The Feldenkrais

Method: application,
practice and principles
O O O O O O O O O O

T. S. K. L~tle

Abstract The Feldenkrais Method provides an opportunity for neuromuscular re-education

through sensory-motor awareness. This paper provides a brief description of the
application of the Method, discusses the two interrelated modes of instruction (Awareness
Through Movement [ATM] and Functional Integration [FI]) and highlights some of the
principles used in the Feldenkrais Method. An ATM lesson and a case study using 17i are
included.

mode of doing, which feels as right as

Introduction
the habitual pattem (Feldenkrais 1949,
The Feldenkrais Method was pp. 152 & 154). Improvements or
developed by Moshe Feldenkrais changes from the Feldenkrais Method
(1904-1984) (Reese 1985/86) after are attributed to the person's learning
more than 40 years of refinement (Feldenkrais 1981, p. 7), defined by
(Brice 1990). It is purely an Feldenkrais as 'becoming aware of
educational approach, which claims finer and finer differences' (Medicine
Tanya S. K. Lyttle, MSc SROT neither to diagnose, treat nor cure Eagle, 1991, p. 191).
10 Tedder Drive, Waddington, Lincoln, (Rywerant 1983, p. 162). Feldenkrais The Feldenkrais Method is believed
Lincolnshire LN5 9NG, UK believed that the cause of repeated to stimulate the plastic properties of
Correspondence to: T. S. K. Lyttle injury, many pains and movement the nervous system (Morgenstem
Tel: 01522 722299 restrictions was predominantly the 1981) and to explore and fill in gaps
Received June 1997 result of poor habitual use of oneself and missing links in a person's
Revised July 1997
(Auburn 1985, Wanning 1993), neuromuscular self-image through
Accepted August 1997
brought about from half-learnt or sensory-motor awareness (Ginsburg
badly learnt movement patterns 1987, Low 1990). Theoretically,
Journal of Bodywork and Movement Therapies (1997) (Feldenkrais 1981, p. 53). The alterations in neuromuscular self-
1(5), 262-269
© Pearson Professional Ltd 1997 Feldenkrais Method enables a new image lead to alterations in movement

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 The Feldenkrais Method

patterns in daily life (Reese 1985/86); active interaction with the from a sample group of 74 of varying
purposeful motor behaviour is environment (Myers 1980) disorders, found the number of FI
dependent upon: the current • providing new functional motor sessions attended by subjects ranged
neuromuscular self-image (Riddock patterns by increasing awareness of from 1 to 40 with a mean of 10.3.
1941, MacDonald 1960, Ayres 1971); tense muscles that can be released, Progress is variable, and success is
the environmental conditions and increasing tonus in a muscle or dependent upon the individual's own
(Massion 1992); heredity; and a muscle groups which could not awareness of their body, the
person's experiences throughout their formerly be used or differentiated practitioner's own body awareness,
life (Feldenkrais 1981, p. 6). (Rywerant 1983, p. 122) and the skill of the practitioner
The overall aim of the Feldenkrais • enabling a person to find their own (Ginsburg 1987).
Method is to make life easier, simpler, mode of action, feeling and sensing However, the Feldenkrais Method
more pleasant and aesthetically (Feldenkrais 1981, p. 72) has been found not to benefit all
satisfying (Feldenkrais 1981, p. 149). • improving a person's ability to learn persons (Myers 1980). Awareness is
Feldenkrais (1990) stated that his and to function through exploratory central to the Method, and people's
Method is designed to 'improve learning (Wildman 1986). potential for this varies. It has limited
ability, that is, to expand the success for those who want a quick fix,
boundaries of the possible: to turn the by having something done to them
impossible into the possible, the Applicability of the without participation on their part (A.
difficult into the easy, and the easy Feldenkrais Method Cosgrove, personal communication).
into the pleasant. For only those The Feldenkrais Method is directed at Feldenkrais (1981) stated 'If you know
activities that are easy and pleasant those persons who wish to improve "what" you are doing and even more
will become part of a man's habitual their efficiency of movement, posture important "how" you use yourself act,
life and will serve him at all times. and breathing, reduce muscular you will be able to do things the way
Actions that are hard to carry out, for tension, improve flexibility and you want' (p. 70). He claimed that
which man must force himself to coordination, enhance neuromotor awareness is the first and most
overcome his inner opposition, will functioning and increase learning important step in any learning process;
never become part of his normal daily skills in general (Reese 1985/86). when a person is fully aware of a
life; as he gets older he will lose his Wurm (1986) claimed that 'by and movement they can change the
ability to carry them out at all' (p. 57). large, it can be said that all chronic intensity, speed, rhythm and intonation
The Feldenkrais Method non infectious diseases, deficiencies, of that movement (Feldenkrais 1966).
emphasizes: and complaints - provided that they
• drawing on early developmental are neither inherited nor due to (or
Modes of instruction
patterns of mobility (Myers 1980) have already caused) irreputable
• including those body parts never damage - are amenable to treatment The Feldenkrais Method works
before considered in their image of by this method' (p. 12). As such the through two interrelated modes of
movement (Wildman 1986) Method is applicable to a broad instruction: Awareness Through
• giving a person an intimate spectrum of people, with the Movement (ATM) and Functional
knowledge of the complex principles of the Feldenkrais Method Integration (H). Sessions optimally
relationships between their body being used in education, the last 35-45 minutes, after which time a
parts (Auburn 1985), so that they performing arts, sports training, person may not assimilate new
can experience how the whole of rehabilitation and the healing arts information because of mental fatigue
themselves cooperates in any (Feldenkrais International Training (Rywerant 1983, p. 125). Feldenkrais
movement (Wildman 1986) Centre 1995). The Method has been referred to each session as a 'lesson',
• bringing habitual motor patterns to applied to musicians, dancers and and those persons seeking help
conscious attention (Rywerant athletes, persons with orthopaedic through the Feldenkrais Method he
1983, p. 53) (e.g. chronic low back pain), preferred to call 'pupils' (Feldenkrais
• demonstrating effective use of the neurological (e.g. hemiplegia, cerebral 1981, pp. 7-8, 91 & 117).
skeleton and the sensation of forces palsy), psychosomatic or anxiety Feldenkrais insisted on the
transmitted through it (Rywerant disorders, muscular tension and/or development of a method which
1983, p. 53) joint pain (Wildman 1986). reinforced motivation by means of
• establishing more efficient Lake (1985) states that distinct positive conditioning. He observed
breathing patterns to increase lung progress is usually noticeable within that people learnt better when learning
capacity, and freeing the rib cage two or three Functional Integration was pleasurable, and such learning
and upper torso to allow for more (FI) sessions. Hanna's survey (1980) was also better retained (Masters &

JOURNAL OF BODYWORK AND MOVEMENT THERAPIES OCTOBER 1997

 Lyttle

Houston 1978). A principle of the

Method is that sensory information
perceived by the pupil should be
adequate, interesting, helpful in
solving problems and biologically
vital (i.e. secure, beneficial, satisfying
and needed), otherwise it will not
override habitual, ingrained patterns of
action (Rywerant 1983, p. 120). Each
Feldenkrais lesson therefore should
present something new, unforeseen
and unexpected so the pupil' s system
will be alert, curious and interested.
Once stagnation and boredom occur,
further learning has been found to be
limited (Feldenkrais 1981, p. 135).

Awareness Through Movement

Awareness Through Movement (ATM)
is presented as a series of lessons mainly
to groups. The lessons are verbally
directed, highly structured movement
exploration sequences. There are
hundreds of lessons, which range from
less complex for those with physical
impairments to extremely complex for
those with highly tuned movement
abilities. The lessons are based on
developmental movements, functional
activities, and abstract explorations of
joint, muscle and postural relationships.
The3; begin with comfortable, easy
movements (Wildman 1986), which are
components of a skill, and gradually
evolve into movements of greater range
and complexity. The skill is often not
recognized by the pupil until the end of
the lesson; this shifts the emphasis onto
the process of how the pupil performs
the movement, rather than the goal of
completing the skill (Feldenkrais 1981,
pp. 90 & 93).
Pupils achieve the goal of the lesson
only as fully as they permit themselves.
The practitioner neither demonstrates nor
makes physical corrections during the
lesson. Pupils work at their own pace.
Pupils make their own choice about how
best to organize themselves, which mode
of movement feels best, and which way
enables them to perform the described
movement sequence with the greatest
smoothness and ease (Myers 1980).

JOURNAL OF BODYWORK AND MOVEMENT THERAPIES OCTOBER t997

 The Feldenkrais Method

Functional Integration Feldenkrais Method is that the pressure from the practitioner's hand
practitioner never works directly (Rywerant 1983, p. 100) or a fiat
Functional Integration (FI) is an
against the pupil's established habitual board (also termed an 'artificial floor')
individually tailored, intensive, non-
patterns (Rywerant 1983, p. 111). The (Feldenkrais 1981, pp. 140-142).
intrusive, hands-on mode of
practitioner does not verbally tell the Verbal questioning is often used to
instruction for people who require
pupil how to change a configuration, ascertain the degree to which the pupil
specific attention, especially those
but supports and follows what the is sensitive to the sensory input
with serious neurological or
pupil does spontaneously (Ginsburg (Hanna 1980).
orthopaedic disorders (Wildman
1987) (Fig. 2), and then incorporates
1986). Each lesson ideally provides a
some change in the pattern or one
learning situation which is completed Principles related to efficient
component of the movement pattern,
at the pupil's own rate (Rywerant use of the neuromusculoskeletal
that is the direction, speed, rhythm or
1983, pp. 122 & 124), and enables system
extent of the movement, adding or
pupils to become aware that they have
subtracting a movement element, Several principles related to efficient
a choice in functioning (Ginsburg
increasing the sensory input, or use of the neuromusuloskeletal system
1987).
repeating a pattern already done, but are used in the Feldenkrais Method
Much of FI is completed with the
in a new constellation, new position or and are outlined below. The
pupil lying down (generally on a
new set of circumstances so that the Feldenkrais lessons are intended to
padded table); however, new
habitual patterns or responses are less provide a situation where pupils can
movement patterns are highlighted in
likely to occur (Rywerant 1983, pp. increase their awareness of these
different functions, such as how the
51-52). principles.
movement patterns ofthe pelvis are
Various manipulons also
involved in lying, sitting and standing.
demonstrate and release areas holding Reduction of effort/strain
The more a new pattern of movement
excessive muscle tension (Fig. 3) Decreased effort leads to increased
or one of its elements is felt to be
through a combination of the discrimination and heightened ability
connected with other functions, the
application of the stretch reflex and
more it will have a chance to be
reciprocal inhibition, and the pupil's
integrated and assimilated into the
increased proprioceptive awareness
pupil's normal way of acting
(Rywerant 1983, pp. 63, 78 & 80-82).
(Rywerant 1983, pp. 27 & 55-56).
The sensation of forces transmitted
Practitioners need to be sensitive to
through the skeleton is provided by
findings in relation to the pupil (i.e.
the practitioner exerting gentle
prior knowledge or information of
pressure: for a few seconds and then
functions and structure involved);
releasing it on the crown of the head
actions that the practitioner may
in the direction of the upper cervical
initiate, and the pupil's responses to
vertebrae (Feldenkrais 1981, pp.
the situation (Rywerant 1983, p. 25).
140-142, Rywerant 1983, pp. 53 &
Functional Integration then depends
100); through joints throughout the
on the sensory-motor feedback loop Fig. 3 Releasing excessive muscle tension
pupil's body; and/or through various
created between practitioner and pupil along the spine and increasing awareness of
parts of the feet (Fig. 3) via either the connection between the spine and pelvis.
(Ginsburg 1987).
The series of mobilizations used in f ~

FI were coined 'manipulons' by

Rywerant (1983), and are described in
detail in the book The Feldenkrais
Method: Teaching By Handling
(Rywerant 1983). The practitioner
uses positioning, pressure, touch or
physically guides the pupil through
slow, gentle, non-predetermined
movements within the pupil's range of
movement and comfort levels Fig. 4 The sensation of force is transmitted
(Feldenkrais 1981, pp. 121-144, Fig. 2 Supporting and following what the through the skeleton by the practitioner
Rywerant 1983, p. 45-93, Wildman pupil does spontaneously within the shoulder exerting a gentle pressure through various
1986). One principle of the joint and shoulder girdle. parts of the feet.

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 Lyttle

to sense and feel (Feldenkrais 1966; these newly learnt patterns from one stopped, withheld from continuing
Wildman 1986). In addition the less side of their brain to the other side or reversed without any preliminary
strain and force, the easier movement (Feldenkrais 1981, p. 76), the belief change in posture and without
is (Masters & Houston 1978) and the being that the nervous system will effort
less structural wear and tear on the always prefer the optimal, more breathing is continuous throughout
body (Feldenkrals 1981, p. 44). pleasurable way of functioning when the movement, as Feldenkrals
Muscular tension is reduced by not given the choice (Masters & Houston, believed that holding of the breath
straining (Masters & Houston 1978), 1978, Feldenkrais 1981, p. 76). Once is a sign of incorrect posture, and
and by lying down, as this position one side of the body has been attended muscular excitability is usually
provides the sensation of being to, learning on the other side occurs associated with habitual holding of
securely supported (Rywerant 1983, p. with greater ease, fluency and within the breath (Feldenkrais 1992,
65). In fully erect standing, though the one fifth of the time through the use of p. 111).
majority of joints may be vertically mental imagery (Feldenkrais 1981,
aligned, thereby reducing muscular p. 77). Co-contraction of muscles
activity around these joints, the whole Co-contraction of muscles occurring
skeleton is readily displaced from the Speed of movement as a result of pain, anxiety or habit is
line of gravity, so continuous If body parts are moved gently and believed to lead to: using superfluous
muscular adjustment is required to slowly, this helps the pupil rediscover effort; tiredness; lack of flexibility;
bring the skeleton back to the line of that it is safe to move, enables inefficient use of the skeleton; and, if
gravity (Basmajian & De Luca 1985, awareness to be drawn to superfluous around the knees, hips, the pelvis or
pp. 253-255). In order to reduce the movement (Lake 1988/1989), and the neck, inefficient use of anti-
habitual, stereotypic patterns of increases the understanding of new gravitational actions caused by the
movement, and muscular tonus acceptable movement patterns (Gaines opposition of the flexors muscles to
required to maintain the upright 1990). Speed of movement then the action of the extensor muscles
posture against gravity, pupils increases, with the growing familiarity required for standing against gravity
generally assume a position of lying of the act (Feldenkrais 1981, p. 92). (Rywerant 1983, p. 68). Rapid and
during their Feldenkrais sessions reversible changes in muscle strength
(Rywerant 1983, p. 65). When the Coordinated, well-learnt action are due to central nervous system
unnecessary muscular tension is The process of acting needs internal mechanisms (Ikai & Steinhaus 1961).
reduced, a person has the capacity to organization of oneself to meet and Voluntary strength and power require
increase kinetic sensitivity, thereby effect external or environmental full activation of prime movers,
detecting changes (Feldenkrais 1966), changes (Feldenkrais 1981, p. 55). For appropriately activated synergists, and
so that the pupil can become aware of an act to be accomplished it must be suitably inhibited antagonists.
non-stereotypical patterns of action completed at the right speed, at the Changes within the nervous system
that can subsequently be used in the right moment and with the right (i.e. neural adaptation) that allow an
standing position (Rywerant 1983, vigour (Feldenkrals 1981, p. 91). individual to better coordinate the
p. 65). FelderLkrais believed any coordinated, activation of muscle groups, will
well-learnt action has the following effect a greater net force, even in the
Attending to one side of the body distinguishing features: absence of adaptation within the
Often only one side of the body is muscles themselves (Sale 1986).
touched, while the other side remains • the sensation of effort is absent no
passive or motionless throughout an FI matter what the actual expenditure Anticipatory activation of the
lesson. During an ATM lesson, pupils' of energy is muscles
attention is sometimes drawn to just • the sensation of resistance to the act When a voluntary action is performed,
one side of themselves. This is in is absent, as voluntary control, the anticipatory activation of the muscles
order to create the greatest possible configuration of muscular involved in the action is elicited
sensory contrast in the nervous contraction, and positioning of the before the action is carded out
structures, and to facilitate body are all compatible with the act (Rywerant 1983, pp. 72-73, Bouisset
kinaesthetic awareness of the to be achieved, that is there is no & Zattara 1987). This mechanism is
differences. The theory is that pupils muscular tension resisting the not active during an involuntary
learn directly from their own feeling achievement of the act (reflex) action or during an
and judgement of differences. They • voluntary action is reversible, so environmentally produced action
will choose the newly learnt patterns that at any stage of a correct act (Rywerant 1983, pp. 72-73, Massion
that are favourable, and then transfer under voluntary control, it can be 1992). If a particular movement

Q
JOURNAL OF BODYWORK AND MOVEMENT THERAPIES OCTOBER 1997
 The Feldenkrais Method

triggers a sense of inability or human body, the more stable the muscles of the human body are
weakness (but not necessarily pain), person is, but more energy is required connected to the pelvis. The arms and
then the anticipated feeling of to move out of the position legs transmit the power only to the
impotence might evoke substitute (Feldenkrais 1949, p. 70). place it is needed (Feldenkrais 1984,
efforts from the stronger and more able pp. 39, 42 & 43).
parts of the motor system, efforts that Axis of rotation
will make up for the deficient muscular The nearer the body's mass is to the Respiratory mechanism
contractions. This therefore deviates axis of rotation, the easier it is to Movement of the diaphragm and
from the original movement, but also initiate or stop the body rotating. movement of the rib cage are involved
prevents the possible use of the Therefore the turning of the body or in the respiratory mechanism. Rigid
weaker, more impaired parts of the head is easier, quicker and more effort muscular connection between the
body. These patterns are believed to be saving if the body is aligned vertically, pelvis and the thorax (primarily the
learnt and can be changed (Rywerant compared with other possible postures abdominal muscles external-oblique,
1983, pp. 72-73, Massion 1992). (Rywerant 1983, p. 67). internal oblique, transversus
However, change can take place only abdominis and rectus abdominis)
from a habitual mode of doing if the Alignment of joints diminishes the adaptability of the
substituting pattern feels as right as the When joints connecting bones are breathing apparatus, and therefore
habitual pattern (Feldenkrais 1949, pp. aligned nearer to a straight line in the influences the rate of metabolism, the
152 & 154). If a given movement is act of transmitting force, the muscular uptake of oxygen and production of
performed in a new spatial orientation, effort needed to stabilize these joints carbon dioxide, as well as smelling,
new constellation, new position, or is smaller. In standing, when joints are voice production, coughing, sneezing
new set of circumstances, the habitual aligned vertically all muscular effort or expulsive effort such as blowing
anticipatory patterns or responses are in principle is zero, as the force is (Rywerant 1983, pp. 82-85).
less likely to occur (Rywerant 1983, taken over by the bony structure itself
pp. 70-76). rather than the muscles. When the
weight of the body is borne by the
Repetition of m o v e m e n t skeleton, the muscles relax
Repetition enables the pupil to identify accordingly, w h e n muscles relax and
the timing, orientation and muscular the complex system controlling them
involvement for a movement, and to disengages, the muscles become free
explore a means of finding the for other actions, and give a sense of
smoothest, most effortless way of enhanced flexibility, lightness and
moving (Lake 1988/1989). Once the vitality (Rywerant 1983, pp. 67 & 68).
act or skill has been learnt, then
repetition of action facilitates and Head
determines the most preferential As the head houses the sense organs of
neural pathways, associations and sight, taste, hearing and smell
interconnections to be used, so that the (Rywerant 1983, p. 67), it is the main
actions become habitual and preferred body part used to relate to the
(Feldenkrais 1949, p. 151, 1981, p. environment. The source of
135). orientation (i.e. direction) and
intentional movement originates with
Gravity the head, and therefore the head needs
The higher the centre of gravity of the to remain mobile for the body to move
human body, the higher the potential in any direction (Feldenkrais 1984,
energy. This provides the most pp. 42, 43 & 78).
efficient starting point for movement,
as little effort is required to deviate Pelvis
from the vertical posture. In other The pelvis is used to initiate
words, there is a readiness for action movement, for if the pelvis is moved,
without the needs for preliminary the arms and legs organize themselves
preparation (Feldenkrais 1949, p. 70, to carry out the desired act. The power
Rywerant 1983, p. 68). Consequently, behind a movement originates from
the lower the centre of gravity of the the pelvis for the largest and strongest

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 The Feldenkrais Method

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Bouisset S, Zattara M 1987 Biomechanical doing less. Holistic Health Journal
study of the programming of anticipatory (October/November): 10-12.
Apart from the case study and A T M lesson postural adjustments associated with MacDonald J C 1960 An investigation of body
example, the paper is a condensed version voluntary movements. Journal of scheme in adults with cerebral vascular
of the literature review undertaken as part Biomechanics 20:735-742 accidents. American Journal of Occupational
Brice G 1990 Feldenkrais in Australia. Therapy 14:75-79
of requirements for an MSc (by research)
Australian Wellbeing 41:28-29 Massion J 1992 Movement, posture and
at the School of Occupational Therapy, Feldenkrais International Training Centre 1995 equilibrium: interaction and co-ordination.
Curtin University, Selby Street, Shenton The Feldenkrais Method: A Professional Progress in Neurobiology 38:35-56
Park, Western Australia 6008. M y Training Programme: July 1995-August 1999 Masters R, Houston J 1978 Listening to the
warmest appreciation is sent to: Dr Lee in the UK (Leaflet: Available from Garet Body. Delcorte Press, New York, NY
Newell, PO Box 1207, Hove, E. Sussex Medicine Eagle B 1991 An old Samurai moves
Neylon, Ms Jeannine Millsteed, Mike
BN3 2GG, UK) me. In: Buffalo Woman Comes Singing: The
Lyttle and Debra Unstead, who assisted in Feldenkrais M 1949 Body and Mature Spirit Song of a Rainbow Medicine Woman,
the preparation of the thesis literature Behaviour. ALEF Ltd, Tel-Aviv pp. 189-213. Ballantine Books, New York,
review; The Feldenkrais Practitioners of Feldenkrais M 1996 Image, movement, and NY
Western Australia, W A Feldenkrais actor: restoration of potentiality. Tulane Morgenstern E B 1981 New pathways in the
Drama Review 3:112-126 recovery from brain injury. Somatics 3:
Interest Group, Robert Burgess, and the
Feldenkrais M 1981 The Elusive Obvious. Meta 26-34
Librarians at The Therapies' Library Publications Inc., Cupertino, CA Myers M 1980 Moshe Feldenkrais's awareness
(Curtin University, Western Australia), Feldenkrais M 1984 The Master Moves. Meta through movement. Dance Magazine (May):
who assisted with reference material; the Publications Inc., Cupertino, CA 136-140
Feldenkrais practitioner and study Feldenkrais M 1990 Awareness Through Reese M 1985/86 Moshe Feldenkrais' verbal
Movement: Health Exercises for Personal approach to somatic education: Parallels to
participant discussed in the case study, who
Growth. Arkana Penguin Books, London Milton Erickson's use of language. Somatics
wish to remain anonymous; Garet Newell Feldenkrais M 1992 The Potent Self: The 5: 21-31.
and my husband, Mike Lyttle, for their Dynamics of the Body and the Mind. Harper Riddock G 1941 Phantom limb and body shape.
critical analysis, support and encouragement Collins, New York, NY Brain: A Journal of Neurology 64: 197-222.
in the preparation of this article. Gaines A 1990 Feldenkrais and recovery from Rywerant Y 1983 The Feldenkrais Method:
injury. NSW Feldenkrais Newsletter Teaching by Handling: A Technique for
(October) Individuals. Keats Publishing, New Canaan,
Ginsburg C 1987 The roots of Functional CT
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