Chapter 1

Introduction

Casting processes are among the oldest (around 5000 B.C.) methods for

manufacturing metal goods [1]. In most of the early casting processes, some of which

are still applicable today, the used moulds were destroyed in order to remove the

solidified part from it. Need for a permanent mould that could be used repeatedly to

produce components in large quantities was the obvious alternative. The die-casting

process which uses a permanent mould, dates back to the mid 1800s, when a patent was

awarded to Sturges in 1849 for the first manually operated machine for casting printing

type [2]. This manually operated machine provided a direction to develop an automated

die-casting machine over the time. Doehler [3, 4] is credited with pioneering the

development of automated die-casting process for the production of metal components

in high volumes that uses a permanent metal mould, which is also known as the die.

Today, the die-casting processes are used to produce over one-third of all metal castings

[2].

The die-casting process is mainly divided into two categories; gravity die-

casting (GDC) and high pressure die-casting (HPDC). The GDC is mostly used for

manufacturing of thick walled, heavier section parts, and uses gravity instead of high

pressure, to fill the molten material into a die. HPDC is a fully automatic process for

production of complex, thin walled castings, with part weights ranging from a few

grams to more than 15 kg [1]. HPDC process is used across the world by the

metalworking industry; the process involves injection of the molten metal into a die

under high pressure of up-to 300 MPa. The die-casting process will continue to grow as

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the manufacturers strive to decrease the weight of their products. The research issues

addressed in this thesis primarily address die-design activities for the part produced

using HPDC process. For the reason of brevity, the term ‘die-casting’ instead of

‘HPDC’ is used throughout this thesis.

A die-casting die is an essential component in the die-casting process, which

provides a shape to the produced part. Design of a die-casting die is very time-

consuming and non-trivial process that requires domain knowledge and vast experience

of a die-designer, besides information about manufacturing resources, delivery time and

cost preferences. Nowadays, computer-aided design and manufacturing tools are

extensively used in the die-casting process at different stages, such as part design, die-

design and manufacturing. The role of computer-aided design (CAD) tools has

facilitated to achieve greater levels of automation in various activities of the die-casting

die-design. Inspite of the use of CAD tools, the requisite system support in several

activities of the die-design is lacking. Some of these activities are cavity layout design,

gating system design, and core-cavity design. In case of multi-cavity die-casting dies,

which are commonly used in the die-casting industry, the level of complexity of

different aspects of die-design decisions increases manifold when compared to the

design of a single cavity die. The desired level of system support therefore is even more

demanding incase of multi-cavity die-casting die-design. The work presented in this

thesis addresses research issues of the computer-aided die-casting die-design with

special emphasis on multi-cavities. Rest of this chapter introduces the die-casting

process in detail, summarizes the industry requirements and provides an overview of

the research issues addressed in the thesis.

This chapter is organized into the following sections. Section 1.1 discusses die-

casting process with basic terminology and die-casting machines. Section 1.2 discusses

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role of computer-aided design and manufacturing in the die-casting process. Section 1.3

discusses die-casting die-design issues. Section 1.4 discusses need and motivation for

the thesis. Section 1.5 discusses overview of the thesis. Lastly, Section 1.6 discusses

organization of the thesis.

1.1 Die-Casting Process

The die-casting process is a fast and cost-effective manufacturing process,

which is used for production of high volume, near net-shaped, tight tolerance metal

components. It has the benefit of good quality and repeatability, often at lower costs as

compared with other casting processes. The die-casting process typically uses a non-

ferrous alloy, such as aluminum or zinc, which is melted in the furnace and then

injected into the die; the die is installed on a die-casting machine. The injected molten

metal solidifies rapidly (from milliseconds to a few seconds) to form a near net-shaped

component that requires no or little machining. Cycle times for the process vary from

10 seconds for small components manufactured in small machines to 200 seconds for

large components made in large machines. There are two main types of die-casting

machines - hot chamber machines (used for alloys with low melting temperatures, such

as zinc) and cold chamber machines (used for alloys with high melting temperatures,

such as aluminum).

The die-cast components are widely used in the automobile, aerospace,

electronics and household appliances, due to their high strength and low weight. The

typical examples of aluminium products made by the process are automotive

transmission cases, engine blocks, carburetors, crank cases, magnetos, handle bar

housing, zip fasteners, and head lamps.

The die-casting die is said to be back-bone of die-casting process, and greatly

influences the cost, rate of production and quality of the parts produced. A die-casting

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die consists of two mould halves known as core and cavity. One of the die-half, which

remains stationary during the process is called cavity half (or cover die), and the other

half, which is movable, is called core half (or ejector die). These two mould halves

when assembled form a negative impression of the part, which is filled with the molten

metal at high pressure. After solidification of the molten metal, these mould halves are

separated and the die-cast component is ejected with the help of an ejection mechanism.

The die is internally cooled with a coolant to remove heat dissipated by the process.

Sometimes, the die-cast part has an undercut feature, because which the die may require

a side-core. An undercut feature is that region of the part, which is neither accessible by

the core nor the cavity. Figure 1.1 shows die-casting process with the basic

terminology. The definitions of important die-casting terms are given in the Appendix-

II.

Side Core

Side Core
Parting Line
Withdrawal
Direction

Parting
Direction
Undercut
Cavity Half
Part

Core Half

Fig. 1.1: A snapshot of the die-casting die terminology

There are four types of dies which are generally used in the die-casting process [5]:

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  Single cavity: A single cavity die has only one impression of the part in the die,

and therefore can produce one part in a die-casting cycle.

 Multi-cavity: A multi-cavity die has a number of identical impressions of the

part. A multi-cavity die is useful to produce a number of parts in a die-casting

cycle.

 Unit die: A unit die has a number of impressions on a die-base, which are not

identical. A unit die is useful to produce a number of different parts in a die-

casting cycle [5].

 Combination die: A combination die also has a number of non-identical

impressions on a die-base to produce a family of parts for an assembly in a die-

casting cycle [5].

Scope of this thesis is limited to single-cavity and multi-cavity dies only, which

are most frequently used in the industry. The unit die and the combination die are out of

scope of the present thesis. Figure 1.2 (a) and Fig. 1.2 (b) show snapshots of single

cavity and multi-cavity die-casting die respectively.

(a) (b)

Fig. 1.2: (a) Single cavity die-casting die [5] (b) Multi-cavity die-casting die (with six
number of cavities [5]

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1.1.1 Die-casting machines

A die-casting machine provides the clamping mechanism to hold the die halves

together when they are subjected to high pressure loads from the incoming molten

metal. They also provide the injection mechanism that injects the molten metal into the

die cavity at required velocity and pressure. Die-casting machines are typically rated

based on the clamping force it can generate; typical machine clamp force ranges from

40 tons to 4000 tons. Regardless of their size, die-casting machines are usually

classified as hot chamber machines or cold chamber machines, which are discussed in

the following paragraphs.

Fig. 1.3: Schematic of a hot chamber die-casting machine [6]

In a hot chamber machine (shown in Figure 1.3), the injection mechanism is

immersed in the molten metal bath of its metal holding furnace. The furnace is attached

to the machine by a metal feeding system called gooseneck. As the injection cylinder

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plunger rises, a port in the injection cylinder opens, allowing the molten metal to fill the

cylinder. As the plunger moves downward, it seals the port and forces the molten metal

through the gooseneck into the die cavity. Hot chamber machines are primarily used for

low melting point alloys, such as zinc and copper that do not readily attack and erode

the components of machine’s injection system.

Fig. 1.4: Schematic of cold chamber die-casting machine [6]

In a cold chamber machine (shown in Figure 1.4), the molten metal is poured

into a cylindrical shot sleeve and a hydraulically operated plunger seals the cold

chamber port and forces the metal into the die at high pressures. Cold chamber

machines are used for alloys such as aluminum and magnesium that have high melting

point.

A typical die-casting machine consists of a cover or stationary platen, a movable

or ejector platen, a rear platen and four tie bars stretching between the cover and rear

platens. The tie bars are secured to the cover and rear platens, and the ejector platen is
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free to slide on the tie bars. The cover and ejector halves of the dies are mounted on the

cover and ejector platens of the die-casting machine respectively. The toggle

mechanism that clamps the dies together is provided between the cover and rear platens

and the injection mechanism is provided behind the cover platen.

1.1.2 Die-casing process cycle

The typical die-casting process cycle consists of four steps, namely clamping,

injection, cooling, and ejection. Figure 1.5 is an illustration of the process cycle using

the cold-chamber die-casting process. The steps of the die-casting process cycle are

briefly described below:

(a) (b)

(c) (d)

Fig. 1.5: An illustration of the process cycle for cold chamber die-casting [7]

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 i. The die is closed and the molten metal is ladled into the cold-chamber shot

sleeve. (please see Figure. 1.5 (a))

ii. The plunger pushes the molten metal into the die cavity where it is held under

pressure until solidification. (please see Figure. 1.5 (b))

iii. The die opens and the plunger advances to ensure that the casting remains in the

core half of the die. The side-cores, if any, retract. (please see Figure. 1.5 (c))

iv. Ejector pins push the casting out of the core half of the die and the plunger

returns to its original position. (please see Figure. 1.5 (d))

1.2 Role of Computer-Aided Design and Manufacturing in the Die-

Computer-aided design (CAD) can be defined as the use of computer systems to

assist in the creation, modification, analysis, or optimization of a design [8]. Computer-

aided manufacturing (CAM) can be defined as the use of computer system to plan,

manage, and control the operations of a manufacturing plant through either direct or

indirect computer interface with the plant’s production resources [8].

These days CAD and CAM tools (or CAD/CAM as they are commonly called

together) are extensively used in almost all types of industry, and their role is becoming

increasingly unavoidable. The largest users of CAD/CAM are electronics, aerospace,

and automotive industries [9].

These techniques of CAD and CAM have been developed so that computers

play major role in the design and manufacturing domains respectively. Integration of

CAD and CAM has the potential to provide greater benefits in the design and

manufacturing of products. The idea of achieving larger integration between CAD and

CAM and other downstream issues, such as inspection is to reduce the human

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interaction and provide system support as much as possible, which is in addition to

other important benefits. The other important benefits derived by CAD and CAM

integration are: (i) productivity improvement in design, (ii) shorter lead times [8], (iii)

greater accuracy in design calculations, (iv) standardization of design, drafting and

documentation procedure, (v) reduced data redundancy, (vi) generate NC program

automatically [9, 10], (vii) better product planning and control [11], and (viii)

application in product forecasting.

In die-casting industry also, CAD/CAM tools are being extensively used at

various stages, such as part design, several steps of the die-design process, design

validation, analysis, process planning, and die manufacturing.

The design of a die-casting die is a crucial step in between the design of a part

and its subsequent manufacturing. The research focus of the thesis, computer-aided

design of multi-cavity die-casting dies from part product model, constructs a valuable

bridge for achieving design-manufacturing integration for the die-casting process.

Important steps of the die-casting die-design and manufacturing with role of

CAD/CAM tools at each step are shown in Figure 1.6, which are briefly explained in

the following paragraphs.

 The die-design activities instantiates from the design of part, where CAD tools

are used to make its part product model.

 Various die-design steps such as layout design, gating system design, parting

design, side-core design, cooling design and ejection system design require

CAD and CAE tools.

 When the design of a die-casting die is ready, CAE tools, such as filling

simulation are used for its validation.

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 Die-Casting Die-Design Activity Type of CAD/CAM Tools Used

Product Geometrical Modeling

Initial Die Design

Layout Design
Cavity Number and Layout

Geometrical Modeling
Gating Design (using mould design
Gate, runner & Overflow modules of some CAD
tools)

Parting Design
Parting Line and Core/Cavity Blocks

Side-Core Design

Geometrical Modeling and

Ejector Design
Geometrical Modeling
(using CAD Tools)
Standard Component Design

Process Flow Simulation

Process Planning and NC

Fig. 1.6: Important steps of die-casting die-design and manufacturing and use of
CAD/CAM tools

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  A validated die-design is ready for manufacturing, and CAM tools are employed

for process planning and die manufacturing activities [10].

1.3 Die-Casting Die-Design

The die-casting die-design involves several non-trivial tasks. Fuh et al. [12] identify

seven major steps of computer-aided die-casting die-design which are briefly

summarized here:

i. Setting shrinkage and draft: The molten metal, which is injected in the die,

contracts during solidification. Therefore, the negative impression of the part in

the die (or the cavity) must be scaled by a certain factor to compensate the

material shrinkage. Furthermore, to facilitate easy ejection of the die-casting

part from the die, those surfaces of the cavity, which are parallel to the direction

of die opening are slightly tapered; this taper is also known as draft.

ii. Determining the cavity number and layout: The number of cavities are

determined accounting for different factors, such as part shape and dimensions,

machine type, machine size limitation, and machine clamping force.

iii. Designing the gating system: Shape, size and location of different parts of the

gating system, such as gate, runner and overflow wells are determined keeping

in view the part geometry and cavity layout to achieve proper filling in the die

cavity. Flow paths and filling conditions are also analyzed at this stage.

iv. Designing the die-base: After the number of cavities and their layout is decided,

a suitable die-base is selected. Size of the die-base is decided based on the die-

design requirements, such as accommodation of all the cavities and provision of

clearances.

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 v. Parting design: The parting design here means to create parting surfaces along

the selected parting line, which eventually helps to split the containing box or

the die-base in which the negative impression of the die-casting part is formed

into two halves, namely core-half and cavity-half.

vi. Designing the side-core mechanism: If the die-casting part has an undercut, the

die may require a side-core. The design of side-cores is also required to

complete the design of a die-casting die.

vii. Designing the cooling system: The purpose of the cooling system of a die is to

keep it at a pre-determined uniform temperature. The cooling system comprises

of a set of waterlines drilled within the die that takes the heat continuously being

exhausted from the molten metal away from the die. The cooling system should

be positioned and sized properly so as to achieve rapid and uniform cooling

without interfering with the ejection system and side-core mechanism.

The role of CAD/CAM tools for die-design has become important to keep pace

with the latest technology, demand for low cost, high quality, and fast delivery.

Although, CAD/CAM tools are quite useful in preparing CAD model of a die-cast part,

they lack many aspects. The mould tool applications of available CAD systems allow

the user to use their functionalities for preparing CAD models of different components

of the die. However, much needed design knowledge and automation of design steps

especially for the die-design of multi-cavity die-casting is lacking.

First six steps of the die-casting die-design namely, (i) setting shrinkage and

draft (ii) determining the cavity number and layout (iii) designing the gating system (iv)

designing the die-base (v) parting design (vi) designing the side-core mechanism, are

very important for design of a die-casting die. These steps not only are responsible for

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designing major component of a die-casting die, but also effect design of its other

systems, such as cooling and ejection. The research presented in this thesis pertains to

above mentioned six major steps of the die-casting die-design.

1.4 Need and Motivation for the Thesis

Many of the available computer-aided design (CAD) systems, such as

SolidWorks [13], Pro/Engineer [14], CATIA [15], and NX [16] provide applications for

mould or die-design. These mould or die-design applications facilitate the user to

interactively design different die components for different processes, such as injection

moulding, die-casting, and powder metallurgy. To be specific, these applications help

the user in various die-design activities, such as selecting parting line, developing

parting surface, and making CAD models of core, cavity and side-cores in an

interactive manner. One of the major limitations associated with the available mould

design systems is the lack of automation, because a number of steps require die-

designer’s knowledge, interaction, and input. Furthermore, availability of die-design

add-on applications specific to the die-casting process that can handle multi-cavity die

is lacking. These deficiencies of available systems result in higher number of iterations,

and longer lead times for die-casting die-design. To overcome above mentioned

difficulties, the die-casting industry needs computer-aided systems for multi-cavity die-

casting die-design, which apply die-design knowledge and have good level of

automation.

The development of add-on applications is made easier and faster as commercial

CAD platforms allow to develop a library of functions, an established user interface and

a style of programming. These add-on applications have the advantages that CAD data-

transfer is easy and there is no loss of design data, which results in the savings of lead

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time and cost. The development of an add-on application for die-casting die-design,

which applies die-design knowledge, takes very less information from the designer,

considers major influencing factors of manufacturing resources and part geometry,

would be a major step towards automation of the die-design process for die-casting.

1.5 Thesis Overview

The thesis presents computer-aided systems related to design of multi-cavity

die-casting dies, namely (i) computer-aided system for cavity layout design for a multi-

cavity die-casting die, (ii) computer-aided system for core, cavity and side-core design

for a multi-cavity die-casting die, (iii) computer-aided system for gating design for a

multi-cavity die-casting die, and (iv) computer-aided system for multi-cavity die-casting

die-design. Presented systems address major issues encountered in the computer-aided

design of multi-cavity die-casting dies. Some of the major issues that not only effect

die-design but its manufacturing too are: determination of number of cavities, design of

the cavity, multi-cavity layout design, core and cavity design, side-core design, and

gating system design. The proposed systems depend upon the databases of die-casting

machines, die-casting materials, standard die-bases, and apply die-design knowledge.

Besides providing knowledge-based support in a semi-automated manner at different

stages of the die-casting die-design, the developed systems provide enough flexibility

enabling the user to take his/her choice interactively for decision support.

The first system, namely computer-aided system for cavity layout design for a

multi-cavity die-casting die generates CAD model of the cavity layout for a multi-cavity

die-casting die in a semi-automated manner. The system determines applicable

shrinkage and draft allowances for a part taking into account a number of factors related

to part material, part geometry and its application. Subsequently it applies the

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allowances to the part CAD model, thereby eliminating lengthy procedures of

calculations and subsequent modification of the CAD model.

The system also determines optimal but feasible number of cavities, decides

their placement, and orientation to generate CAD model of the die layout. First, the

number of cavities is determined considering different factors like delivery date,

production cost, machine constraints and part geometric limitations. Second, it uses die-

design knowledge to decide the placement and orientation of the cavities in the die-base

taking into account a number of factors, such as die-cast part material and geometry,

number of undercuts and their position, feeding system, manufacturing resource

considerations, well-established rules, and industry best practices. The system

determines feasible layouts for orientation and placement of cavities, and selects one

which has the minimum die-base size.

The second system, namely computer-aided system for core, cavity and side-

core design for a multi-cavity die-casting die creates CAD models of the core, cavity

and side-cores for a multi-cavity die in a semi-automated manner. The system makes

use of the cavity layout design generated by the first system. The user only needs to

interactively select the parting line edges and shut-off surfaces on CAD model of the

part. The system automates most of the activities for generating core, cavity and side-

cores for a multi-cavity die-casting die, resulting in significant saving in time and effort

of the user.

The third system, namely computer-aided system for gating design for a multi-

cavity die-casting die generates CAD models of the gating system elements for a multi-

cavity die in a semi-automated manner. The system takes into account the factors, such

as part material, filling requirements of the cavities, and industry best practices to

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determine parameters of the elements of the gating system in a semi-automated manner.

The elements of the gating system that it considers are gate, runner-gate, runner,

overflow well and biscuit. The gating parameters are then used to generate CAD model

of the gating system elements with the help of a gating feature library. Since design of a

gating system for a multi-cavity die requires user input at some stages, the system

provides basic design rules and guidelines based on the industry best practices to

facilitate the user. The system is validated by performing filling simulation and taking

expert opinion for industrial case studies.

Lastly, an integrated computer-aided system for multi-cavity die-casting die-

design is presented which takes part product model as input and generates CAD models

of the core, cavity, side-cores, and gating system elements in a semi-automated manner.

The system, named Multi Cavity Die Designer integrates above mentioned three

systems and handles major activities of the multi-cavity die-casting die-design in a

computer-aided environment. The system works as an add-on application for

SolidWorks software and depends upon the databases of die-casting machines, die-

casting materials, standard die-bases, and applies die-design knowledge. A major

advantage of such an integrated system is seamless flow of information from one die-

design system to the other. Furthermore, developing the system on the platform of a

commonly used CAD system has the advantages that the CAD models of different

components of the die can be directly used to design other essential systems, such as

ejection and cooling. CAD models of the die components then can be directly used for

their manufacturing.

The developed systems have been tried on a number of industrial die-casting

parts and results have been found to be on the lines of those obtained from the industry.

To demonstrate the effectiveness and capability of the developed systems, the results of
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industrial case study parts are presented in the thesis by taking expert opinion and

conducting process simulation. The developed systems would be useful in achieving the

objectives of automated design of a die-casting die instantiating from the product (or

CAD) model of a die-cast part. The systems therefore attempt to bridge crucial gap of

die-casting die-design to realize design-manufacturing integration for the die-casting

process.

1.6 Organization of the Thesis

The organization of rest of the thesis is described in the following paragraphs.

Chapter 2 presents review of the previous research attempts to develop complete

die-casting die-design systems. Previous research which contributes to individual die-

design activities, such as cavity design, cavity layout design, core and cavity design,

side-core design, and gating system design are also discussed. Few research papers

related to development of similar systems for the injection moulding process are also

included in the literature review due to similarities between both the processes. For each

of the die-design activities, which are discussed in the chapter, comparative summary,

is also presented for readers’ ready reference. The chapter also discusses research gaps

between industrial needs and available systems and techniques. Lastly, the objectives of

the thesis are discussed.

Chapter 3 discusses a system for cavity layout design for a multi-cavity die-

casting die. The chapter discusses two modules of the system, namely cavity design and

cavity layout design. Information flow diagram of the system is presented and its

implementation is discussed. To demonstrate the capabilities of the developed system,

results for industrial case studies are presented.

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 Chapter 4 presents a system for design of core, cavity and side-cores for a multi-

cavity die-casting die. The chapter discusses various modules of the system, namely

parting line selection, shut-off surface creation, design of core and cavity for a single-

cavity, side-core design, and design of core and cavity for multi-cavity die-casting dies.

Information flow diagram of the developed system and its implementation are

discussed. Lastly, to demonstrate the capabilities of the developed system results for

industrial case study parts are presented.

Chapter 5 discusses the gating system design for multi-cavity die-casting dies.

The chapter discusses: (i) design guidelines for various gating system elements, such as

gate, runner, overflow and biscuit, (ii) determination of gating system parameters, (iii)

generation of CAD model of the gating system, and (iv) placement of the generated

gating system in the selected cavity layout. The chapter presents information flow

diagram of the developed system and discusses its implementation. Lastly, to

demonstrate the capabilities of the developed system results for industrial case study

parts are presented.

Chapter 6 presents a system for multi-cavity die-casting die-design that

integrates the three systems presented in Chapter 3 to Chapter 5 into a single system. A

major benefit of presenting such an integrated system is seamless flow of information

from one die-design stage to the other. The chapter discusses major activities of the

multi-cavity die-casting die design and flow of information amongst them. Lastly,

results for industrial case study parts are presented. The purpose of presenting the case-

studies is to demonstrate application of the developed system and its modules in an

integrated manner.

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 Chapter 7 discusses brief summary of all systems presented in the thesis. Major

contributions of the research work are described. Lastly, future research directions are

also discussed.

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