

Natural response: Damped sinusoid with an exponential envelope whose time constant is equal
to the reciprocal of the pole‘s radian frequency of the sinusoid, the damped frequency of
oscillation, is equal to the imaginary part of the poles

Undamped Response:
Poles: Two imaginary at

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±jW1
Natural response: Undamped sinusoid with radian frequency equal to the imaginary part of the

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poles
C(t) = Acos(w1t-φ)

Critically damped
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responses: Poles: Two real at
Natural response: One term is an exponential whose time constant is equal to the reciprocal of
the pole location. Another term product of time and an exponential with time constant equal to
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the reciprocal of the pole location.

Second order system responses damping cases

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Second- order step response

Complex poles

Steady State Error

Consider a unity feedback system
Transfer function between e(t) and r(t)

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Output Feedback Control Systems

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Feedback only the output signal

– Easy access
– Obtainable in practice

PID Controllers

Proportional controllers
– pure gain or attenuation

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Integral controllers
– integrate error

Derivative controllers
– differentiate error

Proportional Controller

U = Kp e

Controller input is error (reference output)

Controller output is control signal
P controller involves only a proportional gain (or attenuation)

Integral Controller
Integral of error with a constant gain

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Increase system type by 1
Infinity steady-state gain

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Eliminate steady-state error for a unit step input

Integral Controller
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Derivative Control

Differentiation of error with a constant gain

Reduce overshoot and oscillation
Do not affect steady-state response
Sensitive to noise

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Controller Structure
Single controller
P controller, I controller, D controller
Combination of controllers
PI controller, PD controller
PID controller

Controller Performance
P controller
PI controller
PD Controller
PID Controller

Design of PID Controllers

Based on the knowledge of P, I and D
– trial and error
– manual tuning

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– simulation

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Design of PID Controllers
o Time response measurements are particularly simple.

voltage applied through a switch. pz

o A step input to a system is simply a suddenly applied input - often just a constant

 The system output is usually a voltage, or a voltage output from a transducer

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measuring the output.
 A voltage output can usually be captured in a file using a C program or a Visual
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Basic program.
 You can use responses in the time domain to help you determine the transfer
function of a system.
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 First we will examine a simple situation. Here is the step response of a system.
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This is an example of really "clean" data, better than you might have from
measurements. The input to the system is a step of height 0.4. The goal is to
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determine the transfer function of the system.

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Impulse Response of A First Order System

The impulse response of a system is an important response. The impulse response is the
response to a unit impulse.
The unit impulse has a Laplace transform of unity (1).That gives the unit impulse a
unique stature. If a system has a unit impulse input, the output transform is G(s), where
G(s) is the transfer function of the system. The unit impulse response is therefore the
inverse transform of G(s), i.e. g(t), the time function you get by inverse transforming
G(s). If you haven't begun to study Laplace transforms yet, you can just file these last
statements away until you begin to learn about Laplace transforms. Still there is an
important fact buried in all of this.

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Knowing that the impulse response is the inverse transform of the transfer function of a
system can be useful in identifying systems (getting system parameters from measured
responses).
In this section we will examine the shapes/forms of several impulse responses. We will start
with simple first order systems, and give you links to modules that discuss other, higher order
responses.
A general first order system satisfies a differential equation with this general form

If the input, u(t), is a unit impulse, then for a short instant around t = 0 the input is
infinite. Let us assume that the state, x(t), is initially zero, i.e. x(0) = 0. We will integrate both
sides of the differential equation from a small time, before t = 0, to a small time, after t = 0. We
are just taking advantage of one of the properties of the unit impulse.

The right hand side of the equation is just Gdc since the impulse is assumed to be a unit

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impulse - one with unit area. Thus, we have:

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We can also note that x(0) = 0, so the second integral on the right hand side is zero. In
other words, what the impulse does is it produces a calculable change in the state, x(t), and this
pz
change occurs in a negligibly short time (the duration of the impulse) after t = 0 That leads us to
a simple strategy for getting the impulse response. Calculate the new initial condition after the
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impulse passes. Solve the differential equation - with zero input - starting from the newly
calculated initial condition.
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CHAPTER 3
FREQUENCY RESPONSE ANALYSIS

Frequency Response

The frequency response of a system is a frequency dependent function which expresses

how a sinusoidal signal of a given frequency on the system input is transferred through the
system. Time-varying signals at least periodical signals —which excite systems, as the reference
(set point) signal or a disturbance in a control system or measurement signals which are inputs
signals to signal filters, can be regarded as consisting of a sum of frequency components. Each
frequency component is a sinusoidal signal having certain amplitude and a certain frequency.
(The Fourier series expansion or the Fourier transform can be used to express these frequency
components quantitatively.) The frequency response expresses how each of these frequency
components is transferred through the system. Some components may be amplified, others may
be attenuated, and there will be some phase lag through the system.
The frequency response is an important tool for analysis and design of signal filters (as
low pass filters and high pass filters), and for analysis, and to some extent, design, of control
systems. Both signal filtering and control systems applications are described (briefly) later in this

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chapter. The definition of the frequency response — which will be given in the next section —
applies only to linear models, but this linear model may very well be the local linear model about

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some operating point of a non-linear model. The frequency response can found experimentally or
from a transfer function model. It can be presented graphically or as a mathematical function.
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Bode plot
• Plots of the magnitude and phase characteristics are used to fully describe the frequency
response
• A Bode plot is a (semilog) plot of the transfer function magnitude and phase angle as a
function of frequency.
The gain magnitude is many times expressed in terms of decibels (dB)
db = 20 log 10 A

BODE PLOT PROCEDURE:

There are 4 basic forms in an open-loop transfer function
G(jω)H(jω) Gain Factor K
(jω)±p factor: pole and zero at origin
(1+jωT)±q factor
Quadratic factor
1+j2ζ(W / Wn)-(W2 / Wn2)

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Gain margin and Phase
margin Gain margin:
The gain margin is the number of dB that is below 0 dB at the phase crossover frequency

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(ø=-180º). It can also be increased before the closed loop system becomes unstable
Term Corner Frequency Slope db /dec Change in slope
20/jW
1/ (1+4jW)
-----
WC1=1/4 = 0.25
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-20 -20-20=-40
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1/(1+j3w) wc2=1/3=0.33 -20 -40-20=-60
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Phase margin:
The phase margin is the number of degrees the phase of that is above -180º at the gain
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crossover frequency

Gain margin and Phase margin

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Bode Plot – Example

For the following T.F draw the Bode plot and obtain Gain cross over frequency (wgc) ,
Phase cross over frequency , Gain Margin and Phase Margin.
G(s) = 20 / [s (1+3s) (1+4s)]
Solution:
The sinusoidal T.F of G(s) is obtained by replacing s by jw in the given T.F
G(jw) = 20 / [jw (1+j3w) (1+j4w)]
Corner frequencies:
wc1= 1/4 = 0.25 rad /sec ;
wc2 = 1/3 = 0.33 rad /sec
Choose a lower corner frequency and a higher Corner frequency
wl= 0.025 rad/sec ;
wh = 3.3 rad / sec
Calculation of Gain (A) (MAGNITUDE PLOT)
A @ wl ; A= 20 log [ 20 / 0.025 ] = 58 .06 dB
A @ wc1 ; A = [Slope from wl to wc1 x log (wc1 / wl ] + Gain (A)@wl
= - 20 log [ 0.25 / 0.025 ] + 58.06

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= 38.06 dB
A @ wc2 ; A = [Slope from wc1 to wc2 x log (wc2 / wc1 ] + Gain (A)@ wc1

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= - 40 log [ 0.33 / 0.25 ] + 38
= 33 dB

= - 60 log [ 3.3 / 0.33 ] + 33

=-27 dB
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A @ wh ; A = [Slope from wc2 to wh x log (wh / wc2 ] + Gain (A) @ wc2
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Calculation of Phase angle for different values of frequencies [PHASE PLOT]
Ø = -90O- tan -1 3w – tan -1 4w
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When
Frequency in rad / sec Phase angles in Degree
w=0 Ø= -90 0
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w = 0.025 Ø= -990
w = 0.25 Ø= -1720
w

w = 0.33 Ø= -1880
Ø= -2590
w

w =3.3
w =∞ Ø= -2700
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Calculations of Gain cross over frequency

w

The frequency at which the dB magnitude is Zero

wgc = 1.1 rad / sec
w
w

Calculations of Phase cross over frequency

The frequency at which the Phase of the system is -
180o wpc = 0.3 rad / sec

Gain Margin
The gain margin in dB is given by the negative of dB magnitude of G(jw) at phase cross
over frequency
GM = - { 20 log [G( jwpc )] = - { 32 } = -32 dB

Phase Margin
Ґ = 1800+ Øgc= 1800 + (- 2400o) = -600

Conclusion
For this system GM and PM are negative in values. Therefore the system is unstable in
nature.

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Polar plot

To sketch the polar plot of G(jω) for the entire range of frequency ω, i.e., from 0 to
infinity, there are four key points that usually need to be known:
(1) the start of plot where ω = 0,
(2) the end of plot where ω = ∞,
(3) where the plot crosses the real axis, i.e., Im(G(jω)) = 0, and
(4) where the plot crosses the imaginary axis, i.e., Re(G(jω)) = 0.

BASICS OF POLAR PLOT:

The polar plot of a sinusoidal transfer function G(jω) is a plot of the magnitude of G(jω)
Vs the phase of G(jω) on polar co-ordinates as ω is varied from 0 to ∞.
(ie) |G(jω)| Vs angle G(jω) as ω → 0 to ∞.
Polar graph sheet has concentric circles and radial lines.
Concentric circles represents the magnitude.
Radial lines represents the phase
angles. In polar sheet

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+ve phase angle is measured in ACW from 00 -
ve phase angle is measured in CW from 00

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PROCEDURE
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Express the given expression of OLTF in (1+sT) form.
Substitute s = jω in the expression for G(s)H(s) and get G(jω)H(jω).
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Get the expressions for | G(jω)H(jω)| & angle G(jω)H(jω).
Tabulate various values of magnitude and phase angles for different values of ω ranging
from 0 to ∞.
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Usually the choice of frequencies will be the corner frequency and around corner
frequencies.
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Choose proper scale for the magnitude circles.

Fix all the points in the polar graph sheet and join the points by a smooth curve.
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Write the frequency corresponding to each of the point of the plot.

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MINIMUM PHASE SYSTEMS:

Systems with all poles & zeros in the Left half of the s-plane – Minimum Phase
w

Systems.
For Minimum Phase Systems with only poles
Type No. determines at what quadrant the polar plot starts.
Order determines at what quadrant the polar plot ends.
Type No. → No. of poles lying at the origin
Order → Max power of‘s’ in the denominator polynomial of the transfer function.
GAIN MARGIN
Gain Margin is defined as “the factor by which the system gain can be increased to drive
the system to the verge of instability”.
For stable systems,
ωgc< ωpc
Magnitude of G(j )H(j ) at ω=ωpc < 1

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GM = in positive dB
More positive the GM, more stable is the system.
For marginally stable systems,
ωgc = ωpc
magnitude of G(j )H(j ) at ω=ωpc = 1
GM = 0 dB
For Unstable systems,
ωgc> ωpc
magnitude of G(j )H(j ) at ω=ωpc > 1
GM = in negative dB
Gain is to be reduced to make the system stable

Note:
If the gain is high, the GM is low and the system’s step response shows high overshoots
and long settling time.
On the contrary, very low gains give high GM and PM, but also causes higher ess, higher
values of rise time and settling time and in general give sluggish response.

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Thus we should keep the gain as high as possible to reduce ess and obtain acceptable
response speed and yet maintain adequate GM & PM.

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An adequate GM of 2 i.e. (6 dB) and a PM of 30 is generally considered good enough as
a thumb rule.
At w=w pc , angle of G(jw )H(jw ) = -1800 pz
Let magnitude of G(jw)H(jw ) at w = wpc be taken a B
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If the gain of the system is increased by factor 1/B, then the magnitude of G(jw)H(j w) at
w = wpc becomes B(1/B) = 1 and hence the G(jw)H(jw) locus pass through -1+j0 point
driving the system to the verge of instability.
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GM is defined as the reciprocal of the magnitude of the OLTF evaluated at the phase
cross over frequency.
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GM in dB = 20 log (1/B) = - 20 log

B PHASE MARGIN
Phase Margin is defined as “ the additional phase lag that can be introduced before the
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system becomes unstable”.

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‘A’ be the point of intersection of G(j )H(j ) plot and a unit circle centered at the origin.
Draw a line connecting the points ‘O’ & ‘A’ and measure the phase angle between the
w

line OA and
+ve real axis.
This angle is the phase angle of the system at the gain cross over frequency.
Angle of G(jwgc)H(jw gc) =φ gc
If an additional phase lag of φ PM is introduced at this frequency, then the phase angle
G(jwgc)H(jw gc) will become 180 and the point ‘A‘ coincides with (-1+j0) driving the system to
the verge of instability.
This additional phase lag is known as the Phase Margin.
γ= 1800 + angle of G(jwgc)H(jw gc)
γ= 1800 + φ gc
[Since φ gc is measured in CW direction, it is taken as
negative] For a stable system, the phase margin is positive.
A Phase margin close to zero corresponds to highly oscillatory system.

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A polar plot may be constructed from experimental data or from a system transfer
function
If the values of w are marked along the contour, a polar plot has the same information
as a bode plot.
Usually, the shape of a polar plot is of most interest.

Nyquist Plot:
The Nyquist plot is a polar plot of the function

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The Nyquist stability criterion relates the location of the roots of the characteristic
equation to the open-loop frequency response of the system. In this, the computation of closed-
loop poles is not necessary to determine the stability of the system and the stability study can be
carried out graphically from the open-loop frequency response. Therefore experimentally
determined open-loop frequency response can be used directly for the study of stability. When
the feedback path is closed. The Nyquist criterion has the following features that make it an
alternative method that is attractive for the analysis and design of control systems. 1. In addition
to providing information on absolute and relative.
Nyquist Plot Example
Consider the following transfer function

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Change it from “s” domain to “jw” domain:

Find the magnitude and phase angle equations:

Evaluate magnitude and phase angle at ω= 0+ and ω = +∞

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Draw the nyquist plot:

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Frequency domain specifications

The resonant peak Mr is the maximum value of jM(jw)j.
The resonant frequency !r is the frequency at which the peak resonance Mr occurs.
The bandwidth BW is the frequency at which(jw) drops to 70:7% (3 dB) of its zero-
frequency value.

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Mr indicates the relative stability of a stable closed loop system.

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A large Mr corresponds to larger maximum overshoot of the step
response. Desirable value: 1.1 to 1.5

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BW gives an indication of the transient response properties of a control system.
A large bandwidth corresponds to a faster rise time. BW and rise time tr are
inversely proportional.
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BW also indicates the noise-filtering characteristics and robustness of the
system. Increasing wn increases BW.
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BW and Mr are proportional to each other.

Constant M and N circles
Consider a candidate design of a loop transfer function L( jω) shown on the RHS.
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Evaluate T( jω) from L( jω) in the manner of frequency point by frequency point.
Alternatively, the Bode plot of L( jω) can also be show on the complex plane to form its
Nyquist plot.

M circles (constant magnitude of T)

In order to precisely evaluate |T( jω)| from the Nyquist plot of L( jω), a tool called M circle
is developed as followed.

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Let L( jω)=X+jY, where X is the real and Y the imaginary part . Then

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Rearranging the above equations, it gives

X2(1-M2)-2M2X-M2+(1-M2)Y2 = 0
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That is, all (X, Y) pair corresponding to a constant value of M for a circle on the complex plane.
Therefore, we have the following (constant) M circles on the complex plane as shown below.
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N circles (constant phase of T)

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Similarly, it can be shown that the phase of T( jω) be

It can be shown that all (X, Y) pair which corresponds to the same constant phase of T
(i.e., constant N) forms a circle on the complex plane as shown below.

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Example
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Nyquist plot of L( jω), and M-N circles of T( jω)

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Nichols Chart

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The Nyquist plot of L( jω) can also be represented by its polar form using dB as
magnitude and degree as phase.
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And ll L( jω) which corresponds to a constant α( jω) can be draw as a locus of M circle
on this plane as shown below.

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Combining the above two graphs of M circles and N circles, we have the Nicholas chart
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below.
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TYPES OF COMPENSATION

Series Compensation or Cascade Compensation

This is the most commonly used system where the controller is placed in series with the
controlled process.
Figure shows the series compensation

Feedback compensation or Parallel compensation

This is the system where the controller is placed in the sensor feedback path as shown in
fig.

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State Feedback Compensation

This is a system which generates the control signal by feeding back the state variables
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through constant real gains. The scheme is termed state feedback. It is shown in Fig.
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The compensation schemes shown in Figs above have one degree of freedom, since there
is only one controller in each system. The demerit with one degree of freedom controllers is that
the performance criteria that can be realized are limited.
That is why there are compensation schemes which have two degree freedoms, such as:
(a) Series-feedback compensation
(b) Feed forward compensation

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Series-Feedback Compensation
Series-feedback compensation is the scheme for which a series controller and a feedback
controller are used. Figure 9.6 shows the series-feedback compensation scheme.

Feed forward Compensation

The feed forward controller is placed in series with the closed-loop system which has a

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controller in the forward path Orig. 9.71. In Fig. 9.8, Feed forward the is placed in parallel with
the controller in the forward path. The commonly used controllers in the above-mentioned
compensation schemes are now described in the section below.

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Lead Compensator
It has a zero and a pole with zero closer to the origin. The general form of the transfer
function of the load compensator is

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Subsisting
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Transfer function

Lag Compensator
It has a zero and a pole with the zero situated on the left of the pole on the negative real
axis. The general form of the transfer function of the lag compensator is

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Therefore, the frequency response of the above transfer function will be

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Now comparing with

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Therefore

Lag-Lead Compensator
The lag-lead compensator is the combination of a lag compensator and a lead
compensator. The lag-section is provided with one real pole and one real zero, the pole being to

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the right of zero, whereas the lead section has one real pole and one real came with the zero
being to the right of the pole.

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The transfer function of the lag-lead compensator will be

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The figure shows lag lead compensator
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The above transfer functions are comparing with

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Then

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Therefore

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CHAPTER 4
STABILITY ANALYSIS

Stability
A system is stable if any bounded input produces a bounded output for all bounded initial
conditions.

Basic concept of stability

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Stability of the system and roots of characteristic equations
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Characteristic Equation
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Consider an nth-order system whose the characteristic equation (which is also the denominator
of the transfer function) is
a(S) = Sn+a1 Sn-1+ a2 Sn-2+……+ an-1 S1+ a0 S0

Routh Hurwitz Criterion

Goal: Determining whether the system is stable or unstable from a characteristic equation
in polynomial form without actually solving for the roots Routh’s stability criterion is useful for
determining the ranges of coefficients of polynomials for stability, especially when the
coefficients are in symbolic (non numerical) form.
To find K mar & ω
A necessary condition for Routh’s Stability
Page 56 of 116
SCE ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING

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EC- 6405 CONTROL SYSTEM ENGINEERING

A necessary condition for stability of the system is that all of the roots of its characteristic
equation have negative real parts, which in turn requires that all the coefficients be
positive.
A necessary (but not sufficient) condition for stability is that all the coefficients of the
polynomial characteristic equation are positive & none of the co-efficient vanishes.
Routh’s formulation requires the computation of a triangular array that is a function of
the coefficients of the polynomial characteristic equation.
A system is stable if and only if all the elements ofthe first column of the Routh array are
positive
Method for determining the Routh array
Consider the characteristic equation
a(S) =1X Sn+a1 Sn-1+ a2 Sn-2+……+ an-1 S1+ a0 S0
Routh array method
Then add subsequent rows to complete the Routh array
Compute elements for the 3rd row:

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Given the characteristic equation,
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Is the system described by this characteristic equation stable?

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Answer:
All the coefficients are positive and nonzero
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Therefore, the system satisfies the necessary condition for stability

We should determine whether any of the coefficients of the first column of the Routh
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array are negative.

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S 6: 1 3 1 4
S 5: 4 2 4 0
4
S : 5/2 0 4
S 3: 2 -12/5 0
S 2: 3 4
S1: -76 /15 0
0
S : 4
The elements of the 1st column are not all positive. Then the system is unstable

Special cases of Routh’s criteria:

Case 1: All the elements of a row in a RA are zero

Form Auxiliary equation by using the co-efficient of the row which is just above the row
of zeros.
Find derivative of the A.E.
Replace the row of zeros by the co-efficient of dA(s)/ds

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Complete the array in terms of these coefficients.
analyze for any sign change, if so, unstable

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no sign change, find the nature of roots of AE
non-repeated imaginary roots - marginally
stable repeated imaginary roots – unstable pz
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Case 2:
First element of any of the rows of RA is
Zero and the same remaining row contains atleast one non-zero element
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Substitute a small positive no. ‗ε‘ in place of zero and complete the
array. Examine the sign change by taking Lt ε = 0
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Root Locus Technique

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Introduced by W. R. Evans in 1948

Graphical method, in which movement of poles in the s-plane is sketched when some
w

parameter is varied The path taken by the roots of the characteristic equation when open
loop gain K is varied from 0 to ∞ are called root loci
w

Direct Root Locus = 0 < k < ∞

Inverse Root Locus = - ∞ < k < 0
Root Locus Analysis:

The roots of the closed-loop characteristic equation define the system characteristic
responses
Their location in the complex s-plane lead to prediction of the characteristics of the time
domain responses in terms of:
damping ratio ζ,
natural frequency, wn
damping constant σ, first-order modes
Consider how these roots change as the loop gain is varied from 0 to∞

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Basics of Root Locus:

Symmetrical about real axis
RL branch starts from OL poles and terminates at OL
zeroes No. of RL branches = No. of poles of OLTF
Centroid is common intersection point of all the asymptotes on the real axis
Asymptotes are straight lines which are parallel to RL going to ∞ and meet the RL at
∞ No. of asymptotes = No. of branches going to ∞
At Break Away point , the RL breaks from real axis to enter into the complex plane
At BI point, the RL enters the real axis from the complex plane

Constructing Root Locus:

Locate the OL poles & zeros in the plot
Find the branches on the real axis
Find angle of asymptotes & centroid
Φa= ±180º(2q+1) / (n-m)

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ζa = (Σpoles - Σzeroes) / (n-m)
Find BA and BI points

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Find Angle Of departure (AOD) and Angle Of Arrival (AOA)
AOD = 180º- (sum of angles of vectors to the complex pole from all other poles) + (Sum

pz
of angles of vectors to the complex pole from all zero)
AOA = 180º- (sum of angles of vectors to the complex zero from all other zeros) + (sum
of angles of vectors to the complex zero from poles)
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Find the point of intersection of RL with the imaginary axis.
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Application of the Root Locus Procedure

Step 1: Write the characteristic equation as
1+ F(s)= 0
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Step 2: Rewrite preceding equation into the form of poles and zeros as follows
w
w
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Step 3:
Locate the poles and zeros with specific symbols, the root locus begins at the open-loop
poles and ends at the open loop zeros as K increases from 0 to infinity
If open-loop system has n-m zeros at infinity, there will be n-m branches of the root locus
approaching the n-m zeros at infinity
Step 4:
The root locus on the real axis lies in a section of the real axis to the left of an odd
number of real poles and zeros
Step 5:
The number of separate loci is equal to the number of open-loop poles
Step 6:
The root loci must be continuous and symmetrical with respect to the horizontal real axis

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Step 7:
The loci proceed to zeros at infinity along asymptotes centered at centroid and with
angles

Step 8:
The actual point at which the root locus crosses the imaginary axis is readily evaluated by
using Routh‘s criterion
Step 9:

Determine the breakaway point d (usually on the real axis)

Step 10:

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Plot the root locus that satisfy the phase criterion

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Step 11:
Determine the parameter value K1 at a specific root using the magnitude criterion
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Nyquist Stability Criteria:

The Routh-Hurwitz criterion is a method for determining whether a linear system is
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stable or not by examining the locations of the roots of the characteristic equation of the system.
In fact, the method determines only if there are roots that lie outside of the left half plane; it does
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not actually compute the roots. Consider the characteristic equation.

To determine whether this system is stable or not, check the following conditions
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1. Two necessary but not sufficient conditions that all the roots have negative real parts
are a) All the polynomial coefficients must have the same sign.
b) All the polynomial coefficients must be nonzero.
2. If condition (1) is satisfied, then compute the Routh-Hurwitz array as follows

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Where the ai’S are the polynomial coefficients, and the coefficients in the rest of the table
are computed using the following pattern

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3. The necessary condition that all roots have negative real parts is that all the elements of
the first column of the array have the same sign. The number of changes of sign equals
the number of roots with positive real parts.
4. Special Case 1: The first element of a row is zero, but some other elements in that row are
nonzero. In this case, simply replace the zero elements by " ", complete the table development,
and then interpret the results assuming that " " is a small number of the same sign as the

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element above it. The results must be interpreted in the limit as ε to 0.

5. Special Case 2: All the elements of a particular row are zero. In this case, some of the roots of
the polynomial are located symmetrically about the origin of the s-plane, e.g., a pair of purely
imaginary roots. The zero rows will always occur in a row associated with an odd power of s.
The row just above the zero rows holds the coefficients of the auxiliary polynomial. The
roots of the auxiliary polynomial are the symmetrically placed roots. Be careful to remember
that the coefficients in the array skip powers of s from one coefficient to the next.
Let P = no. of poles of q(s)-plane lying on Right Half of s-plane and encircled by s-plane
contour.
Let Z = no. of zeros of q(s)-plane lying on Right Half of s-plane and encircled by s-plane
contour.
For the CL system to be stable, the no. of zeros of q(s) which are the CL poles that lie in the right
half of s-plane should be zero. That is Z = 0, which gives N = -P.
Therefore, for a stable system the no. of ACW encirclements of the origin in the q(s)-plane by
the contour Cq must be equal to P.

Nyquist modified stability criteria

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We know that q(s) = 1+G(s)H(s)
Therefore G(s)H(s) = [1+G(s)H(s)] – 1

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The contour Cq, which has obtained due to mapping of Nyquist contour from s-plane to
q(s)-plane (ie)[1+G(s)H(s)] -plane, will encircle about the origin.
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The contour CGH, which has obtained due to mapping of Nyquist contour from s-plane
to G(s)H(s) -plane, will encircle about the point (-1+j0).
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Therefore encircling the origin in the q(s)-plane is equivalent to encircling the point -1+j0
in the G(s)H(s)-plane.
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Problem
Sketch the Nyquist stability plot for a feedback system with the following open-loop transfer
function

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Section de maps as the complex image of the polar plot as before

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Relative stability
The main disadvantage of a Bode plot is that we have to draw and consider two different
curves at a time, namely, magnitude plot and phase plot. Information contained in these two plots
can be combined into one named polar plot. The polar plot is for a frequency range of 0<w<α .
while the Nyquist plot is in the frequency range of - α<w<α. The information on the negative

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frequency is redundant because the magnitude and real part of G( jw) an are even functions. In
this section. We consider how to evaluate the system performance in terms of relative stability

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using a Nyquist plot. The open-loop system represented by this plot will become unstable
beyond a certain value. As shown in the Nyquist plot of Fig. the intercept of magnitude 'a on the

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negative real axis corresponds lost phase shift of - 180° and - 1 represents the amount of increase
in gain that can be tolerated before closed-loop system tends toward instability. As 'a' approaches
(-1+ j0) point the relative stability is reduced; the gain and phase margins are represented as
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follows in the Nyquist plot.

Gain margin
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As system gain is increased by a factor 1/a, the open loop magnitude of G ( jw)H( jw)
will increase by a factor a( 1/a) = 1 and the system would be driven to instability. Thus, the gain
margin is the reciprocal of the gain at the frequency at which the phase angle of the Nyquist plot
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is - 1800. The gain rnargin, usually measured in dB, is a positive quantity given by
GM = -20log a dB
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Phase Margin фm
Importance of the phase margin has already in the content of Bode. Phase margin is
defined as the change in open-loop phase shift required al unity gain to make a closed loop
system unstable. A closed-loop system will be unstable if the Nyquist plot encircles -1 +j0 point.
Therefore, the angle required to make this system marginally stable in a closed loop is the phase

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margin .In order to measure this angle, we draw a circle with a radius of 1, and find the point of
intersection of the Nyquist plot with this circle, and measure the phase shift needed for this point
to be at an angle of 1800. If may be appreciated that the system having plot of Fig with larger
PM is more stable than the one with plot of Fig.

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CHAPTER 5
STATE VARIABLE ANALYSIS

State space representation of Continuous Time systems

The state variables may be totally independent of each other, leading to diagonal or
normal form or they could be derived as the derivatives of the output. If them is no direct
relationship between various states. We could use a suitable transformation to obtain the
representation in diagonal form.

Phase Variable Representation

It is often convenient to consider the output of the system as one of the state variable and
remaining state variable as derivatives of this state variable. The state variables thus obtained
from one of the system variables and its (n-1) derivatives, are known as n-dimensional phase
variables.
In a third-order mechanical system, the output may be displacement x 1, x1= x2= v and x2
= x3 = a in the case of motion of translation or angular displacement θ 1 = x1, x1= x2= w and x2
= x3 = α if the motion is rotational, Where v v,w,a, α respectively, are velocity, angular velocity

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acceleration, angular acceleration.

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Consider a SISO system described by nth-order differential equation.

Where pz
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u is, in general, a function of time.
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The nth order transfer function of this system is

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With the states (each being function of time) be defined as

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Equation becomes
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Using above Eqs state equations in phase satiable loan can he obtained as

Where

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Physical Variable Representation

In this representation the state variables are real physical variables, which can be
measured and used for manipulation or for control purposes. The approach generally adopted is
to break the block diagram of the transfer function into subsystems in such a way that the
physical variables can he identified. The governing equations for the subsystems can he used to
identify the physical variables. To illustrate the approach consider the block diagram of Fig.

One may represent the transfer function of this system as

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Taking H(s) = 1, the block diagram of can be redrawn as in Fig. physical variables can

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be speculated as x1=y, output, x2 =w= θ the angular velocity x3 = Ia the armature current in a
position-control system.

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Where
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The state space representation can be obtained by

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And

Solution of State equations

Consider the state equation n of linear time invariant system as,

The matrices A and B are constant matrices. This state equation can be of two types,
1. Homogeneous and
2. Non homogeneous

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Homogeneous Equation
If A is a constant matrix and input control forces are zero then the equation takes the form,

Such an equation is called homogeneous equation. The obvious equation is if input is zero, In
such systems, the driving force is provided by the initial conditions of the system to produce the
output. For example, consider a series RC circuit in which capacitor is initially charged to V
volts. The current is the output. Now there is no input control force i.e. external voltage applied
to the system. But the initial voltage on the capacitor drives the current through the system and
capacitor starts discharging through the resistance R. Such a system which works on the initial
conditions without any input applied to it is called homogeneous system.
Non homogeneous Equation
If A is a constant matrix and matrix U(t) is non-zero vector i.e. the input control forces
are applied to the system then the equation takes normal form as,

Such an equation is called non homogeneous equation. Most of the practical systems

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require inputs to dive them. Such systems arc non homogeneous linear systems. The solution of
the state equation is obtained by considering basic method of finding the solution of

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homogeneous equation.
Controllability and Observability
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More specially, for system of Eq.(1), there exists a similar transformation that will
diagonalize the system. In other words, There is a transformation matrix Q such that
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Notice that by doing the diagonalizing transformation, the resulting transfer function between
u(s) and y(s) will not be altered.
Looking at Eq.(3), if
characterized by the mode

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Transfer function from State Variable Representation

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A simple example of system has an input and output as shown in Figure 1. This class of
system has general form of model given in Eq.(1).

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where, (y1, u1) and (y2,u2) each satisfies Eq,(1).

Model of the form of Eq.(1) is known as linear time invariant (abbr. LTI) system.
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Assume the system is at rest prior to the time t0=0, and, the input u(t) (0 t <∞) produces the
output y(t) (0 t < ∞), the model of Eq.(1) can be represented by a transfer function in term of
Laplace transform variables, i.e.:

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State space representation for discrete time systems

The dynamics of a linear time (shift)) invariant discrete-time system may be expressed in terms
state (plant) equation and output (observation or measurement) equation as follows

Where x(k) an n dimensional slate rector at time t =kT. an r-dimensional control (input)
vector y(k). an m-dimensional output vector ,respectively, are represented as

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The parameters (elements) of A, an nX n (plant parameter) matrix. B an nX r control

(input) matrix, and C An m X r output parameter, D an m X r parametric matrix are constants for
the LTI system. Similar to above equation state variable representation of SISO (single output
and single output) discrete-rime system (with direct coupling of output with input) can be written
as

Where the input u, output y and d. are scalars, and b and c are n-dimensional vectors. The
concepts of controllability and observability for discrete time system are similar to the
continuous-time system. A discrete time system is said to be controllable if there exists a finite
integer n and input mu(k); k [0,n 1] that will transfer any state (0) x0 = bx(0) to the state xn at k =
n n.

Sampled Data System

When the signal or information at any or some points in a system is in the form of
discrete pulses. Then the system is called discrete data system. In control engineering the discrete
data system is popularly known as sampled data systems.

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Sampling Theorem
A band limited continuous time signal with highest frequency fm hertz can be uniquely
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recovered from its samples provided that the sampling rate Fs is greater than or equal to 2fm
samples per seconds.
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Sample & Hold

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The Signal given to the digital controller is a sampled data signal and in turn the
controller gives the controller output in digital form. But the system to be controlled needs an
analog control signal as input. Therefore the digital output of controllers must be converters into
analog form.
This can be achieved by means of various types of hold circuits. The simplest hold
circuits are the zero order hold (ZOH). In ZOH, the reconstructed analog signal acquires the
same values as the last received sample for the entire sampling period.

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The high frequency noises present in the reconstructed signal are automatically filtered
out by the control system component which behaves like low pass filters. In a first order hold the

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last two signals for the current sampling period. Similarly higher order hold circuit can be
devised. First or higher order hold circuits offer no particular advantage over the zero order hold.
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