DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS

LABORATORY MANUAL

B.TECH
(II YEAR – II SEM)
(2017-18)

DEPARTMENT OF INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY

MALLA REDDY COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING &

TECHNOLOGY
(Autonomous Institution – UGC, Govt. of India)
Recognized under 2(f) and 12 (B) of UGC ACT 1956
(Affiliated to JNTUH, Hyderabad, Approved by AICTE - Accredited by NBA & NAAC – ‘A’ Grade - ISO 9001:2015 Certified)
Maisammaguda, Dhulapally (Post Via. Hakimpet), Secunderabad – 500100, Telangana State, India
 DEPARTMENT OF INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY

Vision

➢ To improve the quality of technical education that provides efficient

software engineers with an attitude to adopt to challenging IT needs of

local, national and international arena, through teaching and interaction

with alumni and industry.

Mission

➢ Department intends to meet the contemporary challenges in the field of

IT and is playing a vital role in shaping the education of the 21st century

by providing unique educational and research opportunities.

PROGRAMME EDUCATIONAL OBJECTIVES (PEOs)

PEO1 – ANALYTICAL SKILLS

To facilitate the graduates with the ability to visualize, gather information, articulate,
analyze, solve complex problems, and make decisions. These are essential to
address the challenges of complex and computation intensive problems increasing
their productivity.

PEO2 – TECHNICAL SKILLS

To facilitate the graduates with the technical skills that prepare them for immediate
employment and pursue certification providing a deeper understanding of the
technology in advanced areas of computer science and related fields, thus
encouraging to pursue higher education and research based on their interest.

PEO3 – SOFT SKILLS

To facilitate the graduates with the soft skills that include fulfilling the mission,
setting goals, showing self-confidence by communicating effectively, having a
positive attitude, get involved in team-work, being a leader, managing their career
and their life.

PEO4 – PROFESSIONAL ETHICS

To facilitate the graduates with the knowledge of professional and ethical

responsibilities by paying attention to grooming, being conservative with style,
following dress codes, safety codes,and adapting themselves to technological
advancements.
 PROGRAM SPECIFIC OUTCOMES (PSOs)
After the completion of the course, B. Tech Information Technology, the graduates will have
the following Program Specific Outcomes:

1. Fundamentals and critical knowledge of the Computer System:- Able to Understand

the working principles of the computer System and its components , Apply the
knowledge to build, asses, and analyze the software and hardware aspects of it .

2. The comprehensive and Applicative knowledge of Software Development:

Comprehensive skills of Programming Languages, Software process models,
methodologies, and able to plan, develop, test, analyze, and manage the software
and hardware intensive systems in heterogeneous platforms individually or working
in teams.

3. Applications of Computing Domain & Research: Able to use the professional,

managerial, interdisciplinary skill set, and domain specific tools in development
processes, identify the research gaps, and provide innovative solutions to them.
 PROGRAM OUTCOMES (POs)
Engineering Graduates should possess the following:
1. Engineering knowledge: Apply the knowledge of mathematics, science,
engineering fundamentals, and an engineering specialization to the solution of
complex engineering problems.

2. Problem analysis: Identify, formulate, review research literature, and analyze

complex engineering problems reaching substantiated conclusions using first
principles of mathematics, natural sciences, and engineering sciences.
3. Design / development of solutions: Design solutions for complex engineering
problems and design system components or processes that meet the specified
needs with appropriate consideration for the public health and safety, and the
cultural, societal, and environmental considerations.
4. Conduct investigations of complex problems: Use research-based knowledge and
research methods including design of experiments, analysis and interpretation of
data, and synthesis of the information to provide valid conclusions.
5. Modern tool usage: Create, select, and apply appropriate techniques, resources,
and modern engineering and IT tools including prediction and modeling to
complex engineering activities with an understanding of the limitations.
6. The engineer and society: Apply reasoning informed by the contextual knowledge
to assess societal, health, safety, legal and cultural issues and the consequent
responsibilities relevant to the professional engineering practice.
7. Environment and sustainability: Understand the impact of the professional
engineering solutions in societal and environmental contexts, and demonstrate
the knowledge of, and need for sustainable development.
8. Ethics: Apply ethical principles and commit to professional ethics and
responsibilities and norms of the engineering practice.
9. Individual and team work: Function effectively as an individual, and as a member
or leader in diverse teams, and in multidisciplinary settings.
10. Communication: Communicate effectively on complex engineering activities with
the engineering community and with society at large, such as, being able to
comprehend and write effective reports and design documentation, make
effective presentations, and give and receive clear instructions.
11. Project management and finance: Demonstrate knowledge and understanding of
the engineering and management principles and apply these to one’s own work,
as a member and leader in a team, to manage projects and in multi disciplinary
environments.
12. Life- long learning: Recognize the need for, and have the preparation and ability
to engage in independent and life-long learning in the broadest context of
technological change.
 MALLA REDDY COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY
Maisammaguda, Dhulapally Post, Via Hakimpet, Secunderabad – 500100
DEPARTMENT OF INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY

GENERAL LABORATORY INSTRUCTIONS

1. Students are advised to come to the laboratory at least 5 minutes before (to the starting
time), those who come after 5 minutes will not be allowed into the lab.
2. Plan your task properly much before to the commencement, come prepared to the lab
with the synopsis / program / experiment details.
3. Student should enter into the laboratory with:
a. Laboratory observation notes with all the details (Problem statement, Aim, Algorithm,
Procedure, Program, Expected Output, etc.,) filled in for the lab session.
b. Laboratory Record updated up to the last session experiments and other utensils (if any)
needed in the lab.
c. Proper Dress code and Identity card.
4. Sign in the laboratory login register, write the TIME-IN, and occupy the computer system
allotted to you by the faculty.
5. Execute your task in the laboratory, and record the results / output in the lab observation
note book, and get certified by the concerned faculty.
6. All the students should be polite and cooperative with the laboratory staff, must maintain
the discipline and decency in the laboratory.
7. Computer labs are established with sophisticated and high end branded systems, which
should be utilized properly.
8. Students / Faculty must keep their mobile phones in SWITCHED OFF mode during the
lab sessions.Misuse of the equipment, misbehaviors with the staff and systems etc., will
attract severe punishment.
9. Students must take the permission of the faculty in case of any urgency to go out ; if
anybody found loitering outside the lab / class without permission during working hours
will be treated seriously and punished appropriately.
10. Students should LOG OFF/ SHUT DOWN the computer system before he/she leaves the
lab after completing the task (experiment) in all aspects. He/she must ensure the system /
seat is kept properly.

Head of the Department Principal

 INDEX

S. No Topic Page no

1 Introduction 1

2 ER Diagrams for Banking System Using Software Tool 7

3 MYSQL INSTALLATION 16

4 DDL commands 24

5 DML COMMANDS 29

6 KEY Constraints 34

7 Aggregate Functions, Mathematical Functions 37

8 Nested Queries & Correlated Queries 45

9 Views 50

10 JOINS 53

11 Triggers 57

12 Stored Procedures- DCL COMMANDS - Revoke,Grant. 61

13 PL/SQL 64

14 DCL- Grant and Revoke. 68

15 Case Studies 70
 INTRODUCTION

Hierarchical Model
This model is like a hierarchical tree structure, used to construct a hierarchy of records in

the form of nodes and branches. The data elements present in the structure have Parent-Child

relationship. Closely related information in the parent-child structure is stored together as a

logical unit. A parent unit may have many child units, but a child is restricted to have only one

parent.

The drawbacks of this model are:

The hierarchical structure is not flexible to represent all the relationship proportions,

which occur in the real world.

It cannot demonstrate the overall data model for the enterprise because of the non-
availability of actual data at the time of designing the data model.

It cannot represent the Many-to-Many relationship.

Network Model

It supports the One-To-One and One-To-Many types only. The basic objects in this model
are Data Items, Data Aggregates, Records and Sets.

It is an improvement on the Hierarchical Model. Here multiple parent-child relationships are

used. Rapid and easy access to data is possible in this model due to multiple access paths to the
data elements.

Relational Model

Does not maintain physical connection between relations

Data is organized in terms of rows and columns in a table

The position of a row and/or column in a table is of no

importance The intersection of a row and column must give a
single value

Features of an RDBMS
The ability to create multiple relations and enter data into them
An attractive query language

Retrieval of information stored in more than one table

An RDBMS product has to satisfy at least Seven of the 12 rules of Codd to be accepted
as a full- fledged RDBMS.

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Relational Database Management System
RDBMS is acronym for Relation Database Management System. Dr. E. F. Codd first
introduced the Relational Database Model in 1970. The Relational model allows data to be
represented in a simple row- column. Each data field is considered as a column and each record
is considered as a row. Relational Database is more or less similar to Database Management S
ystem. In relational model there is relation between their data elements. Data is stored in tables.
Tables have columns, rows and names. Tables can be related to each other if each has a column
with a common type of information. The most famous RDBMS packages are Oracle, Sybase and
Informix.

Simple example of Relational model is as follows :

Student Details Table

Roll_no Sname S_Address

1 Rahul Satelite
2 Sachin Ambawadi
3 Saurav Naranpura

Student Marksheet Table

Rollno Sub1 Sub2 Sub3

1 78 89 94
2 54 65 77
3 23 78 46

Here, both tables are based on students details. Common field in both tables is Rollno. So we
can say both tables are related with each other through Rollno column.

Degree of Relationship
One to One (1:1)

One to Many or Many to One (1:M / M:

1) Many to Many (M: M)

The Degree of Relationship indicates the link between two entities for a specified occurrence
of each.

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One to One Relationship: (1:1)
Student Has Roll No.

One student has only one Rollno. For one occurrence of the first entity, there can be, at the
most one related occurrence of the second entity, and vice-versa.

One to Many or Many to One Relationship: (1:M/M: 1)

1M
Course Contains Students

As per the Institutions Norm, One student can enroll in one course at a time however, in one
course, there can be more than one student.

For one occurrence of the first entity there can exist many related occurrences of the second
entity and for every occurrence of the second entity there exists only one associated occurrence
of the first.

Many to Many Relationship: (M:M)

MM

Students Appears Tests

The major disadvantage of the relational model is that a clear-cut interface cannot be determined.
Reusability of a structure is not possible. The Relational Database now accepted model on which
major database system are built.

Oracle has introduced added functionality to this by incorporated object-oriented capabilities.

Now it is known is as Object Relational Database Management System (ORDBMS). Object-
oriented concept is added in Oracle8.

Some basic rules have to be followed for a DBMS to be relational. They are known as Codd’s
rules, designed in such a way that when the database is ready for use it encapsulates the
relational theory to its full potential. These twelve rules are as follows.
E. F. Codd Rules

1. The Information Rule

All information must be store in table as data values.3

2. The Rule of Guaranteed Access

Every item in a table must be logically addressable with the help of a table name.

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 3. The Systematic Treatment of Null Values
The RDBMS must be taken care of null values to represent missing or inapplicable information.

4. The Database Description Rule

A description of database is maintained using the same logical structures with

which data was defined by the RDBMS.

5. Comprehensive Data Sub Language

According to the rule the system must support data definition, view definition, data
manipulation, integrity constraints, authorization and transaction management
operations.

6. The View Updating Rule

All views that are theoretically updatable are also updatable by the system.

7. The Insert and Update Rule

This rule indicates that all the data manipulation commands must be operational
on sets of rows having a relation rather than on a single row.

8. The Physical Independence Rule

Application programs must remain unimpaired when any changes are made in storage
representation or access methods.

9. The Logical Data Independence Rule

The changes that are made should not affect the user’s ability to work with the
data.The change can be splitting table into many more tables.

10. The Integrity Independence Rule

The integrity constraints should store in the system catalog or in the database.

11. The Distribution Rule

The system must be access or manipulate the data that is distributed in other systems.

12. The Non-subversion Rule

If a RDBMS supports a lower level language then it should not bypass any

integrity constraints defined in the higher level.

Object Relational Database Management System

Oracle8 and later versions are supported object-oriented concepts. A structure once created can

be reused is the fundamental of the OOP’s concept. So we can say Oracle8 is supports Object

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Relational model, Object - oriented model both. Oracle products are based on a concept known
as a client-server technology. This concept involves segregating the processing of an application

between two systems. One performs all activities related to the database (server) and the other

performs activities that help the user to interact with the application (client). A client or front-end
database application also interacts with the database by requesting and receiving information

from database server. It acts as an interface between the user and the database.

The database server or back end is used to manage the database tables and also respond to client
requests.

Introduction to ORACLE

ORACLE is a powerful RDBMS product that provides efficient and effective solutions for major
database features. This includes:

• Large databases and space management control

• Many concurrent database users
• High transaction processing performance
• High availability
• Controlled availability
• Industry accepted standards
• Manageable security
• Database enforced integrity
• Client/Server environment
• Distributed database systems
• Portability
• Compatibility

An ORACLE database system can easily take advantage of distributed processing by using its

Client/ Server architecture. In this architecture, the database system is divided into two parts:

A front-end or a client portion

The client executes the database application that accesses database information and interacts with
the user.
A back-end or a server portion

The server executes the ORACLE software and handles the functions required for concurrent,
shared data access to ORACLE database.

5
 ILLUSTRATION: ROADWAY TRAVELS
“Roadway Travels” is in business since 1977 with several buses connecting different places in
India. Its main office is located in Hyderabad.

The company wants to computerize its operations in the following areas:

Reservations
Ticketing

Cancellations

Reservations :

Reservations are directly handeled by booking office.reservations can be made 60 days

in advance in either cash or credit. In case the ticket is not available,a wait listed ticket is issued
to the customer. This ticket is confirmed against the cancellation.

Cancellation and modification:

Cancellations are also directly handed at the booking office. Cancellation charges
will be charged.
Wait listed tickets that do not get confirmed are fully refunded.

6
 WEEK-1
AIM: Analyze the problem and come with the entities in it. Identify what Data has to be
persisted in the databases.
The Following are the entities:

1 .Bus
2. Reservation
3. Ticket
4. Passenger
5. Cancellation

The attributes in the Entities:

Bus:( Entity)

Destination
Source

Couch Type
Bus No

Bus

Reservation (Entity)

Bus No
Contact No
No-of-Seats
Journey date
Address

PNR NO

Reservation

Ticket :(Entity)
Dep- Time
Source
Age

Sex
Journey date
Destination

Ticket No
Bus No
Ticket
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Passenger:

Contact NO
Age

Sex
PNR NO
Name

Ticket No

Passenger

Cancellation (Entity)

Journey date Seat No

Contact No
PNR NO

Cancellation

8
Concept design with E-R Model:

9
CASE STUDY 1:
Consider the following information about a university database:
• Professors have an SSN, a name, an age, a rank, and a research specialty.
• Projects have a project number, a sponsor name (e.g., NSF), a starting date, an
ending date, and a budget.
• Graduate students have an SSN, a name, an age, and a degree program (e.g.,
M.S. or Ph.D.).
• Each project is managed by one professor (known as the project's principal
investigator).
• Each project is worked on by one or more professors (known as the project's co-
investigators).
• Professors can manage and/or work on multiple projects.
• Each project is worked on by one or more graduate students (known as the
project's research assistants).
• When graduate students work on a project, a professor must supervise their
work on the project. Graduate students can work on multiple projects, in which
case they will have a (potentially di_erent) supervisor for each one.
• Departments have a department number, a department name, and a main office.
• Departments have a professor (known as the chairman) who runs the
department.
• Professors work in one or more departments, and for each department that they
work in, a time percentage is associated with their job.
• Graduate students have one major department in which they are working on
their degree.
• Each graduate student has another, more senior graduate student (known as a
student advisor) who advises him or her on what courses to take.

WORK SHEET
WORK SHEET

Weekly Evaluation

0: Not Done 1: Incomplete 2: Late complete

3: Needs improvement 4: Complete 5: Well Done

Signature of the instructor Date:

11
What is SQL and SQL*Plus

Oracle was the first company to release a product that used the English-based Structured Query

Language or SQL. This language allows end users to manipulate information of table(primary

database object). To use SQL you need not to require any programming experience. SQL is a

standard language common to all relational databases. SQL is database language used for

storing and retrieving data from the database. Most Relational Database Management Systems

provide extension to SQL to make it easier for application developer. A table is a primary
object of database used to store data. It stores data in form of rows and columns.

SQL*Plus is an Oracle tool (specific program ) which accepts SQL commands and PL/SQL

blocks and executes them. SQL *Plus enables manipulations of SQL commands and PL/SQL

blocks. It also performs additional tasks such as calculations, store and print query results in the

form of reports, list column definitions of any table, access and copy data between SQL
databases and send messages to and accept responses from the user. SQL *Plus is a character

based interactive tool, that runs in a GUI environment. It is loaded on the client machine.
To communicate with Oracle, SQL supports the following categories of commands:

1. Data Definition Language

Create, Alter, Drop and Truncate

2. Data Manipulation Language

Insert, Update, Delete and Select
3. Transaction Control Language
Commit, Rollback and Save point

4. Data Control Language

Grant and Revoke

Before we take a look on above-mentioned commands we will see the data types available in
Oracle.
Oracle Internal Data types
When you create a table in Oracle, a few items should be important, not only do you have to

give each table a name(e.g. employee, customer), you must also list all the columns or fields

(e.g. First_name, Mname, Last_name) associated with the table. You also have to specify what
12
type of information thattable will hold to the database. For example, the column Empno holds

numeric information. An Oracle database can hold many different types of data.

Data type Description

Char(Size) Stores fixed-length character data to store alphanumeric values, with a
maximum size of 2000 bytes. Default and minimum size is 1 byte.

Varchar2(Size) Stores variable-length character data to store alphanumeric values,

with maximum size of 4000 bytes.

char(Size) Stores fixed-length character data of length size characters or bytes,

depending on the choice of national character set. Maximum size if determined by the number
of bytes required storing each character with an upper limit of 2000 bytes. Default and
minimum size is 1 character or 1 byte, depending on the character set.

Nvarchar2(Size) Stores variable-length character string having maximum length size

characters or bytes, depending on the choice of national character set. Maximum size
is determined by the number of bytes required to store each character, with an upper
limit of 4000 bytes.

Long Stores variable-length character data up to 2GB(Gigabytes). Its lenth would be

restricted based on memory space available in the computer.

Number [p,s] Number having precision p and scale s. The precision p indicates total
number of digit varies from 1 to 38. The scale s indicates number of digit in fraction part
varies from -84 to 127.

Date Stores dates from January 1, 4712 B.C. to December 31, 4712 A.D. Oracle

predefine format of Date data type is DD-MON-YYYY.

Raw (Size) Stores binary data of length size. Maximum size is 2000 bytes. One must
have to specify size with RAW type data, because by default it does not specify any size.

Long Raw Store binary data of variable length up to 2GB(Gigabytes).

LOBS - LARGE OBJECTS

LOB is use to store unstructured information such as sound and video clips, pictures upto 4 GB
size.
CLOB A Character Large Object containing fixed-width multi-byte characters.
Varying-width character sets are not supported. Maximum size is 4GB.

13
NCLOB A National Character Large Object containing fixed-width multi-byte
characters.
Varying-width character sets are not supported. Maximum size is 4GB. Stores
national character set data.

BLOB To store a Binary Large Object such a graphics, video clips and sound files.
Maximum size is 4GB.

BFILE Contains a locator to a large Binary File stored outside the database. Enables
byte stream I/O access to external LOBs residing on the database server. Maximum

size is 4GB.Apart from oracle internal data types, user can create their own data type, which is
used in database and other database object. We will discuss it in the later part.
The following are tabular representation of the above entities and relationships

BUS:
COLUMN NAME DATA TYPE CONSTRAINT

Bus No varchar2(10) Primary Key

Source varchar2(20)

Destination varchar2(20)

Couch Type varchar2(20)

RESERVATION:
COLUMN NAME DATA TYPE CONSTRAINT

PNRNo number(9) Primary Key

Journey date Date

No-of-seats integer(8)

Address varchar2(50)

Contact No Number(9) Should be equal to 10

numbers and not allow
other than numeric
BusNo varchar2(10) Foreign key
Seat no Number

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TICKET:
COLUMN NAME DATA TYPE CONSTRAINT

Ticket_No number(9) Primary Key

Journey date Date
Age int(4)
Sex Char(10)
Source varchar2(10)
Destination varchar2(10)
Dep-time varchar2(10)
Bus No Number2(10)

PASSENGER:

COLUMN NAME DATA TYPE CONSTRAINT

PNR No Number(9) Primary Key

Ticket No Number(9) Foreign key

Name varchar2(15)
Age integer(4)
Sex char(10) (Male/Female)
Contact no Number(9) Should be equal to 10 numbers
and not allow other than
numeric

CANCELLATION:
COLUMN NAME DATA TYPE CONSTRAINT

PNR No Number(9) Foriegn-key

Journey-date Date

Seat no Integer(9)
Contact_No Number(9) Should be equal to 10 numbers
and not allow other than
numeric

15
 WEEK-2

AIM: Installation of MySQL and practicing DDL & DML commands.

1. Steps for installing MySQL

Step1
Make sure you already downloaded the MySQL essential 5.0.45 win32.msi file. Double click
on the .msi file.

Step2
This is MySQL Server 5.0 setup wizard. The setup wizard will install MySQL Server 5.0
release 5.0.45 on your computer. To continue, click next.

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Step3
Choose the setup type that best suits your needs. For common program features select Typical
and it’s recommended for general use. To continue, click next.

Step4

This wizard is ready to begin installation. Destination folder will be in C:\Program

Files\MySQL\MySQL Server 5.0\. To continue, click next.

17
Step5
The program features you selected are being installed. Please wait while the setup wizard
installs MySQL 5.0. This may take several minutes

Step6
To continue, click next.

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Step7
To continue, click next.

Step8
Wizard Completed. Setup has finished installing MySQL 5.0. Check the configure the MySQL
server now to continue. Click Finish to exit the wizard

d.

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Step9
The configuration wizard will allow you to configure the MySQL Server 5.0 server instance.
To continue, click next.

Step10
Select a standard configuration and this will use a general purpose configuration for the
server that can be tuned manually. To continue, click next.

20
Step11

Check on the install as windows service and include bin directory in windows path. To
continue, click next.

Step12
Please set the security options by entering the root password and confirm retype the password.
continue, click next.

21
Step13

Ready to execute? Clicks execute to continue.

Step14
Processing configuration in progress.

22
Step15
Configuration file created. Windows service MySQL5 installed. Press finish to close the
wizard.

23
PRACTISING DDL & DML COMMANDS
Data Definition Language

The data definition language is used to create an object, alter the structure of an object and also drop already
created object. The Data Definition Languages used for table definition can be classified into following:

• Create table command

• Alter table command
• Truncate table command
• Drop table command

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 WEEK-3

1. CREATION OF TABLES:

SQL - CREATE TABLE:

Table is a primary object of database, used to store data in form of rows and columns. It is created
using following command:

Syntax: CREATE TABLE tablename (column_name data_ type constraints, …)

SQL>CREATE TABLE SAILORS ((SID int(10) PRIMARY KEY, SNAME

VARCHAR (10), RATING int (10), AGE int (10));

Table Created.

Desc command
The DESCRIBE command is used to view the structure of a table as follows.

SQL>DESC SAILORS;

TEST RESULT

Example 1: Create an RESERVES table with fields (SID , BID ,DAY ) and display using
DESCRIBE command.

Example 2:Create a BOATS table with Fields(BID,BNAME,COLOR )and display using DESCRIBE
command

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 2. ALTER TABLE :
To ADD a column:

SYNTAX: ALTER TABLE <TABLE NAME>ADD (<NEW COLUMN

NAME><DATA TYPE>(<SIZE>), <NEW COLUMN NAME><DATA
TYPE>(<SIZE>)……………..);
EX: (Write your own Query )

TEST OUTPUT

To DROP a column:
SYNTAX: ALTER TABLE <TABLE NAME>DROP COLUMN <COLUMN NAME>;.
EX: (Write your own Query )

TEST OUTPUT

To MODIFY a column:
SYNTAX: ALTER TABLE <TABLE NAME>MODIFY( <COLUMN NAME>
<NEW DATATYPE>(<NEW SIZE>));
EX: (Write your own Query )

TEST OUTPUT

Example1:
SQL>ALTER TABLE SAILOR ADD (SNO NUMBER(10));

TEST OUTPUT

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 3. RENAME A TABLE

Rename command is used to give new names for existing tables.

SQL> RENAME oldtablename TO newtablename;

EX: (Write your own Query )

TEST OUTPUT

4. TRUNCATE A TABLE

Truncate command is used to delete all records from a table.

SQL> TRUNCATE TABLE tablename;

EX: (Write your own Query )

TEST OUTPUT

5. DROP A TABLE

Drop command is used to remove an existing table permanently from database.

SQL> DROP TABLE tablename;

EX: (Write your own Query )

TEST OUTPUT

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VIVA QUESTIONS

1. Define data and information.

2. Define Data base management system.
3. What is SQL?
4. What is the syntax for creating a table?
5. List the components of SQL.
6. Define DDL? What are the DDL commands?
7. List out the uses of alter command.
8. What is Syntax for truncate a table?
9. What is the use drop table command?

Weekly Evaluation

0: Not Done 1: Incomplete 2: Late complete

3: Needs improvement 4: Complete 5: Well Done

Signature of the instructor Date:

28
 WEEK-4

DML COMMANDS

1. TO RETRIEVE / DISPLAY DATA FROM TABLES:

a. Select command is used to select values or data from table

SYNTAX

SELECT * FROM TABLENAME;

Example:

SQL>SELECT * FROM SAILORS;

TEST OUTPUT:

b. The retrieving of specific columns from a table

SQL> SELECT columnname 1, columnname 2,…. columnname n FROM tablename;

EX: (Write your own Query )

TEST OUTPUT

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 c. Elimination of duplicates from the select statement

SQL> SELECT DISTINCT columnname 1, columnname 2,…. columnname n FROM tablename;

EX: (Write your own Query )

TEST OUTPUT

d. Selecting a data set from table data

SQL> SELECT columnname 1, columnname 2,…. columnname n FROM tablename

WHERE searchcondition;

EX: (Write your own Query )

TEST OUTPUT

Example1: Display Data From RESERVES Table

Example2: Display Data From BOATS Table

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 2. INSERTING DATA IN TO TABLE

Insert command is used to insert rows into the table.

SYNTAX:
INSERT INTO tablename (columnname1, columnname2,….columnname n)

Example:

SQL>INSERT INTO SAILORS VALUES (22,’DUSTIN’, 7, 45.0);

1 row created
SQL>INSERT INTO SAILORS VALUES (29,’BRUTUS’, 1, 33.0);
1 row created

INSERTION of Data can also be done by the following Syntax:

SYNTAX

INSERT IN TO tablename (columnname1, columnname2,….columnname n)

VALUES(Value1,Value2,..Value n);

Example:
SQL>INSERT INTO SAILORS(SID,SNAME,RATING,AGE) VALUES
(31,’LUBBER’, 8, 55.5);
1 row created

Example1: INSERT data into RESERVES table:

TEST OUTPUT:

Example 2: INSERT data into BOATS table:

TEST OUTPUT:

31
UPDATE

This SQL command is used to modify the values in an existing table.

SQL>UPDATE tablename

SET column1= expression1, column2= expression 2,...

WHERE somecolumn=somevalue;

An expression consists of either a constant (new value), an arithmetic or string

operation or an SQL query. Note that the new value to assign to <column> must
matching data type.

An update statement used without a where clause results in changing respective

attributes of all tuples in the specified table.

Example1: UPDATE SAILORS S

SET S.age=S.age+1,S.rating=S.rating-1
Where S.sid=34546;
TEST OUTPUT

Example2: (Write your own Query )

TEST OUTPUT

DELETE

In order to delete rows from a table we use this command

SQL>DELETE FROM tablename WHERE condition;

Based on the condition specified the rows gets fetched from the table and gets
deleted in table. Here the WHERE clause is optional.

Example1: DELETE S.AGE FROM SAILORS S where S.Sname=’Smith’;

TEST OUTPUT

32
Example2: DELETE FROM SAILORS;

TEST OUTPUT

VIVA QUESTIONS

1. What are the DML commands?

2. How the data or values to be entered into a table?
3. What is the use of DELETE command?
4. How the data or values to be updated on a table?
5. List out the uses of SELECT command?
6. How the data or values are retrieved from a table?
7. Define DML? What are the DML commands?

Weekly Evaluation

0: Not Done 1: Incomplete 2: Late complete

3: Needs improvement 4: Complete 5: Well Done

Signature of the instructor Date:

33
 WEEK-5

KEY CONSTRAINTS

The following are the different kinds of constraints

• Domain Integrity constraints
• Entity Integrity constraints
• Referential Integrity constraints
1. PRIMARY KEY & NOT NULL
Example:
CREATE TABLE sailors ( sid integer,
sname varchar(32) ,
rating integer NOT NULL,
age real,
PRIMARY KEY (sid) );
Table created.

Example:Practice with your own Query:

TEST OUTPUT

Imposing IC using ALTER

Example: Alter Table Sailors MODIFY sname varchar(32) NOT NULL;
TEST OUTPUT

Example:Practice with your own Query:

TEST OUTPUT

2. DEFAULT
CREATE TABLE sailors ( sid integer,
sname varchar(32) ,
rating integer NOT NULL,
age real DEFAULT 25,
PRIMARY KEY (sid) );

Example:Practice with your own Query:

TEST OUTPUT

34
 3. UNIQUE

CREATE TABLE sailors ( sid integer,

sname varchar(32) UNIQUE ,
rating integer,
age real DEFAULT 25,
PRIMARY KEY (sid) );
TEST OUTPUT

Example: Practice with your own Query:

TEST OUTPUT

4. FOREIGN KEY

CREATE TABLE reserves ( sid integer not null, bid integer not null, day datetime not null, PRIMARY KEY
(sid, bid, day), FOREIGN KEY (sid) REFERENCES sailors(sid) );

Example: Practice with your own Query:

TEST OUTPUT

Adding Foreign Key to an existing Table

Alter table reserves ADD Foreign Key(sid REFERENCES Sailors(sid));

Example: Practice with your own Query:

Test Output

35
VIVA QUESTIONS

1) Difference between UNIQUE and PRIMARY KEY

2) When do you use Composite Primary key?

3) Difference between Candidate Key & Primary Key

4) What is the Prerequisite for a key to be used as a Foreign Key

5) What is a Referential Integrity?

6) Give Two practical examples for Referential Integrity?

7) What is difference between Super Key and Candidate Key?

8) Can a Table have two primary keys? Explain.

Weekly Evaluation

0: Not Done 1: Incomplete 2: Late complete

3: Needs improvement 4: Complete 5: Well Done

Signature of the instructor Date:

36
 WEEK-6

I) AGGREGATE FUNCTIONS & NUMERIC FUNCTIONS

1. COUNT:
SYNTAX:
Select count ([<distinct>/<ALL]<expr>)
Example: Count number of different sailor names?
Select COUNT (distinct s.sname) from sailors
TEST RESULT:

2. SUM:
SYNTAX:
Select SUM ([<distinct>/<ALL]<n>)
Example: Find the sum of ages of all sailors?
Select Sum(S.age)from sailors S;
TEST RESULT:

3. AVG:
SYNTAX:
Select AVG ([<distinct>/<ALL]<n>)
Example: Find average of rating of all sailors?
Select avg(S.rating )from sailors S;
TEST RESULT:

37
 4. MINIMUM(MIN):
SYNTAX:
Select MIN ([<distinct>/<ALL]<expr>)
Example: Find youngest sailor from sailors?
Select min(S.age )from sailors S;
TEST RESULT:

5. MAXIMUM(MAX):
SYNTAX:
Select MAX ([<distinct>/<ALL]<expr>)
Example: Find sid of the oldest sailors?
Select max(s.sid)from sailor
TEST RESULT:

II) NUMERIC FUNCTIONS

Select abs(-9);
1) SYNTAX: Ceil()
Ex: Select ceil(9.5);
TEST OUTPUT

2) SYNTAX :Floor()
Ex: Select floor(10.5);
TEST OUTPUT

3) SYNTAX mod()
Ex: select mod(17,5);
TEST OUTPUT

38
 4) SYNTAX :power(n,m)
Ex: select power(2,2);
TEST OUTPUT

5) SYNTAX : round(n,m)
Ex: select round(10.586,2);
TEST OUTPUT

6) SYNTAX : truncate(n,m)
Ex: select truncate(1.223,1);
TEST OUTPUT

7) SYNTAX : sign()
Ex: select sign(-5);
TEST OUTPUT

8) SYNTAX : sqrt()
Ex: select sqrt(25);
TEST OUTPUT

III) COMPARISON OPERATORS:

BETWEEN & AND

Example:
SQL> select * from emp_master where salary BETWEEN 5000 AND 8000;
TEST OUTPUT:

39
IN Operator:
SQL>Select * from emp_master where deptno IN(10,30);
TEST OUTPUT:

LIKE Operator:

SQL>select*From emp_master where job like ‘M%’;

TEST OUTPUT:

Logical Operator:
SQL>select*From emp_master where job like ‘_lerk’;
TEST OUTPUT:

40
AND Operator:
SQL> select * from emp_master where salary > 5000 and comm < 750 ;
TEST OUTPUT:

OR Operator:
SQL>select * from emp_master where salary > 5000 or comm < 750;
TEST OUTPUT:

NOT Operator:
SQL>select*from emp_master where not salary=10000;
TEST OUTPUT:

IV) SINGLE ROW FUNCTIONS (SCALAR FUNCTIONS):

String Functions:
1) Initcap (Initial Capital): This String function is used to capitalize first character of the
input string.
Syntax: initcap(string)
Example:
SQL> select initcap(‘azure’) from dual;
TEST OUTPUT

41
2) Lower: This String function will convert input string in to lower case.

Syntax: Lower(string)
Example:
SQL> select lower(‘AZURE’) from dual;

TEST OUTPUT:

3) Upper: This string function will convert input string in to upper case.

Syntax:Upper(string)
Example:
SQL> select upper(‘azure’) from dual;
TEST OUTPUT:

4) Ltrim (Left Trim):

Syntax: Ltrim(string,set)
Example:
SQL>select ltrim(‘azuretech’,’azure’) from dual;
TEST OUTPUT:

5) Rtrim (Right Trim):

Syntax: Rtrim(string,set)

Example:
SQL>select rtrim(‘azuretrim’,’trim’) from dual;

TEST OUTPUT:

6) Translate:
Syntax: Translate(string1, string2, string3)
Example:
SQL>select translate(‘abcde’,’xaybzcxdye’,’tanzmulrye’) from dual;
TEST OUTPUT:

42
7) Replace:
Syntax:Replace(string, searchstring, replacestring)
Example:
SQL> select replace(‘jack and jue’,’j’,’bl’) from dual;
TEST OUTPUT:

8) Substr:
Syntax: Substr (string, starts [, count])
Example:
SQL>select substr (‘azuretechnology’,4,6) from dual;
TEST OUTPUT:

9) Char:
Syntax: Char(number)
TEST OUTPUT:

Example:
SQL>select char(65) from dual;
TEST OUTPUT:

10) Lpad (Left Pad):

Syntax: Lpad(String,length,pattern)
Example:
Sql > select lpad(‘Welcome’,15,’*’) from dual;
TEST OUTPUT
11) Rpad (Right Pad):
Syntax: Lpad(String,length,pattern)
Example:
SQL> select rpad(‘Welcome’,15,’*’) from dual;
TEST OUTPUT:

43
12) Length:
Syntax:Length(string)
Example:
SQL>select length(‘azure’) from dual;
TEST OUTPUT:

13) Concatenation ( || ) Operator:

Syntax: Concat(string1,string2)
SQL> select concat(‘Azure’,’ Technology’) from dual;
TEST OUTPUT:

SQL> select ‘ename is ‘||ename from emp_master;

TEST OUTPUT:

VIVA QUESTIONS:

1) What are the different Aggregate Function?

2) Can we use Multiple Aggregate Functions in a Single Query?

3) Can we use Aggregate Functions in Mathematical Calculations?

4) Name any Five String Functions and explain their operations?

5) What do the % & Underscore symbols represent in a LIKE Operator.

Weekly Evaluation

0: Not Done 1: Incomplete 2: Late complete

3: Needs improvement 4: Complete 5: Well Done

Signature of the instructor Date

44
 WEEK-7

NESTED QUERIES & CORRELATED QUERIES

NESTED QUERIES
Nested Query is a query that has another query embedded within it.
I) IN- is an operator which allows us to check whether a value is present in a given set of
elements
Example1: Find the Names of Sailors who have reserved boats no:103
Select S.name
From Sailors S
Where S.sid IN (select R.sid
from reserves R
where R.bid= 103);
TEST OUTPUT

Example: Practice with your own Query using NOT IN:

TEST OUTPUT

Example2: Find the names of Sailors who have reserved a red boat using a nested query.

Select S.name
From Sailors S
Where S.sid IN (select R.sid
from reserves R
where R.bid IN( select R.bid
from Boats B
where B.color=’red’))

45
TEST OUTPUT

Example3: Practice with your own Query:

TEST OUTPUT

CORRELATED QUERIES

I) EXISTS:
The EXISTS operator is another set comparison operator such as IN.It allows us to test whether the set
is non empty and will retrieve the Data.

Example1 :Find the names of Sailors who have reserved boat no.103

Select S.name
From Sailors
Where EXISTS(Select *
from Reserves R
where R.bid=103 AND R.sid=S.sid);

TEST OUTPUT

Example2: Find the sailors whose rating is better than some Sailor called ‘Horatio’

Select S.sid
From Sailors S
Where S.rating>ANY (select S2.rating
From Sailors.S2
Where S2.name=’Horatio’);

46
TEST OUTPUT

Example3: Practice with your own Query:

TEST OUTPUT

GROUP BY and HAVING Clause

SYNTAX

Select [DISTINCT] select list FROM fromlist WHERE qualification

Group by Groupinglist having group-qualification

Example1: select S.rating MIN(S.age) From Sailors S Group by S.rating;

TEST OUTPUT

Example 2:Select sum(E.sal) From Employee Group by E.dept;

TEST OUTPUT

47
HAVING CLAUSE
Example1: Find the Average age of all Sailors for each rating level that has atleast two Sailors

SELECT AVG (S.age)

FROM Sailors S
GROUP By S.rating
HAVING Count(*)>1;

TEST OUTPUT

Example 2: Find the age of the youngest sailor who is eligible to vote.

TEST OUTPUT

Order By Clause
Select<column(s)>from<Table Name>where[condition(s)][order by<column name>[asc /] desc ];

Example:
SQL> select empno,ename,salary from emp_master order by salary;
TEST OUTPUT:

48
VIVA QUESTIONS:

1) Explain the flow of execution for a Nested query

2) Differentiate between flow of execution in Nested Query and Correlated Query?

3) What happens if we eliminate HAVING clause in a query which is having both GROUP BY
and HAVING clauses.

4) What are the different types of Nested Queries?

5) What are the different types of Correlated Queries?

Weekly Evaluation

0: Not Done 1: Incomplete 2: Late complete

3: Needs improvement 4: Complete 5: Well Done

Signature of the instructor Date:

49
 WEEK-8

VIEWS

After a table is created and populated with data, it may become necessary to prevent all users from
accessing all columns of a table, for data security reasons. This would mean creating several tables
having the appropriate number of columns and assigning specific users to each table as required. This
will achieve the security requirements but will rise to a great deal of redundant data being resident in
tables, in the database. To reduce redundant data to the minimum possible, oracle allows the creation of
an object called a view.

A view is a virtual table or logical representation of another table or combination of tables. A

view consists of rows and columns just like a table. The difference between a view and a table is that
views are definitions built on top of other tables (or views), and do not hold data themselves. If data is
changing in the underlying table, the same change is reflected in the view. A view can be built on top of
a single table or multiple tables. It can also be built on top of another view. A view derives its data from
the tables on which it is based. These tables are called base tables. Base tables might in turn be actual
tables or might be views themselves. All operations performed on a view actually affect the base table
of the view. We can use views in almost the same way as tables. Also can query, update, insert into and
delete from views, just as in standard tables.

Views are essentially saved SELECT queries that can themselves be queried. They are used to
provide easier access to normalized data. For example, the Orders table has information about an order.
Although it references the employee and customer involved in each order, the Orders doesn't itself
contain any valuable information about the employee and customer. We have seen how to use joins to
output valuable data from different tables. Creating a view is a way of saving these types of more
complicated queries. Views offer the following advantages:

1. Ease of use: A view hides the complexity of the database tables from end users. Essentially we can
think of views as a layer of abstraction on top of the database tables.

2. Space savings: Views takes very little space to store, since they do not store actual data.

3. Additional data security: Views can include only certain columns in the table so that only the non-
sensitive columns are included and exposed to the end user. In addition, some databases allow views to
have different security settings, thus hiding sensitive data from prying eyes.

AIM : Implement Views:

Syntax:Create View <View_Name> As Select statement;

Example:
SQL>Create View EmpView As Select * from Employee;
View created.

Syntax:Select columnname,columnname from <View_Name>;

50
Example:
SQL>Select Empno,Ename,Salary from EmpView where Deptno in(10,30);
TEST OUTPUT:

UPDATABLE VIEWS:
Syntax for creating an Updatable View:
Create View Emp_vw As
Select Empno,Ename,Deptno from Employee; View created.
SQL>Insert into Emp_vw values(1126,’Brijesh’,20);

SQL>Update Emp_vw set Deptno=30 where Empno=1125;

1 row updated.

SQL>Delete from Emp_vw where Empno=1122;

TEST OUTPUT:

SQL>Update EmpDept_Vw set salary=4300 where Empno=1125;

TEST OUTPUT:

SQL>Delete From EmpDept_Vw where Empno=1123;

TEST OUTPUT

DESTROYING A VIEW:
Syntax: Drop View <View_Name>;
Example:
SQL>Drop View Emp_Vw;

TEST OUTPUT:

51
VIVA QUESTIONS:

1. Define view.

2. What is the need of a view?

3. List out the advantages of views.

4. What is the syntax for creating a view?

5. How can you insert data into a view?

6. How can you update data into from a view?

7. What is the syntax for deleting a view?

8. List out the criteria for updatable views.

9. What is the syntax for renaming the columns of a view?

10. List reasons for implementing views.

Weekly Evaluation

0: Not Done 1: Incomplete 2: Late complete

3: Needs improvement 4: Complete 5: Well Done

Signature of the instructor Date:

52
 WEEK-9

JOINS

SQL joins are used to query data from two or more tables, based on a relationship
between certain columns in these tables.

ORDER TABLE

OrderID CustomerID OrderDate

10308 2 1996-09-18

10309 37 1996-09-19

10310 77 1996-09-20

CUSTOMER TABLE

CustomerID CustomerName ContactName Country

1 Alfreds Futterkiste Maria Anders Germany

2 Ana Trujillo Emparedados Ana Trujillo Mexico

3 Antonio Moreno Taquería Antonio Moreno Mexico

INNER JOIN

The INNER JOIN keyword return rows when there is at

least one match in both tables.

1) SELECT Orders.OrderID, Customers.CustomerName, Orders.OrderDate

FROM Orders INNER JOIN Customers ON Orders.CustomerID=Customers.CustomerID;

TEST OUTPUT

53
 WEEK-10

2) SELECT

Customers.CustomerName, Orders.OrderID
FROM Customers INNER JOIN Orders ON Customers.

CustomerID=Orders.CustomerID

ORDER BY Customers.CustomerName;

TEST OUTPUT

LEFT JOIN

The LEFT JOIN keyword returns all rows from the left
table (table_name1), even if there are no matches in the right table (table_name2).

SELECT Customers.CustomerName, Orders.OrderID FROM Customers

LEFT JOIN Orders ON Customers.CustomerID=Orders.CustomerID

ORDER BY Customers.CustomerName;

TEST OUTPUT

RIGHT JOIN

The RIGHT JOIN keyword Return all rows from the right
table (table_name2), even if there are no matches in the left table (table_name1).

This is another table named employee.here they have to give field accordingly.
SELECT Orders.OrderID, Employees.FirstName
FROM Orders
RIGHT JOIN Employees
ON Orders.EmployeeID=Employees.EmployeeID
ORDER BY Orders.OrderID;
TEST OUTPUT

54
 WEEK-11

OUTER JOIN

SELECT Customers.CustomerName, Orders.OrderID

FROM Customers
FULL OUTER JOIN Orders
ON Customers.CustomerID=Orders.CustomerID
ORDER BY Customers.CustomerName;

TEST OUTPUT

UNION

Syntax

Select attribute from table_name union select attribute from table_name;

Example 1: Select name from sailors UNION select bname from boats;

TEST OUTPUT

Example 2: SELECT City FROM Customers UNION

SELECT City FROM Suppliers ORDER BY City;

TEST OUTPUT

UNION ALL
Select rsid from reserve union all select sid from sailors;

TEST OUTPUT

55
VIVA QUESTIONS:

1) What is Join?

2) What is the difference between Inner Join & Outer Join.

3) What are the prerequisites for any two tables to apply a Join?

4) Give any two practical examples where we use joins?

5) Differentiate between UNION and UNIONALL

Weekly Evaluation

0: Not Done 1: Incomplete 2: Late complete

3: Needs improvement 4: Complete 5: Well Done

Signature of the instructor Date:

56
TRIGGERS
In MySQL, a trigger is a set of SQL statements that is invoked automatically when a change is made to
the data on the associated table. A trigger can be defined to be invoked either before or after the data is
changed by INSERT, UPDATE or DELETE statement.

• BEFORE INSERT – activated before data is inserted into the table.

• AFTER INSERT – activated after data is inserted into the table.
• BEFORE UPDATE – activated before data in the table is updated.
• AFTER UPDATE – activated after data in the table is updated.
• BEFORE DELETE – activated before data is removed from the table.
• AFTER DELETE – activated after data is removed from the table.

A database trigger is procedural code that is automatically executed in response to certain events on a
particular table or view in a database. The trigger is mostly used for maintaining the integrity of the
information on the database.

The events that fire a trigger include the following:

1)DML statements that modify data in a table ( INSERT , UPDATE , or DELETE )
2)DDL statements.
3)System events such as startup, shutdown, and error messages.
4)User events such as logon and logoff. Note: Oracle Forms can define, store, and run triggers of a
different sort.

To View list of triggers;

Show triggers;

To remove a trigger for Database

drop trigger trigger_name;

ex: drop trigger ins_sal;

Types of Triggers:-
1.Row Triggers :-A row trigger is fired each time the table is affected by the triggering statement. For
example, if an UPDATE statement updates multiple rows of a table, a row trigger is fired once for each
row affected by the UPDATE statement. If a triggering statement affects no rows, a row trigger is not
executed at all.
Row triggers are useful if the code in the trigger action depends on data provided by the
triggering statement or rows that are affected. For example, Figure 15 - 3 illustrates a row trigger that
uses the values of each row affected by the triggering statement.
2.Statement Triggers :A statement trigger is fired once on behalf of the triggering statement,
regardless of the number of rows in the table that the triggering statement affects (even if no rows are

57
affected). For example, if a DELETE statement deletes several rows from a table, a statement-level
DELETE trigger is fired only once, regardless of how many rows are deleted from the table.
Statement triggers are useful if the code in the trigger action does not depend on the data
provided by the triggering statement or the rows affected. For example, if a trigger makes a complex
security check on the current time or user, or if a trigger generates a single audit record based on the
type of triggering statement, a statement trigger is used.
When defining a trigger, specify the trigger timing. That is, specify whether the trigger action is
to be executed before or after the triggering statement. BEFORE and AFTER apply to both statement
and row triggers

Example:

CREATE TRIGGER trigger_name trigger_time trigger_event

ON table_name
FOR EACH ROW
BEGIN
END;

trigger_time=before/after
trigger_event=insert/delete/update

Example:
CREATE TRIGGER sal_sum after insert ON emp
FOR EACH ROW SET @sal = @sal + NEW.sal;

Firing a trigger:

Example: Find the sum of salaries of all employees

1)First create a table emp with following columns

Field Type
empid int(11)
ename varchar(50)
sal int(11)

Write your own Query:

TEST OUTPUT

2) create variable/parameter sal as below at mysql prompt

mysql> set @sal=0;

58
3) now create trigger on emp
CREATE TRIGGER sal_sum after insert ON emp
FOR EACH ROW SET @sal = @sal + NEW.sal;
TESTOUTPUT

4) insert the values into table emp;

mysql> insert into emp values(1001,'suhaas',10000);
mysql> insert into emp values(1002,'Dilraj',15000);
mysql> insert into emp values(1003,'Riyanshi',25000);

Note:trigger is fired on after insert

5)check values in the table emp;

mysql> select * from emp;
TEST OUTPUT

6)checking value in the parameter sal

mysql> select @sal as TotalSalary;
TEST OUTPUT

Note:when ever there is insert operation that value in the sal variable increases

59
VIVA QUESTIONS:

1. Define database triggers.

2. List out the uses of database triggers.
3. What are the pars of triggers and it uses?
4. List out the types of trigger.
5. What is the use of row trigger?
6. What is the use of statement trigger?
7. What do you meant by trigger time?
8. Compare before trigger and after trigger.
9. What is the syntax for DROP a trigger?
10. List out the some situations to apply before and after triggers.

Weekly Evaluation

0: Not Done 1: Incomplete 2: Late complete

3: Needs improvement 4: Complete 5: Well Done

Signature of the instructor Date:

60
 WEEK-12

PROCEDURES
TCL (TRANSACTION CONTROL): Transaction control statements are used to manage the changes
made by DML statements. It allows statements to be grouped together into logical transactions. TCL
Commands are Commit, Rollback and Save point.

COMMIT - Saves the work done

SAVEPOINT - Identify a point in a transaction to which you can

later roll back
ROLLBACK - Restore database to original since the last COMMIT

Procedure
___________

By default, mysql recognizes the semicolon as a statement delimiter, so you must redefine the delimiter
temporarily to cause mysql to pass the entire stored program definition to the server. To redefine the
mysql delimiter, use the delimiter command.

syntax
delimiter //
create procedure procedure name(in parameter)
begin
select * from tablename;
end //
Example:
create table named emp with two fields name and salary;
Write a Query

TEST OUTPUT

delimiter //
create procedure emp(in name_p varchar(20))
begin
select * from emp where name=name_p;
end //
call sailor("smith");
with in/out parameter:

61
delimiter//
create procedure counterset(inout count in(4),in inc int(4))
begin
set count=count+inc;
end //
____________
set @counter=1;
________________
call counterset(@counter,4);
__________________
select @counter;

TEST OUTPUT

Transaction(commit & roll back)

create table account(name varchar(20),sal int);

insert into account values('mani',2000);

insert into account values('raju',3000);
select * from account;
TEST OUTPUT

set autocommit=0;
//
start transaction;
//
update account set sal=30000 where name='mani';
//
select * from account;
TEST OUTPUT

rollback;
select * from account;

62
//
update account set sal=5000 where name='raju';
//
select * from account;
commit;
changes are now made permanent
rollback;
select * from account;
/same output will get/

TEST OUTPUT

Note: when autocommit=1 the the database commits every single update and rollback is not possible.

VIVA QUESTIONS:
1. What is a procedure?
2. What is a function?
3. Differentiate procedures and functions.
4. What is the syntax for defining a procedure?
5. List out the parameters and keywords which are used in procedures.
6. What are the advantages of procedure?
7. What is the syntax for defining a function?
8. List the advantages of functions.
9. What are the parts of procedures and functions?
10. List out the parameters and keywords which are used in functions
11. What are TCL commands and its uses?
12. List out the uses of various TCL commands?

Weekly Evaluation

0: Not Done 1: Incomplete 2: Late complete

3: Needs improvement 4: Complete 5: Well Done

Signature of the instructor Date:

63
 WEEK-13

PL/SQL PROGRAMS

PL/SQL programs are written as lines of text using a specific set of characters:

• Upper- and lower-case letters A .. Z and a .. z

• Numerals 0 .. 9
• Symbols ( ) + - * / < > = ! ~ ^ ; : . ' @ % , " # $ & _ | { } ? [ ]
• Tabs, spaces, and carriage returns

PL/SQL keywords are not case-sensitive, so lower-case letters are equivalent to corresponding upper-
case letters except within string and character literals.

A line of PL/SQL text contains groups of characters known as lexical units:

• Delimiters (simple and compound symbols)

• Identifiers, which include reserved words
• Literals
• Comments

To improve readability, you can separate lexical units by spaces. In fact, you must separate adjacent
identifiers by a space or punctuation. The following line is not allowed because the reserved
words END andIF are joined:

IF x > y THEN high := x; ENDIF; -- not allowed, must be END IF

You cannot embed spaces inside lexical units except for string literals and comments. For example, the
following line is not allowed because the compound symbol for assignment (:=) is split:

count : = count + 1; -- not allowed, must be :=

To show structure, you can split lines using carriage returns, and indent lines using spaces or tabs. This
formatting makes the first IF statement more readable.

IF x>y THEN max:=x;ELSE max:=y;END IF;

1) WRITE A PROGRAM TO PRINT HELLO WORLD

BEGIN
DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE ('HELLO WORLD');
END;

TEST OUTPUT

64
2) WRITE A PROGRAM TO PRINT EVEN NUMBERS FROM 1 TO 10
DECLARE
N NUMBER(3) :=0;
BEGIN
WHILE N<=10
LOOP
N :=N+2;
DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE(N);
END LOOP;
END;

TEST OUTPUT

3)WRITE A PROGRAM TO ACCEPT A NUMBER AND FIND SUM OF THE DIGITS

DECLARE
N NUMBER(5):=&N;
S NUMBER:=0;
R NUMBER(2):=0;
BEGIN
WHILE N !=0
LOOP
R:=MOD(N,10);
S:=S+R;
Page 1 of 7
N:=TRUNC(N/10);
END LOOP;
DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE('SUM OF DIGITS OF GIVEN NUMBER IS '||S);
END;

TEST OUTPUT

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4) Write a program to accept a number and print it in reverse order
DECLARE
N NUMBER(5):=&N;
REV NUMBER(5):=0;
R NUMBER(5):=0;
BEGIN
WHILE N !=0
LOOP
R:=MOD(N,10);
REV:=REV*10+R;
N:=TRUNC(N/10);
END LOOP;
DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE('THE REVERSE OF A GIVEN NUMBER IS '||REV);
END;

TEST OUTPUT

5) Write a program accept the value of A,B&C display which is greater

DECLARE
A NUMBER(4,2):=&A;
B NUMBER(4,2):=&B;
C NUMBER(4,2):=&C;
BEGIN
IF (A>B AND A>C) THEN
DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE('A IS GREATER '||''||A);
ELSIF B>C THEN
DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE('B IS GREATE '||''||B);
ELSE
DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE('C IS GREATER '||''||C);
END IF;
END;

TEST OUTPUT

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VIVA QUESTIONS:

1) What is PL/SQL?
2) What is the basic structure of PL/SQL?
3) How is a process of PL/SQL compiled?
4) Mention what PL/SQL package consists of?
5) What are the benefits of PL/SQL packages?
6) What is the difference between FUNCTION, PROCEDURE AND PACKAGE in PL/SQL?

Weekly Evaluation

0: Not Done 1: Incomplete 2: Late complete

3: Needs improvement 4: Complete 5: Well Done

Signature of the instructor Date:

67
 WEEK-14

DCL (DATA CONTROL LANGUAGE): Data Control Language statements are used to create roles,
permissions, and referential integrity as well it is used to control access to database by securing it. DCL
Commands are Grant and Revoke
GRANT - gives user's access privileges to database
REVOKE - withdraw access privileges given with the
GRANT command

Checking of User Privileges, Grants etc

mysql> create user mrcet_cse;
Query OK, 0 rows affected (0.30 sec)
*To Check where is the created user i.e location in our database
mysql> select user();

TEST OUTPUT

*To check what are the grants that the location is having/
mysql> show grants;

TEST OUTPUT

*To Check what are the GRANTS having for created user
mysql> show grants for mrcet_cse;
mysql> show tables;

TEST OUTPUT

TEST OUTPUT

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*To Flush (RE-FRESH) the privileges
mysql> flush privileges;
Query OK, 0 rows affected (0.08 sec)

* Explanation: To check where is the user i.e in case if we created user (Ex: mrcet_cse) it will be
displayed as “%”. Root user is by default so it will be available in “Localhost”

mysql> select host, user from mysql.user;

TEST OUTPUT

VIVA QUESTIONS
1. What are DCL commands?
2. List out the uses of various DCL commands?
3. What are the different types of Commands in SQL.
4. What is the difference between TCL & DCL commands.
5. Who has the privilegeto access the DCL commands.

Weekly Evaluation

0: Not Done 1: Incomplete 2: Late complete

3: Needs improvement 4: Complete 5: Well Done

Signature of the instructor Date:

69
CASE STUDY 1

Emp(eid: integer, ename: string, age: integer, salary: real)

Works(eid: integer, did: integer, pct time: integer)

Dept(did: integer, dname: string, budget: real, managerid: integer)

1. Give an example of a foreign key constraint that involves the Dept relation. What are

the options for enforcing this constraint when a user attempts to delete a Dept tuple?

2. Write the SQL statements required to create the above relations, including appropriate

versions of all primary and foreign key integrity constraints.

3. Define the Dept relation in SQL so that every department is guaranteed to have a

manager.

4. Write an SQL statement to add `John Doe' as an employee with eid = 101, age = 32

and salary = 15; 000.

5. Write an SQL statement to give every employee a 10% raise.

6. Write an SQL statement to delete the `Toy' department. Given the referential integrity

constraints you chose for this schema, explain what happens when this statement is

executed.

WORK SHEET

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WORK SHEET

Weekly Evaluation

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3: Needs improvement 4: Complete 5: Well Done

Signature of the instructor Date:

71
CASE STUDY 2

Suppliers(sid: integer, sname: string, address: string)

Parts(pid: integer, pname: string, color: string)

Catalog(sid: integer, pid: integer, cost: real)

Relational Algebra and Calculus 117

The key fields are underlined, and the domain of each field is listed after the field name.

Thus sid is the key for Suppliers, pid is the key for Parts, and sid and pid together form the

key for Catalog. The Catalog relation lists the prices charged for parts by Suppliers. Write

the following queries in relational algebra, tuple relational calculus, and domain relational

calculus:

1. Find the names of suppliers who supply some red part.

2. Find the sids of suppliers who supply some red or green part.

3. Find the number of parts whose name has 5 letters.

4. Find the sids of suppliers who supply atleast 3 parts.

5. Find the sids of suppliers who supply every part.

6. Find the sids of suppliers who supply every red part.

7. Find the sids of suppliers who supply every red or green part.

8. Find the sids of suppliers who supply every red part or supply every green part.

9. Find pairs of sids such that the supplier with the first sid charges more for some part

than the supplier with the second sid.

10. Find the pids of parts that are supplied by at least two different suppliers.

11. Find the sid of supplier who supply costliest part.

12. Find the pids of parts supplied by every supplier at less than $200. (If any supplier either

does not supply the part or charges more than $200 for it, the part is not selected.)

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WORK SHEET

Weekly Evaluation

0: Not Done 1: Incomplete 2: Late complete

3: Needs improvement 4: Complete 5: Well Done

Signature of the instructor Date:

73
CASESTUDY 3

Consider the following relations containing airline flight information:

Flights(flno: integer, from: string, to: string,

distance: integer, departs: time, arrives: time)

Aircraft(aid: integer, aname: string, cruisingrange: integer)

Certified(eid: integer, aid: integer)

Employees(eid: integer, ename: string, salary: integer)

Note that the Employees relation describes pilots and other kinds of employees as well; every pilot is
certified for some aircraft (otherwise, he or she would not qualify as a pilot), and only pilots are
certified to fly.

Write the following queries in relational algebra, tuple relational calculus, and domain relational

calculus.

1. Find the eids of pilots certified for some Boeing aircraft.

2. Find the names of pilots certified for some Boeing aircraft.

3. Find the aids of all aircraft that can be used on non-stop flights from Bonn to Madras.

4. Identify the flights that can be piloted by every pilot whose salary is more than $100,000.

(Hint: The pilot must be certified for at least one plane with a sufficiently large cruising

range.)

5. Find the names of pilots who can operate some plane with a range greater than 3,000

miles but are not certified on any Boeing aircraft.

6. Find the eids of employees who make the highest salary.

7. Find the eids of employees who make the second highest salary.

8. Find the eids of pilots who are certified for the largest number of aircraft.

9. Find the eids of employees who are certified for exactly three aircraft.

10. Find the total amount paid to employees as salaries.

74
11. Is there a sequence of flights from Madison to Timbuktu? Each flight in the sequence is required to
depart from the city that is the destination of the previous flight; the first

flight must leave Madison, the last flight must reach Timbuktu, and there is no restriction

on the number of intermediate flights. Your query must determine whether a sequence

WORK SHEET

Weekly Evaluation

0: Not Done 1: Incomplete 2: Late complete

3: Needs improvement 4: Complete 5: Well Done

Signature of the instructor Date:

75
76