Hypersonic flow: introduction

Van Dyke: Hypersonic flow is flow past a body at high Mach number, where
nonlinearity is an essential feature of the flow.

Also understood, for thin bodies, that if is the thickness-to-chord ratio of the body,
M  is of order 1.

Special Features

Thin shock layer: shock is very close to the body. The thin region between the shock and
the body is called the Shock Layer.

Entropy Layer: Shock curvature implies that shock strength is different

for different streamlines – stagnation pressure and velocity gradients -
rotational flow
 The “Hypersonic Tunnel” For Airbreathing Propulsion

http://www.onera.fr/conferences/ramjet-scramjet-pde/images/hypersonic-funnel.gif
 Velocity-Altitude Map For Re-Entry

Altitude
Typical
T i l re-entry
t case:
Very little deceleration until
Vehicle reaches denser air

(Deliberately so - to avoid
large fluctuations in aerodynamic
loads and landing point )

Velocity
 Atmosphere

Troposphere: 0 < z < 10km

Stratosphere: 10 < z < 50km

Mesosphere: 50 < z < 80km

Thermosphere:
p z > 80km
Ionosphere 65 < 365 km Contains ions and free electrons

60 <z < 85 km NO+

85 <z < 140 km NO+, O2+

140 <z < 200 km NO+, O2+, O+

Z> 200 km N+, O+

 A Simple Model for Variation of density with altitude

dp   gdz
Rˆ T
p
Mˆ
Neglect
g dissociation and ionization – Molecular weight
g is constant
Assume isothermal (T = constant) poor assumption

dp
p gMˆ
 d
dz
p Rˆ T
 gMˆ 
  0 loge  z
ˆ
 T 
R
High Angle of Attack Hypersonic Aerodynamics

www.galleryoffluidmechanics.com/shocks/s_wt.htm
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Crocco’s Theorem:
 
Ts  h0  u  
Implies vorticity in the shock layer.
layer

Viscous Layer:
Thick boundaryy layer,
y , merges
g with shock wave to pproduce a merged
g shock-viscous layer.
y
Coupled analysis needed.
High Temperature Effects:
Very large range of properties (temperature, density, pressure) in the flowfield, so that
specific heats and mean molecular weight may not be constant.

Low Density Flow:

Most hypersonic flight (except of hypervelocity projectiles) occurs at very high altitudes

Knudsen No. =
 = ratio of Mean Free Path to characteristic length
L
Above 120 km, continuum assumption is poor. Below 60 km, mean free path is less than 1mm.
http://www.aerospace-technology.com/projects/x43/images/X-43HYPERX_7.jpg
 Summary of Theoretical Approaches
Newtonian Aerodynamics: Flow hits surface layer, and abruptly turns parallel to surface. Momentum
normal to the surface is transferred to normal force on the body. Normal force on body = drag of
normal flow component.
component
Normal force is decomposed into lift and drag.
Modified Newtonian Aerodynamics: Account for stagnation pressure drop across shock.

Local Surface Inclination Method : Cp at a point is calculated from static pressure behind an oblique
shock
h k causedd by
b local
l l surface
f slope
l att ffreestream
t M
Machh number.
b
“Tangent Cone”approach: similar to local surface slope arguments.
Mach number independence: Shock/expansion relations and Cp become independent of Mach
number at very high Mach number.
Blast wave theory: Energy of Disturbance caused by hypersonic vehicle is like a detonation wave.
Hypersonic similarity: Allows developing equivalent shock tube experiments for hypersonic
aerodynamics.
 Hypersonic Aerodynamics Roadmap
Non-Equilibrium Gas Dynamics
Supersonic
Aero Stagnation Point: CFD

Full shock-expansion method

With real gas effects
Hypersonic
Small Disturbance: Blast Wave
Theory
Mach Number Independence
Conical Flow /
Waveriders

Local Surface
Inclination
Methods
N t i
Newtonian
Newton
Aerodynamics Buseman
Newtonian Aerodynamics: Flow hits surface layer, and abruptly turns parallel to surface.
Momentum normal to the surface is transferred to normal force on the body.
body
Normal force on body = drag of normal flow component.
Normal force is decomposed into lift and drag.
•No
N info
i f on shock.
h k or viscous
i drag
d
•No influence of body shape
D

L
N
 Local Surface Inclination Methods
Approximate methods over arbitrary configurations, in particular,
where Cp is a function of local surface slope.
Newtonian Aerodynamics
Newton (1687) concept was that particles travel along straight lines without
Interaction with other particles, let pellets from a shotgun. On striking a surface,
they would lose all momentum perpendicular to the surface
surface, but retain all tangential momentum
– i.e., slide off the surface.
Net rate of change of momentum   U  2Sin 2A
Cp  2Sin 2
 
In 3D flows we replace U Sin with 
U  n
2
U  n
Cp  2 2
U
Shadow region: Cp  0
 
Shadow region is where U  n  0
Remarks on Newtonian Theory:
Poor in low speed flow. Predicts . Cl   2

(1) Works well as Mach number gets large and specific heat ratio tends towards 1.0
Why? Because shock is close to surface, and velocity across the shock is very large – most of the
normal momentum is lost.
(2) Tends to overpredict cp and cd (CD) see

(3) Works better in 3-D than in 2-D

(4) In 33-D,
D, works best for blunt bodies; not good for wedges, cones, wings etc.
 Modified Newtonian
Was proposed by Lester Lees in 1955, as a way of improving Newtonian theory, and
bringing in Mach Number dependence . He proposed replacing 2 with C pmax

C p  C pmax sin2 

Here C pmax is the Cp behind a Normal shock wave, at the stagnation

point That is,
point. is
p02  p
C pmax 
1
 U  2
2
From Rankine-Hugoniot relations,


p02    12 M 2   1  1    2M 2 
   
p  4M 2  2  1     1 
p02
Then 1
p
cp 

M 2
2
In the limit as M  , We get

 2 
   1  1  4
cp 
    1    1
 4 

As   1 .4 , c pmax  1.839

As   1, c pmax  2 Proposed by Newton

 Hypersonic Shock & Expansion Relations

Why?

1. Simpler than exact expressions - for analysis

2 Key
2. K parameter t iis seen tto bbe K  M1 where
h is
i th
the flow
fl turning
t i angle,
l for M 1 andd <<11
f M>>1

Oblique Shock Relations M1 

M12 sin 2   1
tan   2 cot 
 
M12   cos 2   2


M12 sin 2 
tan   2 cot  M1 >>1, small 
M12   1

M1 >>1, small   2 
  
   1
Pressure jump: p2 2
 1 M12 sin2 
p1  1
M1 >>1 p2 2
 M12 sin2 
p1   1
p2  2 
 1  M1 sin   1
2 2
p1   1 
 2 
 1  M12  2  1
  1 
p2    1 2    1  1
2
 1 K  K2   
p1 4  4  K2
 p2 
Defining
g pressure
p coefficient   1
Cp   1 
p
 2
M
 p2  2 1
  1   1
C p  p1     1 2 1 
  2     2
 2   4  4  K 
K2
2

4Sin 2  M1  1
Cp 
 1
Next
u2
 1
 i 2  11
M12 sin 
u1  1M12
In the hypersonic limit, u2 2sin2 
 1
u1  1
Also
u2

 
2 M12 sin2  1 Cot
u1  1M12
u2 sin 2

u1  1
 Density Jump Across Shock

2   1M12 sin2 

1   1M12 sin2   2

In the hypersonic limit, for large M1 >>1, finite 

2   1

1   1
Then the temperature jump is:

T2 p2 2 2  1M12 sin2 

 
T1 p1 1   12
 p2 
  1
4Sin 2  M1  1
Cp   1 
p
Cp 
 2
M1  1
2
 For large but finite M, small  and 

M12 sin2   1
tan  2 cot 
 
M12   cos2   2

becomes

  1    12 1 
    
 4  16 M12 2 


Works for finite values of M1 = K

 Hypersonic Expansion Wave Relations

From Prandtl-Meyer theory,    2   1

 
  1 1   1 2

  1
tan 

  1
M  1

 
   tan1 M 2  1 
For M1  1 M12  1  M12

  1
Also tan1 x    tan1 
2 x

From Taylor series

 1 1 1 1
tan1      ..
 x  x 3x 3
5x 5
   1   1   1 1 
    
  1  2 M   1 M 2
  1 2 
   
2   1   1M 2
Then 2  1 1 
  2 1  
  1  M1 M2 

2
p2  1   
 1 M12   1 
  M1   1
p1  1   
 1 M22    
 M2 
2 2
p2    1   1   1   1
 1 M1   1  K
p1  2   2 
Note that
 p2  2
  1   Cp
K , )
 f ((K
C p  p1
   2  1    1 K   1  1  2
 2 2   
2  K  2
2
K  
 Mach Number Independence

As freestream Mach number becomes large, 2   1


1   1

p2 p2 p  2 2  1 
  M sin   
2
2
 U  2 p  U  2    1   M  
2
 sin2 
 1

Why nondimensionalize by  U  2
 2 
Because p2 ~ O U  And it allows cancellation of Mach number
 

Examine other relations for properties downstream of the shock – freestream Mach
number
b ddoes nott appear anywhere.
h
Non-lifting body moving at velocity U, which is inclined at angle to the x-axis:
D
d 2x
m 2
  DCos
dt

2
d z U
m 2
 DSin  mg
dt
d 2z 1
m  U 2CDS sin  mg
dt 2 2

 m 
  is the “Ballistic Parameter”.
 CDS 

Assuming that the drag force is >> weight and that  is constant because gravitational force is
too weak to change the flight path much
U  1 0CDS   gMz 
Loge     exp 
 e
U 2 m sin   RT 