Welding Technology Lecture Notes by DR - Behzad PDF
Welding Technology Lecture Notes by DR - Behzad PDF
• Soldering
• Produces coalescence of materials by heating to soldering
temperature (below solidus of base metal) in presence of filler
metal with liquidus < 450°C
• Brazing
• Same as soldering but coalescence occurs at > 450°C
• Welding
• Process of achieving complete coalescence of two or more
materials through melting & re-solidification of the base
metals and filler metal
SOLDERING & BRAZING
• Advantages
• Low temperature heat source required
• Choice of permanent or temporary joint
• Dissimilar materials can be joined
• Less chance of damaging parts
• Slow rate of heating & cooling
• Parts of varying thickness can be joined
• Easy realignment
AC
BASIC ELECTRICITY AND THE SCIENCE OF
WELDING
• The electricity flows from the power source, through the electrode and across
the arc, through the base material to the work lead and back to the power
source
BASIC ELECTRICITY AND THE SCIENCE OF
WELDING
• The electron flow you just learned about is what creates the arc in arc
welding.
• This is a form of electrical energy
• How do we use that electrical energy to fuse metals together?
BASIC ELECTRICITY AND THE SCIENCE OF WELDING
• Here are some places to look to learn more about energy and energy transfers.
• Forms of Energy
• Energy Transformations
BASIC ELECTRICITY AND THE SCIENCE OF
WELDING
• Changes of State and Chemical Reactions
• During the welding process the metal changes states or forms.
• What are the states of matter?
• Solid
• Liquid
• Gas
• Plasma
Liquid Solid
Solid weld joint
(gas vapor)
BASIC ELECTRICITY AND THE SCIENCE OF
WELDING
• Changes of State and Chemical Reactions
• Chemical Reactions
• During the welding process certain chemical reactions take place.
• Hydrogen, Oxygen, and Nitrogen can react in the weld puddle and
cause changes in the structure of the weld weakening the weld.
WELDING PROCESSES
TWO CATEGORIES OF WELDING PROCESSES
Uses a consumable electrode consisting of a filler metal rod coated with chemicals
that provide flux and shielding
• Sometimes called "stick welding"
• Power supply, connecting cables, and electrode holder available for a few
thousand dollars
Shielded Metal Arc Welding(SMAW)
WELDING STICK IN SMAW
Uses a consumable bare metal wire as electrode with shielding by flooding arc with a gas
• Wire is fed continuously and automatically from a spool through the welding gun
• Shielding gases include argon and helium for aluminum welding, and CO2 for steel
welding
• Bare electrode wire plus shielding gases eliminate slag on weld bead
• No need for manual grinding and cleaning of slag
Gas Metal Arc Welding
GMAW ADVANTAGES OVER SMAW
• Better arc time because of continuous wire electrode
Uses a continuous, consumable bare wire electrode, with arc shielding by a cover
of granular flux
• Electrode wire is fed automatically from a coil
• Flux introduced into joint slightly ahead of arc by gravity from a hopper
Special form of GTAW in which a constricted plasma arc is directed at weld area
• Tungsten electrode is contained in a nozzle that focuses a high velocity stream of
inert gas (argon) into arc region to form a high velocity, intensely hot plasma arc
stream
• Temperatures in PAW reach 28,000°C (50,000°F), due to constriction of arc,
producing a plasma jet of small diameter and very high energy density
Plasma Arc Welding
ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF PAW
Advantages:
• Good arc stability and excellent weld quality
• Better penetration control than other AW processes
• High travel speeds
• Can be used to weld almost any metals
Disadvantages:
• High equipment cost
• Larger torch size than other AW processes
• Tends to restrict access in some joints
RESISTANCE WELDING (RW)
A group of fusion welding processes that use a combination of heat and pressure to
accomplish coalescence
• Heat generated by electrical resistance to current flow at junction to be welded
• Principal RW process is resistance spot welding (RSW)
RESISTANCE WELDING
Resistance welding process in which fusion of faying surfaces of a lap joint is achieved at
one location by opposing electrodes
• Used to join sheet metal parts
• Widely used in mass production of automobiles, metal furniture, appliances, and other
sheet metal products
• Gasoline tanks
• Automobile mufflers
• Various sheet metal containers
Resistance Seam Welding
RESISTANCE PROJECTION WELDING (RPW)
Group of fusion welding operations that burn various fuels mixed with oxygen
• OFW employs several types of gases, which is the primary distinction among
the members of this group
• Oxyfuel gas is also used in flame cutting torches to cut and separate metal
plates and other parts
• Most important OFW process is oxyacetylene welding
OXYACETYLENE WELDING (OAW)
Fusion welding performed by a high temperature flame from combustion of acetylene and
oxygen
• Flame is directed by a welding torch
• Filler metal is sometimes added
• When first developed, EBW had to be carried out in a vacuum chamber to minimize
disruption of electron beam by air molecules
• Serious inconvenience in production
• Pumpdown time can take as long as an hour
THREE VACUUM LEVELS IN EBW
1. High-vacuum welding – welding in same vacuum chamber as beam generation
to produce highest quality weld
2. Medium-vacuum welding – welding in separate chamber but partial vacuum
reduces pump-down time
3. Non-vacuum welding – welding done at or near atmospheric pressure, with
work positioned close to electron beam generator - requires vacuum divider to
separate work from beam generator
EBW ADVANTAGES AND
DISADVANTAGES OF EBW
Advantages:
• High-quality welds, deep and narrow profiles
• Limited heat affected zone, low thermal distortion
• No flux or shielding gases needed
Disadvantages:
• High equipment cost
• Precise joint preparation & alignment required
• Vacuum chamber required
• Safety concern: EBW generates x-rays
LASER BEAM WELDING (LBW)
• Essential factors for a successful solid state weld are that the two
faying surfaces must be:
• Very clean
• In very close physical contact with each other to permit atomic
bonding
SSW ADVANTAGES OVER FW PROCESSES
• If no melting, then no heat affected zone, so metal around joint retains original properties
• Many SSW processes produce welded joints that bond the entire contact interface
between two parts rather than at distinct spots or seams
• Some SSW processes can be used to bond dissimilar metals, without concerns about
relative melting points, thermal expansions, and other problems that arise in FW
SOLID STATE WELDING PROCESSES
• Forge welding
• Cold welding
• Roll welding
• Hot pressure welding
• Diffusion welding
• Explosion welding
• Friction welding
• Ultrasonic welding
FORGE WELDING
• Advantages
• Good mechanical properties of weld joint
• Avoids toxic fumes, warping, and shielding issues
• Little distortion or shrinkage
• Good weld appearance
• Disadvantages
• An exit hole is produce when tool is withdrawn
• Heavy duty clamping of parts is required
ULTRASONIC WELDING (USW)
Two components are held together, and oscillatory shear stresses of ultrasonic
frequency are applied to interface to cause coalescence
• Oscillatory motion breaks down any surface films to allow intimate contact and
strong metallurgical bonding between surfaces
• Temperatures are well below Tm
• No filler metals, fluxes, or shielding gases
• Generally limited to lap joints on soft materials
Ultrasonic Welding
• (a) General setup for a lap joint; and (b) close-up of weld area
USW APPLICATIONS
POWER SOURCE
WELDING TORCH & ACCESSORIES
v The welding torch guides the wire and shielding gas to the
weld zone.
v Brings welding power to the wire also
v Major components/parts of the torch are the contact tip,
shielding gas nozzle, gas diffuser, and the wire conduit
GAS DIFFUSER
NOZZLE
TRIGGER
CONTACT TIP
INSTALLED
COMPONENTS
WELDING CONTROL & WIRE
FEED MOTOR
v Welding control & Wire feed motor are combined
into one unit
v Main function is to pull the wire from the spool and
feed it to the arc
v Controls wire feed speed and regulates the starting
and stopping of wire feed
v Wire feed speed controls Amperage
WIRE FEEDER
POWER SOURCE
v Almost all GMAW is done with reverse polarity also
known as DCEP
v Positive (+) lead is connected to the torch
v Negative (-) lead is connected to the work piece
v Provides a relatively consistent voltage to the arc
v Arc Voltage is the voltage between the end of the
wire and the work piece
POSITIVE NEGATIV
TERMINAL E
TERMINA
L
SHIELDING GASES
v Purpose of shielding gas is the protect the weld
area from the contaminants in the atmosphere
v Gas can be Inert, Reactive, or Mixtures of both
v Gas flow rate is between 25-35 CFH
v Argon, Helium, and Carbon Dioxide are the main
three gases used in GMAW
FLOW METER
CFH PRESSURE
ADJUSTMENT
KNOB
CYLCINDER
PRESSURE
GAUGE
SHIELDING GAS
• Air in the welding zone is displaced by inert gas to
“Shield” the molten weld pool and prevent it from
contamination from Oxygen, Nitrogen and Water
present in the atmosphere.
• Insufficient gas flow will not displace the
atmosphere resulting in “porosity” or voids in the
deposited weld.
• Flow is measured in CFH (Cubic Feet per Hour).
INSUFFICIENT SHIELDING GAS
COVERAGE
• Gas not turned on
• Flow rate not properly adjusted
• Leaks in the hose supplying the shielding gas to the
machine
• GMAW / MIG Gun loose at wire drive connection
• Spatter buildup on gas cup
• Windy environment
EXCESSIVE GAS COVERAGE
• What is TIG?
• Tungsten Inert Gas
• Also referred to as GTAW
• Gas Shielded Tungsten Welding
• In TIG welding, a tungsten electrode heats the metal you are
welding and gas (most typically Argon) protects the weld
from airborne contaminants
2
BACKGROUND
• TIG welding uses a non-consumable tungsten
• Filler metal, when required, is added by hand
• Shielding gas protects the weld and tungsten
3
ADVANTAGES
4
DISADVANTAGES
5
SAFETY
• Electric shock can kill.
• Always wear dry insulating gloves
• Insulate yourself from work and ground
• Do not touch live electrical parts
• Keep all panels and covers securely in place
• Fumes and gases can be hazardous to your health.
• Keep your head out of the fumes
• Ventilate area, or use breathing device
6
SAFETY
• Welding can cause fire or explosion.
• Do not weld near flammable material
• Watch for fire; keep extinguisher nearby
• Do not locate unit over combustible surfaces
• Do not weld on closed containers
• Arc rays can burn eyes and skin; Noise can damage
hearing.
• Wear welding helmet with correct shade of filter
• Wear correct eye, ear, and body protection
7
SAFETY
• Hot parts can cause injury.
• Allow cooling period before touching welded metal
• Wear protective gloves and clothing
• Magnetic fields from high currents can affect
pacemaker operation.
• Flying metal can injure eyes.
• Welding, chipping, wire brushing, and grinding cause
sparks and flying metal; wear approved safety glasses
with side shields
8
TECHNIQUES FOR BASIC WELD JOINTS
Arc Length
• Arc length normally one electrode diameter, when AC
welding with a balled end electrode
• When DC welding with a pointed electrode, arc length
may be much less than electrode diameter
9
* Figure copied from “TI G Handbook”
TECHNIQUES FOR BASIC WELD JOINTS
10
* Figure copied from “TI G Handbook”
TECHNIQUES FOR BASIC WELD JOINTS
ENBE 499 11
* Figure copied from “TI G Handbook”
TECHNIQUES FOR BASIC WELD JOINTS
12
TIG SHIELDING GASES
• Argon
• Helium
• Argon/Helium Mixtures
13
TIG SHIELDING GASES
Argon Helium
• Good arc starting • Faster travel speeds
• Good cleaning action • Increased penetration
• Good arc stability • Difficult arc starting
• Focused arc cone • Less cleaning action
• Less low amp stability
• Lower arc voltages
• Higher arc voltages
• 10-30 CFH flow rates
• Higher flow rates (2x)
• Higher cost than argon
14
TIG SHIELDING GASES
Argon/Helium Mixtures
• Improved travel speeds over pure argon
• Improved penetration over pure argon
• Cleaning properties closer to pure argon
• Improved arc starting over pure helium
• Improved arc stability over pure helium
• Arc cone shape more focused than pure helium
• Arc voltages between pure argon and pure helium
• Higher flow rates than pure argon
• Costs higher than pure argon
15
WELDING PARAMETERS
16
* Figure copied from “TI G Handbook”
WELDING PARAMETERS
17
* Figure copied from “TI G Handbook”
WELDING PARAMETERS
18
* Figure copied from “TI G Handbook”
WELDING PARAMETERS
19
* Figure copied from “TI G Handbook”
TUNGSTEN ELECTRODE SELECTION
20
* Figure copied from “Guidelines to Gas Tungsten Arc Welding ( GTAW) ”
2015
FRICTION WELDING TECHNOLOGY
Submitted by:
Abdullah Terkaoui – 138565
Awad Alterkaoui - 138566
Mouhamed Oubari – 128412
12/01/2015
Welding Technology - MENG 488
a. Spin welding
Spin welding systems consist of two
chucks for holding the materials to be welded,
one is fixed and the other rotating. The piece is
then spun up to a high rate of rotation to store
the required energy in the flywheel. Once
spinning at the proper speed, the motor is
removed and the pieces forced together under
pressure. The force is kept on the pieces after
the spinning stops to allow the weld to set.
The figure on the right side illustrates the steps
of spin welding process.
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Mechanical Engineering Department – Eastern Mediterranean University – North Cyprus
Welding Technology - MENG 488
2. Applications
2|Page
Mechanical Engineering Department – Eastern Mediterranean University – North Cyprus
Welding Technology - MENG 488
3|Page
Mechanical Engineering Department – Eastern Mediterranean University – North Cyprus
Materials Behavior
Basic Regions of a Weld
Heat-Affected Zone:
portion of the base metal
not melted but whose
mechanical properties
and microstructure were
affected by the heat of
the joining process
Base Metal
Fusion Weld
Zone
Fig : Characteristics
of a typical
fusion weld zone
in oxyfuel gas
and arc welding.
Composite Zone Concerns
Grain Structure
(a) (b)
Fig : Grain structure in (a) a deep weld (b) a shallow weld. Note
that the grains in the solidified weld metal are perpendicular
to the surface of the base metal. In a good weld, the
solidification line at the center in the deep weld shown in (a)
has grain migration, which develops uniform strength in the
weld bead.
Solidification of
Weld metal
(a) (b)
Solidification cracking
due to impurity
elements
Sulfur, phosphorus,
boron
Impurity segregation at
weld centerline creates
low ductility area
Combines with shrinkage
stress to cause cracking
Manganese Can Prevent Solidification
Cracking
• Effects:
• 1.Distortion,Warping and buckling of welded parts
Fig : Distortion of parts after welding : (a) butt joints; (b) fillet
welds. Distortion is caused by differential thermal expansion
and contraction of different parts of the welded assembly.
Stress relieving of welds :
Objectives
• The various region of the weld where liquid does not
form
• Griffit h Crack
1/ 2
a
σm = 2σo = K t σo
ρt
ρt
w here
ρt = radius of curvat ure
σo = applied st ress
σm = st ress at crack t ip
7
ENGINEERING FRACTURE DESIGN
12
Example – Brittle Fracture
• Set σc = 40Mpa
• Given SAW weld joint • Solve Griffith Eqn for
with Edge-Crack Length
– Tensile Stress,
2 Eγ s
σ = 40 Mpa a=
– E = 69 GPa πσ applied
2
σdesign <
Kc 1 K c
<
π Yσdesign
a max
Y πa max
σ a max
fracture fracture
no no
fracture a max fracture σ
Design Example: Steel Weld Joint
(σ c a max ) = (σ
A c a max ) B
Example:
Compare the critical flaw sizes in the following weld joints subjected to
tensile stress 1500MPa and K = 1.12 σ√πa.
KIc (MPa.m1/2) Critical flaw size (microns)
Al 250 7000
Steel 50 280
Zirconia(ZrO2) 2 0.45
Toughened Zirconia 12 16
SOLUTION
600 60
tensile strength 1. Recovery
(M
ductility (%EL)
50 2. Recrystallization
tensile strength
500
40
3. Grain Growth
400 30
Adapted from Fig. 8.22, Callister & Rethwisch
ductility 20 4e. (Fig. 8.22 is adapted from G. Sachs and
300 K.R. van Horn, Practical Metallurgy, Applied
Metallurgy, and the Industrial Processing of
Ferrous and Nonferrous Metals and Alloys,
American Society for Metals, 1940, p. 139.)
22
Three Stages During Heat Treat ment :
1. Recovery
23
Three Stages During Heat
Treat ment :
• New grains are formed that:
2. Recrystallizat
-- have low dislocation densities ion
-- are small in size
-- consume and replace parent cold-worked grains.
0.6 mm 0.6 mm
Adapted from
Fig. 8.21 (a),(b),
Callister &
Rethwisch 4e.
(Fig. 8.21 (a),(b)
are courtesy of
J.E. Burke,
General Electric
Company.)
Adapted from
Fig. 8.21 (c),(d),
Callister &
Rethwisch 4e.
(Fig. 8.21 (c),(d)
are courtesy of
J.E. Burke,
General Electric
Company.)
After 4 After 8
seconds seconds
25
Anisot ropy in σy
• Can be induced by rolling a polycrystalline metal
- before rolling - after rolling
Adapted from Fig. 8.11,
Callister & Rethwisch 4e.
(Fig. 8.11 is from W.G. Moffatt,
G.W. Pearsall, and J. Wulff,
The Structure and Properties
of Materials, Vol. I, Structure,
p. 140, John Wiley and Sons,
New York, 1964.)
rolling direction
235 µm
- isotropic - anisotropic
since grains are since rolling affects grain
equiaxed & orientation and shape.
randomly oriented.
26
Three Stages During Heat
Treat ment :
• At longer times, average grain size increases.
3.shrink
-- Small grains Grain(and Grow
ultimatelyt h
disappear)
-- Large grains continue to grow
0.6 mm 0.6 mm
Adapted from
Fig. 8.21 (d),(e),
Callister &
Rethwisch 4e.
(Fig. 8.21 (d),(e)
are courtesy of
J.E. Burke,
General Electric
Company.)
TR
º
28
Recrystallizat ion Temperat ure
TR = recrystallization temperature = temperature
at which recrystallization just reaches
completion in 1 h.
0.3Tm < TR < 0.6Tm
29
Cold Worked Alloy Without Allotropic Transformation
Welded In:
• Full Hard
Condition
Introductory Welding
Metallurgy,
Annealed
Condition
Annealed upon
Cooling
Precipitation Hardened Alloy Welded in Full Hard Condition
Hydrogen Cracking
• Hydrogen cracking, also called cold
cracking, requires all t hree of t hese
factors
– Hydrogen
– St ress
– Suscept ible microst ruct ure (high
hardness)
• Occurs below 300°C
• Prevent ion by
– Preheat slows dow n t he cooling rate;
t his can help avoid martensite
format ion and supplies heat to diffuse
hydrogen out of t he material
– Low -hydrogen welding procedure
Dickinson
Carbon and Low-Alloy Steels
Why Preheat ?
• Preheat reduces t he temperat ure
different ial bet ween t he weld
region and t he base metal
– Reduces t he cooling rate, w hich
reduces t he chance of forming
martensite in steels
– Reduces distort ion and shrinkage
st ress
– Reduces t he danger of weld
cracking
– Allows hydrogen to escape
Steel
Using Preheat to Avoid Hydrogen
Cracking
• If t he base material is preheated, heat flows more
slow ly out of t he weld region
– Slower cooling rates avoid martensite format ion
• Preheat allows hydrogen to diffuse from t he metal
T base Cooling rate ∝ (T - Tbase)3
Lamellar Tearing
A Dimensional defects are any defect that cause the weld metal.
Parent metal, work piece to be out of specification or tolerance.
Dimensional defects are mainly caused by improper set up or
distortion. This should be managed before the welding process.
MISALIGNMENT (HI-LO)
• Definition: Amount a joint is out
of alignment at the root
• This is caused by :
• Travel speed being to slow
• Amps to low
• Poor electrode
manipulation.
EXCESSIVE CONCAVITY OR
CONVEXITY
• Definition: Concavity or convexity of a fillet weld which
exceeds the specified allowable limits
• Repair: Grind off or weld on. Must blend smoothly into the
base metal.
Concavity
EXCESSIVE CONCAVITY
Root Concavity
Convexity
EXCESSIVE CONVEXITY
REINFORCEMENT
The amount of a groove weld which extends beyond the surface
of the plate
Root Reinforcement
EXCESSIVE
REINFORCEMENT
• Definition: Specifically defined by the standard. Typically,
Reinforcement should be flush to 1/16”(pipe) or flush to
1/8” (plate or structural shapes).
• Cause: Travel speed too slow, amperage too low
• Cause: Carelessness
• Prevention: In difficult areas, adjacent areas can be
protected using fire blankets.
• Repair: Where applicable, arc strikes must be sanded
smooth and tested for cracks. If found, they must be remove
and repaired using a qualified repair procedure and
inspected as any other weld.
Arc Strike
INCLUSIONS
• Slag
• Wagontracks
• Tungsten
Slag Inclusion
• Definition: Slag entrapped within the weld
• Repair: Carefully grind the root pass face flat. be careful not
to gouge other areas on the weldment.
Wagon Tracks
Tungsten Inclusion
• Definition: A tungsten particle embedded in a weld.
(Typically GTAW only)
• Cause: Tungsten electrode too small, amperage too high,
AC balance on +, Upslope too high, electrode tip not
snipped, electrode dipped into the weld pool or touched
with the fill rod, electrode split.
• Prevention: Eliminate the cause
• Prevention: Preahiting