Figure 1: Rotational failure of slope on circular slip surface

Slope stability analysis is performed to assess the safe design of a human-made or

natural slopes (e.g. embankments, road cuts, open-pit mining, excavations, landfills etc.) and the
equilibrium conditions.[1][2] Slope stability is the resistance of inclined surface to failure by sliding or
collapsing.[3] The main objectives of slope stability analysis are finding endangered areas,
investigation of potential failure mechanisms, determination of the slope sensitivity to different
triggering mechanisms, designing of optimal slopes with regard to safety, reliability and economics,
designing possible remedial measures, e.g. barriers and stabilization.[1][2]
Successful design of the slope requires geological information and site characteristics, e.g.
properties of soil/rock mass, slope geometry, groundwater conditions, alternation of materials
by faulting, joint or discontinuity systems, movements and tension in joints, earthquake activity
etc.[4][5] The presence of water has a detrimental effect on slope stability. Water pressure acting in the
pore spaces, fractures or other discontinuities in the materials that make up the pit slope will reduce
the strength of those materials.[6] Choice of correct analysis technique depends on both site
conditions and the potential mode of failure, with careful consideration being given to the
varying strengths, weaknesses and limitations inherent in each methodology.[7]
Before the computer age stability analysis was performed graphically or by using a hand-held
calculator. Today engineers have a lot of possibilities to use analysis software, ranges from
simple limit equilibrium techniques through to computational limit analysis approaches (e.g. Finite
element limit analysis, Discontinuity layout optimization) to complex and sophisticated numerical
solutions (finite-/distinct-element codes).[1] The engineer must fully understand limitations of each
technique. For example, limit equilibrium is most commonly used and simple solution method, but it
can become inadequate if the slope fails by complex mechanisms (e.g.
internal deformation and brittle fracture, progressive creep, liquefaction of weaker soil layers, etc.). In
these cases more sophisticated numerical modelling techniques should be utilised. Also, even for
very simple slopes, the results obtained with typical limit equilibrium methods currently in use
(Bishop, Spencer, etc.) may differ considerably. In addition, the use of the risk assessment concept
is increasing today. Risk assessment is concerned with both the consequence of slope failure and
the probability of failure (both require an understanding of the failure mechanism).[8][9]
Within the last decade (2003) Slope Stability Radar has been developed to remotely scan a rock
slope to monitor the spatial deformation of the face. Small movements of a rough wall can be
detected with sub-millimeter accuracy by using interferometry techniques.

Contents
[hide]

 1Limit equilibrium analysis

o 1.1Analytical techniques: Method of slices
  1.1.1Swedish Slip Circle Method of Analysis
 1.1.2Ordinary Method of Slices
 1.1.3Modified Bishop’s Method of Analysis
 1.1.4Lorimer's method
 1.1.5Spencer’s Method
 1.1.6Sarma method
o 1.2Comparisons
o 1.3Rock slope stability analysis
o 1.4Limit equilibrium analysis software
 2Limit analysis
 3Stereographic and kinematic analysis
 4Rockfall simulators
 5Numerical methods of analysis
o 5.1Continuum modelling
o 5.2Discontinuum modelling
o 5.3Hybrid/coupled modelling
 6Rock mass classification
 7See also
 8References
 9Bibliography
 10External links

Limit equilibrium analysis[edit]

A typical cross-section of a slope used in two-dimensional analyses.

Conventional methods of slope stability analysis can be divided into three

groups: kinematic analysis, limit equilibrium analysis, and rock fall simulators.[8] Most slope stability
analysis computer programs are based on the limit equilibrium concept for a two- or three-
dimensional model.[10][11] Two-dimensional sections are analyzed assuming plane strainconditions.
Stability analyses of two-dimensional slope geometries using simple analytical approaches can
provide important insights into the initial design and risk assessment of slopes.
Limit equilibrium methods investigate the equilibrium of a soil mass tending to slide down under the
influence of gravity. Translational or rotational movement is considered on an assumed or known
potential slip surface below the soil or rockmass.[12] In rock slope engineering, methods may be
highly significant to simple block failure along distinct discontinuities.[8] All these methods are based
on the comparison of forces, moments, or stresses resisting movement of the mass with those that
can cause unstable motion (disturbing forces). The output of the analysis is a factor of safety,
defined as the ratio of the shear strength (or, alternatively, an equivalent measure of shear
resistance or capacity) to the shear stress (or other equivalent measure) required for equilibrium. If
the value of factor of safety is less than 1.0, the slope is unstable.
All limit equilibrium methods assume that the shear strengths of the materials along the potential
failure surface are governed by linear (Mohr-Coulomb) or non-linear relationships between shear
strength and the normal stress on the failure surface.[12] The most commonly used variation
is Terzaghi's theory of shear strength which states that

where is the shear strength of the interface, is the effective stress ( is the total

stress normal to the interface and is the pore water pressure on the interface), is the

effective friction angle, and is the effective cohesion.

The methods of slices is the most popular limit equilibrium technique. In this approach, the soil
mass is discretized into vertical slices.[11][13] Several versions of the method are in use. These
variations can produce different results (factor of safety) because of different assumptions and
inter-slice boundary conditions.[12][14]
The location of the interface is typically unknown but can be found using numerical optimization
methods.[15] For example, functional slope design considers the critical slip surface to be the
location where that has the lowest value of factor of safety from a range of possible surfaces. A
wide variety of slope stability software use the limit equilibrium concept with automatic critical
slip surface determination.
Typical slope stability software can analyze the stability of generally layered soil slopes,
embankments, earth cuts, and anchored sheeting structures. Earthquake effects,
external loading, groundwater conditions, stabilization forces (i.e., anchors, geo-reinforcements
etc.) can also be included.

Analytical techniques: Method of slices[edit]

Schematic of the method of slices showing rotation center.

Many slope stability analysis tools use various versions of the methods of slices such as Bishop
simplified, Ordinary method of slices (Swedish circle
method/Petterson/Fellenius), Spencer, Sarma etc. Sarma and Spencer are called rigorous
methods because they satisfy all three conditions of equilibrium: force equilibrium in horizontal
and vertical direction and moment equilibrium condition. Rigorous methods can provide
more accurate results than non-rigorous methods. Bishop simplified or Fellenius are non-
rigorous methods satisfying only some of the equilibrium conditions and making some
simplifying assumptions.[13][14] Some of these approaches are discussed below.
Swedish Slip Circle Method of Analysis[edit]
The Swedish Slip Circle method assumes that the friction angle of the soil or rock is equal to

zero, i.e., . In other words, when friction angle is considered to be zero, the effective stress
term goes to zero, thus equating the shear strength to the cohesion parameter of the given soil.
The Swedish slip circle method assumes a circular failure interface, and analyzes stress and
strength parameters using circular geometry and statics. The moment caused by the internal
driving forces of a slope is compared to the moment caused by forces resisting slope failure. If
resisting forces are greater than driving forces, the slope is assumed stable.
Ordinary Method of Slices[edit]

Division of the slope mass in the method of slices.

In the method of slices, also called OMS or the Fellenius method, the sliding mass above the
failure surface is divided into a number of slices. The forces acting on each slice are obtained by
considering the mechanical (force and moment) equilibrium for the slices. Each slice is
considered on its own and interactions between slices are neglected because the resultant
forces are parallel to the base of each slice. However, Newton's third law is not satisfied by this
method because, in general, the resultants on the left and right of a slice do not have the same
magnitude and are not collinear.[16]
This allows for a simple static equilibrium calculation, considering only soil weight, along with
shear and normal stresses along the failure plane. Both the friction angle and cohesion can be
considered for each slice. In the general case of the method of slices, the forces acting on a

slice are shown in the figure below. The normal ( ) and shear ( ) forces between
adjacent slices constrain each slice and make the problem statically indeterminate when they
are included in the computation.
 Force equilibrium for a slice in the method of slices. The block is assumed to have thickness .

The slices on the left and right exert normal forces and shear forces , the weight of the

slice causes the force . These forces are balanced by the pore pressure and reactions of the

base .

For the ordinary method of slices, the resultant vertical and horizontal forces are

where represents a linear factor that determines the increase in horizontal force with

the depth of the slice. Solving for gives

Next, the method assumes that each slice can rotate about a center of rotation and that
moment balance about this point is also needed for equilibrium. A balance of moments
for all the slices taken together gives

where is the slice index, are the moment arms, and loads on the surface
have been ignored. The moment equation can be used to solve for the shear forces
at the interface after substituting the expression for the normal force:

Using Terzaghi's strength theory and converting the stresses into moments, we
have

where is the pore pressure. The factor of safety is the ratio of the
maximum moment from Terzaghi's theory to the estimated moment,

Modified Bishop’s Method of Analysis[edit]

The Modified Bishop’s method[17] is slightly different from the ordinary
method of slices in that normal interaction forces between adjacent
slices are assumed to be collinear and the resultant interslice shear
force is zero. The approach was proposed by Alan W.
Bishop of Imperial College. The constraint introduced by the normal
forces between slices makes the problem statically indeterminate. As a
result, iterative methods have to be used to solve for the factor of
safety. The method has been shown to produce factor of safety values
within a few percent of the "correct" values.
The factor of safety for moment equilibrium in Bishop's method can be
expressed as

where

where, as before, is the slice index, is the effective

cohesion, is the effective internal angle of internal

friction, is the width of each slice, is the weight of

each slice, and is the water pressure at the base of each

slice. An iterative method has to be used to solve

for because the factor of safety appears both on the left

and right hand sides of the equation.
Lorimer's method[edit]
Lorimer's Method is a technique for evaluating slope stability in
cohesive soils. It differs from Bishop's Method in that it uses
a clothoid slip surface in place of a circle. This mode of failure
was determined experimentally to account for effects of particle
cementation. The method was developed in the 1930s by
Gerhardt Lorimer (Dec 20, 1894-Oct 19, 1961), a student of
geotechnical pioneer Karl von Terzaghi.
Spencer’s Method[edit]
Spencer’s Method of analysis[18] requires a computer program
capable of cyclic algorithms, but makes slope stability analysis
easier. It is not as accurate as the Modified Bishop’s method,
but is acceptably accurate in engineering practices.[19]
Sarma method[edit]
Main article: Sarma method
The Sarma method,[20] proposed by Sarada K.
Sarma of Imperial College is a Limit equilibrium technique used
to assess the stability of slopes under seismic conditions. It
may also be used for static conditions if the value of the
horizontal load is taken as zero. The method can analyse a
wide range of slope failures as it may accommodate a multi-
wedge failure mechanism and therefore it is not restricted to
planar or circular failure surfaces. It may provide information
about the factor of safety or about the critical acceleration
required to cause collapse.
Comparisons[edit]
The assumptions made by a number of limit equilibrium
methods are listed in the table below.[21]

Method Assumption

Ordinary method of
Interslice forces are neglected
cells

Resultant interslice forces are

Bishop's
horizontal. There are no interslice
simplified/modified [17]
shear forces.

Resultant interslice forces are

horizontal. An empirical correction
Janbu's simplified[22]
factor is used to account for interslice
shear forces.

An assumed line of thrust is used to

Janbu's generalized[22] define the location of the interslice
normal force.

The resultant interslice forces have

Spencer [18] constant slope throughout the sliding
mass.

Same as Spencer's method but with a

Chugh[23] constant acceleration force on each
slice.

The direction of the resultant interslice

forces is defined using an arbitrary
Morgenstern-Price[24] function. The fractions of the function
value needed for force and moment
balance is computed.

Fredlund-Krahn
Similar to Morgenstern-Price.
(GLE) [16]
 The resultant interslice force is either
parallel to the ground surface or equal
Corps of Engineers [25] to the average slope from the
beginning to the end of the slip
surface..

The direction of the resultant interslice

force is equal to the average of the
Lowe and Karafiath [26]
ground surface and the slope of the
base of each slice.

The shear strength criterion is applied

to the shears on the sides and bottom
Sarma [20] of each slice. The inclinations of the
slice interfaces are varied until a
critical criterion is met.

The table below shows the statical equilibrium conditions

satisfied by some of the popular limit equilibrium methods.[21]

Force Force
Moment
Method balance balance
balance
(vertical) (horizontal)

Ordinary MS Yes No Yes

Bishop's
Yes No Yes
simplified

Janbu's
Yes Yes No
simplified

Used to
Janbu's compute
Yes Yes
generalized interslice
shear forces

Spencer Yes Yes Yes

 Force Force
Moment
Method balance balance
balance
(vertical) (horizontal)

Chugh Yes Yes Yes

Morgenstern-
Yes Yes Yes
Price

Fredlund-
Yes Yes Yes
Krahn

Corps of
Yes Yes No
Engineers

Lowe and
Yes Yes No
Karafiath

Sarma Yes Yes Yes

Rock slope stability analysis[edit]

Rock slope stability analysis based on limit equilibrium
techniques may consider following modes of failures:

 Planar failure -> case of rock mass sliding on a single

surface (special case of general wedge type of failure);
two-dimensional analysis may be used according to the
concept of a block resisting on an inclined plane at limit
equilibrium[27][28]
 Polygonal failure -> sliding of a nature rock usually takes
place on polygonally-shaped surfaces; calculation is based
on a certain assumptions (e.g. sliding on a polygonal
surface which is composed from N parts is kinematically
possible only in case of development at least (N -
1) internal shear surfaces; rock mass is divided into blocks
by internal shear surfaces; blocks are considered to be
rigid; no tensile strength is permitted etc.)[28]
 Wedge failure -> three-dimensional analysis enables
modelling of the wedge sliding on two planes in a direction
along the line of intersection[28][29]
 Toppling failure -> long thin rock columns formed by the
steeply dipping discontinuities may rotate about a pivot
point located at the lowest corner of the block; the sum of
the moments causing toppling of a block (i.e. horizontal
weight component of the block and the sum of the driving
forces from adjacent blocks behind the block under
consideration) is compared to the sum of the moments
resisting toppling (i.e. vertical weight component of the
block and the sum of the resisting forces from adjacent
blocks in front of the block under consideration); toppling
occur if driving moments exceed resisting moments[30][31]
Limit equilibrium analysis software[edit]
 SLIDE[32] provides 2D stability calculations in rocks or soils
using these rigorous analysis
methods: Spencer,Sarma and Morgenstern-Price/General
limit equilibrium; and non-rigorous methods: Bishop
simplified, Corps of Engineers, Janbu
simplified/corrected, Lowe-
Karafiath and Ordinary/Fellenius. Searching of the critical
slip surface is realized with the help of a grid or as a slope
search in user-defined area. Program includes
also probabilistic analysis using Monte Carlo or Latin
Hypercube simulation techniques where any
input parameter can be defined as a random
variable. Probabilistic analysis determine the probability of
failure and reliability index, which gives better
representation of the level of safety. Back analysis serves
for calculation of a reinforcement load with a given required
factor of safety. Program enables finite
element groundwater seepage analysis.[32]
 SLOPE/W[33] is formulated in terms of moment and force
equilibrium factor of safety equations. Limit equilibrium
methods include Morgenstern-Price, General limit
equilibrium, Spencer, Bishop, Ordinary, Janbu etc. This
program allows integration with other applications. For
example, finite element computed stresses
from SIGMA/W[34] or QUAKE/W[35] can be used to calculate
a stability factor by computing total shear resistance and
mobilized shear stress along the entire slip surface. Then a
local stability factor for each slice is obtained. Using
a Monte Carlo approach, program computes
the probability of failure in addition to the conventional
factor of safety.[33] STABL WV[36] is a limit equilibrium-
based, Windows software based on the stabl family of
algorithms. It allows analysis using Bishop's, Spencer's and
Janbu's method. Regular slopes as well as slopes with
various types of inclusions may be analyzed.
 HYDRUS[37] add-on modules can check the stability of
embankments, dams, earth cuts and anchored sheeting
structures with the influence of the water. The values of the
pore pressure in transport domain are imported
 automatically for the selected time to Stability module. The
analysis can be repeated for all time shots of the water
movement simulated by basic program. The common
method of slices (the Bishop, Fellenius/Petterson,
Morgenstern-Price or the Spencer) can be set as well as
the different type of Geo-reinforcement or Earthquake
effects.
 SVSlope[38] is formulated in terms of moment and force
equilibrium factor of safety equations. Limit equilibrium
methods include Morgenstern-Price, General limit
equilibrium, Spencer, Bishop, Ordinary, Kulhawy and
others This program allows integration with other
applications in the geotechnical software suite. For
example, finite element computed stresses
from SVSolid[39] or pore-water pressures
from SVFlux[40] can be used to calculate the factor of safety
by computing total shear resistance and mobilized shear
stress along the entire slip surface. The software also
utilizes Monte Carlo, Latin Hypercube, and the APEM
probabilistic approaches. Spatial variability through random
fields computations may also be included in the analysis.
 dotSlope[41] provides limit equilibrium analyses through the
methods of Fellenius, Bishop simplified, Janbu
simplified/corrected, Corps of Engineers, Lowe &
Karafiath, Spencer, GLE/Morgenstern & Price. The slope
can have multiple soils, impenetrable layers, cuts and
embankments, multiple groundwater conditions, ponded
water, dry and water filled tension cracks, soil
reinforcements (anchors, nails, piles and geo-synthetics).
Slip surfaces can be defined through six surface
generators in order to find the critical case. dotSlope[41] can
run deterministic analyses, surface optimization, sensitivity
analyses along with probabilistic analysesusing the Monte
Carlo method. The program runs on Microsoft
Windows, Mac OS X and Android.[42]
 GALENA[43] - includes stability analysis, back analysis, and
probability analysis, using the Bishop, Spencer-
Wright and Sarma methods.[43]
 GSLOPE[44] - provides limit equilibrium slope stability
analysis of existing natural slopes, unreinforced man-made
slopes, or slopes with soil reinforcement, using Bishop’s
Modified method and Janbu’s Simplified method applied to
circular, composite or non-circular surfaces.[44]
 CLARA-W[45] - three-dimensional slope stability program
includes calculation with the help of these methods: Bishop
simplified, Janbu simplified, Spencer and Morgenstern-
Price. Problem configurations can involve rotational or non-
rotational sliding surfaces, ellipsoids, wedges, compound
surfaces, fully specified surfaces and searches.[45]
 TSLOPE3[46] - two- or three-dimensional analyses of soil
and rock slopes using Spencer method.[46]
 A program specific for rock slope analysis
is AutoBlock.[47] It overcome two problems inherently
complicating the analysis in engineering practice: firstly
determining volumes and magnitudes of sliding areas of
potentially unstable blocks based on the real topography,
and secondly finding the critical blocks which are formed
by an intersection of various discontinuities. It allows
importing arbitrarily complex terrain surfaces which have
been digitized beforehand using a topographic map. These
surfaces are then extruded to a 3D solid which may be
intersected by various sets of discontinuities. By combining
all possible locations of all discontinuities potentially
unstable blocks are determined. For each block, the factor
of safety against sliding is computed using the limit
equilibrium method. AutoBlock is an add-on to the popular
program "AutoCAD" and exploits its possibilities and its
power (e.g. for 3D-visualizations).

Limit analysis[edit]
See also: Slope stability
A more rigorous approach to slope stability analysis is limit
analysis. Unlike limit equilibrium analysis which makes ad-hoc
though often reasonable assumptions, limit analysis is based
on rigorous plasticity theory. This enables, among other things,
the computation of upper and lower bounds on the true factor
of safety.
Programs based on limit analysis include:

 OptumG2 (2014-) General purpose software for

geotechnical applications including slope stability.
 LimitState:GEO (2008-) General purpose geotechnical
software application based on Discontinuity layout
optimization for plane strain problems including slope
stability.
 GEO5 Slope Stability (1989-) Program is used to perform
slope stability analysis of embankments, earth cuts,
anchored retaining structures and MSE walls.

Stereographic and kinematic

analysis[edit]
See also: Stereonet § Geology
Kinematic analysis examines which modes of failure can
possibly occur in the rock mass. Analysis requires the detailed
evaluation of rock mass structure and the geometry of existing
discontinuities contributing to
block instability.[48][49] Stereographic representation (stereonets)
of the planes and lines is used.[50] Stereonets are useful for
analyzing discontinuous rock blocks.[51] Program DIPS[52] allows
for visualization structural data using stereonets, determination
of the kinematic feasibility of rock mass and statistical analysis
of the discontinuity properties.[48][52]

Rockfall simulators[edit]
Rock slope stability analysis may design protective measures
near or around structures endangered by the falling
blocks. Rockfall simulators determine travel paths and
trajectories of unstable blocks separated from a rock slope
face. Analytical solution method described by Hungr &
Evans[53] assumes rock block as a point with mass
and velocity moving on a ballistic trajectory with regard to
potential contact with slope surface. Calculation requires two
restitution coefficients that depend on fragment shape, slope
surface roughness, momentum and deformational properties
and on the chance of certain conditions in a given impact.[54]
Program ROCFALL[55] provides a statistical analysis of
trajectory of falling blocks. Method rely on velocity changes as
a rock blocks roll, slide or bounce on various
materials. Energy, velocity, bounce height and location of rock
endpoints are determined and may be analyzed statistically.
The program can assist in determining remedial measures by
computing kinetic energy and location of impact on a barrier.
This can help determine the capacity, size and location of
barriers.[55]

Numerical methods of analysis[edit]

Numerical modelling techniques provide an approximate
solution to problems which otherwise cannot be solved by
conventional methods, e.g. complex geometry,
material anisotropy, non-linear behaviour, in situ
stresses. Numerical analysis allows for
material deformation and failure, modelling of pore
pressures, creep deformation, dynamic loading, assessing
effects of parameter variations etc. However, numerical
modelling is restricted by some limitations. For example, input
parameters are not usually measured and availability of these
data is generally poor. Analysis must be executed by well
trained user with good modelling practise. User also should be
aware of boundary effects, meshing errors, hardware memory
and time restrictions. Numerical methods used for slope
stability analysis can be divided into three main
groups: continuum, discontinuum and hybrid modelling.[56]

Continuum modelling[edit]
See also: Finite element method and Finite difference method
 Figure 3: Finite element mesh

Modelling of the continuum is suitable for the analysis of soil

slopes, massive intact rock or heavily jointed rock masses. This
approach includes the finite-difference and finite
element methods that discretize the whole mass to finite
number of elements with the help of generated mesh (Fig. 3).
In finite-difference method (FDM) differential equilibrium
equations (i.e. strain-displacement and stress-strain relations)
are solved. finite element method (FEM) uses the
approximations to the connectivity of elements, continuity
of displacements and stresses between elements. Most of
numerical codes allows modelling of discrete fractures,
e.g. bedding planes, faults. Several constitutive models are
usually available, e.g. elasticity, elasto-plasticity, strain-
softening, elasto-viscoplasticity etc.[56]

Discontinuum modelling[edit]
See also: Discrete element method and Discontinuous
Deformation Analysis
Discontinuum approach is useful for rock slopes controlled by
discontinuity behaviour. Rock mass is considered as an
aggregation of distinct, interacting blocks subjected to external
loads and assumed to undergo motion with time. This
methodology is collectively called the discrete-element method
(DEM). Discontinuum modelling allows for sliding between the
blocks or particles. The DEM is based on solution of dynamic
equation of equilibrium for each block repeatedly until the
boundary conditions and laws of contact and motion are
satisfied. Discontinuum modelling belongs to the most
commonly applied numerical approach to rock slope analysis
and following variations of the DEM exist:[56]

 distinct-element method
 discontinuous deformation analysis (DDA)
 particle flow codes
The distinct-element approach describes mechanical behaviour
of both, the discontinuities and the solid material. This
methodology is based on a force-displacement law (specifying
the interaction between the deformable rock blocks) and a law
of motion (determining displacements caused in the blocks by
out-of-balance forces). Joints are treated as [boundary
conditions. Deformable blocks are discretized into internal
constant-strain elements.[56]
Discontinuum program UDEC[57] (Universal distinct element
code) is suitable for high jointed rock slopes subjected to static
or dynamic loading. Two-dimensional analysis of translational
failure mechanism allows for simulating large displacements,
modelling deformation or material yielding.[57] Three-
dimensional discontinuum code 3DEC[58] contains modelling of
multiple intersecting discontinuities and therefore it is suitable
for analysis of wedge instabilities or influence of rock support
(e.g. rockbolts, cables).[56]
In discontinuous deformation analysis (DDA) displacements
are unknowns and equilibrium equations are then solved
analogous to finite element method. Each unit of finite
element type mesh represents an isolated block bounded by
discontinuities. Advantage of this methodology is possibility to
model large deformations, rigid body movements, coupling or
failure states between rock blocks.[56]
Discontinuous rock mass can be modelled with the help
of distinct-element methodology in the form of particle
flow code, e.g. program PFC2D/3D.[59][60] Spherical particles
interact through frictional sliding contacts. Simulation of joint
bounded blocks may be realized through specified bond
strengths. Law of motion is repeatedly applied to each particle
and force-displacement law to each contact. Particle
flow methodology enables modelling of granular flow, fracture
of intact rock, transitional block movements, dynamic response
to blasting or seismicity, deformation between particles caused
by shear or tensile forces. These codes also allow to model
subsequent failure processes of rock slope, e.g. simulation of
rock[56]

Hybrid/coupled modelling[edit]
Hybrid codes involve the coupling of various methodologies to
maximize their key advantages, e.g. limit equilibrium analysis
combined with finite element groundwater flow and stress
analysis adopted in the SVOFFICE[61] or GEO-STUDIO[62] suites
of software; coupled particle flow and finite-difference analyses
used in PF3D[60] and FLAC3D.[63] Hybrid techniques allows
investigation of piping slope failures and the influence of high
groundwater pressures on the failure of weak rock slope.
Coupled finite-/distinct-element codes, e.g. ELFEN,[64] provide
for the modelling of both intact rock behaviour and the
development and behaviour of fractures.[56]

Rock mass classification[edit]

Various rock mass classification systems exist for the design of
slopes and to assess the stability of slopes. The systems are
based on empirical relations between rock mass parameters
and various slope parameters such as height and slope dip.
The Q-slope method for rock slope engineering and rock mass
classification developed by Barton and Bar[65] expresses the
quality of the rock mass for assessing slope stability using the
Q-slope value, from which long-term stable, reinforcement-free
slope angles can be derived.