Lecture 8

BASIC DRILLING PROBLEMS & THEIR SOLUTIONS (PART – I)

PIPE STICKING, SLOUGHING SHALES & LOST CIRCULATION
INTRODUCTION:
Well problems associated with the drilling of oil wells are largely due to the
disturbance of earth stresses around the well bore caused by creation of the hole it
self and by drilling mud formation interaction. Earth stresses together with formation
pore pressure, attempt to re-establish previous equilibrium by forcing strata to move
towards the bore hole. A hole is kept open or stable by maintaining a balance
between earth stresses and pore pressure on one side and well bore mud pressure
and mud chemical composition on other side. Any time this balance is disturbed, hole
problems may be encountered.
COMMON BORE HOLE PROBLEMS:
- Pipe Sticking -Sloughing Shale - Lost Circulation
- Well Kick - Blow outs - Formation Damage
- Bit Failures - Bit deflection - Casing leaks
- Dogleg formation - Drill string failure - Wash outs

1. PIPE STICKING
This is the condition when part of the drill pipe or drill collars are stuck in the
hole. Pipe movement and in turn further drilling progress are inhibited.
i. Differential sticking
ii. Mechanical sticking
iii. Key seat formation.
DIFFERENTIAL STICKING
Differential pipe sticking arises when the differential pressure (the difference
between hydrostatic pressure of mud and formation pore pressure) becomes
excessively large across a porous and permeable formation such as sand stone or
lime-stone. Differential pipe sticking can normally be recognised when pipe
movement in the up ward or downward direction is restricted but free circulation is
easily be established.
 Differential force = (Hs – Pf) x contact area x friction factor
Contact area = permeable zone thickness x filter cake thickness
DF = (Hs – Pf) X (h x t) x f
The magnitude of differential force is very sensitive to change in the values of the
contact areas and the friction factor, which are both time dependent. As the time in
which the pipe is left motion less increases, the thickness of the filter cake increases
and also the friction factor increases by virtue of more water being filtered out
through the filter cake. The differential force is extremely sensitive to the change in
differential pressure (Hs – Pf). In normal drilling 100 to 200 psi overbalance differential
pressure is maintained.
Prevention of differential sticking:
i. Differential pressure reduction: Drilling with a minimum overbalance
necessary to contain formation pressure and to allow surging and
swabbing effects. Mud density increase can be monitored by
controlled rate of penetration especially in large size hole where large
amount of cuttings are produced.
ii. Contact area reduction: Since the thickness of porous formation can
not be changed this can only be achieved by reducing the thickness of
filter cake. This in effect reducing the solids in mud to a minimum and
using a mud to a low eater loss.
iii. Friction factor reduction: Friction factor is directly related to the rate
of water loss and its value should be kept to a minimum by use of mud
 of low water loss. Hence oil based mud appear to be ideal for drilling
formations susceptible to differential sticking.
iv. Use of spiral drill collars: The contact area is also related to the
area of pipe steel in contact with the permeable formation. Most pipe
sticking problems are associated with the drill collars and the ideal
solution is to use the drill collars of minimum surface area.
A spirally grooved drill collars have 50% less area than a
smooth drill collar and produces half the differential sticking force. The
reduction in surface area leads the reduction in weight that can be
compensated by increasing the length of drill collar column to provide
same weight on bit.
v. Since both contact area and friction factor increase with time, a
reduction in the time during which the drill string is kept stationary
results in less chance of severe differential sticking.
vi. Oil and wall nut hulls can be used to reduce the friction factor.

Freeing Differentially stuck pipe:

- Hydrostatic reduction - Spotting fluids - Back off operation
Hydrostatic reduction:
i. The hydrostatic pressure is reduced either by pumping a new mud of
lower density, or a small volume of fluid of low sp.gr.
ii. Diesel oil is used because of low sp.gr., but fresh or saline water can
also be used for hydrostatic reduction.
iii. The volume of fluid of low sp.gr. is determined by calculating the
required reduction in hydrostatic pressure and than converting this
value to the height and volume of diesel oil or the fluid used.
iv. The light fluid is then pumped down the drill string until the complete
volume is used. Since diesel oil has a sp.gr. than mud, the total
pressure in the drill pipe will be less than that in annulus and a back
pressure will be exerted on the pipe.
v. The excess pressure is contained, by closing Kelly cock on top of the
drill pipe.
vi. A safe tension, which is equal to the original hook load plus an extra
over pull is then applied to the drill string.
vii. The drill pipe is then allowed to back flow at equal intervals until the
entire volume of diesel oil is reversed out. During this operation the
 drill string should be worked out continuously until the pipe is free. If
drilling jar is used in the drill string it should be activated to provide
additional force for freeing the pipe.
viii. During back flow, the drill pipe pressure and annular pressure should
be monitored to avoid any well kick complications.
Spotting organic fluids
- Organic fluids are normally spotted across the stuck zone to reduce the filter cake
thickness and the friction factor.
- A mixture of surfactant and diesel oil is used. It wets the circumference of the pipe
and creates a thin layer between pipe and mud cake.
- This decreases the friction coefficient and makes the pipe pull free easier.
- A small volume of organic fluid, is pumped down through the drill pipe and,
gradually pump small volume in to the annulus until the entire stuck zone is covered.
- The pipe should be worked out. The success of the operation depends upon the
volume of organic fluid used, the characteristics of filter cake, the magnitude of
differential force and spotting the fluid against the correct zone.
- For effective freeing the stuck pipe a minimum volume of 150 bbl of organic fluid is
suggested. The fluid should be left for a minimum of 8 hr.to work thorough filter cake
properly.
Back off operation:
Back off operation involves the removal of the free portion of drill string from the hole.
This effectively means the parting the drill string at or above the stuck point and
removing the free portion from the bore hole. The remaining part of the drill string is
left in the bore hole as fish and can be recovered during fishing operation.
Before the back operation, the position of stuck point should be determined as
accurately as possible. This can be achieved either by stretch measurement
technique or by running free point strain gauge indicator probe in the string.

Determine of stuck point depth:

Surface measurement can be determined as flows-
L = 735 X 103 x w x e / Δ F
. w = average linear weight of drill string
.e = stretch caused due to differential over pulling force
Δ F = differential over pulling force.
Free point indicators: these are of two type. Strain Gauge and sub surface probe.
 a. Strain gauge method rely on measurement of axial strain and angular
deformation of the drill string at selected position. The strain gauge measure
the pipe stretch or angular deflection between the length of two pre-spaced
belly type springs. The strain gauge tool is run on wire line containing the
electrical connections to a surface display unit. The tool is run to the hole
bottom and the driller applies the over pulling tension. The strain measure by
the tool is compared to the calculated stretch in the pipe as per the applied
force. The loss of the stretch measurement indicated the stuck point position.
b. A subsurface probe works on the principle that during tensioning the
molecular structure of the pipe changes which alters the high frequency
signal. The change in the signal is proportional to the degree of pipe
distortion. The frequency change of the signal is picked up by the receiver
and transmitted to the surface display unit.
MECHANICAL STICKING
A pipe can become mechanically stuck when: (a) drill cuttings or sloughing
formations pack off the annular space around the drill string; (b) a drill string is run
too fast, such that it hits a bridge or a tight spot or the bottom of the hole, or (c)
pulling in to a key seat.
Tight spots can result from drilling undersized and under-gauged hole due to
the use of worn drill bits or undersized diamond coring bits. Tight spots can normally
be recognised during tripping out as extra over pull. To prevent mechanical sticking
tight spots should be reamed out prior to drilling a new section of the hole.
The usual method to free a mechanically stuck pipe is to work the drill string
either by rotating and pulling it or by activating a drilling jar. If this method is
ineffective, an organic fluid should be spotted and the attempts to free the pipe
should be made. If all efforts are failed, the back off of free length pipe should be
taken and that should followed with proper fishing operation.
KEY SEAT FORMATION
In a dog legged hole containing soft formations, a drill pipe tool joint can drill
an extra hole or a key seat in addition to the major hole created by the bit. During
drilling, the drill pipe is always kept in tension and as it passes through a dog leg, it
tries to straighten, there by creating a lateral force. This lateral force causes the drill
pipe joint to dig in to the formation at the dog leg bow, creating a new hole as the drill
string is rotated. The new hole is described as a key seat.
 A key seat can only be formed if the formation drilled is soft and the hanging
weight below the dog leg is large enough to create substantial lateral force . The
problem of key seat can only be recognised when the drill string can moved
downward but not upward. Other symptoms include increase in drag, increased noise
at rotary table and the ability to have full circulation.
To remove key seat, the hole should be reamed and if a jar is used an
upward jarring action should be applied. Organic fluid should be spotted to reduce
friction around the key seat. Key seating can be prevented by avoiding sudden
change in hole deviations.
2. SLOUGHING SHALES
Shale is sedimentary rock formed by the deposition and compaction of
sediments over periods of geological time. It is primarily composed of clays, silt,
water and small quantities of quartz and feldspar. Depending on water content, shale
may be described as highly compacted rock or a soft unconsolidated rocks normally
described as mud or clay shale. Shale may also exist in a metamorphic form such as
slate, phyllite and mica schist. In oil well drilling two type of sedimentary shale are
encountered: unconsolidated shale and compact shale. Drilling both type of shale
result in sloughing or caving of bore hole creating instability in the well bore. The
severity of the sloughing shale is related to the percentage of montmorillonite or
active clay content and the age of the rock.
Mechanical factors:
i. Shale erosion: Erosion effect caused by the annular flow of mud is directly
related to the degree of turbulence in the annulus and mud viscosity. Most
of the circulation programs are design with the object of providing laminar
flow in annulus.
ii. Shale cracks: breakage of shale due to impaction by the drill string.
iii. Horizontal movement of shale section: The effect is due to the fact that the
creating the hole in the earth disturbs the local stress system, which leads
to dynamic movement within the shale section. This movement leads to
breakage of the shale beds adjacent to the wall in to small fragments
which fall into the hole.
Hydration Factors:
i. Shale Hydration force: It is related to the relief of the compaction force in
the shale section. During sedimentation the shale section is progressively
compacted by the weight of the over burden. The force pf compaction
squeezes out a large of the absorbed water from the pores of the shale.
The compaction force is equal to the overburden pressure – pore
pressure. The drilling of the shale section relieves the compaction force
on the well bore face and as a result shale hydration force is developed
which is approximately equal to the matrix stress.
 Shale hydration inhibition agent

ii. Osmotic Hydration Force: It is related to the difference in salinity of drilling

mud and formation water. When the salinity of the formation water is
greater than that of the drilling mud, the shale surface act as a permeable
membrane across which an osmotic force is developed for the shale
hydration. In oil based mud, the semi permeable membrane is the oil film
and the layer of emulsifier around the water droplets. Since osmotic
hydration is dependent on the difference in salinity between the formation
water and the drilling mud, the process can be either adsorption or de-
sorption force. An adsorption force is developed when the formation water
is more saline.
iii. Dispersion and swelling: Adsorption of water by shale usually leads to
dispersion and swelling. Dispersion occurs when the shale subdivides in
to small particles and enters thed riling mud as drill solids. Swelling occurs
due to increase in size of the silicate minerals making up the clay
structure and if the developed swelling pressure increases the hoop
stress around the bore hole above the yield strength of the shale, hole
destabilization takes place. Hole destabilization manifests itself by means
of caving or shloghing shale.
Miscellaneous Factors:
i. Formation Dipping: Dipping shale are found to slough more than the
horizontally laid shale beds. This is because of adsorption of water
leads the shale expansion in a direction to the perpendicular to its
bedding plane. This results greater shale heaving when the section is
highly dipping.
ii. Formation Brittleness: The process of heaving shale in brittle shale
containing no active shale is due to the penetration of water between
the bedding plane and micro-fissures of the shale. This results high
swelling pressure, which breaks the cohesive forces.
 iii. Abnormal shale pressure: When a hole is drilled through abnormal
pressured shale section the squeezing pressure is developed owing
to difference to the formation pore pressure and mud hydrostatic
pressure.
Prevention of Shale Sloughing:
i. The use of oil based mud has been successful in reducing shale
sloughing. This is related to the fact that the oil phase provides a
membrane around the hole which prevents water contacting the
shale.
ii. The water phase of oil based mud may also be prepared in such a
way that its salt concentration matches with the shale section. In this,
the osmotic force is equal to the shale hydration force and the
pressure causing water to flow between mud and shale is zero.
iii. Potassium chloride polymer mud have also been successful in
preventing shale sloughing. These mud reduce the swelling of shale
due to the replacement of Sodium ions by Potassium ions which
allows the clay sheet to be strongly boned. Dispersion is also reduced
due to encapsulation of the broken edges of shale by the polymer.
iv. Lime mud, gyp mud, Calcium chloride mud, surfactant mud, polymer
mud and lingo-sulphonate mud have also been found effective to
combat sloughing shale problem.
v. Other preventive measures include minimisation of the time for which
an open hole containing a shale section is left uncased.
vi. Hole deviation should be kept to a minimum. Swabbing and surging
effects should be reduced to avoid fracturing of an open hole.
vii. High annular velocities are also avoided to limit hole erosion and
shale sloughing by mechanical action.
3. LOST CIRCULATION

Lost circulation or volume loss problem is defined as the partial/ complete

loss of drilling fluid during drilling, circulation or casing running operation. This also
include loss of cement slurry volume during cementing operation. The problem
occurs when the hydrostatic pressure of mud exceeds the breaking strength of the
formation which creates cracks in the rocks in which the fluid flows. For lost
circulation to occur, the size of the pore openings of the induced fractures must be
larger than the size of the mud particles. In practice, the size of the openings causing
the lost circulation should be in the range of 0.1 to 1.00 mμ.
Factors causing lost circulation:
Differential pressure Surge pressure washouts
 Depleted zones Natural fractures induced fractures
High overburden Shale cracks unbalanced drilling
Effects of lost circulation:
i. Loss of drilling mud and costly constituents
ii. Loss of drilling time
iii. Plugging of potentially productive zone
iv. Blow out resulting from the decrease in hydrostatic pressure
subjected to the formation other than the thief zones.
v. Excessive inflow of water
vi. Excess caving formation
Prevention of Lost Circulation:
i. Reducing mud weight until the hydrostatic pressure of mud is equal to
the formation pressure.
ii. Use of lost circulating materials.
a. Fibres: plant fibres, glass fibres, mineral fibres and leather crush
etc
b. Flakes: cellophanes, mica, cotton seeds, hulls, nut hulls etc.
c. Granulars: ground rubber tyre crush, crushed rock, ground
asphalts, asbestos etc.
iii. Spotting of a pill of mud containing a high concentration of bridging
materials against thief zones.