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Introduction to the Climate System

Factors that determine the climate

Target

1. Identify the 4 major factor that determines climate

2. Apply the factors to figure out why the climate has different in
different places

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The Axis of Rotation.mp4

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The closest point to the Sun in a planet's orbit is

called perihelion. The furthest point is called
aphelion.

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• Denser water tends to sink, while less dense

water tends to rise.

• Cold-water currents occur as the cold water at the poles

sinks and slowly moves toward the equator.

• Warm-water currents travel out from the equator along

the surface, flowing toward the poles to replace the

sinking cold water.

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Landforms

1. Higher the elevation, the colder the atmosphere get

2. Cold air can’t hold much water

GCF.

Factors Influencing the World Climatic Regions

1) Latitude and its influence on solar radiation received.
2) Air mass influences.
3) Location of global high and low pressure zones.
4) Heat exchange from ocean currents.
5) Distribution of mountain barriers.
6) Pattern of prevailing winds.
7) Distribution of land and sea.
8) Altitude.

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Elements of Climate

Climate Information

 Temperature
 Rainfall
 Wind
 Humidity,
 Sunshine hours and
 Other factors

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Temperature Measurement

Thermometer
(1) Temperature sensor (e.g. the bulb of a
mercury-in-glass thermometer) in which
some physical change occurs with
temperature, and
(2) Some means of converting this physical
change into a numerical value (e.g. the
visible scale that is marked on a
mercury-in-glass thermometer).

Temperature

• Air temperature is
measured using
maximum -
minumium
thermometers.

• Q: What would the

temperatures be on
this thermometer?

A: Minimum = 9°C, Maximum = 22°C

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Temperature.
• Thermometers are housed in a
Stevenson Screen. These are
always off the ground and
painted white!

Q: Why are thermometers kept

there? Why is it white?

A: It provides shelter from wind, rain, snow and

animals. The white colour reflects the sunlight so
heat doesn’t build up inside the box.

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Humidity
• Humidity is the amount of water vapor
present in the air. Water vapor is the gaseous
state of water and is invisible to the human
eye.
• Humidity indicates the likelihood of
precipitation, dew, or fog. Higher humidity
reduces the effectiveness of sweating in
cooling the body by reducing the rate of
evaporation of moisture from the skin.

Sensor to monitor an
electric current that is
affected by moisture
levels.

How relative humidity (RH) is

measured?
Wet- and Dry Bulb Psychrometer

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Precipitation

• In meteorology, precipitation is any

product of the condensation
of atmospheric water vapor that falls
under gravity.
• The main forms of precipitation include
drizzle, rain, sleet and snow.
• Precipitation occurs when a portion of
the atmosphere becomes saturated with
water vapor, so that the water
condenses and "precipitates".

Precipitation.
• Precipitation is any
moisture that comes
from the atmosphere
(rain, snow, hail).

• The amount of
precipitation is
measured using a rain
gauge.

Q: Where do you think would be best to place a rain

gauge? Beside a building or in an open space?

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Measurement of precipitation

Symon’s rain gauge

Sky Condition

• Sky condition is a description of the appearance of

the sky. Sky condition may be evaluated either
automatically by instrument or manually with or
without instruments.

What measures sky condition?

• In meteorology, an okta is a unit

of measurement used to describe the amount of
cloud cover at any given location such as a weather
station.
• Sky conditions are estimated in terms of how
many eighths of the sky are covered in cloud,
ranging from 0 oktas (completely clear sky)
through to 8 oktas (completely overcast).

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Cloud cover.

• Cloud cover is measured

just by using our eyes.

• You look at the sky and

decide how cloudy it is –
and estimate how many
eigths of the sky are
covered.

• Cloud cover is measured

in oktas.

• You also get different

types of clouds.

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Sunshine hours.
Sunshine
• The total amount of
sunshine in a day is
measured using a
sunshine recorder.
• The sun’s rays travel
through the glass ball
and burn marks onto
the card behind it.
Strip of card
Glass Ball

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Climate Classification

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Koeppen Climate Classification

Tropical Continental
Tropical wet Warm Summer
Tropical Dry Cool Summer
Subartic
Dry
Semi arid Polar
Arid Tundra
Ice
Mild
Marine west coast
Mediterranean
Humid Subtropical

Tropic
The tropics are the region of the Earth near
to the equator and between the Tropic of
Cancer in the northern hemisphere and
the Tropic of Capricorn in the southern
hemisphere

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Tropical Climates
– The west coastal lowlands, the
Western Ghats, and southern
parts of Assam have this climate
type. Winter and early summer
are long and dry periods with
temperatures averaging above
18 °C (64 °F).

– Tropical wet and dry zones

include savannas, which are
tropical grasslands.

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A savanna or savannah is a grassland ecosystem

characterised by the trees being sufficiently widely
spaced so that the canopy does not close

Cold semi-arid climates

are most commonly
found in Asia and North
America.
Northern Africa, South
Africa, Europe, sections
of South America and
sections of interior
southern Australia and
New Zealand.

A semi-arid climate or steppe climate is the climate of a

region that receives precipitation below potential
evapotranspiration, but not as low as a desert climate.

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What countries are

in the arid climate?
Saudi Arabia.
Egypt.
Morocco.
Australia.
Mexico.
Algeria.
Spain.
Afghanistan.

What is meant by an arid climate?

A region is arid when it is characterized by a severe lack of
available water, to the extent of hindering or preventing the growth
and development of plant and animal life. Environments subject
to arid climates tend to lack vegetation and are called xeric or
desertic.

Dry Climates
– Cover about 30 percent of Earth’s land
area, make up the largest climatic zone.
– In these climates, continental tropical
(cT) air dominates, precipitation is low,
and vegetation is scarce.
– Overall, evaporation rates exceed
precipitation rates, causing a moisture
deficit. Semi Arid
– Within this classification, there are two
subtypes:
– arid regions or deserts,
– semi-arid regions or steppes.
– Steppes are more humid than deserts;
they generally separate arid regions from
bordering wet climates.

Arid

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Mild Climates (3 Types)

The mild climate type called
Mediterranean climate has a warm
summer and a short, mild, and rainy
winter. It is found on the west coasts of
continents between 30 and 40 degrees
latitude, and along the shores of the
Mediterranean Sea.

• Humid subtropical
influenced by the
subtropical high-pressure
systems that are normally
found over oceans in the
summer.
• The marine west coast
climates are dominated by
the constant inland flow of
air off the ocean.

Mediterranean climate, major climate type of the Köppen

classification characterized by hot, dry summers and cool, wet winters
and located between about 30° and 45° latitude north and south of the
Equator and on the western sides of the continents.

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What type of climate is humid subtropical?

However, the winter season is not a cold winter. Summer season lasts
longer, since Humid Subtropical areas are somewhat near the
equator. Humid Subtropical climate is known for hot humid summers
and mild winters

What countries are in the humid subtropical?

Southeastern United States, southeastern South America; coastal
southeast South Africa; eastern Australia; eastern Asia from
northern India through south China to Japan

Continental Climates
A continent is one of several very large landmasses on Earth.
Generally identified by convention rather than any strict criteria, up
to seven regions are commonly regarded as continents. Ordered
from largest in size to smallest, they are: Asia, Africa, North
America, South America, Antarctica, Europe, and Australia.

Continental climates
classified into three
subtypes:
Warm summer climates
Cool summer climates
Subarctic climates.

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Warm summer
climates

Subarctic
Cool summer climates climates.

Polar Climates
– Regions with polar climate cover more than 20% of the
Earth. The sun shines for long hours in the summer, and
for many fewer hours in the winter
– Ice the coldest regions on Earth. Avg temp less than 10°C
in the warmest month. Precipitation is generally low
because cold air holds less moisture .
– Tundra – very cold with a layer of permafrost. Large
plants cannot grow here.
– A variation of the polar climate is found at high elevations.

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A polar climate results in

treeless tundra, glaciers, or a
permanent or semi-permanent
layer of ice. It has cool
summers and very cold
winters.

An ice cap climate is a polar

climate where the temperature
never or almost never exceeds 0 °C
(32 °F). The climate covers areas
in or near the polar regions, such
as Antarctica and Greenland, as
well as the highest mountaintops.

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THERMAL COMFORT

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Physical Context of Thermal Comfort

-- dishealth

-- dishealth

conditions the body’s response

Physical Basis of Thermal Comfort

Fundamentally, comfort involves a heat balance

(a thermal equilibrium) … where:

heat in ≈ heat out

where “heat in” is provided by metabolism,

radiation, conduction, convection

where “heat out” is via radiation, conduction,

convection, evaporation

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 Heat Flow to/from Human Body

Sensible Heat
– Flows via conduction, radiation, and convection
– Flow rate is generally related to space temperatures
Latent Heat
– Flows via evaporation
– Flow rate is generally related to space humidity

Total Heat Flow = sensible + latent flows

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Ball State Architecture | ENVIRONMENTAL SYSTEMS 1 | Grondzik 12

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The American Society of Heating, Refrigerating
and Air-Conditioning Engineers (ASHRAE)

ASHRAE?

Reminder 
The American Society of Heating,
Refrigerating and Air-Conditioning
Engineers.

(www.ashrae.org)

A key developer and promulgator of building design

standards and guidelines.

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 Thermal Comfort-Subjective variables
• Clothing can be varied at the discretion of the individual. A person
wearing a normal business suit and cotton underwear will require a
temperature about 9°C lower than a naked body
• Age and sex may influence thermal preferences: the metabolism of older
people is slower, therefore they usually prefer higher temperatures.
Women also have slightly slower metabolic rates than men; their
preference is on average 1 ºC higher than that of men.
• Body shape, i.e. the surface to volume ratio, also has an effect. A thin
person has a much greater body surface than a short, corpulent person of
the same weight, can dissipate more heat and will tolerate and prefer a
higher temperature.
• Subcutaneous fat, i.e. fat under the skin, is an excellent thermal insulator.
A fat person will need a cooler air to dissipate the same amount of heat.
• Food and drink of certain kinds may affect the metabolic rate, which may
be a reason for the difference in diet between tropical and arctic peoples.

Thermal comfort indices

1. Search for a comfort Scale: When the designer wants to assess the
effect of climatic conditions on the body's heat dissipation processes, he
is faced with the difficulty of having to handle four independent
variables simultaneously. During the past 50 years many attempts have
been made and many experiments have been carried out in order to
devise a single scale which combines the effects of these four factors.
Such scales are collectively referred to as 'thermal indices' or 'comfort
scales’.
2. Corrected effective temperature (CET): Whilst the ET scale
integrates the effects of three variables – originally of temperature and
humidity but a later form included air movement – the corrected
effective temperature scale also includes radiation effects. This scale is at
present the most widely used one, therefore it will be described in much
greater detail in the following section.

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3. Operative temperature (OT) Another scale was developed in the
USA, by Winslow, Herrington and Gagge, in principle very similar to
the scale of equivalent warmth. It combined the effects of radiation and
air temperature. Studies were carried out for a specific region with cool
conditions, where the effects of humidity were small and the rate of air
movement also negligible [29].
4. Equatorial comfort index (ECI) This was developed by C G Webb
in Singapore during 1960. Subjective responses of acclimatised
subjects were recorded together with measurements of air temperature,
humidity and air movement – the experimentally-found relationships
were organised into a formula and shown on a graph, very similar to
the ET nomogram.
5. Resultant temperature (RT) Developed by Missénard, in France,
this scale is a slight improvement on the ET scale. The nomogram
defining it is almost identical with the ET nomogram. It is thought to be
reliable for moderate climates but not for tropical conditions as it does
not allow sufficiently for the cooling effects of air movement over
35°C and 80% RH.

Heat exchange processes

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 Heat exchange processes ……..Contd

1. Why does ASHRAE accept an 80% "satisfaction" rate (20% uncomfortable

to some extent) as an acceptable thermal environment?
Considering thermal comfort as a "state of mind" it is virtually impossible to
establish conditions that will be found acceptable by all members of any large
group. ASHRAE has determined that expecting more than 80% satisfaction is futile
and probably counterproductive (changing conditions to gain one more satisfied
person risks losing a previously satisfied person).

2. Since different people may have different opinions about their thermal
environments, how is it possible to make any sense (develop patterns) out of
people's individual opinions of thermal conditions?
If enough people are surveyed and if there are common underlying reasons for
opinions, such as a physiological need for thermal equilibrium -- patterns will
emerge through statistical analysis. This has been done with thermal comfort
studies and ranges of conditions commonly found acceptable have been found.

3. What four means or mechanisms does the body have available to allow it
to transfer heat to the surrounding environment?
Convection, evaporation, radiation, and conduction transfer heat from the body to
the surrounding environment (and vice versa).

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4. What four properties of the environment that surrounds a person are critical
determinants of the body's ability to reach thermal equilibrium -- and thus
experience comfort?
Dry bulb air temperature, relative humidity, air speed, and mean radiant temperature
influence heat transfer by the four means noted above and are critical determinants of
how easily a body can release an appropriate amount of heat to its surroundings.

5. What personal physical factors -- not a part of the environment -- will greatly
influence a person's ability to reach equilibrium with his/her surroundings?
Clothing (personal insulation) and metabolism (determined to a large extent by
physical activity) affect the ability to reach equilibrium. Additional clothing makes
heat loss more difficult; a higher metabolism means more heat must be rejected.

The main heat energy losses from a house are shown in the diagram. a)
Complete the diagram to show the percentage heat energy loss through the
walls. b) Complete the table below to show how the heat energy loss from each
part of the house can be reduced.

a) 65°
b) Walls: draught excluder/curtain/cavity walls insulation
Floor: carpets/wooden floors

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(a) This question is about keeping a house warm. A house has been insulated
in these two ways. Describe how each of these ways helps to keep the house
warm. Use your ideas about conduction, convection and radiation. a) Double
glazing. b) Putting shiny aluminium foil on the wall behind a radiator.

Ans
a) trapped air- poor conductor/convector
b) reflects radiation

Heat Transfer- Conduction,

convection & radiation.mp4

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Periodic Heat Flow

Periodic heat flow

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 Practical use
A rule of thumb for massive masonry, earth and concrete
walls is: φ = 10 hours for each 0.3 m thickness.

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 Structural controls
 The need for structural controls
 Thermal insulation
 Solar control
 Orientation
 Internal blinds and curtains
 Heat absorbing glasses
 Other special glasses
 Effects of angle of incidence
 The sun's positions
 Angle of incidence
 Shadow angles
 Shading devices
 Design of shading devices

Thermal insulation
Thermal insulation is the reduction of heat
transfer between objects in thermal contact or in
range of radiative influence.

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 CLASSIFICATION OF TROPICAL
CLIMATES

Climatic zones

Tropical climates

Warm humid climates

Warm humid island climate

Hot dry desert climate

Hot dry maritime desert climate

Composite or monsoon climate

Tropical upland climate
 Warm Humid Warm Humid Hot dry Hot dry Composite or Tropical
climate Island desert maritime Monsoon Upland
climate climate desert climate climate
climate

Air
Temperature
Mean Max: b/w warm
Mean Min: 27-32C 29-32C 43-49C 38C humid and hot 24-30C
18-24C 18-24C 27-32C 24-30C dry climate 10-13C

Humidity 20-55% (Dry

RH: 75% 55-100% 10-55% 50-90% Period), 45-99%
55-95%(Wet
Period)
Vapor 2500-000 1750-2500 750-1500 500-2500 1300-1600 800-1600
Pressure: N/sq.m N/sq.m N/sq.m N/sq.m N/sq.m N/sq.m

Precipitation High High Slight and Very low Intense and Variable
variable prolonged
Annual
Rainfall 2000-5000 1250-1800 50-155 500-1300 1000mm
mm/annum mm/annum mm/annum mm/annum
500 200-250 200-250
mm/month mm/month mm in the
wettest
month.
Sky Fairly cloudy Normally Normally Little more Monsoon: Dull Clear and
Conditions clear clear cloudy Dry season: partly
clear with dark cloudy
blue color

Solar Strong and Strong and Direct and Strong Alternates Direct and
Radiation diffuse. mainly direct strong between strong
cause painful warm
sky glare humid and Hot
dry desert
climates.
Winds Strong winds Higher Local whirl Local, Monsoon Winds are
occur during velocities winds are coastal winds variable
Rain squalls Occur often winds are fairly drastically
during created caused strong deflected
cyclones by unequal and steady by local
heating and bring rain topography.
cooling of clouds
land and and humid
sea air.
surfaces.
Vegetation Grows Less Sparse Sparse Sparse Green
quickly. luxuriant. Soils dry The ground The soil is The soil is
The red or Soil is often quickly and rocks damp during damp during
brown late dry with a after rain are brown the rains but it the rains but it
rite soils. fairly low and the or red. dries out dries out
Subsoil water table subsoil quickly. quickly
water table water table
is high is very
low.
Special High Tropical During Dust and Dust and sand Thunder
Characteri humidity cyclones or certain sand storms may storms with a
stics accelerates hurricanes months storms occur. fair proportion
mould and with wind dust and may occur. of electrical
algal velocities sand discharges air
growth, from 45 to storms to ground. Hail
rusting and 70 m/s may be may occur.
rotting. which frequent.
The thunder constitute a
storms are serious
accompanie seasonal
d by changes.
frequent air
to air
electrical
discharges.
 Structural Control
1) Thermal insulation
2) Thermal capacity – low conductivity materials
3. Solar control
a. orientation and window size
b. internal blinds, curtains
c. special glasses
d. external shading devices