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Considerations when Selecting

Advantages. Provides a permanent record (enables review

T
he essential elements common to most all nondestructive
examination (NDE) methods include the following: by parties at a later date). Gamma sources may be positioned
inside accessible objects, i.e., pipes, etc., for panoramic tech-
 A probing medium nique radiographs. Energy-efficient source requires no electri-
 A test specimen that is appropriate for the medium being used cal energy for production of gamma rays.
so that discontinuities may be detected Limitations. Radiation is a safety hazard and requires control
 A detector capable of measuring the distributions or alter- of facilities or areas where radiation will be used and requires spe-
ations in the media cial monitoring of exposure levels and dosages to personnel.
 A technique for recording or displaying information received Sources (gamma) decay over their half-lives and should be peri-
from the detector, suitable for evaluation odically replaced. Gamma sources have a constant energy of out-
 The operator, who should be trained to interpret detector put (wavelength) and cannot be adjusted. Requires access to oppo-
feedback to evaluate results. site sides of welds. Gamma source and related licensing require-
We will be examining the following basic NDE methods: ments are expensive. Radiography requires highly skilled operat-
1. Visual examination ing and interpretive personnel.
2. Radiographic examination
3. Ultrasonic examination Radiography (X-Rays)
4. Magnetic particle examination
5. Penetrant examination Equipment Needs. X-ray sources (machine), electrical
6. Eddy current examination power source, same general equipment as used with gamma
7. Acoustic emission examination sources.
8. Leak examination. Applications. Same applications as previously listed with
Following is a brief summary of typical considerations gen- gamma.
erally used when selecting an NDE method for weld inspection. Advantages. Adjustable energy levels, generally produces
Keep in mind that computed radiography and phased array higher-quality radiographs than gamma sources. As with
ultrasonic methods are not covered here. gamma, offers permanent record.
Limitations. High initial cost of X-ray equipment. Not gen-
Visual Inspection erally considered portable, radiation hazard as with gamma
sources, skilled operational and interpretive personnel required.
Equipment Needs. Magnifiers; color enhancement; projec-
tors; other measurement equipment, such as rulers, microme- Ultrasonic
ters, optical comparators, light sources.
Applications. Weld preparations and weld surfaces for Equipment Needs. Pulse-echo instrument capable of excit-
dimensional and surface conditions. ing in a piezoelectric material and generating ultrasonic energy
Advantages. Economical, expedient, and relatively little within a test piece, and having a suitable cathode ray tube capa-
equipment for many applications. ble of displaying the magnitudes and locations of received
Limitations. Limited to external or surface conditions only. sound energy. Calibration standards and liquid couplant.
Limited to the visual acuity of the inspector. Applications. Most weld discontinuities including cracks,
slag, incomplete fusion, incomplete bond, accurate thickness
Radiography (Gamma) measurements possible. Poisson’s ratio may be obtained by
determining the modulus of elasticity.
Equipment Needs. Gamma ray sources, gamma ray cam- Advantages. Most sensitive to planar-type defects. Test
era projectors, film holders, films, lead screens, film processing results known immediately. Portable. Ultrasonic flaw detectors
equipment, film viewers, exposure facilities, radiation monitor- do not require an electrical power outlet. High outlet. High pen-
ing equipment, and shielding material. etration capability. Requires access from only one surface.
Applications. Most weld discontinuities, including cracks, Limitations. Surface condition should be suitable for coupling
porosity, incomplete fusion, incomplete penetration, and slag, as of transducer. Couplant (liquid) required. Small, thin welds may be
well as corrosion and fit-up conditions. difficult to inspect. Reference standards are required. Requires a

Excerpted from the AWS Welding Inspection Handbook, 3rd Edition.

20 • INSPECTION TRENDS
Selecting NDE Feature Winter 2010:Layout 1 12/21/09 3:07 PM Page 21

relatively skilled operator/inspector, and skilled interpretive tion. May be inspected remotely. Portability of inspection appa-
personnel. Resolution of small defects near surface difficult. ratus. Can identify source of emissions.
Limitations. Requires the use of transducers coupled on the
Magnetic Particle test part surface. Part should be in “use” or stressed. More duc-
tile materials yield low amplitude emissions. Noise should be fil-
tered out of the inspection system.
Equipment Needs. Prods, yokes, coils suitable for inducing
magnetism into the test piece. Power source (electrical).
Magnetic powders; some applications require special facilities
Leak Test
and ultraviolet lights. Gauge meters and field indications.
Equipment Needs. Exact equipment depends upon the
Applications. Most weld discontinuities open to or near the
leak test method used. Generally needs equipment capable of
surface. Most suitable for cracks and other linear conditions.
inducing a pressure differential and some form of detection
Advantages. Relatively economical and expedient.
device capable of sensing the leak. Some applications will
Inspection equipment is considered portable. Unlike liquid pen-
require special leak test medium.
etrants, magnetic particle can detect some near-surface discon-
Applications. Welds that have defects extending through
tinuities. Can inspect through thin coatings.
the weld volume.
Limitations. Applicable only to ferromagnetic materials.
Advantages. Many components may be “real-time” inspect-
Parts should be clean before and after inspection. Thick coat-
ed in conjunction with a proof test. Some applications utilize rel-
ings may mask rejectable indications. Some applications require
atively little operator training. Test results are usually expedient.
parts to be demagnetized after inspection. Magnetic particle
Limitations. Some methods require special facilities and are
inspection requires use of electrical energy for most applica-
time consuming to inspect. Applications requiring high levels of
tions. Some potential for arc strikes on surface.
sensitivity are usually uneconomical and require personnel
extensively trained.
Liquid Penetrant
Equipment Needs. Fluorescent or visible dye. Penetrant,
developers, cleaners (solvents, emulsifiers, etc.). Suitable clean-
ing gear. Ultraviolet light source and darkened area if fluores-
cent dye is used.
Applications. Weld discontinuities open to surface, i.e.,
cracks, porosity, seams.
Advantages. May be used on all nonporous materials.
Portable, relatively inexpensive equipment. Expedient inspec-
tion results. Results are easily interpreted. Requires no electri-
cal energy except for light source. Indications may be further
examined visually.
Limitations. Surface films such as coatings, scale, smeared
metal mask or hide rejectable defects. Bleed-out from porous
surfaces can also mask indications. Parts should be cleaned
before and after inspection.

Eddy Current
Equipment Needs. An instrument capable of inducing elec-
tromagnetic fields within a test piece and sensing the resulting
electrical currents (eddy) so induced with a suitable probe or
detector. Calibration standards.
Applications. Weld discontinuities near the surface, i.e.,
cracks, porosity, fusion. Alloy content, heat treatment variations,
wall thickness, and plating or coating thickness.
Advantages. Relatively expedient, with instantaneous results.
Automation possible for symmetrical parts. No couplant
required. Probe does not have to be in intimate contact with test
piece. Skilled interpretive personnel.
Limitations. Limited to conductive materials. Shallow depth
of penetration. Some indications may be masked by part geom-
etry due to sensitivity variations. Reference standard required.

Acoustic Emission
Equipment Needs. Emission sensors, amplifying electron-
ics, signal processing electronics including frequency gates, fil-
ters. A suitable output system for evaluating the acoustic signal
(audio monitor, visual monitor, counters, tape recorders, X-Y
recorder).
Applications. Internal cracking in welds during cooling,
crack initiation and growth rates. In-service monitoring of welds.
Advantages. Real-time and continuous surveillance inspec- For info go to www.aws.org/ad-index

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