Function of Endocrine System

The foundations of the endocrine system are the hormones and glands. As the
body's chemical messengers, hormones transfer information and instructions from one
set of cells to another. Although many different hormones circulate throughout the
bloodstream, each one affects only the cells that are genetically programmed to receive
and respond to its message. Hormone levels can be influenced by factors such as stress,
infection, and changes in the balance of fluid and minerals in blood.

A gland is a group of cells that produces and secretes, or gives off, chemicals. A
gland selects and removes materials from the blood, processes them, and secretes the
finished chemical product for use somewhere in the body. Some types of glands release
their secretions in specific areas. For instance, exocrine glands, such as the sweat and
salivary glands, release secretions in the skin or inside of the mouth. Endocrine glands,
on the other hand, release more than 20 major hormones directly into the bloodstream
where they can be transported to cells in other parts of the body.

Once a hormone is secreted, it travels from the endocrine gland through the
bloodstream to target cells designed to receive its message. Along the way to the target
cells, special proteins bind to some of the hormones. The special proteins act as carriers
that control the amount of hormone that is available to interact with and affect the
target cells.

Also, the target cells have receptors that latch onto only specific hormones, and
each hormone has its own receptor, so that each hormone will communicate only with
specific target cells that possess receptors for that hormone. When the hormone
reaches its target cell, it locks onto the cell's specific receptors and these hormone-
receptor combinations transmit chemical instructions to the inner workings of the cell.

When hormone levels reach a certain normal or necessary amount, further

secretion is controlled by important body mechanisms to maintain that level of
hormone in the blood. This regulation of hormone secretion may involve the hormone
itself or another substance in the blood related to the hormone.
 For example, if the thyroid gland has secreted adequate amounts of thyroid
hormones into the blood, the pituitary gland senses the normal levels of thyroid
hormone in the bloodstream and adjusts its release of thyrotropin, the pituitary
hormone that stimulates the thyroid gland to produce thyroid hormones.

Another example is parathyroid hormone, which increases the level of calcium in

the blood. When the blood calcium level rises, the parathyroid glands sense the change
and decrease their secretion of parathyroid hormone. This turnoff process is called a
negative feedback system.

Functions of the Hormones

 Adrenocorticotrophic hormone (ACTH)

Adrenocorticotrophic hormone (ACTH) is a peptide hormone that is produced by the

anterior pituitary gland and the outer cortex of the adrenal glands. Medicinal ACTH
extracted from the glands of mammals or manufactured synthetically.

It is occasionally used in short-term symptom management during multiple sclerosis

relapses due to its anti-inflammatory and immuno-suppressive properties. It shortens
the duration of relapses and reduces their severity but it does not have any effect on
the overall course of the disease. Its long-term use is counter-indicated because it can
cause a number of serious side-effects including cataracts, glaucoma, osteoporosis,
vascular necrosis, myopathy psychosis and serious infections due to its immuno-
suppressive properties.

It's use has been largely superceded by synthetically produced glucocorticoid hormones
(e.g., cortisone, prednisone, prednisolone, methylprednisolone,betamethasone, dexame
thasone), which can be directly administered without the use of ACTH, are more potent,
cause less sodium retention and less potassium loss, and are longer-acting than ACTH.
These do not not have any effect on the overall course of the disease either and also
carry similar serious side-effects to ACTH.

The main function of ACTH is the regulation of the steroid hormone cortisol, which is
secreted by the adrenal cortex. It stimulates the adrenal cortex to
secrete glucocorticoid hormones, which help cells synthesise glucose,
catabolize proteins, mobilise free fatty acids and inhibit inflammation in allergic
responses.
  Thyroid-Stimulating Hormone (Thyrotropin)

Thyroid-stimulating hormone, also known as thyrotropin, is secreted from cells in the

anterior pituitary called thyrotrophs, finds its receptors on epithelial cells in the thyroid
gland, and stimulates that gland to synthesize and release thyroid hormones.

TSH is a glycoprotein hormone composed of two

subunits which are non-covalently bound to one
another. The alpha subunit of TSH is also present
in two other pituitary glycoprotein
hormones,follicle-stimulating hormone and
luteinizing hormone, and, in primates, in the
placental hormone chorionic gonadotropin. Each
of these hormones also has a unique beta
subunit, which provides receptor specificity. In other words, TSH is composed of alpha
subunit bound to the TSH beta subunit, and TSH associates only with its own receptor.
Free alpha and beta subunits have essentially no biological activity.

The most important controller of TSH secretion is thyroid-

releasing hormone. Thyroid-releasing hormone is secreted
by hypothalamic neurons into hypothalamic-hypophyseal
portal blood, finds its receptors on thyrotrophs in the
anterior pituitary and stimulates secretion of TSH.

One interesting aspect of thyroid-releasing hormone is that

it is only three amino acids long. Its basic sequence is
glutamic acid-histidine-proline, although both ends of the
peptide are modified.

Secretion of thyroid-releasing hormone, and hence, TSH, is

inhibited by high blood levels of thyroid hormones in a classical negative feedback loop.

Additional information about TSH and its effects and control are presented in the
section on the thyroid gland.
  Growth Hormone (Somatotropin)

Growth hormone is a protein hormone of about 190 amino acids that is synthesized and
secreted by cells called somatotrophs in the anterior pituitary. It is a major participant in
control of several complex physiologic processes, including growth and metabolism.
Growth hormone is also of considerable interest as a drug used in both humans and
animals.

Physiologic Effects of Growth Hormone

A critical concept in understanding growth hormone activity is that it has two distinct
types of effects:

 Direct effects are the result of growth hormone

binding its receptor on target cells. Fat cells
(adipocytes), for example, have growth hormone
receptors, and growth hormone stimulates them
to break down triglyceride and supresses their
ability to take up and accumulate circulating
lipids.
 Indirect effects are mediated primarily by
ainsulin-like growth factor-I (IGF-I), a hormone
that is secreted from the liver and other tissues in
response to growth hormone. A majority of the
growth promoting effects of growth hormone is
actually due to IGF-I acting on its target cells.

Keeping this distinction in mind, we can discuss two major roles of growth hormone and
its minion IGF-I in physiology.

Effects on Growth

Growth is a very complex process, and requires the coordinated action of several
hormones. The major role of growth hormone in stimulating body growth is to stimulate
the liver and other tissues to secrete IGF-I. IGF-I stimulates proliferation of chondrocytes
(cartilage cells), resulting in bone growth. Growth hormone does seem to have a direct
effect on bone growth in stimulating differentiation of chondrocytes.

IGF-I also appears to be the key player in muscle growth. It stimulates both the
differentiation and proliferation of myoblasts. It also stimulates amino acid uptake and
protein synthesis in muscle and other tissues.
Metabolic Effects

Growth hormone has important effects on protein, lipid and carbohydrate metabolism.
In some cases, a direct effect of growth hormone has been clearly demonstrated, in
others, IGF-I is thought to be the critical mediator, and some cases it appears that both
direct and indirect effects are at play.

 Protein metabolism: In general, growth hormone stimulates protein anabolism

in many tissues. This effect reflects increased amino acid uptake, increased
protein synthesis and decreased oxidation of proteins.
 Fat metabolism: Growth hormone enhances the utilization of fat by stimulating
triglyceride breakdown and oxidation in adipocytes.
 Carbohydrate metabolism: Growth hormone is one of a battery of hormones
that serves to maintain blood glucose within a normal range. Growth hormone is
often said to have anti-insulin activity, because it supresses the abilities of insulin
to stimulate uptake of glucose in peripheral tissues and enhance glucose
synthesis in the liver. Somewhat paradoxically, administration of growth
hormone stimulates insulin secretion, leading to hyperinsulinemia.

 Gonadotropins: Luteinizing and Follicle Stimulating Hormones

Luteinizing hormone (LH) and follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) are

calledgonadotropins because stimulate the gonads - in males, the testes, and in
females, the ovaries. They are not necessary for life, but are essential for reproduction.
These two hormones are secreted from cells in the anterior pituitary
called gonadotrophs. Most gonadotrophs secrete only LH or FSH, but some appear to
secrete both hormones.

As describef for thyroid-simulating hormone, LH and FSH are large glycoproteins

composed of alpha and beta subunits. The alpha subunit is identical in all three of these
anterior pituitary hormones, while the beta subunit is unique and endows each
hormone with the ability to bind its own receptor.

Physiologic Effects of Gonadotropins

Physiologic effects of the gonadotrophins are known only in the ovaries and testes.
Together, then regulate many aspects of gonadal function in both males and females.
  Luteinizing Hormone

In both sexes, LH stimulates secretion of sex steroids from the gonads. In the testes, LH
binds to receptors on Leydig cells, stimulating synthesis and secretion of testosterone.
Theca cells in the ovary respond to LH stimulation by secretion of testosterone, which is
converted into estrogen by adjacent granulosa cells.

In females, ovulation of mature follicles on the ovary is induced

by a large burst of LH secretion known as the preovulatory LH
surge. Residual cells within ovulated follicles proliferate to form
corpora lutea, which secrete the steroid hormones
progesterone and estradiol. Progesterone is necessary for
maintenance of pregnancy, and, in most mammals, LH is
required for continued development and function of corpora
lutea. The name luteinizing hormone derives from this effect of
inducing luteinization of ovarian follicles.

 Follicle-Stimulating Hormone

As its name implies, FSH stimulates the maturation of ovarian follicles. Administration of
FSH to humans and animals induces "superovulation", or development of more than the
usual number of mature follicles and hence, an increased number of mature gametes.

FSH is also critical for sperm production. It supports the function of Sertoli cells, which in
turn support many aspects of sperm cell maturation.

Difference of Diabetes Insipidus to the Symptoms of Inappropriate

Antidiuretic Hormone

Diabetes Insipidus there is a problem in pituitary gland either pituitary tumor,

cranial injury, that alter the production of ADH that results in excessive urination
(polyuria), while in Inappropriate ADH production there is less ADH in the circulation
and there is excessive urination and as a result the body compensate, when the body
detect that there is a deficiency in volume it will send to the kidney and the trigger the
RAAS (rennin-angiotensin-aldosterone-system) to balance the body fluid
Endocrine
System
Medical-Surgical

Submitted by:

Ceelin T. Robles
Nr-32

Submitted to:
Kristopher Calma, RN MSN