Karnaugh maps

• Last time we saw applications of Boolean logic to circuit design.

– The basic Boolean operations are AND, OR and NOT.
– These operations can be combined to form complex expressions,
which can also be directly translated into a hardware circuit.
– Boolean algebra helps us simplify expressions and circuits.
• Today we’ll look at a graphical technique for simplifying an expression
into a minimal sum of products (MSP) form:
– There are a minimal number of product terms in the expression.
– Each term has a minimal number of literals.
• Circuit-wise, this leads to a minimal two-level implementation.

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 Review: Standard forms of expressions
• We can write expressions in many ways, but some ways are more useful
than others
• A sum of products (SOP) expression contains:
– Only OR (sum) operations at the “outermost” level
– Each term that is summed must be a product of literals
f(x,y,z) = y’ + x’yz’ + xz
• The advantage is that any sum of products expression can be
implemented using a two-level circuit
– literals and their complements at the “0th” level
– AND gates at the first level
– a single OR gate at the second level
• This diagram uses some shorthands…
– NOT gates are implicit
– literals are reused
– this is not okay in LogicWorks!

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 Terminology: Minterms
• A minterm is a special product of literals, in which each input variable
appears exactly once.
• A function with n variables has 2n minterms (since each variable can
appear complemented or not)
• A three-variable function, such as f(x,y,z), has 23 = 8 minterms:
x’y’z’ x’y’z x’yz’ x’yz
xy’z’ xy’z xyz’ xyz
• Each minterm is true for exactly one combination of inputs:
Minterm Is true when… Shorthand
x’y’z’ x=0, y=0, z=0 m0
x’y’z x=0, y=0, z=1 m1
x’yz’ x=0, y=1, z=0 m2
x’yz x=0, y=1, z=1 m3
xy’z’ x=1, y=0, z=0 m4
xy’z x=1, y=0, z=1 m5
xyz’ x=1, y=1, z=0 m6
xyz x=1, y=1, z=1 m7

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 Terminology: Sum of minterms form
• Every function can be written as a sum of minterms, which is a special
kind of sum of products form
• The sum of minterms form for any function is unique
• If you have a truth table for a function, you can write a sum of
minterms expression just by picking out the rows of the table where
the function output is 1.

x y z f(x,y,z) f’(x,y,z) f = x’y’z’ + x’y’z + x’yz’ + x’yz + xyz’

0 0 0 1 0 = m 0 + m1 + m 2 + m3 + m6
= m(0,1,2,3,6)
0 0 1 1 0
0 1 0 1 0
0 1 1 1 0 f’ = xy’z’ + xy’z + xyz
= m 4 + m5 + m 7
1 0 0 0 1
= m(4,5,7)
1 0 1 0 1
1 1 0 1 0
f’ contains all the minterms not in f
1 1 1 0 1

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 Re-arranging the truth table
• A two-variable function has four possible minterms. We can re-arrange
these minterms into a Karnaugh map.

x y minterm Y
0 0 x’y’ 0 1
0 1 x’y 0 x’y’ x’y
1 0 xy’ X
1 xy’ xy
1 1 xy

• Now we can easily see which minterms contain common literals.

– Minterms on the left and right sides contain y’ and y respectively.
– Minterms in the top and bottom rows contain x’ and x respectively.
Y

0 1 Y’ Y
0 x’y’ x’y X’ x’y’ x’y
X
1 xy’ xy X xy’ xy

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 Karnaugh map simplifications
• Imagine a two-variable sum of minterms:

x’y’ + x’y

• Both of these minterms appear in the top row of a Karnaugh map, which
means that they both contain the literal x’.

Y
x’y’ x’y
X xy’ xy

• What happens if you simplify this expression using Boolean algebra?

x’y’ + x’y = x’(y’ + y) [ Distributive ]

= x’  1 [ y + y’ = 1 ]
= x’ [x1=x]

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 More two-variable examples
• Another example expression is x’y + xy.
– Both minterms appear in the right side, where y is uncomplemented.
– Thus, we can reduce x’y + xy to just y.
Y
x’y’ x’y
X xy’ xy

• How about x’y’ + x’y + xy?

– We have x’y’ + x’y in the top row, corresponding to x’.
– There’s also x’y + xy in the right side, corresponding to y.
– This whole expression can be reduced to x’ + y.
Y
x’y’ x’y
X xy’ xy

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 A three-variable Karnaugh map
• For a three-variable expression with inputs x, y, z, the arrangement of
minterms is more tricky:

YZ YZ
00 01 11 10 00 01 11 10
0 x’y’z’ x’y’z x’yz x’yz’ 0 m0 m1 m3 m2
X X
1 xy’z’ xy’z xyz xyz’ 1 m4 m5 m7 m6

• Another way to label the K-map (use whichever you like):

Y Y
x’y’z’ x’y’z x’yz x’yz’ m0 m1 m3 m2
X xy’z’ xy’z xyz xyz’ X m4 m5 m7 m6
Z Z

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 Why the funny ordering?
• With this ordering, any group of 2, 4 or 8 adjacent squares on the map
contains common literals that can be factored out.

Y x’y’z + x’yz
x’y’z’ x’y’z x’yz x’yz’ = x’z(y’ + y)
X xy’z’ xy’z xyz xyz’ = x’z  1
Z = x’z

• “Adjacency” includes wrapping around the left and right sides:

Y x’y’z’ + xy’z’ + x’yz’ + xyz’

x’y’z’ x’y’z x’yz x’yz’ = z’(x’y’ + xy’ + x’y + xy)
X xy’z’ xy’z xyz xyz’ = z’(y’(x’ + x) + y(x’ + x))
Z
= z’(y’+y)
= z’
• We’ll use this property of adjacent squares to do our simplifications.

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 Example K-map simplification
• Let’s consider simplifying f(x,y,z) = xy + y’z + xz.
• First, you should convert the expression into a sum of minterms form, if
it’s not already.
– The easiest way to do this is to make a truth table for the function,
and then read off the minterms.
– You can either write out the literals or use the minterm shorthand.
• Here is the truth table and sum of minterms for our example:

x y z f(x,y,z)
0 0 0 0
0 0 1 1
0 1 0 0
0 1 1 0 f(x,y,z) = x’y’z + xy’z + xyz’ + xyz
1 0 0 0 = m1 + m 5 + m6 + m7
1 0 1 1
1 1 0 1
1 1 1 1

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 Unsimplifying expressions
• You can also convert the expression to a sum of minterms with Boolean
algebra.
– Apply the distributive law in reverse to add in missing variables.
– Very few people actually do this, but it’s occasionally useful.

xy + y’z + xz = (xy  1) + (y’z  1) + (xz  1)

= (xy  (z’ + z)) + (y’z  (x’ + x)) + (xz  (y’ + y))
= (xyz’ + xyz) + (x’y’z + xy’z) + (xy’z + xyz)
= xyz’ + xyz + x’y’z + xy’z

• In both cases, we’re actually “unsimplifying” our example expression.

– The resulting expression is larger than the original one!
– But having all the individual minterms makes it easy to combine
them together with the K-map.

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 Making the example K-map
• Next up is drawing and filling in the K-map.
– Put 1s in the map for each minterm, and 0s in the other squares.
– You can use either the minterm products or the shorthand to show
you where the 1s and 0s belong.
• In our example, we can write f(x,y,z) in two equivalent ways.

f(x,y,z) = x’y’z + xy’z + xyz’ + xyz f(x,y,z) = m1 + m5 + m6 + m7

Y Y
x’y’z’ x’y’z x’yz x’yz’ m0 m1 m3 m2
X xy’z’ xy’z xyz xyz’ X m4 m5 m7 m6
Z Z

• In either case, the resulting K-map is shown below.

Y
0 1 0 0
X 0 1 1 1
Z

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 K-maps from truth tables
• You can also fill in the K-map directly from a truth table.
– The output in row i of the table goes into square mi of the K-map.
– Remember that the rightmost columns of the K-map are “switched.”
Y
m0 m1 m3 m2
x y z f(x,y,z)
X m4 m5 m7 m6
0 0 0 0
Z
0 0 1 1
0 1 0 0
0 1 1 0
Y
0 1 0 0
X 0 1 1 1
Z
1 0 0 0
1 0 1 1
1 1 0 1
1 1 1 1

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 Grouping the minterms together
• The most difficult step is grouping together all the 1s in the K-map.
– Make rectangles around groups of one, two, four or eight 1s.
– All of the 1s in the map should be included in at least one rectangle.
– Do not include any of the 0s.
Y
0 1 0 0
X 0 1 1 1
Z

• Each group corresponds to one product term. For the simplest result:
– Make as few rectangles as possible, to minimize the number of
products in the final expression.
– Make each rectangle as large as possible, to minimize the number of
literals in each term.
– It’s all right for rectangles to overlap, if that makes them larger.

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 Reading the MSP from the K-map
• Finally, you can find the MSP.
– Each rectangle corresponds to one product term.
– The product is determined by finding the common literals in that
rectangle.

Y
0 1 0 0
X 0 1 1 1
Z

Y
x’y’z’ x’y’z x’yz x’yz’
X xy’z’ xy’z xyz xyz’
Z

• For our example, we find that xy + y’z + xz = y’z + xy. (This is one of the
additional algebraic laws from last time.)

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 Practice K-map 1
• Simplify the sum of minterms m1 + m3 + m5 + m6.

X
Z

Y
m0 m1 m3 m2
X m4 m5 m7 m6
Z

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 Solutions for practice K-map 1
• Here is the filled in K-map, with all groups shown.
– The magenta and green groups overlap, which makes each of them
as large as possible.
– Minterm m6 is in a group all by its lonesome.

Y
0 1 1 0
X 0 1 0 1
Z

• The final MSP here is x’z + y’z + xyz’.

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 Four-variable K-maps
• We can do four-variable expressions too!
– The minterms in the third and fourth columns, and in the third and
fourth rows, are switched around.
– Again, this ensures that adjacent squares have common literals.

Y Y
w’x’y’z’ w’x’y’z w’x’yz w’x’yz’ m0 m1 m3 m2
w’xy’z’ w’xy’z w’xyz w’xyz’ m4 m5 m7 m6
X X
wxy’z’ wxy’z wxyz wxyz’ m12 m13 m15 m14
W W
wx’y’z’ wx’y’z wx’yz wx’yz’ m8 m9 m11 m10
Z Z

• Grouping minterms is similar to the three-variable case, but:

– You can have rectangular groups of 1, 2, 4, 8 or 16 minterms.
– You can wrap around all four sides.

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 Example: Simplify m0+m2+m5+m8+m10+m13
• The expression is already a sum of minterms, so here’s the K-map:

Y Y
1 0 0 1 m0 m1 m3 m2
0 1 0 0 m4 m5 m7 m6
X X
0 1 0 0 m12 m13 m15 m14
W W
1 0 0 1 m8 m9 m11 m10
Z Z

• We can make the following groups, resulting in the MSP x’z’ + xy’z.

Y Y
1 0 0 1 w’x’y’z’ w’x’y’z w’x’yz w’x’yz’
0 1 0 0 w’xy’z’ w’xy’z w’xyz w’xyz’
X X
0 1 0 0 wxy’z’ wxy’z wxyz wxyz’
W W
1 0 0 1 wx’y’z’ wx’y’z wx’yz wx’yz’
Z Z

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 K-maps can be tricky!
• There may not necessarily be a unique MSP. The K-map below yields two
valid and equivalent MSPs, because there are two possible ways to
include minterm m7.

Y
0 1 0 1
X 0 1 1 1
Z

Y Y
0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1
X 0 1 1 1 X 0 1 1 1
Z Z

y’z + yz’ + xy y’z + yz’ + xz

• Remember that overlapping groups is possible, as shown above.

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